Human settlement - EPA · • Average household size: Average number of persons per private...

204 S TAT E O F T H E E N V I R O N M E N T R E P O RT 2 0 0 8

HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Trends

Goals

Populat ion and Urban

• SouthAustralia’spopulationgrowthrate:INCREASEDfrom0.50%peryearbetween1996and2001to0.74%peryearbetween2001and2006.

• ThemedianageofthepopulationofSouthAustralia:INCREASEDfrom35.6yearsin1996to37.6yearsin2001andto38.7yearsin2006,givingtheStatethesecondoldestpopulationinAustraliaafterTasmania.

• Averagehouseholdsize:AveragenumberofpersonsperprivatedwellinginSouthAustraliaDECREASEDfrom2.96in1976to2.37in2006astheState’spopulationaged.Projectionssuggestafurthertodecreaseto2.23by2021.Thiswillcontinuetoincreasedemandforhousingatafasterratethanpopulationgrowth,posingenvironmentalchallenges.

• Populationdensity:INCREASEDintheAdelaideStatisticalDivisionfrom606personsperkm2in2001to627personsperkm2in2006.

• Theproportionofnewdwellingsbuiltonredeveloped and other infill residential sites: INCREASED from40%in1999to60%in2006.

• Theproportionofnewdwellingsbuiltonbroadacresites:DECREASEDfrom60%in1999to40%in2006.

• Between1986and2006themedianlotsizeofdetacheddwellingscompletedinthoseyearsDECREASEDfrom703m2in1986to455m2in2006,adropof35%.

• The median floor area of detached dwellings INCREASEDfrom137m2forhousingcompletedin1986toapeakof180m2in2001beforeDECREASING slightlyto177m2in2006.

T3.7–EcologicalFootprint:ReduceSouthAustralia’secologicalfootprintby30%by2050

South Australian Strategic Plan 2007

T1.22–TotalPopulation:IncreaseSouthAustralia’spopulationto2millionby2050,withaninterimtargetof1.64millionby2014.(Inter-relatedSAStrategicPlantargets:T1.23,T1.24,T1.25,T5.9)


205S TAT E O F T H E E N V I R O N M E N T R E P O RT 2 0 0 8

HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Indicators

Key FactsPopulation and Urban Form and a sustainable South Australia

ThischapterexaminesthechangingsizeandcompositionofSouthAustralia’spopulationanditsinterrelationshipwiththesettlementpatternoftheStateandtheurbanformofAdelaide.Theoverridingobjectiveofthisanalysisistoidentifyhow these changes have influenced theconditionoftheState’sphysicalandhumanenvironment,thenatureofthemajorpressuresontheenvironmentandcurrentresponsestothosepressures.

Tofullyappreciatetheextenttowhichurbanformimpactsonourenvironmentoneneedonlyconsiderhousingandmobility(transport),whicharegenerallydictatedbyurbanformandpopulation.Combined,theyareresponsiblefor28%ofthestate’secologicalfootprint(18%housing,10%mobility).Energyuseinhousingaloneisresponsiblefor15%ofthestate’secologicalfootprint,afactthatemphasisestheneedforbetterdesigned,more energy efficient housing.

Thecurrenttargetofreducingthestate’secologicalfootprintby30%willonlybeachieved if there is significant adaptation inSouthAustralia’surbanareas.However,whenattemptingtoachievethisintandemwiththetargetofapopulationoftwomillionpeopleby2050,therequiredpercapitareductioninourecologicalfootprintjumpstoapproximately54%.The conflict between these targets needs attentionaseffortstomoveforwardprogress.

Inattemptingtoidentifyenvironmentalimpactsandtheirspatialdistribution,theinterrelationshipbetweenpopulationgrowthandincreaseddemandforresidentiallandisofcriticalimportance.

Thisincludestherelativeavailability,affordabilityandlocationofundevelopedbroadacre land, defined as land parcelsofmorethan4,000m2inareaszonedresidential,andwelllocatedredevelopmentsites.Forexample,theenvironmentalimpactofanewhousingestateontheouterfringeofMetropolitanAdelaidewillbeverydifferenttotheimpactofurbanredevelopmentandintensification within the inner and middle suburbsofthecity.

Theouterfringedevelopmentwillimmediatelyinvolvetheconversion

oflandfromagriculturalorothernon-urbanusestoresidential.Itmaywellrequireanextensionofthecity’surbanedge,anditwillalmostcertainlyrequirenewinvestmenttoprovidetheinfrastructureforwater,electricity,transport,education,healthandotherservicesrequiredbyresidentsofthenewgreenfield development. Unless the new developmentissitedincloseproximitytoexistingemploymentopportunitiesandretailoutlets,itwillgenerateadditionallongdistancejourneystowork,retailshoppingcentresortheCBD.AllsuchdevelopmentswillpotentiallyincreaseAdelaide’senvironmentalfootprintandwithitthechanceoffurtherresidentialdevelopmentonotherbroadacrelandincloseproximity.

Redevelopment and intensification of olderhousingareasintheinnerandmiddlesuburbsofthecity,iewithin12kmoftheCBD,donotdemandsuchdramaticinvestmentinnewurbaninfrastructurefortransport,water,electricity,healthandeducation.However,urbanredevelopmentplacesincreaseddemandsonexistingutilitiesandresourcesthatareoftenalreadyheavilyutilised.Itincreasesconsumptionofenergyandwaterwithindistributionnetworks,reducesthenaturalrechargecapacityoflocalgroundwater,mayincreasestormwaterrunoffandacceleratesthelossofprivateopenspaceandurbanbiodiversity.

Therelativeaffordabilityandeconomicattractivenessofthetwoapproachestomeetingdemandfornewresidentialdwellingswillbelargelydeterminedbyhousingpreferences,purchasecostandlandavailability.

PRESSURE INDICATORS

• Changes in population growth

Changingpopulationtrendsimpactontheurbanformofthestate’shumansettlementsandontheenvironmentandnaturalresourcesthroughresourceuseandwastegeneration.

• Population density

Changingpopulationdensityhasimplicationsforresourceuseandforurbanandsocialinfrastructure.

• From2001-06SouthAustralia’spopulationgrewatanannualaveragerateof0.74%whereasthenumberofprivatedwellingsgrewby1.14%perannumoverthesameperiod.

• Overthe30yearsto2006,theaveragenumberofpersonsperprivatedwellinginSouthAustraliadecreasedfrom2.96to2.37asthepopulationaged,withthisnumberprojectedtodecreaseto2.23by2021.

• Themedianlotsizeofnew,detacheddwellingsdecreasedfrom703m2in1986to455m2in2006,adecreaseof35%.

• The median floor area of new, detacheddwellingsincreasedfrom137m2in1986toapeakof180m2in2001beforedecreasingslightlyto177m2in2006.

City living. Photo: Panache Photography

Populat ion and Urban Form


intheseregions.Thereisincreasingcompetitionforlandforvarioususesincludingtheneedtoconservecoastalandestuarinehabitats.RegionalcentressuchasMountGambier,theOlympicDamminingcentreofRoxbyDownsandPortAugusta,havealsoexperiencedsignificant population increases in the past five years. Whyalla and Port Pirie haveconvertedlongstandingpopulationdeclinesintomodestincreasesasaresultoftheresourcesboominstate’snorth.

ChangesinlifestyleaswellastheageingpopulationarecontributingtotrendofthenumberofSouthAustralianhomesincreasingmorerapidlythanthepopulation.Demandisupforsmallerdetached,semi-detachedandcourtyardhousingwelllocatedclosetotheCBD.CombinethistrendwithadecreaseintheavailabilityandaccessibilityofbroadacrelandwithinMetropolitanAdelaideandtheoutcomehasbeenanincreaseinnewhomesbuiltonredevelopedresidentialsites.

IntheAdelaideStatisticalDivisionbetween2003and2006,40%ofnewdwellingswereconstructedonbroadacresiteswiththeremaining60%builtmostlyonwelllocatedredevelopedresidentialsites.Afewwereconstructedonpreviouslyundevelopedsitesscatteredthroughthe urban area. While this is a major changefrom1999whentheproportionswerereversed,thetrendisexpectedtocontinueunlesstheaffordabilityofwelllocatedredevelopmentsitesdecreasesdramaticallyinthefuture.

Thetrendtowardsurbanrenewalhaspotential environmental benefits such as reducedgreenhousegasemissionsduetoshorterjourneystoworkandservices.Thedownsidecanbeanincreasedneedtoupgradeheavilyutilisedurbaninfrastructureandservices.Insomeareaswherethereisashortagetheremayalsobeaneedtoprovidemorepublicopenspacetoreplacethenowvanishingbackyardthattraditionallyprovidedrecreationalopenspaceforyoungfamilies.

Thereductioninunpavedbackyardspacehasthepotentialtodrasticallycut groundwater infiltration and recharge,andmayresultinmoredamagetodwellingsassoilmoisturedecreases.ThisisespeciallyimportantonareasofcrackingclaysoilswithintheAdelaidemetropolitanarea.

HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Population and Housing Trends

InthetwodecadesimmediatelyfollowingWorld War II South Australia benefited fromveryhighlevelsofimmigrationandachievedoneofthehighestpopulationgrowthratesinthecountryat2.4%-3.0%perannum.

Thestate’sgrowthratesthendeclinedsignificantly to below national levels to 0.7%-0.9%perannuminthe1970sand1980s.Itdeclinedstillfurtherto0.4%perannumintheearly1990s,beforerecoveringslightlytostandat0.5%perannumbetween1996and2001.

Inthelatestintercensalperiod(theperiod2001-06,betweencensuscounts),populationgrowthincreasedto0.7%perannumduetohighimmigrationtargetsundertheSouthAustralianStrategicPlan(SASP)andalsoemerginglabourandskillsshortagesinagrowingeconomy.Thisisthefastestaveragerateofincreaseinthepast20years,butisstillbelowthenationalrateof1.3%perannum.

Over the fiscal periods 2005-06 and 2006-07theAustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)hasestimatedthatSouthAustralia’spopulationgrowthacceleratedto1.01%and1.04%perannum(ABSCat.3101.0)duetomajorincreasesinnetoverseasmigration(Table6.1).Thislatestincreaseispartlyaresultofthestate’saggressiveimmigrationpolicy,butisalsoduetoacceleratingeconomicgrowthandanemergingresourcesboomthatisincreasingoveralldemandforskilledlabouratatimeofashortfallinthedomesticsupply.

Therapidaccelerationofpopulationgrowthsince2004hasbeenakeyfactorinrisinghousingdemandinAdelaide.Ithasalsoplayedaroleinthedeclineinhousingaffordabilityoverthesameperiod.

Despitethestate’sacceleratedpopulationgrowthfrom2001-06,therearewidevariationsinregionalgrowthratesthatcreatecontrastingenvironmentalpressuresindifferentpartsofthestate.TheAdelaidemetropolitanareaandsurroundingperi-urbanareas,includingMountBarker,MurrayBridge,VictorHarbor,GoolwaandtheBarossaValley,arecontinuingtoabsorbmostofthestate’spopulationgrowth.Thisplacespressureontheavailabilityoflandandurbanservices

What is the current situation?

East End Apartments, city living.

Photo: Adelaide City Council,


Increasedpavedandroofareasresultsinlargervolumesofstormwaterrunoffandtheintensityofthatthatwillpotentiallyresult in more frequent local flooding unlessthecapacityofexistingstormwatersystemsisincreased.Thismayalsoimpactreceivingwaterwaysincludinglocalriversandcreeks,andthemarineenvironment.PublishedresearchbyTroy,HollowayandRandolph(2005:70)inSydneyin2003foundthat:“per capita water consumption in different types of dwelling were comparatively similar. While people living in houses consumed the highest amount of water on average, this was only marginally higher than the amount consumed by those in high rise flats, with people in low rise flats and semi-detached houses only marginally below this”.

SimilarresultswerefoundbyresearchinAdelaideandPerth(TroyandHolloway,2004). These findings emphasise that itisfartoosimplistictoassumethathighrisedevelopmentandotherpoliciesbasedonchanginghousingformwillnecessarilyresultinlesswaterconsumptionpercapita.Attentionneedstobepaidtochangingbehaviourandattitudestowaterconsumptionandtoencouragingwaterrecyclingifwaterconservationistoprogress.

Thepotentialenergysavingsfromapolicyofurbanrenewalandinten-sification are significant. A recent studycomparedtheenergyusageofAdelaidecitycentreapartmentdwellerswiththatofinnersuburbanresidentsatNorwoodandoutersuburbanresidentsatSeaford.Perkins,Hamnett,Pullen,ZitoandTrebilcock(2007:757-8)foundthattotalenergyuse(comprisingdwellingoperationalandembodiedenergy,andtransportoperationalandembodiedenergy)perhouseholdinthecitycentreapartmentsandintheinnersuburbsampleswasjust43%and51%respectivelyofthetotalenergyusedintheoutersuburbansample.However,mostofthehigherenergyuseintheoutersuburbanhouseholdswasduetohighlevelsofcarownershipandusage,andlargerdwellingsize.

Thesamestudyrevealedthatgreenhousegasemissionswereslightlyhigherfortheapartmentsampleat16.2tonnesCO2-eperhouseholdperannum,thanfortheinnersuburbansample(14tonnes),butbothwerelowerthantheemissionsfromtheoutersuburbanhouseholds(20.3tonnes).Thehigher

emissionsfromthecitycentreapartmenthouseholdsamplewereduetotheirhighdependenceonelectricityforoperational energy and their inefficient useofenergyincommonareas.Therewere,however,markeddifferencesbetweenapartmenthouseholds.

TheapartmenthouseholdsinAdelaide,withhighembodiedenergylevelsandpoorinsulation,hadaverageemissionsof12.5tonnesCO2-eonapercapitabasis,whichwasabovethe7.4tonnesCO2-eoftheoutersuburbanhouseholds.Thisemphasisesthecriticalimportanceofenvironmentallyfriendlybuildingdesigntorealiseenvironmentalgainsfromhigherdensityresidentialdevelopment.

Thistrendtowardsurbanredevelopmentandthegrowingimperativetosupplyenvironmentallysustainableoutcomesprovidesdevelopersandplannerswithachallengetoredesignneighbourhoodsanddwellingsthataremoreenergyandwatersensitive,butwhichmeetthechangingaspirationsofthenewgenerationofinnercitydwellers.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Changes in population growth

Statewide changes in population growth

Incomparisonwiththeverylowpopulationgrowthrateoftheearly1990s,SouthAustraliaisnowinaperiodofrelativelyrapidpopulationgrowththataveraged0.74%perannumfrom2001-06,upfrom0.50%from1996-01andjust0.39%from1991-96.Thisequatestoapopulationgrowthof56476 people over the five years to 2006, andisverydifferenttotheabsoluteannualincreasesof7,495from1996to2001andjust5,618from1991to1996.Contributingfactorstothegrowthinclude,inparticular,thegrantingofRegionalMigrationStatustoAdelaidebytheCommonwealthGovernment(thisallowspotentialoverseasmigrantsadditionalvisapointsiftheymigratetoAdelaide).Thishasbeenverysuccessfulinboostingnetoverseasmigrationintothestate.In2006,11,281peoplemigratedtoSouthAustraliafromoverseas(ABSCat3101.0),thelargestnetintakeinmorethan30years.

Despiterecentacceleratedgrowth,SouthAustralia’sshareofthenationalpopulationhasprogressivelydeclinedfromahighof9.4%in1966to7.6%in2006(Table6.1).Thestatehasconsistentlyexperiencedannual

Elder Park, Adelaide. Photo: Tim Lubke.



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Population Census year

Population (persons)

South Australia

Australia

SA as per cent of Australia

1947 646073 7579358 8.52

1954 797094 8986530 8.87

1961 971487 10508186 9.25

1966 1094984 11599407 9.44

1971 1200114 13067265 9.18

1976 1274070 14033083 9.08

1981 1318769 14923260 8.84

1986 1382550 16018350 8.63

1991 1446299 17284036 8.37

1996 1474389 18311486 8.05

2001 1511728 19413240 7.79

2006 1568204 20701488 7.57

Note: Population totals 1947-66 are census counts, 1971-2006 figures are estimated resident populations. Source:ABSCat.3218.0RegionalPopulationGrowth,selectedyearsandcensuspublicationsselectedyears.

Intercensal period

Population (average annual growth) SA as per cent of

Australia’s Growth

Population (average annual growth rate)

South Australia

Australia South Australia

Australia

1947-54 21574 201025 10.73 4.29 3.46

1954-61 24913 217379 11.46 4.04 3.18

1961-66 24699 218244 11.32 2.42 2.00

1966-71 15745 231246 6.81 1.85 2.41

1971-76 14791 193164 7.66 1.20 1.44

1976-81 8940 178035 5.02 0.69 1.24

1981-86 12756 219018 5.82 0.95 1.43

1986-91 12750 253137 5.04 0.91 1.53

1991-96 5618 205490 2.73 0.39 1.16

1996-2001 7495 220351 3.40 0.50 1.18

2001-06 11295 257650 4.38 0.74 1.29

Note:Populationtotals1947-54to1966-71basedoncensuscounts,1971-76to2001-06onestimatedresidentpopulation.Source:ABSCat.3218.0RegionalPopulationGrowth,selectedyearsandcensuspublicationsselectedyears.

averagepopulationgrowthratesbelownationalrates(Table6.2).Incomparisontothepost-waryears,currentpopulationgrowthratesaremodestandtheannualabsolute population increase over the five years2001to2006wasabouthalfofthatexperiencedintheyears1947to1966.

Components of population change

Table6.3summarisesthecomponentsofSouthAustralia’spopulationchangesince1977.

Inthepasttwoyearsthemostdramaticpopulationchangehasbeenadoublingofthenetoverseasmigrationintakeas South Australia has benefited from Adelaide’sRegionalMigrationStatus.

Followingasteadydeclineinbirthsfrom1977to2004,thestate’sbirthratehasincreasesdueinpart,totheCommonwealthGovernment’sBabyBonusandseveralyearsofsustainedeconomicgrowth.Thesefactorscombinedwiththefactthatthedaughtersofthelargebabyboomer

Newport Quays. Photo: Cate Owen.

Table 6.1: Population South Australia and Australia, 1947-2006

Table 6.2: Population growth South Australia and Australia, 1947-54 to 2001-2006


cohortarereachingpeakchildbearingyears,havecontributedtopopulationgrowthsince2004.

