Humanities 5

8/8/2019 Humanities 5

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y READING SEMINAR IN HUMANITIES 1

y LECTURE # 5

y THE ROMAN HERITAGE

y BY

y DR. KWAKU OSEI-AKOM

y OCTOBER 5 9, 2010


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y Introduction

The civilization that would become the Roman one arose at the same

time as that of Ancient Greece

The Latins who founded Rome were farmers and herders. During their

history, they fought with other Latins for control of the neighbourhood

areas. Their struggles helped shape a belief in duty, discipline, and

patriotism.

At the same time, Romans adopted ideas from the advanced

civilizations of the Phoenicians and Greeks, who had set up colonies in

Sicily and Italy. For example, from the Greeks, the Romans learned tobuild fortified cities and to grow grapes and olives.

About 600 B.C.E., Etruscans invaders who had come out Asia by way

of Greece dominated the Italian peninsula. During the next 100 years,

the Romans absorbed many ideas from their Etruscan conquerors.


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The Romans adopted Etruscan alphabet, which the Etruscans had borrowedfrom the Greeks. They copied Etruscan styles of art and worshipped Etruscangods alongside their own. They also learned Etruscan building techniques,including the arch.

Roman legend held that Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E. by Romulus, anorphan, who, with his twin brother, Remus, had been suckled by a wolf as the

boys foster-mother.

One Etruscan religious cult revered wolves, and this legend is taken as

further evidence that Roman civilization had Etruscan roots.

y Founding the Republic

In 509 B.C. E., Rome joined with other Latin cities overthrew the Etruscan

king. This set the Romans on a 900-year course that would lead them to allcorners of the then known world

Etruscan influence continued, however, and it was largely due to thatinfluence and its inherited links with Greece that the Romans carried forwardthe classical ideas that continue to manifest the Western approach to life

today.


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Once free of Etruscan domination, the Romans established a

republican form of government.

In a republic, all citizens with the right to vote choose their leaders.The elected leaders represent the leaders and rule in their name. The

Roman republic lasted 500 years, during which time Rome grew from

a small city-state into a world power.

In the early Republic, Roman society was dominated by a class of

wealthy landowners orpatricians. The common people, including

farmers, artisans, small merchants, and traders, were called plebeians.

Plebeians were citizens and could own land, but they could not hold

public office or marry into patrician families.

Slaves made up the lowest class in Roman society. Most slaves were

prisoners of war, but some were plebeians who had been enslaved for

debt. Slaves were not citizens and had no legal rights.


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y Early government

In many ways the Roman Republic functioned as a democracy. Decisionsaffecting society were made at a series of assemblies, which all citizensattended to express their will.

Patricians controlled the government of the early Republic through theSenate. The Senate, a hereditary institution, was made up of 300 patricianswho served for life. It guided foreign and domestic policies.

Every year, the Senate chose two consuls, or officials, from their own classto administer the laws of Rome. A popular assembly, elected by the

plebeians, approved the choice of consuls, but it had little real power.

During their one year terms, the consuls directed the government andcommanded the army. The consuls had equal power. Each had the right toveto, or block an action of the other. In Latin, the word veto means Iforbid.

In times of crisis, the Senate would appoint a dictator to replace the consuls.A dictator had absolute power but could only hold office for six months.


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y The Roman Family

Romans lived in large extended families. The government rewarded

parents of many children and penalized bachelors.

Large families guaranteed a steady supply of soldiers to fight in warsand of farmers to settle newly conquered lands.

Under Roman law, the father had absolute power over the entire

household. Roman law gave him the right to sell a son or daughter into

slavery and to abandon an unwanted infant. In practice, Roman fathers were generally fair-minded. Their

discipline was strict, but they were also concerned for the family

welfare. Children learned the responsibilities of citizens early. Parents

stressed the virtues of hard work, courage, and loyalty

y Education

By 250 B.C.E., some wealthy families began importing Greek tutors

to educate their children. But most fathers supervised their childrens

education personally.


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Some boys and girls from rich families attended private schools. Girls often

received as thorough an education as boys

Schools emphasized history, which students recited aloud. Stories of Roman

heroes gave children a sense of pride in their city. Students also learnedpractical skills such as reading, writing, and public speaking.

y Women in Roman society

During the early Republic, Roman women had few legal rights. They were

citizens and might be called on testify in court, but they could not vote or

hold public office. Fathers usually arranged marriages for their daughters by

the time the girls were 14 years old.