Inparallelwiththeclimbinthebirthratehasbeenagradualriseindeathsastheproportionofpeopleinolderageshasincreased,especiallythelargenumbersofimmigrantswhocametoSouthAustraliaintheirprimeworkingyearsafterWorld War II.

Theoverallresultofthesetwodivergingtrendswasa43%dropinthenaturalpopulationincrease(birthsminusdeaths)fromalmost9,400peoplein1977to5,300in2004.Thishasbeenpartiallyreversedinthepasttwoyearswiththetotalfertilityraterisingfrom1.73childrenperwomanin2004-05to1.83in2006-07,butthesustainabilityoftherecentbirthrateisdifficult to predict.

Althoughthelossofpeoplethroughnetinterstatemigrationisnowmoremodestthaninthemid1990s,theinterstatenetmigration flow has remained negative. Thelargenetgainsfromoverseasmigrationhavemorethanoffsettheinterstatelossesinrecentyears,butthestateiscontinuingtoloseyoungskilledpeopletothelargerandmorediverselabourmarketsofMelbourneandSydney.Thishasbeenamajorfactorinthestate’spopulationgrowthremainingbelowthenationalrate.

Regional and intra-regional changes in population growth

Regionally,populationgrowthrateshave traditionally varied significantly inSouthAustralia,largelybecauseofinterregional migration flows. Table 6.4 showstheestimatedresidentpopulation,populationshares,intercensalpopulationchangeandaverageannualintercensalgrowthratesofthesevenSouthAustralianstatisticaldivisionsoverthepast30years.

ThepredominanttrendoverthatperiodhasbeenaconsolidationofpopulationgrowthintheAdelaideandOuterAdelaideStatisticalDivisionsthathasincreasedtheircombinedshareofthestate’spopulationfrom77.3%in1976to81.3%in2006.

TheannualrateofgrowthinthelesspopulousOuterAdelaideStatisticalDivision,whichincludesmuchoftheAdelaideHills,hasconsistentlyoutpacedthatofAdelaide.Thisisduetoitssmallerpopulationbaseandpopulationoverspillgainsfromametropolitanareawhereavailablevacantlandisincreasingly

remotefromtheCBDandlessaffordablefor first time home buyers. Given the importanceoftheAdelaideHillstoSouthAustralianagriculturalproduction,theirhighbiodiversityvalueandthefactthattheycontainAdelaide’swatercatchmentareas,therapidpopulationgrowththat is occurring there has significant environmentalimplications.

AnalysisofthespatialpatternoftheaverageannualrateofpopulationchangeandtheabsolutepopulationchangeattheStatisticalLocalArea(SLA)levelbetween2001and2006(Maps6.1and6.2)reveal:

• SLAsonthenorthernfringesandjustbeyondtheAdelaideStatisticalDivisionboundarysuchasSalisburyBalance,PlayfordEastCentral,LightRegionalCouncil,SalisburySouth-East,TeaTreeGullyNorthandGawlergrewrapidlyasvacantlandmoreaccessibletoAdelaidewasutilisedforresidentialdevelopment.

• MountBarkerCentralintheAdelaideHillsandAlexandrinaCoastal(includingPortElliot,MiddletonandGoolwa),theCopperCoastplusOnkaparingaSouthCoastexperiencedsubstantialresidentialdevelopmentgrowthassociatedwithmigrationtonewlandreleasesindesirablelocations.Someofthiscoastalandhillsdevelopmentwasdrivenbythesocalled‘seachange’and‘treechange’phenomenawherecitydwellersapproachingretirementmigrateforlifestyleenhancementandalsointhecaseofMountBarker,partlyforimprovedcommutingconditions.

• SLAsadjoiningthegrowingareastothenorthandsouthofAdelaidesuchas Playford West, Mallala, Barossa -Barossa,Alexandrina-Strathalbyn,andVictorHarborexperiencedannualgrowthinexcessof2.0%.

• AdelaideCityexhibitedrapidandsignificant growth at a rate of 5.9% per annum in response to a significant increaseinconstructionofinnercityapartment.

• OtherlesscentralinnercitySLAssuchas Port Adelaide Enfield - East, West Torrens-East,NorwoodPaynehamSt Peters - East and West, Burnside - Southwest and Unley - West experiencedpopulationgrowthasaconsequenceofurbanredevelop-ment and intensification.

• The only significant population declines

Westpac building, Adelaide.

Photo: Tim Lubcke.



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Financial year

ending 30 June

Births(a) Deaths(a)Natural

increase

Net overseas migration

Net interstate migration

Population change

(b)

Estimated resident-

population 30 June

(c)

1977 19086 9715 9371 2874 - 12245 1286119

1978 18964 9768 9196 2638 -1500 10334 1296205

1979 18403 9748 8655 541 -4000 5196 1301109

1980 18317 9536 8781 3325 -4500 7606 1308397

1981 18960 9806 9154 6655 -5109 10700 1318769

1982 19076 9894 9182 8520 -4875 12827 1331108

1983 19445 10339 9106 6417 -328 15195 1345775

1984 20118 9799 10319 3969 553 14841 1360048

1985 19901 10204 9697 4329 -2317 11709 1371197

1986 19657 10427 9230 5084 -1417 12897 1382550

1987 19628 10577 9051 6200 -3977 11274 1392764

1988 19288 10799 8489 5952 -1240 13201 1404909

1989 19445 10781 8664 6665 -221 15108 1419029

1990 19573 11320 8253 5762 -252 13763 1432056

1991 19841 11074 8767 4619 1545 14931 1446299

1992 19655 11060 8595 2897 -658 10834 1456512

1993 19819 11351 8468 1546 -5210 4804 1460674

1994 19381 11375 8006 1994 -3978 6022 1466138

1995 19475 11522 7953 2883 -7069 3767 1469429

1996 18839 11339 7500 3653 -6192 4961 1474253

1997 18576 11625 6951 3106 -3318 6739 1481357

1998 18330 11728 6602 3160 -1996 7766 1489552

1999 18399 11648 6751 2682 -1631 7802 1497819

2000 17896 11590 6306 3829 -3531 6604 1505038

2001 17414 11919 5495 2765 -2418 5842 1511728

2002 17579 11807 5772 2798 -1335 7235 1521119

2003 17286 12088 5198 3904 -1218 7884 1531259

2004 17249 11931 5318 4305 -2936 6687 1540399

2005 17608 11776 5832 7020 -3250 9602 1552523

2006 17987 12142 5845 9813 -2591 13067 1568204

2007 18726 12000 6726 13146 -3563 16309 1584513(a) Births and deaths figures used to compile natural increase for population estimates are based on year of occurrence

andmaydifferfrombirthsanddeathsdatabasedonyearofregistration.

(b)Populationchangeisequaltonaturalincreaseplusoverseasnetmigrationplusinterstatenetmigration.SumofnaturalincreaseandnetmigrationmaynotequalchangeinERPduetointercensaldiscrepancy.

(c) The ERPs from June 2002 to 2006 are preliminary figures rebased to the preliminary 2006 census results. The final ERPs rebased on the 2006 final census results and adjusted for undercount and persons temporarily overseas will not be availableuntilJune2008.

Source:ABSAustralianHistoricalPopulationStatistics.Cat.3105.0.65.001,ABS(2007)AustralianDemographicStatistics.Cat.3101.0issued24/9/2007andearlierissues,ABSconsultancyMarch2003.

Table 6.3: Components of

population change, South

Australia, year ending

30 June, 1977 onwards


Statistical division

1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006*

Estimated resident population

Adelaide 923868 953696 1003802 1056561 1078437 1107986 1146119

OuterAdelaide

60648 69839 81894 93231 104331 113992 128922

Yorke&LowerNorth

40646 41721 43592 43996 44150 44398 45589

MurrayLands

60658 63267 65520 68012 68185 68557 69479

SouthEast 59525 61628 62893 62855 62707 62588 64615

Eyre 32962 34454 34935 33165 33011 34020 34760

Northern 95763 94164 89914 88479 83432 80187 78720

Total 1274070 1318769 1382550 1446299 1474253 1511728 1568204

Population distribution (%)

Adelaide 72.5 72.3 72.6 73.1 73.2 73.3 73.1

OuterAdelaide

4.8 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 7.5 8.2

Yorke&LowerNorth

3.2 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.9

MurrayLands

4.8 4.8 4.7 4.7 4.6 4.5 4.4

SouthEast 4.7 4.7 4.5 4.3 4.3 4.1 4.1

Eyre 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.3 2.2

Northern 7.5 7.1 6.5 6.1 5.7 5.3 5.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Intercensal growth 1976-81 1981-86 1986-91 1991-96 1996-2001 2001-2006

Adelaide 29828 50106 52759 21876 29549 38133

OuterAdelaide

9191 12055 11337 11100 9661 14930

Yorke&LowerNorth

1075 1871 404 154 248 1191

MurrayLands

2609 2253 2492 173 372 922

SouthEast 2103 1265 -38 -148 -119 2027

Eyre 1492 481 -1770 -154 1009 740

Northern -1599 -4250 -1435 -5047 -3245 -1467

Total 44699 63781 63749 27954 37475 56476

Average annual growth rate (% p.a.)

Adelaide 0.64 1.03 1.03 0.40 0.54 0.68

OuterAdelaide

2.86 3.24 2.62 2.30 1.79 2.49

Yorke&LowerNorth

0.52 0.88 0.18 0.10 0.11 0.53

MurrayLands

0.85 0.70 0.75 0.10 0.11 0.27

SouthEast 0.70 0.41 -0.01 0.00 -0.04 0.64

Eyre 0.89 0.28 -1.03 -0.1 0.60 0.43

Northern -0.34 -0.92 -0.32 -1.2 -0.79 -0.37

Total 0.69 0.95 0.91 0.40 0.50 0.74

Note: * preliminary ERP figures rebasedtothepreliminary2006censusresults.

Source:ABSCat.3218.0RegionalPopulationGrowth,selectedyearsandcensuspublicationselectedyears

Table 6.4: Population trends,

statistical divisions of South

Australia, 1976-2006



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

observedinMetropolitanAdelaidewereinSLAswithageingpopulationssuchasTeaTreeGullyCentralandHills,Onkaparinga-Morphett,Playford-Elizabeth,andCharlesSturt-Coastal.

• IntheSouthEastoftheState,MountGambierandthesurroundingSLAofGrant,grewby990andnearly500personsrespectively,equivalenttoannualgrowthratesof0.8%and1.2%.

• InregionalSouthAustraliathetownshipofRoxbyDownsonthesiteoftheOlympicDammineexpansiongrewsignificantly. Port Augusta and Whyalla alsosharedinthegrowthasaresultoftheresourcesboomtotheirnorth.

• Asidefromgrowthassociatedwiththeminingboom,anSLA’sproximitytoAdelaideandretirementmigration,theregionalpatternofpopulationchangeisgenerallyoneofpopulationdeclineorstability.

• PopulationlevelsdeclinedinSLAslocatedinremotenorthernandwesternregionalareasandinmarginaldrylandareassuchasKaroondaEastMurray,theFlindersRanges,Orroroo/Carrieton,Peterborough,SouthernMallee,LeHunteandKimba.

Population change at the urban centre and locality level

Map6.3illustratesthecloserelationshipbetweenratesofpopulationchangeovertheperiod20012006attheurbancentreandrurallocalitylevel,andbygeographiclocation.

Anoverwhelmingmajorityofurbancentresthathavegrownbymorethan2% per annum over the past five years arelocatedeitherwithintheboundariesofMetropolitanAdelaide(Gawler),arewithineasycommutingdistanceofthecity(MountBarker,Nairne,Strathalbyn),orarewithinbothcommutingrangeandatdesirablecoastalretirementorwinegrowinglocations(egVictorHarbor,Goolwa,PortElliot,Nuriootpa).AdelaideitselfandcentressuchasMurrayBridge,McLaren Vale, Willunga, Tanunda and Kapundathatarewithincommutingdistanceandsitedinattractivelocationshavealsogrown,butatslightlylowerratesof0.5%to2.0%perannum.

TheRoxbyDownstownshipattheOlympicDamminingsite,istheonlyinlandcentretohavegrownatmorethan2%perannum over the past five years. However, continuedandperhapsevenacceleratedgrowthofminingtownssuchasthisis

expectedtohavespillovereffectsandincreasepopulationgrowthinnearbycentresincludingAndamookaandWoomera. Both of those townships are withincommutingdistanceofOlympicDamandoffercheaperlandandhouseprices.

ThedemandforprefabricatedequipmentandmaterialsforOlympicDamandotherminingdevelopmentsinthenorthofSouthAustraliaisalsoexpectedtoboostlocalemploymentandtherefore,populationinregionalcentres.PortAugustaandWhyalla have already begun to benefit fromtheresourcesboomreversingearlierpopulationdeclineswhichshouldalsoenablethemtoretainmoreschoolleaversthaninrecentyears.

Increases in fly in/fly out movements of highlyskilled,highincomeworkersmayaffectbothdemandforgoodqualityattractivehousinginsomeregionalcentres,aswellasimpactingontheAdelaidehousingmarket,wherethefamiliesofmanyoftheseworkersmayprefertoreside.

CoastaltownshipssuchasCowellandRoberecordedhighannualgrowthratesofmorethan2%perannum,whereasothercentresontheCopperCoastandnearby,suchasMoonta,Kadina, Wallaroo and even the Eyre Peninsula’sTumbyBay,exhibitedsteadygrowth(0.5-2.0%perannum)boostedbyretirementmigrationoftenfromnearbyinlandruralcommunitiesorelsewhereinSouthAustralia.Clare,LoxtonandPenolaexhibitedsimilargrowthratesduetoexpansionofviticultureproduction.

ThepopulationsofthelargeregionalurbancentresofMountGambier,Renmark, Whyalla, Port Augusta, Port Pirie andPortLincolnwereessentiallystablewithgrowthratesofbetweenplusandminus0.5%perannum.

Overallthelargercentreshaveincreasedtheirdominanceaslocalservicecentreswiththeirpopulationstendingtogrowattheexpenseofthesmallercentreswithintheirhinterlands,particularlyinthestate’sinlandregions.Berri,Ceduna,CooberPedy,MannumandAngastonandnumeroussmallisolatedtownshipsandlocalitiesinmarginalfarmingareasexhibitedacontinuationofthepopulationlossesnotedforthe1996-2001period.

Thediversepatternofurbanpopulationgrowthratesposesseriousenvironmentalandplanningchallenges.Forexample,therelativelyrapidgrowthofAdelaideitselfandofurbancentreswithin

Halifax Street apartments. Photo: DPC


SeeEnlargement

r

2.5-1 -0.25 0.25 1Data Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2001 and 2006 Census).

SPAR ID:2466

Ceduna

MountBarker

McLarenVale

MorphettVale

Seaford

Adelaide

Stirling

Northgate

Virginia

Gawler

Elizabeth

MawsonLakes

PortAdelaide

Roxby Downs

Ernabella

Port Augusta

Whyalla Port PIrie

WallarooRenmark

Pinnaroo

MurrayBridge

VictorHarbor

MountGambier

Port Lincoln

Average annual population growth rate 2001-2006 (%)

Stable morethan 5

lessthan -2.5

NegativeGrowth

PositiveGrowth

Map 6.1: Average annual

percentage change

in estimated resident

population by statistical

local area, South Australia

2001-06



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

E lizabeth

SeeEnlargement

t

500-500 -100 100 2500

Data Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2001 and 2006 Census).

SPAR ID:2467

Absolute population change 2001-2006

Ceduna

VictorHarbor

Roxby Downs

Ernabella

Port Augusta

Whyalla Port PIrie

Wallaroo

Renmark

BordertownPinnaroo

MurrayBridge

MountGambier

Port Lincoln

PortAdelaide

Virginia

Gawler

SeafordMcLaren Vale

Morphett Vale

Adelaide

Stirling

MountBarker

Northgate

MawsonLakes

less than stable more than

PopulationIncrease

PopulationDecline

Map 6.2: Absolute

change in estimated

resident population by

statistical local area,

South Australia 2001-06


commutingrangethatarelocatedwithinthecity’skeywatercatchmentsandagriculturalhinterland,increasestheimportanceoflandusezoningtopreservethestate’slimitedfertilelandforhighvalueagriculturalexportindustriesandforNaturalResourcesManagement(NRM)usessuchasnativevegetationmanagementandlandrestoration.

Thecontinuedgrowthofcoastal,AdelaideHillsandBarossaValleytownshipsthoughretirementmigrationalsoincreasesdemandforinvestmentininfrastructuretoprovidedrinkingwater,electricity,gasandsewerageservicesingeographicallydispersedlocations.Growingresidentpopulationsandincreasedtourismareintensifyingtheuseoffragilecoastalhabitats.AtthesametimethelargeregionalcentresofMountGambier,PortAugustaandPortLincolneachgrewby200-500personsovertheyears2001-06andrequirecontinuedinvestmentininfrastructureforessentialservices.

Declining rural populations

Longtermdeclinesofruralfarmpopulationsandofmanysmallinlandtownshavecontinuedasyoungadults,especiallyfemales,migratetoseekoff-farmemploymentinlargerurbancentres.Prolongedbelow-averagerainfallhasacceleratedthistrendalongwithanageingofthefarmlabourforce.

Asthebabyboomergenerationretiresandfarmingbecomesalessattractivecareerforyoungpeople,labourshortagesandseveregenderimbalancearelikelytobecomemoreacuteinmanyfarmingcommunities.

Numerousruralcommentatorsarecurrentlysuggestingthatwearebeginningtoseetheendofthetraditionalfamilyfarm.Insomeruralcommunitiesfarmingviabilityislimitedto large agribusinesses with sufficient capitalresourcestoconsolidatefarmingpropertiesandmaximiseeconomicopportunities,orfamilieswithoff-farmincome(includingtree-changers).Thiswillresultinchangestofarmingmanagementpracticesandtheirenvironmentalimpactandsustainabilitywillneedtobecarefullymonitored.Changesinthestructureoffarmingenterprisesandtheconversionoflandusefromgrazingtoagro-forestrymayresultinfurtherdepopulationofruralcommunities,asproductionbecomeslesslabourintensive.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Population density

Trends in population density and increased concentration of population in Metropolitan Adelaide and Outer Adelaide

SouthAustraliahasanextremelylowpopulationdensityof1.6personspersquare kilometre, reflecting the vast inland andsemi-aridareasthatdonotsustainanysignificant urban settlements other than isolatedminingcommunities.However,inandaroundAdelaide,thepopulationdensitiesfortheAdelaideStatisticalDivisionandOuterAdelaideStatisticalDivisionaremuchhigherdensitiesat627and11personspersquarekilometre,respectively.

Since1976when77.3%ofthestate’spopulationwasresidentintheAdelaideandOuterAdelaideStatisticalDivisions,thepopulationofMetropolitanAdelaideandadjacenthinterlandincreasedto80.8%in2001and81.3%in2006.Populationprojectionssuggestthatthistrendwillcontinueandmayreach83%by2030and84.5%by2050,unlessregionaldevelopmentoutsideAdelaide’scommuterhinterlandisactivelyencouraged.Thisincreasedconcentrationofpopulationinthestate’sagriculturalheartlandwillplaceadditionalpressureonalreadyscarcewaterandlandresourcesimpactingonhorticultural,vinefruit,intensivelivestockanddairyindustries.

An ageing population

Despite five years of growth, population ageinghascontinuedwiththeproportionofolderresidentsincreasingandtheproportionofyoungerpeoplecontinuingtodecline.AtJune2006,15.1%ofthepopulationwereaged65yearsormore,comparedto14.6%in2001and14.0%in1996.Between1996and2006theproportionaged85yearsandoverincreasedfrom1.3%to2.0%.

Under the medium series of population projectionsproducedbyPlanningSAtheproportionaged65+yearswillincreasetomorethan16%by2011andtoover18%by2016,asthebabyboomersborninthepost-waryearsof1947-61enterretirement.Thestate’smedianageincreasedfrom35.6yearsin1996to37.7in2001,and38.7yearsin2006,thesecondoldestmeanpopulationinthenationafterTasmania.

Althoughtheyhaveriseninthelasttwotothreeyears,fertilityratesremainwellbelowreplacementlevels(totalfertilityrateof1.77childrenperwomanonaveragecomparedtothe2.1requiredifchildren

Urban infill.



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Millicent

Robe

Kingston SE

Bordertown

RenmarkMoonta

JamestownPortPirie

Peterborough

Quorn

PortLincoln

Cowell

Whyalla

PortAugusta

StreakyBay

Ceduna

Roxby Downs

Coober Pedy

MountGambier

Penola

Naracoorte

Keith

Kingscote

ArdrossanMaitland

Loxton

Waikerie

TumbyBay

WallarooClare

Berri

SeeEnlargement

Nairne

Goolwa

Mannum

Gawler

LyndochTanunda

Kapunda

Willunga

Woodside

Lobethal

Freeling

Nuriootpa

Balaklava

AngleVale

Port Elliot

TailemBend

Strathalbyn

McLarenVale

Mount Barker

Williamstown

VictorHarbor

Murray Bridge

Sellicks Beach

Crafers-Bridgewater

Angaston

Adelaide(1,038,811 people)

SPAR ID: 2455

Annual rate of population change 2001 - 2006 (%)

PositiveChange

Stable

0.5more

than 2-0.5lessthan -2

NegativeChange

Data Source: Australian Bureau ofStatistics (2001 and 2006 Census).

Urban centre population 2006 (over 200 people)

204 - 999

1000 - 1999

2000 - 3999

4000 - 9999

10000 - 14999

15000 - 25000

Map 6.3: Population of urban

centres and rural localities

2006 and average annual

percentage change 2001-06


Growing Population

Urban expansion

AnalysisofhousingstockintheAdelaideStatisticalDivisionandMountBarkerbyyearbuilt(referMap6.4),understatesthespatialextentofresidentialdevelopmentintheyearsuptoandincludingthe1950s,becausesomeolderstockislikelytohavebeenreplacedwithnewhouses.

Nevertheless,Map6.4clearlyshowsthespatialextentofresidentialdevelopmentintheyearssince1959.By2007,morethan70%oftheAdelaideStatisticalDivisiondevotedtohousingbeingbuiltinthisperiod.Thegeographicareaof

What are the pressures?

Population (ERP)

Private dwellings

Persons per private dwelling

Ind

ex

of c

ha

ng

e o

f po

pu

latio

n a

nd

dw

elli

ng

s (1

976

valu

es

set

to 1

00)

Pers

on

s p

er d

we

llin

g

1986

1991

1996

2001

2006

2011

2016

2021

1976

1981

500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

3.00

2.80

2.60

2.40

2.20

2.00

1.80

1.60

1.40

1.20

1.00

Year

Source: ABS Cat. 3204.4, November 1987, Cat.3218.0, July 1997, Census of Housing and Population 1976-2006,

ABS online data from the 1996, 2001 and 2006 censuses and population projections and estimates

produced by Planning SA.

Figure 6.1: Comparison of population and

dwellings growth Greater Adelaide Region,

1976-2006 and 2011-2021 (projected)

aretoreplacetheirparents).Fertilityratesareveryunlikelytoreachreplacementlevelsintheforeseeablefuture.Thistrend,combinedwithpreviouslymentionedfactorswillcontinuetherapidageingofthestate’spopulationoveratleastthenext25years.Thiswillinturnincreasedemandforhousing.Inparticular,itwillrequireincreasedinvestmentinhousingsuitedtotheelderly,retirementhomesandagedcarefacilities.Thedemandandcostofspecialisedhealth,transportandwelfareserviceswillriseatarateaboveoverallpopulationgrowthrates.

ABSemploymentdata(ABSCat.6291.0.55.003)showsthatthestate’sagriculturalworkforceisthesectormostaffectedbyrapidageing,primarilybecauseofitsfailuretoretainyoungpeople.IntheAugust2007quarter30.8%ofthoseemployedinagriculturewereaged55yearsandover,morethan1.4timesgreaterthantheproportioninanyotherworkforcesector.

InregionalareassuchastheMurrayLands,thenumberofpersonsinthe35-64agegroupisprojectedtodeclineafter2011asolderworkersretire.Thissuggestsfuturelabourshortagesinsomeregionalareas.

Thistrend,pluscontinuedoutwardmigrationofyoungpeopletolargerlabourmarkets,willdirectlyaffecttheviabilityofruralcommunitiesandhampernecessarylandrestorationactivities,reducingthesustainabilityofrurallandscapes.Thecurrentprolongedbelow-averagerainfallandfutureclimatechangescenariosarelikelytoacceleratedepopulationandwelfaredependencyinmanyclimaticallymarginalregions

MetropolitanAdelaideduringthistimehasmorethantripled,yetthecity’spopulationhasonlyapproximatelydoubled.

Back in 1959 the city was confined to a moreorlesscontiguouscoreradiatingtoamaximumdistanceof15kilometresfromtheGPO.By2007residentialdevelopmenthadclaimedmostoftheavailablelandandhadextendedtotheedgeoftheHillsFaceZoneandthecoast.

Progressivelystricterplanningcontrolssince1969haveeffectivelyputabrakeonurbansprawlinthekeywatercatchmentsofthewesternAdelaideHillsand except for some infill, there has been relativelylittlenewurbandevelopmentintheseareassince1990.Incontrast,newurbandevelopmenthasbeenpermittedandindeed,hasboomedsince2001aroundMountBarkerintheareathatispart of the easterly flowing River Bremer catchment(Map6.4).

Thenorth-southspreadofcontiguousurbandevelopmentontheAdelaidePlainhadby2007ledtoalmostcontinuousresidentialdevelopmentextendingsome88km,fromSellicksBeachinthesouthtoGawlerinthenorth.Thislinearspreadhasincreasedthejourneytoworkformanyresidents,particularlythoseinthesouthernsuburbswhofaceashortageoflocalemploymentopportunities.Thisinturncontributestomotorvehicleimpactssuchasgreenhousegasemissions,stormwaterandairpollution.Italsoaddstothecostoftravelforlowerincomehouseholdsatatimeofsteeplyincreasingfuelprices.Providingthenewwater,electricityandtransportnetworksrequiredinnewresidentialdevelopmentsfarfromthecity’sCBDiscostlyandinfrastructuresuchastheNorthernExpressway,islikelytoencouragefurtherdispersalofresidentialdevelopment.

TheHillsFaceZonehaslimitedtheeast-westspreadofthecontinuousurbanareatoamaximumof23km.AnymajoradditionaleasterlyexpansionofurbandevelopmentmayinvolveleapfroggingtheAdelaideHillstowardsMonartoandMurrayBridge,inadditiontofurtherdevelopmentalongthesouthcoastnearVictorHarborandGoolwa.

Adverse effects of urban expansion and loss of prime agricultural land

Someoftheadverseenvironmental



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

1910 - 1929

1930 - 1959

1960 - 1989

1990 - 20070 2 4 6 8 10 km

Data Source: Settlement periodderived from valuation datasupplied by Land Services Groupand is current to 30 June 2007.SPAR ID: 2458

Virginia

Gawler

Salisbury

Modbury

PortAdelaide

Adelaide

Glenelg

Woodcroft

Seaford

Willunga

Stirling

MountBarker

Settlement period

Built before 1910

Reservoir

Urban boundary

Main road

Map 6.4: Residential

development of Adelaide

and environs 1836 to 2007


effectsofurbanexpansionhavealreadybeendescribedsuchasthenorth-southlinearspreadofAdelaideanditsinfluence in increasing the distances that peopleneedtotravel.

Thesehaveimplicationsfortheuseofenergyandfossilfuels,andgenerationofgreenhousegasemissions.Anothermajorimpacthasbeenincreasedlandvaluestogetherwithdemandforresidentiallandinwatercatchmentsandprimeagriculturalhinterland.

Within the area designated as MetropolitanAdelaide,theonlyremaining large areas of relatively flat andaccessiblelandarebeyondthenorthernandsouthernedgesoftheurbanarea.ThesearecurrentlydevotedtointensivehighvalueagriculturalproductionaroundVirginiainthenorthandaroundMcLarenValetothesouth.

Research(Houstonpers.comm.,2007)indicatesthatintheperiod1985to2005therewasa30%increasefrom12,533to16,299dwellingsonlandzonedforpermanentprimaryproductioninAdelaide’speri-urbanregion(OuterAdelaideStatisticalDivisionandtheSouthernValeswithinAdelaideStatisticalDivision).Fewofthesedwellingswerefor‘farmhouseholds’wherethemajorsourceofhouseholdincomeisagriculture.Themajoritywerefor‘rurallifestyle’residentswhoderivemostoftheirincomefromoff-farmactivities.Thenumberofsuchdwellingsisexpectedtoincreasegiventhatin2005,thereweremorethan11,900vacantallotments(ofallsizes)onlandzonedforpermanentprimaryproduction.

LandadjacenttotownshipsisbeingzonedforRuralLivingtomeetdemand.While this has undoubtedly decreased agriculturalland,thelossofprimeagriculturalacreagehaslargelybeenhaltedthroughtheDesignatedPrimaryProductionArea(DPPA)assessmentsprocess.Thisprocessassessesthequalityofrurallandtoidentifyareasofsignificance for preservation, which then informstheplanningprocess.Asaresultno large tracts of significant land are rezonedurban.

Tofurthersupportthis,the2006 Planning Strategy for Outer Metropolitan Adelaide Region (OMAR),introducedtownboundariesaroundcountrytownstolimitgrowthandnofurtherRuralLivingZoneswereproposed.Developmentaround rural towns is on non-significant agriculturallandandbordersexistingtownships.Effectivezoningpolicies

mustcontinuetoensurethatthereisnotundueencroachmentandfurtherlossofproductiveagriculturallandifSouthAustraliaistomeetitsagriculturalproductionandexporttargetsunderthe2007 South Australian Strategic Plan.

The broader benefits of local food systemsandregionalproduceintheachievementofarangeofhealth,environment,regionaldevelopment,tourismandotherobjectivesneedstoberecognisedwhenconsideringprotectionforvaluableperi-urbanagriculturalland. When extended to include the adjacentcouncilsofMurrayBridgeandMidMurray,Adelaide’speriurbanregioniscriticaltothesetargetsasitcurrentlygenerates25%ofthestate’stotalagriculturalproduction,32%ofitshorticulturalproductionand44%ofitswine.

Increased Population Density

Trends in housing demand – more houses for fewer people

Asalreadydiscussed,therateofgrowthofprivatedwellingsintheGreaterAdelaideRegionoverthepast30yearshassubstantiallyexceededpopulationgrowthrate,oftenbyaratioofatleast1.5to1.0.Ageingofthepopulationhasbeenresponsibleformuchofthiswitholderpersonsbeingmorelikelytolivealoneoratleastinhouseholdswithoutchildren.Changesinpreferredlivingstyles,suchasincreasedlevelsofrelationshipsbreaking-upanddivorce,haveboosteddemandforprivatedwellings.

Inshort,rapidgrowthinpopulation,increased affluence, higher aspirations, structuralageingofthepopulationandlifestylechangeshavecombinedtoincreasetherateofgrowthofdwellingsinGreaterAdelaidetowellabovetherateofpopulationincrease.Eithernewbroadacredevelopmentsonthefringesofthecityorthereplacingoldersingleresidencesonlargerlotswithmultiplesmallerdwellingswillbeneededtosatisfydemandforland.

The first option results in increased residentialdevelopmentonthemetropolitanfringe,i.e.urbanexpansionandincreasedpressureonsurroundingagriculturallandandwatercatchments.ThesecondoptionincreasesdwellingdensityontheAdelaidePlainreducingwater infiltration, urban biodiversity and privateopenspace.



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Acrucialissueistheformofdevelopment.Forexample,growthcentreslinkedtopublictransportcorridorshavethepotentialtohavelessenvironmentalimpactthangrowthcentres served primarily by cars.With the increaseddemandfordwellingstherehasbeenacorrespondingdecreaseinthenumberofpersonsperdwellingfromover2.9personsperprivatedwellingin1976to2.4in2006andaprojected2.2 in 2021. This reflects the state’s ageingpopulationandincreasesintheproportionofdwellingswithoutchildren.AlthoughpopulationdensityintheAdelaideStatisticalDivisionhasincreasedfrom606personsperkm2in2001to627personsperkm2in2006,therateofincreaseinthebuiltenvironmenthasbeenevenfaster.

Regardlessofvariationsineconomicconditionsinthefuture,itislikelythatdemographicandsocialchangesresultinginfewerpersonsperhouseholdwillpersistandmaywellcombinewitharesourcesboomtomaintaindemandfordwellingsatalevelhigherthanpopulationgrowth.ThisposesmajorchallengestoAdelaide’snaturalenvironmentasitwillincreasethestate’stotalenergydemands,increaselandareaoccupiedbyhousingandpotentiallycreateproblemswithstormwaterandwastewatermanagement.Theremayalsobeopportunities,shouldtheincreasedstormwaterandtreatedwastewaterbedesignedintodevelopments.

Housing affordability

HousingdevelopershavearguedforthereleaseofmorebroadacrelandonthefringesofAdelaidetoaddresshousingaffordability,increasingpressuretoextendtheurbanboundary.Atthemomentthisdemandcanbesatisfied with minor extensions to the boundaryespeciallyinthenorth,withoutendangeringlandmarkareassuchastheSouthernValesandBarossawineproducingregions.However,continuedurbanexpansioncarriesconsiderablecosts,especiallyasitincreasescommutingtimeandsubsequently,energyconsumption.Italsothreatenstodivertscarcewell-wateredlandfromhighvalue, high profile horticultural uses.

Itisimportanttorecogniseandaddresstheperceivedtensionbetweenaffordabilityandmoreenvironmen-tallysustainablehousing.Development

industrypressureforthereleaseofmorelandadoptsanarrowfocusandignoresarangeofvariablesthathaveincreaseddemandforandthepriceofhousing,andthathavereduceditsaffordabilitytosome.AmongthesefactorsaretheFirstHomeOwnersScheme, broad densification policy areas inflating land prices, interest rates,negativegearing,taxcutstothewealthy,increasedjobinsecurityunderchangingindustrialrelationsconditionsandagenerationofuniversitygraduatesburdenedbyHECSdebts.

Akeytaskistomovebeyondtheperceptionthathigherenvironmentalstandardsforhousesmeanlessaffordablehouses.Achievingthisrequiresashiftintheassessmentofhousingaffordabilityfromtheinitialpurchasepricetoameasureoflifetimeaffordability,recognisingthesavingsovertimethatcomefromlowerwaterandenergybills,andguidingincentivesandotherpolicymeasurestoaccommodatethis.

Bigger houses as incomes and aspirations increase

IthasbeenestablishedthatpopulationgrowthhasincreasedthespatialextentofthebuiltenvironmentanditsimpactonthephysicalenvironmentofAdelaideanditshinterland,andfewerresidentsarehousedperdwellingthanwashistoricallythecase(Figure6.1).

Overthepast20yearsmedianlot sizes decreased significantly to accommodatethedemandforlandfornewdwellings(Figure6.2).Between1986and2006themedianlotsizedecreasedby35%tojust455m2.However,acrossthetwodecadestherewas also a marked increase in the floor areaofnewdwellings.

Figure6.3illustratesthistrendbyshowingthe floor area of new detached dwellingsoccupiedintheyears1986,1991,1996,2001and2006intheAdelaideandOuterAdelaidestatisticaldivisions.Italsoshowsthatthemedianfloor area per newly occupied dwelling increasedfrom137m2in1986to177m2in2006,a29%increase.

The histograms of floor area distributions byyearbuiltclearlyshowthenumericaldominance of floor areas in the 101-150m2categoryin1986.Housesinthatsizerangehavesincebecomelesspopularasdidthosewithlessthan100m2oflivingspace.Attheother


endofthescale,theproportionofnewhouseswithover250m2 of floor area increasedalmostthreefoldfromjust6.9%in1986to19.6%in2006.

The last five years has seen a stabilisation inthegrowthofthemedianlivingfloor area as the proportion of newly occupiedhousesinthemedium-largecategoryof201-250m2begantodecreaseafter2001.

Themovetolargerdwellingsonsmallerlotshousingfewerresidentshasexacerbatedtheenvironmentalimpactofpopulationgrowthbydecreasingthesizeofbackyardsandtheopenareaavailabletoabsorbstormwaterrunoff.Therehasbeenadecreaseinbiologicaldiversityandtheincidenceoflinearbeltsofvegetationwhereindigenousflora and fauna survived within a built environment,andanincreaseinwaterandenergyrequirements.