Later, Roman women gained more rights when new laws gave them controlover their own property. Women could make wills leaving their property as

they chose.

Roman attitudes toward women differed from Greek attitudes. Romans did

not restrict women to a separate section of the house. Women could attend

the theatre and join in public festivals.


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Some women had political influence in Rome, especially if their husbands

or fathers held public office.

Roman women often shared in household decisions and kept the family

accounts. In addition, they supervised the children and any slaves owned bythe family.

y Religion

The Romans worshipped many gods in private and public. Each household

had a shrine devoted to the spirits that Romans believed protected the home

and the fields.

Every day, family members gathered to make offerings to Vesta, goddess of

the hearth. Such daily rituals taught children to respect and defend the familyand its gods.

Romans were fond of public religious festivals and games dedicated to

individual gods and goddesses. For example, at the start of each month and

year, Romans worshipped Janus, the god of beginnings. His name has

survived in the English word January.


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Romans absorbed religious beliefs from other people. Theyworshipped Jupiter, an Etruscan god, who was identified with theGreek god Zeus.

The Roman goddess Venus was similar to Aphrodite, the Greekgoddess of love.

As Rome grew stronger, its gods took new powers. Mars, once simplythe god of the fields, became god of war during the centuries ofRoman conquests.

y Roman Warriors

At first, only patricians served in the Roman army. But after the Gaulsburned Rome in 390 B.C.E., the Senate turned to the plebeians for help

It required all citizens who owned land plebeians and patricians toserve.

The Romans became skilled soldiers as every male was required tospend some time in the army. As the military power grew, the Romans

began battling for more land. By about 270 B.C.E., Rome had taken

over the whole of the Italian peninsula.


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One of Romes greatest enemy was Carthage. Between 264 B.C.E. and146 B.C.E., Rome and Carthage fought three exhausting wars. Thesewere called the Punic Wars, from the Latin word Punicus, meaningPhoenician.

The second Punic War pitched the fierce Carthaginian general namedHannibal against the Romans. For 13 years, Hannibal led his army upand down Italy. He won more battles against the Roman forces butgradually the Romans grew stronger.

Finally Hannibal was driven out of Italy. Then the Romans invadedAfrica and defeated Hannibals army in 202 B.C.E.

During the second war between Carthage and Rome, Macedonia hadsided with the Carthaginians. Macedonia was still the most powerfulstate in Greece

After taking Carthage, Rome sent armies into Greece. The Romanarmies conquered the Greek city-states and brought Greek treasures

back to Rome, introducing Roman citizens to Greek art and style.

The Romans made slaves of the conquered Greeks. Many of theslaves were used as labourers.


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Some of the Greek captives were very well educated. They became teachers and

doctors in Rome.

Many Greek slaves found themselves with kind Roman masters, masters who

respected them. Some Greeks were able to earn their freedom. So in many ways,

Roman culture was influenced by the Greeks

By 140 B.C.E., Rome controlled all of the Mediterranean lands. Citizens of the

Republic thought of the Mediterranean Sea as a Roman sea.

y The Provinces Rome organized its foreign lands into provinces, headed by governors appointed

by the Senate. Each Roman governor supervised tax collection and organized

the defense of the province. Rome did not try to not try to change local customs,

religion, or governments.

This tolerant policy made Roman domination more acceptable to the conquered

peoples. Yet roman rule was a mixed blessing. Some governors built roads and

developed the economy. However, others abused their power.

Governors received no pay because the job was considered an honour, but many

grew rich by accepting bribes.


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Changes at Home

Expanding the territory brought the Romans many gains. They were

introduced to the advanced learning of the Greeks. Also trade andcommerce increased as wealthy Romans demanded expensive luxuries

from the conquered territories

But the wars of expansion created problems for Romans at home. Three

prizes of wars had profound effect on life in the capital: grain, treasure,

and slaves.