Theenvironmentalimpactofourlargerpopulationisnotjustafunctionofincreasednumbersanddensity.Itisalsoa product of the higher affluence and housingaspirationsofthatpopulation.Aslongashousingisconsideredayardstickofmoderneconomicsuccessandachievementratherthanabasicnecessityforshelter,theecologicalfootprintofnewresidentialdevelopmentislikelytocontinuetogrow.

Urban consolidation – urban boundary and decreasing lot sizes

An urban boundary for Adelaide was first establishedin2002toprovideacleardistinctionbetweenruralandurbanareas,containurbandevelopment,protectwatershedsandpreservehighervalueagriculturalland.DuetourbanconsolidationthemedianlotsizewithintheAdelaideandOuterAdelaidestatisticaldivisionsdecreasedby35%in20years(Graph2).

MedianlotsizeinMetropolitanAdelaidewassmallerthaninOuterAdelaide,butthedecreasewassimilarineacharea:forMetropolitanAdelaideadropfrom679m2in1986to431m2(36%)in2006,andinOuterAdelaidefrom1,012m2in1986to700m2in2006(31%).

Examinationofthedistributionoflotsizesofnewdetacheddwellingscompletedinthesestatisticaldivisions(combined)at five year intervals from 1986 to 2006 showstheextentofthechange.

In1986,46%ofalllotsizesrangedfrom601m2to800m2whereasin2006just16%

1986

1991

1996 20

0120

06

50.0 800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

45.0

40.0

35.0

30.0

25.0

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dia

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ts w

ith c

om

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de

tac

hm

ed

dw

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s

<401 m2

401-600 m2

601-800 m2

801-1000 m2 median m2

1001-1500 m2

> 1500 m2

Source: Government of South Australia, Valuer-General, South Australian

valuation data base, selected years.

1986

1991

1996 20

0120

06

60.0% 200

180

160

140

120

100

80

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<101 m2

101-150 m2

151-200 m2

201-250 m2 median m2

251-300 m2

> 300 m2

Source: Government of South Australia, Valuer-General, South Australian

valuation data base, selected years.

Figure 6.2: Lot size of detached dwellings

by year of completion. Adelaide and Outer

Adelaide 1986-2006

Figure 6.3: Floor area of detached dwellings

by year of completion, Adelaide and Outer

Adelaide 1986-2006.

wereinthatrangeandtherehadbeenadramaticincreaseintheproportionofsmallerlots.Theproportionoflotsinthesmallestcategory(under401m2)jumpedsubstantiallyfromjust2%in1986to35%twentyyearslater.Theproportionoflotsinthe401m2to600m2categoryincreasedfrom18%to34%overthesameperiod.Atthelargerendofthescale,theproportionoflotsofover1000m2insizesteadilydecreasedorstabilised.

Thismajordecreaseinthelotsizefornewdetacheddwellingsover20yearsindicatesamarkedincreaseinthedensityofdwellingsinnewresidentialdevelopments.Availablelandhasbeenabletoaccommodatemoredwellingsthaninthepast,therebyreducingpotentialdemandfornewlandreleasesontheurbanfringe.

Increasedlandprices,zoningandtheurbanboundaryhaveundoubtedlycontributedtothistrend.Increasedlandpricesareaproductofcompetitionforlandduringperiodsofhighhousingdemandandconcurrently,arelaxationoftheminimumallowablelotsizesinresidentialzones.

TherelaxationinminimumlotsizesbeganinNovember1982,whenLandSubdivisionRegulationsunderthePlanning and Development Act weresupersededbylessrigidprinciplesofdevelopmentcontrolundertheAct.

Duringthe1980s,theGreenStreetprogrampromotedsmallerlotsizeswhiledevelopersembracedsmallerlotsandnewcourtyardhousedesigns.AdemonstrationestatewasbuiltatBromptoninthemid-1980sandduringthe1990s,theGoldenGrovejointventurepromotedlargenumbersofsmallerlotsinafringehousingmarket.Recently,theMawsonLakesandNewportQuaysdevelopmentshaveincludedawiderangeoflotsizesandmulti-levelapartmentbuildingsinsuburbansettings.

Inthepastdecade,thecreationofsmallerlotshasbecomepervasivethroughoutthemetropolitanareainbothbroadacreandredevelopmentcontexts.Thishasbeenoneapproachtotheissueofdecreasinghousingaffordability,butoftenthehousesonofferarestillbeyondthepricerangeofyoungcouplesandinmanycases,thereplacementhousingstockismoreexpensivethantheolderstockitreplaced.

Thesmallernumberofpersonsresidingindwellingscomparedto20yearsago(Figure6.1)meansthatsomeof



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

What are we doing about it?

South Australia’s Strategic Plan includesastatepopulationtargetof2millionpeopleby2050(targetT1.22).Thisrepresentsanincreaseof432,000overthe2006populationthatwillbeachievedthroughacontinuingmigrationprogramtargetingyoungerworkingagepeople,reducednetinterstatemigrationandnaturalincrease.PlanningSAhassoughttodeterminethelanduseandspatialimplicationsofthispolicybyassessingthelongtermgrowthoptionsforSouthAustraliausingthreecriterialinkedtosustainability:

• Economic Efficiency -Minimisingpublic/privatesectorcostsbyensuringthesuitablelocationofcommunities,appropriatetimingofsocialandphysicalinfrastructuredelivery,utilisingexistinginfrastructureandmatchinghousinglocationstoemploymentandinvestmentopportunities.

• Social Equity -Thecompositionofsocio-economicgroupswithinaregion,recognisingthatabalancedsocio-economicmixfostersaffordablehousingandequitableopportunitiesforworkandservices.

• Environmental Quality -Protectionofnaturalenvironmentalresources,reducingourecologicalfootprintanddecreasinggreenhousegasemissions.

ThesethreecriteriacoverkeyStrategicPlantargetsandbestplanningpracticeinSouthAustralia,interstateandoverseas.

Themajortaskistoplanforsustainableurbandevelopmentthatoptimisespreviousinvestmentinsocialandphysicalinfrastructure,includingexistingpublictransporttoaccommodatethestategovernment’spopulationtarget.

ThePlanning Strategy recognisesthatthestate’s Strategic Planhas15targetsrelatedtosustainability.ThePlanningStrategyhasaclearrelationshiptonineoftheseincluding:

T3.1 – Lose no species: losenoknownnativespeciesasaresultofhumanimpacts.(Biodiversity)

T3.6 – Use of public transport:increasetheuseofpublictransportto10%ofmetropolitanweekdaypassengervehiclekilometrestravelledby2018.(ClimateChange)

the potential environmental benefits ofareductioninlotsizehavebeenneutralised.Moreover,aspreviouslynoted, increased affluence and higherexpectationshaveresultedinasignificant increase in house size further neutralising the environmental benefits of containmentbyreducinggroundwaterinfiltration and increasing stormwater runoff,energyuseandresourceconsumption.Thisexacerbatestheurbanheatislandeffectontheurbanmicroclimate(US Climate Change Science Program, 2007).TheneedforpublicopenspacehasincreasedinsomeareasashaslossofbiodiversitywithinMetropolitanAdelaide.

Theseissuesneedtobeeffectivelymanagedwithaholisticapproachwhendevelopingplanningpoliciesforurbancontainment.

Shortercarjourneysandimprovedefficiency of public transport systems that leadstoincreasedpatronagepotentiallyreducegreenhousegasemissions,an environmental benefit of urban containment.Thereisalsothepotentialtoreducepressureonagriculturallandandnativevegetationattheurbanfringe.

AcceleratingredevelopmentinestablishedareasofmetropolitanAdelaideraisestheissueoftheenvironmentalcostsofdemolitionofexistinghousing,forexamplethedisposalor(preferably)reuseoftherubblefromsome1,500plushouseseachyear.Thecapacityforrecoveryofthismaterialneedstobeconsideredaspartofpopulationtargetsandplanningpolicythat encourages infill development.

Alessunderstoodissuearoundreplacementofexistinghousingisthatofembodiedenergycostsandhowtoaccountfortheenvironmentalimpactofthis.Theembodiedenergycostofdemolishinghabitablehousingandreplacingitwithnewstockneedstobeconsidered.Thereisalsothebroaderneedtolookatthetotalenergy,includingembodiedandoperationalenergy,andemissionsofdifferenthousingformsatvariouslocations.

‘Theseissuesneed

tobeeffectively

managedwitha

holisticapproachwhen

developingplanning

policiesforurban

containment.’


Community members involved in the

development of Glandore Community

Garden. Photo: Tony Taylor.

T3.2 – Land biodiversity:by2010havefive well-established biodiversity corridors aimedatmaximisingecologicaloutcomesparticularlyinthefaceofclimatechange.(Biodiversity)

T3.7 – Ecological footprint: reduceSouthAustralia’secologicalfootprintby30%by2050.(EcologicalFootprint)

T3.4 – Marine biodiversity:by2010create19marineparksaimedatmaximisingecologicaloutcomes.(Biodiversity)

T3.9 – Sustainable water supply:SouthAustralia’swaterresourcesaremanagedwithin sustainable limits by 2018. (Water)

T3.5 – Greenhouse gas emissions reduction (existing – modified):achievetheKyototargetbylimitingtheState’sgreenhousegasemissionsto108%of1990levelsduring2008-2012, as a first step towards reducing emissionsby60%(to40%of1990levels)by2050.(ClimateChange)

T3.13 – Energy efficiency – government buildings: improve the energy efficiency of governmentbuildingsby25%from2000-01levelsby2014.(Energy)

T3.14 – Energy efficiency – dwellings (existing): increase the energy efficiency ofdwellingsby10%by2014.(Energy)

MaintainingametropolitanAdelaideurbanboundaryandestablishingsuchboundariesfortownsintheoutermetropolitan region will foster efficiencies inurbandevelopment,supportpublictransportusageandprotectprimeagriculturalland.

TheGreenhouseStrategyisSouthAustralia’sresponsetoclimatechangeanditpromotesarangeofmeasuresnecessarytomakesettlementsmoreresilientandlessvulnerabletoclimatechange. The issue of retrofitting existing settlementsisaparticularlyimportantone.

ThestrategyreliesontheoverallPlanningStrategytoprovidesustainable,spatialandpolicyoutcomesparticularlyfornewdevelopment.Inparticular,the2006 Planning Strategy identifies the keyecosystemassetswithinOuterMetropolitanAdelaideandoutlinestacticsthataddressnaturalresourcemanagementissues.Progressisbeingmadetoachievesustainabledevelopmentonawiderangeoffrontsincluding:water,urbandesign,transport,preservationofhabitatandagriculturalland,buildingandenergypolicy.Howevertheseefforts,ashighlighted

elsewhereinthisreport,needtobeincreased.

Water

ThestategovernmentthroughPlanningSA, is investigating how to introduce Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) principles andapplybestpracticetoallformsofurbandevelopmentfortheAdelaideregion.

The project aims to tailor WSUD to meet localconditionsintheinnerandouterAdelaidemetropolitanareasandtoprovideareferencetoolforplanningpractitionersandthedevelopmentindustry.AkeyoutcomeoftheprojectwillbeathelegislativeframeworktoensureconsistentimplementationofWSUD in addition to developing a training packageandbuildingthecapacitytousethepolicywithinlocalgovernmentandotherorganisations.Itshouldbenotedthattheproposedresidentialcodedoesnot address WSUD in new development which will limit application of WSUD to developmentthatdoesnotcomplywiththecode.

TheWater Proofing Adelaide projectidentifies a range of initiatives including stormwatercaptureandreuse.TheCityofSalisburyhashadalongstandingstormwaterprojectthatisnowinjectingcapturedstormwaterintothelocalaquifer.TheLandManagementCorporation(LMC)isinstallingadistributionandreticulationmainsfortheSalisburyAquiferStorageandRecoverywaterreuseschemeforEdinburghParks.

AnintergovernmentalworkinggroupispreparingrecommendationsregardingproposedfuturelandusecontrolsfortheMtLoftyRangeswatershed.Theaimistoprotectthequalityandquantityofwater,whilefacilitatingongoingcompatibleprimaryproductioninthearea.

MoredetailedinformationonwaterusewithinhumansettlementscanbefoundintheWater chapter.

Urban Design

LochielParkresidentialdevelopmenthasbeenundertakenbythestategovernment,throughtheLMC,tocreatealeadingedgegreenvillageofmorethan80allotments.Inaddition,10hectaresofopenspacehavebeenpreservedandnativetreesarebeingplanted. Urban design guidelines havebeendevelopedtopromote



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

SmallerlotsizesandincreasedlotcoverageManyoftheoldersuburbsofAdelaide(pre1960s)weredevelopedwithrelativelylittlepublicopenspace,howevertheoriginalallotmentsat585m2+weretypicallylargebymodernstandards.Thisreflects the community desire at that time for things like large gardens and the common need to dispose of septic tank effluent on site.

Analysis of the four older established suburbs of Magill, Maylands, Unley and Seaton indicates that:

• Lessthan7%oftheseareaswereoriginallysetasideaspublicopenspace

• Largeportionsoftheprivateallotmentsweretraditionallynotbuiltonandcouldbeconsideredasprivateopenspace(50–67%ofeachallotment).

Thiscombinationofminimalpublicopenspaceandgenerousprivateopenspaceresultedin40–50%oftheentirestudyareabeingfreefrombuiltform,i.e.openspace,withmostofthatlandinprivateownershipintheformofgardens.

Incremental redevelopment of these suburbs through both re subdivision and intensification of developmentonexistingallotments,hasresultedinaprogressivelossofopenspaceonprivateallotments.Followingredevelopment,allotmentstypicallyhaveonly20–25%openspace.

TheopenspaceremainingontheseredevelopedallotmentsissimilartothatfoundonallotmentsinmorerecentlydevelopedsuburbssuchasOakden.Themajordifferencehowever,isthatthemorerecentlydevelopedsuburbshaveamuchhigherproportionofpublicopenspaceataround12.5%.

As a result of infill development, the supply of open space (public and private) in the study areas hasreducedfromaninitialsupplyof40-50%toacurrentsupplyof30-35%.

Thislossofopenspacecanhaveimplicationsfor:

• Neighbourhoodcharacter

• Recreationalopportunities

• Stormwaterrunoff/groundwaterrecharge

• Urban biodiversity

• Health(physicalandmental)

Left:Oakden2004.Topright:Magill2004RedevelopedallotmentsoutlinedinredPrivateopenspaceshownasgreen.Bottomright:Maylands2004RedevelopedallotmentsoutlinedinredPrivateopenspaceshownasgreen


environmentalsustainabilitywithafocusonpromotingenergyandwatersavingsinthedwellingsandappropriateplantings.Asustainabilityratingtoolisbeingusedthatdetailsbothperformance-basedmeasuresandminimumstandardsthataretobeachievedforeachdwellingtoreducewaterandenergyusage.

AframeworkfordeliveringthesustainabilityelementswithintheLochielParkprojectwasdevelopedin2005andfinalised the following year. It contains ananalysisofnationalandinternationalexamplesofbestpracticesustainableresidentialdevelopmentatthetimetheprojectwasenvisagedin2004whichledtoanumberoftargetsbeingsetforthereductionofresourceconsumptionandwastegeneration.Someofthesetargetsareasfollows:

• Areductionof66%energyused

• Areductionof74%greenhousegasemissions

• Areductionof78%potablewateruse

Asustainabilityrebateof$43,600forastandard-sizeddwellingispaidtothebuilders on completion and verification thatallurbandesignrequirementsundertheir control have been satisfied. This contributionhelpsoffsettheadditionalcapitalexpenseofthesustainabilityaspectsofconstructionandenablestheprojecttocompetemoreequallyinthemarket.

LochielParkisuniqueinthatLMChascontrolledtheparametersofthedevelopment,providedclearguidelinestoaselectnumberofbuildersanddevelopedtoolstoassistbuildersinmeetingdesignparametersandtargets.Acollaborativeapproachhasenabledcloserelationshipswithindustry,universitiesandexpertstoensurethatLochielParkisattheforefrontofsustainableresidentialdevelopmentinAustralia.

Transport

The Planning Strategy seekstofacilitatehigherdensityhousingintargetedlocationsandtransitfocusedneighbourhoodstoincreasetheviabilityand efficiency of public transport systems.

Integrateddevelopmentoftransportandlanduseplanningisfundamentaltoachievingacompetitiveandsustainableeconomy.TransportprioritiesexpressedinSouth Australia’s Strategic Planinclude:

• facilitatingeconomicdevelopment-reducingcongestion,creatinggreaterefficiency and reducing the need for infrastructureexpansion,andgainingthefullpotentialoftheinfrastructureasset.

• amoresustainableecologicalfootprint-developingAdelaideasamorecompactcitywithurbandevelopmentfocusedaroundpublictransportcentres.

• reachingclimatetargets-transitfocuseddevelopmenthelpingtoincreasepublictransportpatronage.

• improvingwellbeing-developmentthatencouragesmoreactivetravelandcauseslesstransportpollution.

• expansionofopportunitiesforlowincomeouterurbanresidents-developmentthathelpstoovercomelocationaldisadvantageandprovidebetteraccesstoeducationalandemploymentopportunitieswithlessrelianceonvehicles.

• buildingcommunities-developmentthatisinterconnectedwithtransitnetworksandassuchencouragestheregenerationofrundownareasandquickerandmoreconvenientaccesstothecity(Perkins,2007).

MoredetailedinformationontransportwithinhumansettlementscanbefoundintheTransportchapter.

Preservation of Habitat and Agricultural Land

Thestate’sagriculturalareasarebeingsurveyedtodetermineareasofsignificance for primary production. Thesesurveysinformthesettingofzoneboundariesandareusedwhendevelopingpolicy to preserve significant areas. A Designated Primary Production, Better Development Plan moduleisbeingdevelopedtoassistlocalgovernmenttoprovidebetterprotectionforsuchagriculturalland.

ThroughdevelopmentplansandlinkageswithNRMPlanshabitatandspeciesareprotected.Inparticular,the Metropolitan Open Space System(MOSS)iscontinuallybeingupgradedandexpandedtoenhancebiodiversitycorridorsandwetlands,andpreserveareasofbiological significance.

In2006-07,approximately$7mwasprovidedtowardsopenspaceprojects.In2006,PlanningSA’sCoastParkprojectwasawarded the United Nations Association of



What more should we be doing?

HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan Targets

ForfurtherdetailonSouthAustralia’sStrategic Plan visitwww.stateplan.sa.gov.au

TheEnvironmentProtectionAuthorityrecommendsthefollowing:

R6.1 IncludecomplementaryindicatorstothosealreadyintheSASPtoassesstheinteractionsbetweentargetsandprogressacrosseconomic,socialandenvironmentaltargets,forexampleenvironmentalimpactsinmeasuringgrowth,by2012.

Australia – World Environment Day Award forExcellenceinMarineandCoastalManagement.

FurtherinformationonhabitatissuescanbefoundintheBiodiversitysectionofthisreport.

Building and Energy

Thegovernmenthasintroducedthefollowingsustainabilityinitiativesforbuildingssincethelastreport,butashighlightedelsewherethereisaneedtogofurther:

• Five Star Energy Efficiency rating for mostnewdwellings

• Mandatoryrainwatertankinstallationfornewdwellings

• Greenhousegasemissionstandardsforwaterheatersinnewdwellings

• Energy Efficiency requirements for all publicandcommercialbuildings

• AGuideforLandDivisionsforhousehold energy efficiency

• Technical specifications for construc-tionrequirementstomitigateexternalnoiseforhousing.

Exploratoryworkisalsobeingundertakentoextendrainwatertankinstallationrequirementsforareasofhighrainfall.

Further information on energy efficiency inhousingcanbefoundintheEnergy chapter.

R6.1

Growing Prosperity T1.22

Improving Wellbeing

Attaining Sustainability T3.1, T3.2, T3.5, T3.7, T3.8,

T3.9, T3.10, T3.11, T3.14

Fostering Creativity and Innovation

Building Communities T5.9

Expanding Opportunities


in Adelaide, JournalofEnvironmentalPlanningandManagement,Vol.47,1,97-114.

Troy,P.,Holloway,D.andRandolph,B.(2005).Water Use and the Built Environment: Patterns of Water Consumption in Sydney.CityFuturesResearch Centre, University of New South Wales, Research Paper No. 1.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Australian Demographic Statistics (latest issue) www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/3101.0

Demographia World Urban Areas Projections 2007 & 2020 (World Agglomerations), March 2007-11-06 www.demographia.com/db-worldua2015.pdf

Planning SA, Population Projection Enquiry System www.planning.sa.gov.au/go/maps-and-data/information-by-themes/population/population-projections-enquiry-system/population-projections-enquiry-system-introduction

Population Policy for South Australia, March 2004 www.southaustralia.biz/library/Population_Policy.pdf

South Australia’s Strategic Plan, 2007 www.stateplan.sa.gov.au/documents/South_Australia_Strategic_Plan_2007.pdf

Troy, P., Holloway, D. and Randolph, B. (2005) Behavioural Aspects of Water and Energy Consumption in Sydney. City Futures Research Report No. 1, Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, Australian National University and Faculty of the Built Environment, University of New South Wales.

US Climate Change Science Program, Analyses of the effects of global change on human health and welfare and human systems, 2007. Public Review Draft of Synthesis and Assessment Product 4.6 www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap4-6/public-review-draft/default.htm

Fur ther in format ion

Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan Targets

ReferencesAustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)(2007).Australian Demographic Statistics. CatalogueNo.3101.0,ABS,Canberra

AustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)(2006)Australian Historical Population Statistics, 2006. CatalogueNo.3105.0.65.001,ABS,Canberra

AustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)(2007)Employed Persons by Industry Division, State, Sex, Age,CatalogueNo.6291.0.55.003,ABS,Canberra(SuperTable,E12,electronicdelivery).

AustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)(2007).Population by Age and Sex, Australia,CatalogueNo.3235.0,ABS,Canberra

AustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)(2007).Regional Population Growth, 1996to2006.CatalogueNo.3218.0,ABS,Canberra.

EnvironmentProtectionAuthority(2003).The State of Our Environment: State of the Environment Report for South Australia 2003,EPA,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Perkins,Alan(2007). Long-term public transport and urban form strategies,unpublishedpaperdeliveredtoPIASA2MillionConference,Adelaide.

Perkins,A.,Hamnett,S.,Pullen,S.,Zito,R.,andTrebilcock,D.(2007).Transport, housing and urban form: The life cycle transport and housing impact of city centre apartments compared with suburban dwellings,ProceedingsoftheThirdStateofAustralianCitiesNationalConference,Adelaide,28-30November2007.

PlanningSA,PrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSA(2007).Analysis of Broadacre Land: Adelaide and Outer Adelaide Statistical Divisions and selected Rural Townships, June 2006.PlanningSA,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

PlanningSA,PrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSA(2007).Population Projections for South Australia (2001-31)andtheState’sStatisticalDivisions(2001-21).PlanningSA,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

SouthAustralianValuationDataBase(1986-2006). State Valuation Office, Land ServicesGroup,DepartmentforTransport,EnergyandInfrastructure,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Troy,P.andHolloway,D.(2004).The Use of Residential Water Consumption as an Urban Planning Tool: A Pilot Study


R6.1

Growing Prosperity T1.22

Improving Wellbeing

Attaining Sustainability T3.1, T3.2, T3.5, T3.7, T3.8,

T3.9, T3.10, T3.11, T3.14





HUMAN SETTLEMENT

• Shareofweekdaypublictransportpassengerkilometresexpressedasa%oftotalweekdayroadpassengervehiclekilometres: INCREASEDfrom6.5%in2002-03to7.2%in2005-06.

• Numberofcyclistsenteringthecityeachweekdaymorning:INCREASED 25.7%from1996to2006andINCREASED10.2%between2003and2006

• Passenger-kilometresbyroadpassengervehicletransport:INCREASEDby20.4%from1994-95to2004-05andINCREASED2.6%from2002-03to2004-05.

• Roadfreighttask(tonne-km):INCREASED66.7%from1994-95to2004-05and INCREASEDby6.5%between2002-03to2004-05

• Thenumberofmotorvehiclesper1000persons:INCREASED4%from704in2003to732in2006.

• Lightcommercialvehicleregistrations:INCREASED21%between1998and2006,andINCREASED8%between2003and2007.

• AverageageofSouthAustralia’svehicle fleet: DECREASEDfrom11.8yearsto11.1yearsbetween2003and2006.

• Greenhousegasemissionsfrom:

- SAroadtransport INCREASEDby20.9%from1994-95to2004-05andDECREASED0.42%between2002-03to2004-05.

- Passengervehicles INCREASED by22%from1994-95to2004-05andDECREASED0.71%between2002-03to2004-05.

- LightcommercialvehiclesINCREASEDby22.8%from1994-95to2004-05andINCREASED9.3%between2002-03to2004-05.

- ArticulatedtrucksINCREASEDby28.8%from1994-95to2004-05andDECREASED 5.2%between2002-03to2004-05.

- Totalfuelconsumption(ML)ofallroadvehicles:INCREASED17.7%from1994-95to2004-05.

Trends

GoalsTransportT3.5 Greenhousegasemissionsreduction:AchievetheKyototarget,limitingthestate’sgreenhousegasemissionsto108%of1990levelsduring2008-12 as a first step towards reducing emissionsby60%(40%of1990levels)by2050.

South Australia’s Strategic Plan 2007

T3.6 Use of public transport: Increase the use of public transport to 10% of metropolitan weekday passenger vehicle kilometres travelled by 2018


T2.2 Healthy Weight: Increase the proportion of South Australians 18 and over with healthy weight by 10% by 2014.


T2.4Healthy South Australians: Increase the healthy life expectancy of South Australia by 5% for males and 3% for females by 2014.


SouthAustraliawithapopulationofapproximately1.57milliontoJune2006(7.5%ofthenationaltotal),iscurrentlyexperiencingthehighestpopulationgrowthsincetheDecemberquarterof1991.

Oureconomyiscentredonactivitiesincludingmetals,metalsmanufacturing,wineandroadvehiclepartsandaccessories. Underpinning economic growthisanessentialtransportsystem;thearteriesoftheeconomywhichfacilitatemovementofpeople,goodsandservices.

InJune2006theGrossStateProduct(GSP)was$61billion(ABS5220.0,2007).Ofthis,thetransportandstoragesectoraccountedfor4.3%(SACES,2007)withavalueofaround$2.6billion.Thestateisexperiencingabuoyanteconomicperiod,withrecordlowunemploymentandgrowingindustriessuchasmininganddefence.

Transport and a sus ta inable South Aust ra l ia

Tindo, the world’s first solar electric bus. Photo:

Adelaide City Council.


Itiswidelyacceptedandrecognisedthatthemajortransportmodeshavearangeofnegativeenvironmentaleffects.Theseincludegreenhousegasemissions,localandregionalairqualityimpacts,noiseandvibration,visualamenityeffects,severanceofcommunities,pollutedstormwaterrunoff,litter,changestomicroclimatearoundroads,impactsonwildlifeandconsumptionofvaluablespace.

When examining passenger travel, carsconsumethemostenergyperpassenger-kilometreandmetropolitanbusestheleast.Forfreighttransport,lightcommercialvehiclesarebyfarthemostenergyintensiveandrailthemostefficient.

Table6.5liststheenergyintensityfortheprincipaltransportmodes.Clearly,encouraginggreatercyclingandwalking,andmovinglargenumbersofpeopleinbuses,trainsandtramsismoredesirablethanbyindividualpassengervehicles.Similarly,movingfreightbyrailismoresustainablethanconductinganincreasingamountoffreightactivitywithmanysmallerfreightcarriers.

Climate Change

Climate change carries significant long-termrisksforSouthAustralia.Thestate’sgreenhousestrategy,Tackling Climate Change 2007 – 2020,aspirestosubstantiallyreducetransportrelatedgreenhousegas(GHG)emissions.Actionstoreducetheseemissionsincludereductionoftravelthroughbetterintegratedlanduseandtransportplanning,promotionofmoresustainableindividualtravelbehaviour,improvementtotheemissionsperformanceofvehicles

andfuels,andswitchingtotransportmodeswithfewerGHGemissions.

GHGemissionsfromthetransportsectorin2005accountedforapproximately19%ofSouthAustralia’stotalemissions(DCC,2008).Growthinemissionsfromthestate’stransportispredictedtocontinueatabout1.2%pato2015(ACG,2007).Roadvehiclesproducethemajorityofthetransportsectoremissions,includingpassengercars,lightcommercialvehicles,rigidtrucks,articulatedtrucks,busesandmotorcycles.

In2005theroadsectorgenerated89%oftransportrelatedGHGemissionsfollowedby air 6.4%, rail 4.3% and sea 0.3%. Within thisroadsector,passengercartravelgenerated62.5%oftheGHGs,lightcommercialvehicles15.15%,articulatedtrucks14.21%,andallotherroadvehicles8.14%(ACG,2007).

Overall,theroadfreighttaskcontributesadisproportionatelyhighamountofGHGemissionsduetovehicle-kilometrestravelled.Freightvehicles,i.e.articulatedtrucks,lightcommercialsandothertrucksaccountforonly15.6%ofregisteredvehicles,howevertheyconsume33.1%ofroadtransportfuelandcontribute35%ofthetotalroadtransportGHGemissions.FurtherinformationcanbefoundintheClimate Changechapter.

Air Pollution

Motor vehicle exhaust is a significant sourceofairtoxinsanddangerousparticulatesthatimpactonhealthandcontributetoairshedpollution.

Overtheperiod2002-03to2004-05,particulateemissionsfromtransportreduced8.3%,whichisconsistentwith

PassengerTransportMode

Est. Energy Use

MJperPassenger-kilometres

FreightTransportMode

Est. Energy Use

MJperTonnes-kilometres

Car 2.73 LightCommercialVehicle

18.72

Motorcycle 2.01 RigidTrucks 2.94

Tram 1.74 ArticulatedTrucks 0.90

Rail(Train) 1.60 Rail 0.34

Bus 1.32

Bicycle Minimal

Walking Minimal

Table 6.5: Estimated energy use by transport mode in 2005

Source:ACG2007

Managing Noise f rom Heavy Vehic le Engine BrakesEnginebrakenoisehasbeenidentified as the most significant transportrelatednoiseissueforcommunitieslivingnearmajorfreightroutesandarterialroads.NumerouscomplaintsandpredictionsofincreasingfreighttaskhavepromptedauthoritiesaroundAustraliatoinvestigateandaddressthisissue.

Work undertaken over the past fouryearsbytheNationalTransportCommission(NTC),andsupportedbythegovernmentsofNewSouth Wales, Victoria and South Australia, has identified the specific characteristicofenginebrakenoiseanditsimpactonindividuals.Thishasresultedinthedevelopmentof a world-first engine brake noise Standard.CurrentAustralianDesignRulesandin-serviceregulationsthatlimitvehiclenoisefocusonenginenoisefromastationaryoracceleratingvehicle.Theyarenotcapableofcapturingtheenginebrakenoisethatisonlyaudibleondeceleration.

Inlate2007,theAustralianTransportCouncil(ATC)supportedtheproposedamendmentstotheAustralianVehicleStandardsRulesandtheVehicleStandardsRegulationsandtheNationalIn-ServiceTestProcedureforEngineBrakeNoisefromHeavyVehicles.Thesemodellawsarecurrentlyintheprocessofbeingintroducedintostateandterritoryregulations.

Transport


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

thelonger-termtrendofareduction4.5%between1994-95and2004-05.Theseoverallreductionscanbeattributedtoimprovedfuelqualitystandards,reductionsinthesulphurcontentofdieselfuel,andthroughimprovedvehicleenginestandardsthataredesignedtoreduceparticulatematterfromtheexhaustemissions.

Despitethesemeasuresparticulatemattercontinuestobeaconcernintermsofcommunityhealthduetoconstantlyincreasingtravelandfuelconsumptionacrossalltransportsectors,includingtheactivityoflightcommercialvehicleswithinresidentialareasandincreasedaccesstourbanroadsbyheavyvehicles.Diesel-fuelledvehiclesemit the majority of fine particles. For furtherinformationseetheAir Qualitychapter.

Social Impact of Transport

Accessibilityisintegraltooursociety.Atpresentthetransportsystem,whichincludesprivatemotorvehicles,publictransport,cyclingandwalking,providesagreatdealofthisaccessibilityandoffersconnectivitybetweenwork,school,homeandotherdestinations.Accessibilitycanalsobeprovidedbyalternativestotransportsuchasworkingfromhomeandonlineaccesstosomeproductsandservices, with commensurate benefits.

Accessibilitytotravelandtravelbehaviour are both influenced by urbanform.Landuseplanningseekstoinfluence growth and development in waysthataresocially,economicallyandenvironmentallysustainable.Integratinglanduseandtransportplanningcanreducethenegativesocialandenvironmentalimpactsoftransportbyprovidingtraveloptionsandreducingboththenumberandlengthofvehicletrips.

Varyingaspectsofurbandevelopmentsuchaslandusetype,housingdensity,layoutdesignandaccessibilitytotransport, can further influence travel behaviour. Urban sprawl and lack of pedestrianandcyclingaccesstoserviceshasbeenassociatedwithobesityandotherhealthissues.

Fromthe1980s,theproportionofAustralianadultswhoareoverweight,obeseorinactivehasincreasedinparallelwithourgreaterrelianceoncartransport(NHMRC,1997).Thehealthbenefits of physical activity associated withgreaterparticipationinactive

transportmodesincludedecreasedmortality(allcauses);cancerprevention(particularlycoloncancer);improvedpsychologicalhealth(reliefofsymptomsofanxietyanddepression);reducedriskofobesity,adult-onsetdiabetesandosteoporosis;(DHFS,1998)andbetterretentionofmobilityandindependencebyolderpeople.

Thenegativeimpactsoftransportsuchasnoise,severanceofcommunitiesandairpollutionaremostlikelytobeprevalentalongroadcorridorsthatarealso heavily trafficked freight routes. Traffic-effected housing generally hasaloweramenityandpropertyvalue,andismoreaffordabletolowersocio-economicgroupsthanpropertiesthatarenotlocatedonmajorroadnetworks.Sociallythismayresultinthoselowersocio-economicgroupsbeingmoreexposedtothenegativehealthimpactsoftransportthanothersectorsofthecommunity.

Public Transport

Public transport has a significant role indeliveringsocial,economicandenvironmental benefits and in reducing thenegativeenvironmentalandsocialimpactsofprivatetransport.

Increasedpublictransporttripsandreductionsinprivatecartripscontributetoreachingclimatechangegoalsandreducingcongestion.Theyalsoclearroadspaceandallowindustrytomaximisetheadvantagesofinvestmentintransportinfrastructure.

Using the infrastructure to its full potential ensures more efficient travel andreducestheneedforexpansionstotheexistingroadnetwork.Thedisparitybetweenpeakandoffpeakroadusageandserviceprovisionforpublictransportisamajorconcernandleadsto considerable inefficiency in the utilisation of the public transport fleet. Considerationisneededofthestate’schangingdemographicsandtheneedtoofferbetterpublictransportservicesfornon-commutertravel,e.g.middleofthedayservicestosuburbanlocationsforolderpeople.

Othersocialissuesincludetherelianceofthetourismindustryontransportanditsneedforgrowing,yetsustainable,transportservices.Therearecommunityconcernsaboutlocalisednoise,visualamenityandvibrationimpacts.Newmajortransportlinkscancauseseveranceofcommunitiesleadingto

23.6%

<1% 48.7%

27.6%

Road

Rail

Domestic Air

Domestic Shipping

<1%

27.6%

Road

Rail

Domestic Air

Domestic Shipping

10%

88%

2%

<1%

Source: Apelbaum Consulting Group, 2007

Passenger Vehicles

Motor cycles

LCVs

TrucksBuses

0.27%

2.01%

57.03%

13.77%

18.84%

Figure 6.4:

Percentage freight task by mode 2004/05

Figure 6.5:

Percentage 2004/05 domestic travel by mode

Figure 6.6:

Energy consumed by road transport 2004/05 (PJ)


lifestylechangesandisolation.Theycanalsoreducethesizeofhabitatareasimpactingonecologicalsystems.

Inruralareasaveragetriplengthsarelongercomparedtoinurbanareas,andthereisagreaterrelianceonmotorvehiclesdueloweraccesstopublictransport.Effectssuchasheavyvehiclenoiseandvisualamenityimpactsoftransportintheseareasprimarilyoccuralongmajorroadsandadjacenttomajortowns.

PRESSURE INDICATORS

• Proportion of passenger trips undertaken by private and public transport.