Tons of grain poured into Rome as tribute, or forced payment, from the

conquered areas. The resulting surplus drove down the price of grain. The

low prices hurt small farmers, many of whom had to sell their land to pay

debts. At the same time, a new class of Romans grew rich from war loot and

trade in luxury goods. This new class bought up land from small farmers

and created vast estates called latifundia. They used thousands of slaves

brought back as prisoners of war as cheap labor on the latifundia. Small

farmers could not compete with the slave labor and their land.


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Landless farmers drifted to Rome, where they joined unemployedsoldiers also attracted to the capital.

In Rome, the poor complained bitterly about the luxury of the rich. Astheir numbers grew, the poor became a huge, restless mob easilyswayed to violence by bribes and promises

The economic and social problems created by wars of expansion wereto plague Rome for years.

The Decline of the Republic

The men who fought their countrys battles enjoyed nothing but the airand sunlight. They fight and die to protect the wealth and luxury ofothers. They are called masters of the world, but they have not a footof ground to call their own. So said Tiberius Gracchus.

As spokesman for the plebeians, Tiberius raised the issue that hauntedRome.


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Hordes of landless poor roamed the streets. The Senate was thegoverning body of Rome. But it was full of wealthy men who were moreinterested in preserving their privileges than in solving the problems ofthe poor.

Revolts and Upheavals

Popular leaders such as Tiberius and his brother championed the poor.

They called for the Senate to limit the size of large estates, redistributeland to the poor, and settle landless farmers in the provinces.

The Senate feared the popularity of the Gracchus brothers, and mostsenators opposed land reform. Therefore, they turned to violence. Mobs

of wealthy nobles murdered first Tiberius and later Gaius Gracchus, alongwith hundreds of their followers.

In time, the Senate was forced to pass some minor land reform. But it didnothing to prevent growing numbers of unemployed soldiers and landlessfrom increasing the mobs in Rome.


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Between 133 B.C.E. and 44 B.C.E., violent upheavals shook Rome.Abroad, slave revolts erupted, and Romes allies in Italy and elsewhererebelled.

The Senate relied on Roman legions to suppress the rebellions. Butthe Roman army itself had changed, and Roman generals began todabble in politics.

In the early Republic, as already indicated, only landowning citizensserved in Roman legions. By 100 B.C.E., popular generals wererecruiting soldiers from among Romes landless poor.

With promises of loot, they attracted many volunteers. They builtstrong professional army loyal to them rather than to Rome.

The won victories for Rome abroad but then returned home to reaptheir rewards.


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In 88 B.C.E., a bloody civil war erupted in Rome between the armiesof two successful generals.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla triumphed and then abolished the law limitinga dictators length of rule to six months.

Although the Senate retained its prestige, Sulla held real power. Forthe next 40 years, Rome was ruled by a series of generals

Rise of Julius Caesar

One general, Gnaeus Pompey, led his legions in a series of successfulcampaigns in Greece, Syria, and Palestine. However, when he returned

to Rome, the Senate refused to approve land grants to Pompeyssoldiers.

Pompey disbanded his army and looked for allies. He found one in atalented young general.


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Caesar had won victories in Spain and had attracted a largefollowing in Rome. Like Pompey, Caesar resented the Senate.

in 61 B.C.E., Caesar had hoped to be elected consul, but the Senate,fearing his popularity, blocked his bid for power.

In 60 B.C.E., Caesar and Pompey formed an alliance with MarcusLucius Crassus, a wealthy general. They agreed to pool their resources

and rule Rome together. Their alliance is known as the FirstTriumvirate, or three-men commission.

The First Triumvirate gained control of Rome but was soon split byrivalries. In 53 B.C.E., Crassus died fighting in the east. But Caesar

piled up new conquests in Gaul (France) and Britain.

Fearing Caesars power, Pompey allied himself with the Senate. In 49B.C.E., the Senate ordered Caesar to disband his armies and return to

Rome. Caesar refused.


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With his legions, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River, the boundarybetween Gaul and Italy.

Today, the expression crossing the Rubicon means taking a finaldecisive step. Caesar then crushed an army led by Pompey.

Caesars Reforms

Between 49 B.C.E. and 44 B.C.E., Caesar won a string of victories in

the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. On his triumphant return toRome, he pardoned many Senators who had supported Pompey. In 44B.C.E., he was appointed dictator for life.

Caesar introduced reforms meant to strengthen Rome and protect hispower. He distributed land to the poor and granted Roman citizenshipto people in the provinces outside Italy.