Increasedpublictransporttrips,replacingcarjourneys,reduceGHGemissions and traffic congestion.

• Total annual passenger-kilometres travelled by private and public transport

Thelongerthedistancetravelledthegreatertheresourceuseandenvironmentalimpact.

• Motor vehicle ownership and registration (per 1000 people)

Higherlevelsofcarownershipreducethelikelihoodofpublictransportusageandactivetransportmodessuchascyclingandwalking.

• Freight tonne-kilometres travelled

FreightemissionsareamajorsourceofairpollutionandGHGemissions.Thefreightoptionsofroad,rail,airandsea transport vary significantly in their emissions efficiency.

RESPONSE INDICATORS

• Public transport patronage

Publictransportpatronagedataprovidesanindicationoftheuptakeofpublic transport options that has benefits inreducingcarjourneys.

• Kilometres of bicycle network

Akeyelementinencouragingcyclingistheprovisionofsafeandadequatefacilitieswithbikelanesbeingthemostrudimentaryandeasily

Indicators

documented.Theprovisionofbikelanesdoesnotnecessarilyincreasethenumberofcyclistscommutinganditisacknowledgedthatthislimitsthevalueofthisindicator.

What is the currentsituation?

Transportisseenasaderiveddemandinthatitisafacilitatorforothereconomicandsocialactivities.Thereforethegoalsoftransportaretoprovideforeconomicefficiency, equity and accessibility, with thebestpossiblelevelofsafetyandleastpossibleenvironmentalimpact.

ThevalueofSouthAustralia’sinternationalfreightis$14billionwithexportsbeingalmost60%andimports40%ofthefreightactivity.Theseinternationalexportsconstituteabout17%ofthestate’sGSPwithimportsrepresentingabout11%.Domesticallythefreighttasktotals146milliontonnesperannumand60billionnettonnekilometres.

TargetT1.14intheSouthAustralianStrategicPlanforinternationalfreightexportspavesthewayforincreasedfreighttransportactivity:

Total exports: Treble the value of South Australian’s export income to $25 billion by 2014.

AsFigure6.4shows,thestate’sfreighttransporttaskis48.7%roadbased,rail27.6%andsea23.6%.Theremaining0.3%isairfreight(ACG,2007).TheBureauofTransportandRegionalEconomics(BTRE)forecaststhatfrom2000to2020SouthAustralia’stotalfreighttaskwillgrow88%,intraandinterstatecombined.Theintrastatefreighttransportcomponentis predicted to grow by 58% and Urban roadtonnagestodoubleby2020.

Where commercially viable, freight is movedonthelessenergyintensiverailmode.Thisresultsinreducedenvironmentalimpact,reducedwearandtearonroadinfrastructureandreducedcongestion.Expansionofrailfreight,particularlypolicyandprogramdevelopmenttoimproveitsapplicationwithinthefreighttask,shouldbefurthersupportedinlightofprojectedgrowth.

In2004-05SouthAustralia’sannualdomesticpassengermovementequalled30.6billionkilometresoftravel.Some88%ofpassengertravelwasroadbased,


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Figure 6.9: Percentage greenhouse gas

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Transport


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

9.4%wasairtravelwiththeremaining2.6%beingrailandseacombined.Predictionsarethatpassengertravelwillcontinuetogrow.

Passengertravel,measuredaspassenger-kilometresbyroadvehicles,increasedby20.4%overtheperiod1994-95to2004-05.However,duringtheyear 2004-05 this fell 1.2%, influenced bythecombinedeffectsofincreasedfuelpricesandanageingpopulationtravellingless(ACG,2007).

Travelbyprivatecartotals68.4%oftotalpassengertravel,whilepublictransportcaters for 3.6%. Walking, cycling and otherroadtransportcomprisestheremaining35.2%.

When examining fuel consumption across roadtransport,in2004-05thiscomprised58.4%petrol,26.7%diesel,14.4%Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and 0.3% CompressedNaturalGas(CNG),withethanolat0.2%.

Overthedecade1994-95to2004-05totalconsumptionacrossallfueltypesforvehiclesincreased17%.ConsumptionofpetrolandLPG,whichisprimarilyusedinpassengervehicles,reducedmarginally,reflecting the effects of increased prices. Dieselconsumption,themainfuelforcommercialvehicles,roseinlinewithincreasedeconomicactivity(ACG,2007).SeeFigures6.6,6.7and6.8.

Emissionsaredirectlyproportionaltotheamountoftravelandfuelconsumptionbyeachmode.

In2005,transportinSouthAustraliagenerated5.9MtofGHGemissions(DCC,2008),17%ofSouthAustralia’soverallemissions,and2,300tonnesofparticulate(ACG,2007).TransportgeneratedGHGswereattributedtoroad89%,rail4.3%,air6.4%andsea0.3%.SeeTable6.6andFigure6.9.

Passengervehiclesat62.5%werebyfarthelargestgeneratorsofGHGemissionsfollowedbylightcommercialvehicles(LCV)at15.2%,articulatedtrucks14.2%,rigidtrucks5.7%,buses2.1%andmotorcycles0.3%(ABS,2007,ACG,2007).

Articulatedtrucks,lightcommercialsandothertrucksthatmakeupthefreightvehiclecategoryaccountforonly15.6%ofregisteredvehicles,yettheyconsumed33.1%ofroadtransportfuelandareresponsiblefor35%ofthetotalroadtransportGHGemissions.

Aswellasgreenhousegasesthereareother significant polluting emissions ofparticulatematterinarangeof

microscopicsizesfromtransportvehicles.ParticulatematterisgenerallymeasuredasPM10(nolargerthan10microns),andlesscommonlymuchsmallerparticles,PM2.5,solesscomprehensivedataisavailableforthesmallersize.

Roadvehiclesgeneratethemostparticles,87.9%in2005,followedbyair6.4%,rail4.3%andsea0.3%(seeTable6.6).Oftheroadvehicles,passengerstylesgeneratedthelargestproportionsofPM10,particlesat40.6%,followedbylightcommercialvehicles18.6%,articulatedtrucks18.4%,rigidtrucks14.4%,buses6.5%,motorcycles1.2%andothertrucks0.3%(ACG,2007).

PRESSURE INDICATORS: Proportion of passenger trips undertaken by private and public transport

Passengertransportincludesthemovementofpeoplebyeitherprivateorpublictransport.

Privatetransportincludestravelbycar,motorcycle,scooter,bicycleandwalking.Publictransportincludestripsbybus,rail,tramandtaxis.Roadpassengervehicles,whetherpublicorprivate,service88%ofthepassenger-kilometretaskinSouthAustralia(ACG,2007).

Themajorityofweekdaypassengertripswerejourneystoworkand/orstudy.ABSsurveysaboutpeople’stransportchoicesrevealthatinSouthAustralia,thedominantmodechosenforthesetripswaspersonalmotorvehiclewith75%oftravellersmakingtheirjourneysasthedriverandafurther4%travellingonlyasapassenger.Publictransportwasthemodeofchoicefor11.2%ofcommuters,whiletheremaining13.8%oftripsweremadecollectivelybybicycles,motorcycles,taxis,scootersandwalking.

Nationally14%choosetotravelbypublictransportunderpinningSouthAustralia’sstrategicplanningobjectivetoincreasespublictransportpatronage(ABSCat4602.0,2006).

Overthe10yearsfrom1996to2006,journeystoworkbyprivatemotorvehicle did not change significantly. Use of public transport dropped in thefouryearsto2000,butsteadily


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Figure 6.11: Greenhouse gas emissions Co2e

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increasedbetween2000-2006(ABSCat4602.0,2006).

Privatemotorvehicleswereusedforabout83.3%ofweekdayjourneysin1996,droppingto82.8%in2006(ABS,2006).Publictransportusedforsimilarpurposesoverthesameperiodrecordedagrowthfrom9.6%ofallweekdayjourneysin1996to11.2%in2006.Thischange has most likely been influenced byincreasedfuelpricesandpotentially,improvedpublictransportbusservices–particularlywiththeintroductionofmore‘GoZones’andnewvehiclestothe fleet. When deciding to use public transport,mostSouthAustralianusersreportedlymadetheirchoicebasedonconvenience,comfortand‘hasslefactors’.Othersfoundpublictransportcheaperthanprivatevehiclesandthatitresolvedparkingissues(ABS4602.0,2006).

Fortravelotherthanforworkorstudy,particularlyweekendtripswheretherearefewerpublictransportoptionsanditsattractivenessisdiminished,theprivatevehicleremainedthemodeofchoice.RespondentstotheABSsurveysindicated74%oftravelwasbyprivatevehicle,11%waspublictransportandtaxisaccountedforabout,14%walkingandcyclingandabout1%forothermodes(ABS4602.0,2006).

During2006,75%ofpeopledrivingtoworkinSouthAustraliadidsoasthesolevehicleoccupant,withonly3.6%ofpeopletravellingaspassengers.Thishighrateofsingleoccupancyvehicletravel particularly during peak traffic hoursneedstobediscouraged.Theimplementationofdedicatedbuslanesonmainarterialroadsthatalsoallowmulti-passengervehiclescouldbeanoptiontoencouragemulti-passengertravelorcar-poolingbyprovidingatimebasedincentiveforthoseusingthebusnetworkandcar-pooling.

Thehighestusersofprivatevehiclesbyagegroup,usingprivatevehiclesfor

over83%oftheirjourneyswerethoseaged45-64years.

These figures demonstrate the inherent challengesfacedinmakingpublictransportmorebroadlyaccepted,howevercontinuingfuelpriceincreasesandgrowingroadcongestionincombinationwithprogressivestatetransportpolicywillcontributetothisoccurringinthelongterm.Thechallengeistomakepublicandactivetransportoptions,suchaswalkingandcycling,moreaccessibleandattractive,particularlyinolderagegroupsandinthefaceofanagingpopulation(ABS4602.0,2006).

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Total annual passenger-kilometres travelled by private and public transport

Aspreviouslystatedin2004-05roadtransportwasthedominantmodeoftransport.Figures6.12and6.5showthatoverthesameperiod,airtravelaccountedfor10%,rail2%andsea<1%(ACG,2007).

Totalpassengerkilometresacrossallmodeswere30.6billionin2004-05,anincreaseof23.4%since1994-95.AsseeninFigure6.12,growthofpassengerkilometresoccurredacrossallmodesfortheperiod:roadby20.5%,rail41.2%,air55.3%andsea60.4%(ACG,2007)

Passengervehiclesaccountedfor77%oftotalpassengerkilometresinSouthAustraliain2004-05,lightcommercialvehicles12.9%,buses5.6%,trucks4%andmotorcycles0.5%.Themainpurposeforthislargeamountofpassengervehicletravelwasjourneystoworkandstudy.Geographicallyoverthesameperiod,62.6%ofpassengervehicletraveloccurredinurbanareasand37.4%innonurban.Thehighnon-urbanpercentage reflects greater reliance on privatetransportoutsideoftheAdelaidemetropolitanpublictransportserviceareas(ACG,2007&ABS4602.0,2006).

Cycling and our environmentCyclinghasakeyroletoplayinthecreationofanenvironmentallysustainablefuture.

Asanenvironmentally-friendlytransportmode cycling’s versatility also benefits otherareasofthetransportsystem.Itincreasestheaccessibilityofpublictransportthroughtheconnectivityprovidedbycyclingfacilitieslinkingpublictransportnodes,throughfreeinguproadspaceandnotleastbecausecyclingusesnofossilfuelsandhasnoairornoiseemissions.

As well as environmentally benefits, cyclinghasthepotentialtocontributesignificantly to the state’s economic, socialandenvironmentalcapital.Internationalcyclingeventssuchasthe Tour Down Under attract many visitorstothestateandencouragedthecommunityto‘thinkcycling’inamoreactiveway.Activetransportsuchascyclinghasalsobeenshowntoattractcreativepeopleandhenceeconomicandculturaldevelopmentopportunities.Exercisethroughcyclingprovides health benefits in adults and children.Providingforandsupportingrecreationalandcommutingcyclingiscriticaltoincreasingthenumberofpeoplewhocycle.

Cycling to work helps reduce greenhouse gass

emissions. Photo: DTEI, TravelSmart.

Table 6.6: Greenhouse gas and PM10 emissions spread from transport sectors in South Australia

Greenhouse gas and PM10 emissions spread from transport sectors in South Australia

Sector 2005 Emissions

GHG (Total 5.9Mt) PM10

Road 89.1% 87.9%

Air 6.4% 3.1%

Rail 4.3% 8.6%

Sea 0.3% 0.4%

Source: ACG 2007

Transport


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Motor vehicle ownership and registration (per 1000 people)

SouthAustralianmotorvehicleregistrationsgrewatarateof1.8%from2003withatotalof1,156,961registeredmotorvehiclesin2007(seeFigure6.13).Thisequatesto732motorvehiclesper1,000headofpopulation,comparedto704in2003.Nationallytheaveragein2007was705vehiclesper1,000headofpopulation.SouthAustraliahastraditionallybeenabovethenationalaverageforthisindexofvehicleownership(seeFigure6.14).

ThemajorityofSouthAustralia’svehiclefleet is passenger vehicles. Since 1998 registrationsofallvehicletypes,exceptnonfreightcarryingtrucks,experiencedgrowth.Articulatedtruckregistrationsincreased95%,motorcycles32%,LCVs19%,passengervehicles11%,rigidtrucks1%andbuses17%.Thesteadyincreaseinpassengervehiclesregisteredislikelyattributedtoincreasingaffordabilityofvehicles and greater affluence within thecommunity.

Theriseinthetotalregisteredvehiclesis probably influenced by an overall increaseinthepopulationandanincreaseinthenumberofvehiclesperhousehold.Recentfuelpriceincreaseshaveseensalesofmotorcyclesandscootersescalatetorecordlevelsofapproximately9%perannumforthepasttwoyears.Adesireformobility(BTRE,2007),andaffordability,togetherwithchangesinpatternsofhumansettlementandtheseparationofhomeandworkareothercontributingfactors.

Projected trends predict the road fleet maygrowby14.8%,anadditional164,202vehicles,by2014-15.Newannualmotorvehiclesalesareanticipatedtogrowby18.5% by 2014-15 (ACG, 2007). With this growthwillcometheimpactsassociatedwithpoorerairqualityandincreasesinGHG emissions that will require significant policyintervention.

The average age of South Australia’s fleet at11.1yearsin2007,continuestobeoneoftheoldestasthenationalaverageis10years.(seeFigure6.15).SouthAustraliaissecondonlytoTasmaniawith11.9years.

An older fleet results in a slower uptakerateofvehicleswithimproved,cleanerenginetechnologyandthisultimatelyimpactsontheenvironmentalperformance of the fleet. Fleet age may beaproductoffactorssuchasincreaseddurability due to the state’s relatively flat terrainanddrierweatheror,onaverage,

fewerkilometresoftraveleachyearthaninterstatecounterparts.Theselesserkilometresmayalsobereflective of an aging community and increasedfuelprices(ACG,2007).

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Freight tonne-kilometres travelled

Thefreightsystemmovesvitalgoodstoeverypartofthestateandispredictedtodoublebytheyear2020,mainlyasaconsequenceofeconomicgrowth(NTC,2006).

Freightmovementoccursacrossfourtransportmodes.Inthe10yearsfrom1994/95roadfreightactivityincreasedby66%,rail45%,seadecreasedby27%andairalsodecreased(ACG,2007).By2004-05roadtransportaccountedfor48.7%offreighttransportactivity,rail27.6%,sea23.6%andair<1%(seeFigure6.4).TheenergyintensityofthesetypesoftransportcanbeseeninTable6.5.

Movementofroadfreightbyarticulatedtrucksaccountedfor86%oftonne-kilometresin2004,whilerigidtruckscarried10%andLCVs4%(seeFigure6.16).Overtheperiod1994to2004allthreefreightvehicletypesexperiencedgrowth,withLCVsincreasing94.7%intonnes-km,rigidtrucks9.7%andarticulatedtrucks76%.

Thenumberoffreightcarryingvehiclesrosesteadilybetween1998and2007(seeFigure6.17).MostofthegrowthofwasintheLCVcategorywithariseof19%,followedbyarticulatedtrucksat9%,thenminorshiftsforrigidtrucksandadecreaseofothertrucksasshownbyFigure6.18.(ABS9309,2007).

Theaverageageoffreightcarryingvehicleshasreducedsince2003,whichhas resulted in a younger fleet profile andatrendtowardsimprovedvehicleemissionsperformance,reliability,vehiclequalitycontrolandperformance(ABS9309,2007).Thisisclearlyincontrasttothetrendforpassengervehiclesandislikelyduetoindustryneedsinmeetingthelogisticalrequirementsofagrowingtransporttaskaswellasgreaterregulatorycontrols.

Freightactivitygrew19.45%overthepastdecade.Itisexpectedthatgrowthineconomicactivitywillcontributetoaprojectedincreaseof3.3billiontonnes-kilometresor33.1%to2014-15.Althoughtheshareofthedomesticshippingfreighttaskdeclinedto29.3%in2004-05demandforshippingservicesisprojectedtogrow3.0%or0.3billiontonnesby2014-15.

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Figure 6.14: Total motor vehicles per

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Higherdemandforairfreightservicesresultedingrowthintheannualtonne-kilometretaskby3.4millionor42.2%in2004-05.OverthesameperiodcargocarriedbyrailfreightserviceswithinSouthAustraliadeclinedby0.2milliontonnesor1.4%to11.3milliontonnes.Comparedto1994-95,SArailfreighthasgrownby4.8milliontonnesor74%.

Interstaterailfreightincreasedby0.36milliontonnesor150%to0.6milliontonnesin2004-05.Expectedindustrygrowthprojectionsindicateanincreaseintheannualstaterailfreighttaskof3.3billiontonne-kilometres,or33.1%to13.3billiontonne-kilometresin2014-15(ACG,2007).

Movingmoreofthefreighttasktothelessenergyintensivemodesofrailandseatransportwillreduceenvironmentalimpacts.Anexampleofthiscanbeseeninplanstoco-locateaquacultureandresourceexportsfromthesameseahubatPortLincoln.Thisisnotalwayspracticalor efficient and it is unlikely that rail will dominateroadinurbanareas,whereroad freight is more flexible and supports more efficient logistics.

Tackling Climate Change

SouthAustralianeedstoensurethatitispreparedformitigationandadaptationstrategiesrelatedtoclimatechange.TodosoitmustberecognisedthatthemajorsourceoftransportGHGemissionsareroadvehicles,particularlypassengervehicles. The most efficient freight modes mustbepromotedtobothreduceGHGemissionsandtofutureproofthestateeconomyagainstdependenceonoil-basedfuels.

Themajordirectstakeholdersinthechallengeofreducingtransportrelatedgreenhousegasemissionsare:

• publicandprivatetransportusers

• thosewhogoverntransportmodes

• designersandmanufacturersofvehiclesandparts

• planners,urbandesignersanddevelopers who influence land use designandinvestmentchoices.

Keyclimatechangeobjectivesforthetransportsectorincludestrategiesto:

• reducetriplengthsandtheneedformotorisedtravelparticularlythroughalternativeworkarrangementsandintegratedlanduseandtransportplanningoutcomes

• achievemoresustainabletravelbehaviour

• improvetheemissionsperformanceofvehiclesandfuels

• shifttransporttowardsgreenhousefriendlyemissionmodes.

Keyoutcomestoachievethereductionoftransportrelatedgreenhousegasemissionsinclude:

• identification of locations for transit orienteddevelopment(TOD)

• provisionofalternativeworkingarrangementssuchasworkingfromhome

• revisionofincentivestoencouragethecommunitytovoluntarilychangetransportbehaviourandchoices

• reductioninthenumberofshortpersonalvehicletrips,increasepublictransportpatronageandincreasetheuseofloweremissionvehicles

• promotionofengineandfueltech-nologiesthatreducevehicleemissions

• improvingtheattractivenessandaccessibilityofpublictransporttoincreasepatronageandreviewingfleet vehicle operations performance toreduceemissions.

RESPONSE INDICATOR: Public transport patronage

Publictransportpatronagehasrisen,particularlyacrossmetropolitanAdelaide.Totalpatronagewas65millionin2006-07,anincreaseof14%since2000-01(seeFigure6.19).Thiscomparestoapproximately5%populationgrowthinthestateoverthesameperiod.

South Australia’s Strategic Plan includesasustainabilitytargetT3.6:

Increasetheuseofpublictransportto10%ofmetropolitanweekdaypassengervehiclekilometrestravelledby2018.

In2004-05thetotalpublictransportpatronagelevelmeasuredaspassenger-kilometres,was7.6%,anincreasefrom6.5%twoyearsprior,howeverthisdecreasedto7.2%in2005-06(seeFigure6.20).

In2006-07buseswerethedominantformofpublictransportwith77.4%oftotalpatronage.Trainsattracted18.8%ofcommutersandtrams3.8%(PTD,2007). The main influences for using


Figure 6.15: Average age of all vehicles in South

Australia compared to national average age

Figure 6.16: Percentage freight task by

vehicle type

Figure 6.17: Number of registered freight

vehicles in South Australia

Transport

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HUMAN SETTLEMENT

publictransportforworkorstudywereconvenience,priceorcostandparking.Thesereasonsweredominantacrossallagegroupsexcepttheunder18s,whopredominantlyusedpublictransportastheyeitherdidnothavealicenceorbusserviceswereclosetotheirhome.

Reasonscitedfornotusingpublictransportincludednoserviceavailable,noserviceavailableattherightorconvenienttime,traveltimetoolongandapreferencefortherelativecomfort,convenienceandprivacyofaprivatevehicle(ABS4602.0,2006).Clearlytheseareissuesthatneedtobeovercomeinpublictransportdevelopment.

Thelargestusersofpublictransportarehouseholdscomprisingsingleadultswithchildrenwhouseitforaround10%oftheirtrips.Familieswithchildrenmake6%oftheirtripsbypublictransport(MAHTS1999).Asimprovementstothepublicsystemincludingnewvehicles,newinterchangesandupgradedservicesareintroduced,thisnetworkwillplayagrowingroleinprovidingaffordableandsociallyaccessiblemobility,particularlyinthefaceofrisingfuelprices.Thepublictransportnetworkisprovidinggreateraccessforthosewhosecartraveloptionsmaybelimited.Asnewcommunitiesaredevelopedaroundinterchangesas‘transit-orienteddevelopment’Adelaidecan,ifthistypeofdevelopmentisdonewell,bereshapedasamorecompactandsustainablecitywithasmallerecologicalfootprint.

Tofurtherincreasepatronageandinlinewith2008/09 State Budget announcements,DTEIisaligningmoreserviceswithpeoples’travelpatterns,improvingfacilitiesandimprovingthepublic transport fleet. Rejuvenation of thepublictransportsystemwillincludeextensionoftheexistingtramlinetothe northwestern suburbs, electrifica-tionofthemetropolitanrailsystemandinvestigationintothefeasibilityofextendingtheNoarlungatrainline.

OtherinitiativesfundedtoincreasepatronageofpublictransportincludedevelopingmajorinterchangesatOaklandsandMawsonLakesandincreasingthenumberoftrain,tramandbusservices,particularlyduringpeaktravelperiods(DTEI,2007).

RESPONSE INDICATOR: Kilometres of bicycle network

Adelaidehasagrowingnetworkofbicyclepathsandbikelanes,collectively

named Bikedirect. With increasing congestiononSouthAustralia’sroadsandtheassociatedenvironmentalimpacts,thereisagrowingcommunityexpectationforareversalofthetrendofincreasingcaruse,andencouragementofmoreactivemodesoftransportsuchaswalkingandcycling.Thestatenowhas2,100kmestablishedbikelanes,includingmetropolitanandregionalbikepaths.InmetropolitanAdelaideintheperiod1998-2006thelengthofpathwaysincreasedfrom335kmsto603kms(seeFigure6.21).

Since1996acordonbicyclecounthasbeenconductedononedayeachyearthatrecordsthenumberofcyclistsenteringtheCityofAdelaidebetween7amand10am(seeFigure6.22).Thiscounthasindicatedasteadyincreaseinthenumberofpeoplecyclingtowork.Threeelectroniccountersfunctioning24hoursaday,arenowoperatinginlocationstothewestofthecity.Theywillsupportthecollectionofinformationoncyclistnumbersrecordedduringtheannualcordoncounts.

TheresultsofanationalsurveyconductedbytheABSin2006showedthatthemajorityofpeoplewhochosetowalkorridetoplacesofworkorstudydidsoprimarilybecauseoftheproximityofhometodestination,costsavings,exerciseandhealthorbecausenoothertransportoptionswerereadilyavailable.Thosewhochosenottowalkorridetoworkorstudydidsoprimarilybecausethejourneydestinationwastoofar,theydidnotownabicycle,weresimplynotinterestedorneededavehicleafterwards.(ABS4602.0,2006)

Transport Policy directions

Environmentalimpactassessmentisconductedonallmajorprojectstoidentifytheextentandscopeofpotentialenvironmentalharm.Impactassessmentofmajorroadconstructionprojectshasledtoaconsultativeandstrategicapproachbeingadoptedforreductionofenvironmentaleffectsandtodealwithcommunityissues.

Initiativescurrentlyunderwaytoreducetheenvironmentalimpactsfromtransportactivitiesinclude:

• facilitationofincreasedpatronageforpublictransport

• integrationoflanduseandtransportplanning

• implementationofsuburbwide

Figure 6.18: Percentage change in vehicle

numbers registered by vehicle type, 1998-2007

Figure 6.19: Total public transport patronage

(millions)

Figure 6.20: Weekday public transport

passenger Kms as a percentage of total

weekday passenger Kms

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Source: Apelbaum ConsultingGroup 2007


voluntarytravelbehaviourchangeprograms

• rejuvenationofthepublictransportfleet and use of alternative fuels

• improvementstotheemissionsperformanceofroadvehicles

• improvements to the efficiency of rail operations

• developmentofstrategiestoaddressroadandrailnoise.

SouthAustraliaisworkingwithotherjurisdictionstoestablishanationalemissionstradingscheme,knownastheCarbon Pollution Reduction Scheme. Thisschemewillneedtoincludetransportemissionsifitistobeeffective.Having the nation’s first climate change legislation,SouthAustraliahassetatargetforreductionsinitstotalemissionsinclusiveofreducingtransportemissions,andthegovernmentisintroducingmoreenvironmentallyfriendlycarsintoitsvehicle fleet.

TripleBottomLineAssessmentsareusedtoevaluatetransportprojectsandstrategies,ensuringthatatastrategicand policy level, South Australia identifies effectiveeconomic,environmentalandsocial impacts and benefits.

Challengesarisefromtheprojecteddoublingofthefreighttaskoverthenext20years.Movementoffreighttothemore efficient modes of rail, sea and air, and more efficient road options where practicable,willneedtobeconsideredparamounttoreducelikelyassociatedenvironmentalimpacts.

Continuedintegrationoflanduseandtransportplanningisessentialforthedeliveryofenvironmentallysustainabletransportsolutions.Forexample,theproliferationofresidentialsettlementsontheextremitiesofthemetropolitanareashouldbediscouragedduetoamongotherthings,theenvironmentalandeconomiccostsofprovidingtransportandotherservicesandthegreaterrelianceonprivatevehiclestoaccessemployment.

Incomparison,theencouragementofdenser,mixedlandusesettlementwithincloseproximitytotheCBDandaroundhighcapacitypublictransportnodesshouldbeencouragedbecauseofthelikelyreduceddependenceonprivatemotorvehiclesduetoattractiveandefficient alternative options to access employmentandotherservices.ForfurtherinformationseethePopulationand Urban Form chapter.

Transport infrastructure provision

Theprovisionoftransportinfrastructurepresentsarangeofchallengesandopportunities,andworkingalongsidedemandmanagement,playsanimportantroleinthegreeningofourtransportsystems.

Onepriorityofatransportsystemistoreduce congestion by influencing and achievingmodalshiftsforpersonalandfreighttravel.Investmentininfrastructuretofacilitatemodalshiftstogreateruseofenergy efficient options for freight and passengermovementisonemeasurethatwillcontributetothesustainabilityofourtransportsystemandreduceitsgreenhousegasemissions.

StrategicinfrastructureprioritiessincethelastSoE ReportincludeOuterHarbourdevelopment,PortRiverExpressway,LeFevrePeninsulatransportcorridorupgrade,underpassesalongSouthRoad,BakewellBridgereplacement,theNorthernExpresswayandarangeofotherfreightrelatednetworkupgrades.

Aprogramtore-sleeperrailtrackwillbeginin2008-09includingalloftheNoarlungaCentreandpartoftheBelairlines,asapreliminarysteptowardstheirelectrification. This will provide more reliableandfastertrainservicesonthoselinesmakingtraintravelmoreattractive.

Togetherwithextensionofthetramline,thiswillbesupportedbydevelopinginterchangesnearmetropolitanregionalcentresfeaturingparkandridefacilitiesandbusfeederservices,suchasthatrecentlyopenedatOaklandsParknearthe Marion and Warradale shopping precincts.Thisistosupportthemanypeopleadverselyaffectedbyrisingpetrolcosts.

Other initiatives

• Fulltriplebottomlineassessmentsareundertakenforeachinfrastructuredevelopmenttodeterminethelikelyeffectsonthesocial,economicandenvironmentalaspects.Sustainabilitymeasuresforeachmajorinfrastruc-turedevelopmentwillbereportedagainstthecoreobjectivesandguidingprinciplesofthe National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development (1992).Theseprincipleshavebeenendorsedbythestategovernmentandarerequiredtobebuiltintoallgovernmentdecisionmakingprocesses.

Transport

Figure 6.21: Growth per ‘Bikedirect’ cyclist

network 1998-2006

Figure 6.22: Number of cyclist entering the city

of Adelaide between 7am and 10am daily

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HUMAN SETTLEMENT

• AheavyvehicleemissionstestfacilitywascommissionedatRegencyParkin2006toconductvehicleexhaustemissionstestingandpollutantlevelevaluation.Emissionstestingserviceswillencourage heavy vehicle fleet ownerstoreduceemissionsandmonitorfueleconomy.Thiswillbecomeincreasinglyimportantwithprojectedgrowthinthefreighttaskandthelikelyairqualityimpactsassociatedwithit.

• SouthAustraliahasundertakenthedevelopment,testingandmarketingofaso-callednoisecamera,to


R6.2 Reducetransportrelatedgreenhousegasandotheremissionsthroughlanduseplanningpolicies,stricteremissionstandardsforvehicles,investmentinpublictransitoptions,andregistrationandstampdutyconcessionsforloweremissionvehicles.

Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan targets.

*NotethereisnodirectSASPtargetfornoise

Bus. Photo: DPC.

detectenginenoiseonroad.ThiscomplementsdevelopmentbyDTEIoftheTransportNoisePolicyFramework.

• A fleet of government owned ferries operateatroadvehiclecrossingpointsalongtheRiverMurray.Olderstyletimberhulledferriesarecurrentlybeingreplacedbymetalhulledvesselswithanalternativedrivesystemthatmaydeliversavingsofupto40%indieselfuelconsumption,withacommensuratereductioninemissions.

ForfurtherdetailonSouthAustralia’sStrategic Planvisitwww.stateplan.sa.gov.au

R6.7

Growing Prosperity

Improving Wellbeing

Attaining Sustainability T3.5, T3.6, T3.7


Building Communities


Rail and road bridges over the River Murray,

Murray Bridge.. Photo: Tim Lubcke.

Heavy freight Photo: Steven Mudge.

The Growing Freight Task

• TheBureauofTransportandRegionalEconomicsforecaststhatfrom2000to2020thetotalfreighttaskincludingshippingwillincreaseby88%.

• Thepassengertaskwillgrowby40%.

• Urban road tonnages are likely to double; and traffic in the majorcapitalswillgrowbymorethan45%.

• Domesticfreightforecasttogrowby58%.

• Therewillbea7%shiftfromLCVandrigidtruckstoarticulatedtrucks.


South Australia’s Strategic Plan 2007,DepartmentofthePremierandCabinet,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

The Strategic Infrastructure Plan for South Australia: Building South Australia – Infrastructure2005,DepartmentforTransport,EnergyandInfrastructure,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Charles,P.,Sayeg,P. TRANSPORT INNOVATION A New Era for Australia (2005.),BarrippCarolen,Sydney

SAFETY IN NUMBERS. A Cycling Strategy for South Australia 2006 – 2010, (2006)DepartmentforTransport,EnergyandInfrastructure,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

Corporate Plan 2007 Onwards,(2007).DepartmentforTransportEnergyandInfrastructure,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

2006-07 Annual Report, (2007).DepartmentforTransportEnergyandInfrastructure,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

Infrastructure in South Australia, Five Yearly Report to the Council of Australian Governments, (2007),DepartmentforTransport,EnergyandInfrastructure,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

DepartmentforTransportEnergyandInfrastructure(2007)Public Transport Division 2006/2007 Financial Year Patronage Report,(2007)PublicTransportDivision,DepartmentforTransportEnergyandInfrastructure,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

South Australian Transport Facts 2007,(2007)ApelbaumConsultingGroupPtyLtd

Engine Brake Noise, Draft Regulatory Impact Statement,(2006),NationalTransport Commission and NSW Roads and Traffic Authority.

Motor Vehicle Census 2006,(2007)Cat:9309.0AustralianBureauofStatistics,AustralianGovernment,Canberra

Survey of Motor Vehicle Use,(2004)Cat:9208.0AustralianBureauofStatistics,AustralianGovernment,Canberra

Environmental Issues: Peoples Views and Practices, (2006)Cat:4602.0AustralianBureauofStatistics,AustralianGovernment,Canberra

Australian national Accounts: State Accounts, 2006-07,(2007)Cat:5220.0,AustralianBureauofStatistics,AustralianGovernment,Canberra

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transport, Australian Trends to 2020, (2002)DepartmentofTransportandRegionalServices,BureauofTransportandRegionalEconomics,AustralianGovernment,Canberra.

National Inventory Report 2005,(2007). Australian Greenhouse Office, DepartmentoftheEnvironmentandHeritage,AustralianGovernment,Canberra

Issues Paper. Emerging issues and trends in road transport and traffic in the coming decade. (2006)Austroads,AustralianGovernment,Canberra

Acting on Australia’s weight: a strategic plan for the prevention of overweight and obesity. Summary report(1997).NationalHealthandMedicalResearchCouncil(NHMRC),Canberra

Developing an active Australia: a framework for action for physical activity and health (1998).DepartmentofHealthandFamilyServices(DHFS),AustralianGovernment,Canberra

Department for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure (DTEI) www.dtei.sa.gov.au www.transport.sa.gov.au

DTEI Major Projects - Northern Expressway www.dtei.sa.gov.au/infrastructure/

Strategic Infrastructure Plan for South Australia www.infrastructure.sa.gov.au/strategic.asp

Planning Strategy for Metropolitan Adelaide www.planning.sa.gov.au/go/startegy/land-use-planning-strategy-for-sa

National Transport Commission www.ntc.gov.au

National Land Transport Plan – Auslink www.auslink.gov.au/

Australian Bureau of Statistics www.abs.gov.au

Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC)www.artc.com.au

References


Transport

R6.7

Growing Prosperity

Improving Wellbeing

Attaining Sustainability T3.5, T3.6, T3.7




Congestion on our Roads• Recentnationalperformance

indicatorsshowthatintermsofurbantraveltime,averagespeedonarterialroadsandcongestionindicators,Adelaidehas fallen significantly behind BrisbaneandPerthandremainsonlymarginallybetterthanSydneyandMelbourne.

• AveragepeakperiodtraveltimeonAdelaide’sarterialroadshasincreased14%overthepasteightyears.Evenoutsidepeakperiods,averagetimeshaveincreasedbymorethan6%.Inthecaseofroadcongestionmuchoftheproblemiscausedbythehighuseofsinglepassengercommutervehicles,particularlyinpeakperiods,ratherthanpublictransport.

• SouthRoadistobecomea22km free flowing expressway thatwill:

• cuttraveltimeby16minutes–reducingcongestion

• remove 25 sets of traffic lights

• cutGHGemissionsbyaround30%

• resultin120fewermetropolitanroadcrashesanda$4.5millionsavingthroughlessroadtrauma(RAA2007).


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Trends

Goals

Energy

• ElectricitysalesinSouthAustralia:INCREASING

• PrimaryenergyconsumptioninSouthAustralia: SLIGHT INCREASE

• ProportionoftheState’selectricitysourcedfromrenewableresources:INCREASEDfromlessthan1%in2002to10%in2007-08.TomaintainthislevelduringtheanticipatedmineralresourcesboomwillrequiretheMiningindustrytomakeasimilarcommitmenttorenewableenergy.