This action helped to unite the empire by giving people in theprovinces a stake in Rome.


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To reduce unemployment, he began many building projects. Heincreased pay for soldiers and moved to end corruption in the

provinces.

He introduced a more accurate calendar based on Greek astronomy.The Julian calendar, as it was called, was used in Europe until 1582C.E.

Although the Senate and Assembly of Tribes continued to exist,Caesar has absolute power. Opposition to him grew in the Senate.Some Senators denounced him as a tyrant who was destroying theRepublic.

Others were jealous of his popularity. On March 15, 44 B.C.E., agroup of conspirators led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus stabbedCaesar to death.

In the civil war that followed, the Republic suffered a fatal blow.


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The Second Triumvirate.

Before his death, Caesar had adopted his 18-year-old grandnephew

Octavian as his son and heir. After Caesars assassination, Octavian formedthe Second Triumvirate with two of Caesars commanders, Mark Antony and

Marcus Lepidus.

After crushing Caesars assassins, the Second Triumvirate dissolved into a

power struggle between Octavian and Antony.

When Antony married Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, Octavian feared they

planned to seize power. So he declared war. In 31 B.C.E., at the naval battle

of Actium off Greece, Octavian defeated them.

Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Egypt. They later committed suicide

when they learned that Octavians forces had landed at Alexandria . The

following year, Egypt became part of the Roman Empire.


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On his return to Rome, Octavian promised to share control of theEmpire with the Senate.

In practice, however, he had absolute authority. In 27 B.C.E., theSenate, realizing that peace depended on his leadership, gave Octavianthe title Augustus, or Exalted One, a name normally reserved for thegods.

After 100 years of civil war, peace was finally restored under

Augustus.

The Age of Augustus

Under Augustus, Rome ceased to be a republic and became anempire. The Senate gave him the title imperator, or commander-in-chief of the Roman armies. The English word emperor is derivedfrom this Latin title.

Although the Senate still existed, Augustus ruled as a monarch.


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Between 27 B.C.E. and 14 C.E., Augustus sponsored many reforms

to strengthen the empire.

He reorganized the army into a highly disciplined, professional body,loyal to the emperor. He encouraged former soldiers to settle in the

provinces, where they could bolster local defense.

He continued Caesars policy of granting Roman citizenship to

people in the provinces. Such measures ensured loyalty of these people

to Rome and spread Roman ideas.

The reforms helped restore confidence in Rome. To reduce corruptionand improve local administration, Augustus created an efficient civil

service.

High-level jobs were open to men of talent, regardless of their social

class. Also, civil servants were given salaries for their service. The

emperor ordered a complete census so that taxes could be set fairly.


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The Successors of Augustus

The first four emperors who followed Augustus were members of his

family. Tiberius and Claudius were efficient reformers who continuedto make reforms. However, Caligula and Nero were notorious for their

insane behavior.

In 64 C.E., a great fire destroyed much of Rome. Nero blamed

Christians for the fire and killed hundreds of them. His rule then sank

into a vicious reign of terror.

After his death in 68 C.E., the first of many struggles broke out overwho would become the emperor. The Roman Empire had no laws for

choosing a new ruler.

In the second century C.E., Rome benefited from peaceful succession

of several outstanding emperors. Under Trajan the empire reached its

greatest size.


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The Roman Heritage

Romans absorbed much of Greek culture but also kept their own

traditions. The result was a blend of Greek and Roman traditions. Through conquest, Romans spread Greco-Roman civilization to

every corner of their empire.

Art and Architecture

When the Romans conquered Greece, they shipped home thousands ofGreek statues. Roman sculptors did a brisk business by copying Greekworks, and talented Greek artists found rich patrons in Rome.

In time, however, Roman sculptors developed their own style . Greek

sculptors idealized the human form, using athletes as models ofperfection. Romans created more realistic portraits.

While Romans borrowed many ideas in architecture, they also madeimportant advances. They learned to use columns and arches from theEtruscans and Greeks. dome.


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They improved on the arch by inventing the dome, a roof formed by

rounded arches. The Romans also introduced new building materials

such as concrete and cement

New building techniques allowed architects to design massivestructures

Technology and Science

Roman Law

Roman Literature

Christianity

Humanities 5

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