• Emissionsfromthestationaryenergysector:STABLE OR SLIGHTLY INCREASING since2003,havingincreased significantly since 1990.

T3.5 Greenhousegasemissionsreduction:achievetheKyototargetbylimitingthestate’sgreenhousegasemissionsto108%of 1990 levels during 2008-2012, as a first steptowardsreducingemissionsby60%(to40%of1990levels)by2050


T3.12Renewableenergy:supportthedevelopmentofrenewableenergysothatitcomprises20%ofthestate’selectricityproductionandconsumptionby2014


T3.13 Energy efficiency – government buildings: improve energy efficiency of governmentbuildingsby25%from2000-01levelsby2014


T3.14 Energy efficiency – dwellings: increase the energy efficiency of dwellingsby10%by2014


Energy and a sus ta inable South Aust ra l ia

Energyformsthebasisofourmodernbuiltenvironments.Fossilfuelssuchascoal,oilandgasprovidenearlyallofourenergyrequirements,includingfortheproductionofelectricity,goodsandservicesandforourtransportneeds.

Humanactivitiesoverthelast100years,particularlytheburningoffossilfuels,havecausedarapidincreaseincarbondioxideandothergreenhousegasesintheatmosphere.Beforetheindustrialage,thesegaseshadremainedatnearstableconcentrationsforthousandsofyears.

The international scientific community, includingtheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,hasacknowledgedalinkbetweenchangesinglobalclimateandtheincreasingatmosphericconcentrationofcarbondioxideandothergases.

Possibleimpactsofclimatechangearebelievedtoincluderisingsealevels,lossofspecies,morefrequentstormsandintensetropicalcyclones,andanincreaseinthefrequencyofdroughtand flood.

Theburningoffossilfuelscreatesairpollution as well as power plant specific impacts such as heated effluent disposal.Theextractionoffossilfuelscanalsocauseenvironmentalharmsuchaslocalisedsiteimpactsanddisturbanceofhabitat.Resourcesrequiredintheburningprocessmaybeimported.ForSouthAustraliatomovetowardsasustainableenergyfuture,thereneedstobeanincreaseinlowemissionandrenewableformsofenergy, and more efficient use of our energyresources.

While currently expensive, clean and renewablesourcesofenergysuchaswindandsolar,areincreasinglybecomingviablealternativestonon-renewableenergysources.Renewableenergysourcesarethosereplacedwithinareasonabletimeframebynaturalprocesses.

ThelegislativeandregulatoryframeworksdevelopedfortheenergymarketsuchasaNationalEmissionsTradingScheme(nowknownastheCarbonPollutionReduction

Key facts • SouthAustraliauses5.8%ofall

energyusedinAustralia;

• SouthAustraliahas53%ofthenation’swindfarmsand37%ofitsgrid-connectedsolarpanels;

• Ahighproportion(55%)ofSouthAustralia’selectricityisgeneratedbygas.Therefore,thisstate’selectricitygenerationcauseslessgreenhouseemissionsthanthatofotherAustralianstates.

1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,

WG1, Fourth Assessment Report, 2007

Wind turbines. Photo: DTEI.


IndicatorsScheme)andaMandatoryRenewableEnergyTarget,aswellasinternationalagreementssuchastheKyotoProtocol,will influence the extent and pace ofchangeintheenergysectorbothnationallyandlocally.

Forexample,theCarbon Pollution Reduction SchemeinAustraliaislikelytoencourageanewbalanceinthefuelmixasitwouldputapriceongreenhousegasemissions.Thiswouldencouragemovementawayfromconventionalcoalandtowardsincreaseduseofgasandgenerationofrenewableenergy.TheschemewouldalsoassistSouthAustraliatoachieveitslegislatedtargetofareductioninemissionsof60%(basedon1990levels)by2050.

Ultimately, reducing energy consumption acrossallsectorsofthecommunityisakeycomponenttoreducingtheenvironmentalimpactofenergyuse.We can all play a part in reducing energyusethroughourlifestylechoices.Forexample,wecancatchmorepublictransport, and purchase energy efficient vehiclesandhomeappliancestoreduceouroverallenergyconsumption.Also,wecanpurchaseourelectricityfromrenewableresources,forexampleusingaccreditedGreenPowerwhichwillhelpdrivefutureinvestmentinrenewableandlowemissionfuels.

There are many benefits associated withadoptinga‘greener’lifestyle.Forexample,anincreaseddemandforenergy efficient goods and services expandsthemarketfortheseproductsinSouthAustraliaandacrossthenation.Thisopensupnewopportunitiesforresearch,developmentandcommer-cialisationofenergyconsciousproducts,with resulting economic benefits. There will also be the financial benefit of using andpayingforlessenergy.

CONDITION INDICATORS

• Estimated annual CO2-e emissions (Mt) from stationary energy sources – includingtonnespercapita,andtheCO2-e((carbondioxide-equivalent)emissionsthatarosefromtheelectricityimportedviatheinterconnectorsfortheyears2001to2006.

• Estimated CO2-e emissions from stationary energy use by sector – domestic;agriculture;commercial;utilities;industry–2001to2006,takingintoaccounttheenergyusefromtheinterconnectors.

Thestationaryenergysectorcoverselectricitygeneration,manufacturingoffuels,metalsandproducts,construction,andtheuseoffuelsintheresidentialsector, agriculture, fishing and forestry. Itdoesnotincludeenergyusedfortransport.

PRESSURE INDICATORS

• The amount of energy derived from non-renewable resources – providesanindicatorofthesustainabilityofenergygenerationmethodsinSouthAustralia.

• The amount of energy used in total and by sector –indicateschangesintotalenergyuseanddeterminestheprincipalactivitiesconsumingenergy.

RESPONSE INDICATORS

• The amount of energy derived from renewable sources –indicatesinvestmentinrenewabletechnologies.

• Annual number of solar hot water rebates issued per year–fromcommencementinJuly2001tothelatestavailabledata.

• Annual number of Photovoltaic Rebate Program grants issued per year –fromcommencementin2000tothelatestavailabledata.

GreenPowerGreenPowerisrenewableelectricitysourcedfromthesun,wind,waterandwastethatispurchasedbyanenergycompanyonbehalfofitscustomers.CompaniesgenerateelectricityatarangeofsitesacrossAustraliaandsupplyittoacentralpowergrid.Ourhomesandbusinessesareconnectedtothisgridsothatwecanaccesselectricity.

Traditionally,electricityonthecentralgridcomesfromgeneratorsthatburnfossilfuels.Onlyasmallamount(abouteightpercentnationally)comesfromrenewablesources.

EnergysupplierssellingaccreditedGreenPowerproductsbuyelectricitygeneratedfromaccreditedrenewableenergygeneratorsandfeeditintotheNationalElectricityGrid.

OnlyrenewableenergyproductsthatdisplaytheGreenPower‘tick’havegovernmentaccreditation.

PurchasingGreenPowerreducespersonalgreenhouseemissionsandbyusingandinvestinginnewsourcesofrenewableenergy,helpsreduceourrelianceonlimitedfossilfuelresources.

Generallynon-accreditedproducts(oftensimplyreferredtoas‘greenenergy’)sourcetheirrenewableenergyfromsourcesthatwereestablisheddecadesago,suchaslargehydro–electricprojects.Purchasingproductsfromoldrenewableenergysourcesdoesnotcontributedirectlytonewinvestmentinrenewableenergy.

When a household chooses agovernmentaccreditedGreenPowerproduct,theenergysupplieragreesthatanamountofenergyequivalenttothatnominatedbythehouseholderwillbeproducedfromrenewablesources,overandabovetheamountthattheyarealreadylegallyrequiredtoobtain.

Energy


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Since2001,primaryenergyuseinSouthAustraliahasgrownslightlywhileelectricityusehasincreasedmoresteeply,atapproximately10%.Thishasleadtoaslightincreaseingreenhousegasemissionsandisatrendthatwillcontinueunlessthereisgreaterrelianceonsuitablelowemissionandrenewableenergyalternativesandenergyefficiency.

CONDITION INDICATOR: Estimated annual CO2-e emissions (Mt) from stationary energy sources.

In2005-06,SouthAustralia’sstationaryenergysectorwasresponsibleforgenerating13.8Mtofemissions.Figure6.23illustratesthistobeaslightincreaseinemissionsfrom2000-01whenthelevel was around 13 Mt. These figures excludeemissionsimputedtoelectricitygeneratedintheeasternstatesandimportedviatheinterconnectors.EmissionsimputedtotheinterconnectorsareshowninFigure6.24.

SouthAustraliaimportselectricityfromotherstatesviatheMurraylinkandHeywoodinterconnectors,andparticipatesintheNationalElectricityMarket(NEM),awholesalepoolintowhichgeneratorsalloverAustraliaselltheirelectricity.

TheHeywoodelectricityinterconnectorwascompletedin1989,andtheMurraylinkin2002,andtheyenablethetransferofelectricitybetweenSouthAustraliaandtheeasternstatesinaccordancewithelectricitydemand.South Australia imported a net figure of 18 GWh or 1% of its electricity consumption viatheinterconnectorsduring2007-08becauseoftheincreasingpresenceofwindgenerationinthisstate,andhighereasternstatecontractprices.Thiswasadecrease from 18% (2,166 GWh) in 2001-02.

Acontributortoemissionlevelsfromtheelectricitygenerationsectoristheintensityofemissionsfromelectricitygeneration.ThisisexpressedasthenumberoftonnesofCO2-ereleasedperMWh of electricity generated.

AccordingtotheDepartmentofClimateChange,theintensityofemissionsvariesannually.Figure6.25showscomparative


emissionsintensitiesfortheconsumptionof electricity in South Australia, NSW andACT,VictoriaandQueensland.TheemissionsintensityofelectricityconsumptioninSouthAustraliawascomparable with NSW and ACT and Queenslandfrom1990toabout2003.Sincethen,SouthAustralianemissionsintensityhastendedtobeslightlylowerthanthosestatesduetoourstate’srelativelyhighproportionofgasfired generation and the rise in wind capacity.SouthAustralia’semissionintensityhascontinuedtofallfrom0.92kgCO2-ein2000to0.84kgCO2-ein2007.

TheemissionsintensityofAustralia’selectricitysupplyisexpectedtodecreasewiththeintroductionoftheCarbonPollutionReductionScheme,asitwillmakegreenhousegasemissionsmoreexpensive,therebyencouragingtheuseofgasandrenewableenergygeneration.

Emissions per capita

Between2000-01and2005-06,emissionsfromthestationaryenergysectorincreasedfrom8.6tonnes/percapitato8.8tonnes/percapitabasedonAustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)populationdata.Thisdoesnotincludeemissionsfromimportedelectricity,ventingoremissionsfromtransport.The first two would increase per capita emissionsbyapproximatelyonethird.

CONDITION INDICATOR: Estimated CO2 emissions from stationary energy use by sector

Inthestationaryenergysector,greenhousegasemissionsoccurwhenfuel is burned. A significant amount offuelisburnedinthegenerationofelectricityforusebycustomersandthiscausesemissions.Insomecases,thefocusisontheorganisationthatburnsthefuelandcausestheemissionsdirectly.Theseareknownasscope1emissions.Inothercases,suchemissionsareassignedtotheenduserratherthanthegenerator.Theseareknownasscope2emissions.

Ineffect,anelectricitygenerator’s scope1emissionsaretheelectricityconsumers’ scope2emissions.

Figure6.27showscombinedscope1and2(stationaryenergy)emissionsforeachofthethreeendusesectors.

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Figure 6.24: Emissions from electricity imports

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Figure 6.25: Emissions intensity of electricity

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Source:DepartmentofClimateChange2008


ItshowsthatmorethanhalfofSouthAustralia’sstationaryenergyemissionsareduetotheindustrialsector.Mostofthesearecausedbyonsitefueluse(scope1emissions).Bycomparison,emissionsduetotheresidentialandcommercialsectorsresultmainlyfromtheconsumptionofelectricity(scope2emissions).

ItisimportanttonotethatFigure6.27doesnotincludeemissionsfromelectricitygeneratedinterstateandimportedviainterconnectors.InformationontheseemissionscanbefoundinFigure6.24.

While emissions from the industrial and commercialsectorshaveremainedrelativelysteadysince2000-01,theresidentialsectorhasincreasedslightlyeachyearsince2001-02.

TheabilityforSouthAustraliatoreduceitsemissionsishighlydependentonthetypeandamountofenergyused.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: The amount of energy derived from non-renewable resources (coal, gas and oil)

Oneindicatorofsustainabilityintheenergysectoristheproportionofenergyderivedfromnon-renewableresources,andthemixofthesefueltypes.Non-renewableprimaryenergysourcesareessentiallyoil,gasandcoal,andmostofourenergyisderivedfromthese.Acombinedtotalof294.5PJofnon-renewableenergywasconsumedin2005-06inthetransportandstationaryenergysectors.

Combustionofhydrocarbonfuelsresultsinthereleaseoflargeamountsofgreenhousegasemissions,primarilyascarbondioxide.Somefueltypesaremoreemissionsintensivethanothers,forexamplethecombustionofcoalandoilreleasesmorecarbondioxidethanthecombustionofgas.

Biomassandbiogasarealsohydrocarbons, but can be classified asrenewableresources.Figure6.28demonstratesthenon-renewableandrenewableprimaryfueltypesusedinSouthAustralia.Theseprimaryfuelsareconvertedintomanyothertypesoffuelandproductsforuseinsociety,howeverexpressingenergyuseinitsprimaryformrecognisesthetotalenergycontainedin


theoriginalsource.Totalprimaryenergyuse(transportandstationary,includingthatfrombiomassandbiogas)inSouthAustraliain2005-06was303.4PJ.Thisdoesnotincludeotherrenewableenergysourcessuchaswind,solarandhydro,whichcannotbereadilymeasuredinprimaryenergyterms.

In2005-06,SouthAustraliaderivedthevastmajorityofitsenergyfromcoal,gasandoil.Althoughthefuelmixisquiteevenlyproportioned,moreenergyisderivedfromnaturalgasinSouthAustraliathaninotherAustralianstate.Thisisbecausea significant share of South Australia’s electricity generation is fired by natural gasinsteadofcoal(seeFigure6.30).

In2000-01,thedistributionbetweencoal,gasandoilwassimilartotoday,althoughwehaveseenaslightdecreaseinoilandbiomassconsumptionandacorrespondingincreaseincoalandgasconsumption.

AccordingtotheDepartmentofClimateChange,since2000-01theproportionofenergyderivedfrombiomassandbiogaswithintheresidential,manufacturingandenergyindustriessectorshasbeendeclining.

Figure6.29demonstratesgrowthinelectricitygenerated(notaprimaryfuel)fromrenewableenergysources,inparticularwind,since2003-04.ThisisduetotheinstallationofanumberofwindfarmsintheStatesince2000-01.

Figure6.30showsthatin2007-08,tenpercentofSouthAustralia’selectricitysupplywassourcedfromwindfarms.

In 2007-08, gas fired generation supplied approximately55%ofthestate’selectricityneeds,whilecoalandwindgenerationsuppliedaround34%and10%respectively.Since2002,levelsofwindgenerationinthestatehaveincreasedsignificantly. In 2007-08, wind generation accountedmorethan90%ofthestate’srenewableelectricitygeneration.Othersourcesofrenewablegenerationincludedwood(asbiomass),biogasandhydro,aswellasasmallamountofrooftopsolarelectricityandoffsetenergyfromsolarwaterheating.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: The total amount of energy used and by sector

SouthAustraliarepresentsjust5.8%ofAustralia’stotalenergyconsumption(ABARE Energy Outlook 2007).AccordingtotheDepartmentofClimateChange,SouthAustralia’stotalprimaryenergy

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Figure 6.27: Stationary Energy Emissions

by Sector

Figure 6.28: The amount of energy derived from

hydrocarbons, expressed as a percentage

Energy


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

consumptionofnonrenewablecoal,gasandoil,andrenewablebiomassandbiogas,increasedfromapproximately300.3PJin2000-01toapproximately303.4PJin2005-06.Energyconsumptionfluctuates from year to year as can beseeninFigure6.31,withaspikeinconsumptionin2002-03.Thatspikecanbeattributedtohigherlevelfueluseinthesolidfuelssectorduringthatyear.

ThereisagradualtrendtowardsincreasingconsumptioninSouthAustraliaovertime,Energyuseincreasedby3.1PJbetween2000-01and2005-06,orabout1%.

Figure6.32demonstratesthatintheperiodfrom2000-01to2005-06,electricitysalesincreasedsteadily.However,since2005-06electricityconsumptionhasrisenmorequickly.Overall,therehasbeenanincreaseofaround8%inelectricitysalessince2000-01.Thisisduetostrongeconomicgrowthandinpart,incomegrowthovertheperiod.

Figure6.33demonstrateschangesinprimaryenergyconsumptionwithineachsectorsince2000-01.Moredetailisprovidedbelowonthesesectors.

OneofthekeyenergyconsumingsectorsinSouthAustraliaisthatoftheEnergyIndustries,representing137.8PJ,ornearly45%ofthestate’stotalenergyusein2005-06.EnergyIndustriesrepresentpublicelectricityandheatproduction,petroleum refining, manufacture of solid fuels,iecokefromcoal,andotherenergyindustries,metalproductmanufacturingandmanufacturingnotelsewhereincluded.

Transportistheothermajorenergy-consumingsector,consumingnearly25%ofthestate’sprimaryenergyresources.

ItisimportanttonotethatelectricityisnotincludedinanyofthesectorsoutsidetheEnergyIndustriessectoraselectricityis considered a ‘final’, or ‘end-use’ form ofenergy,ratherthanaprimaryone.TheEnergyIndustriessectoraccountsforfuelinputsintoelectricitygenerators,notelectricityconsumption.

Annual amount of energy (by fuel type) used in the Manufacturing Industries and Construction sector, for the years from 2001 to 2006

TheManufacturingIndustriesandConstructionsectoraccountsforapproximately49.5PJor16.3%ofthestate’sprimaryenergyuse,andcoversmanufacturingofironandsteel,nonferrousmetals,pulp,paperandprinted

products,food,beveragesandtobacco.Themajorityofprimaryfueluseisgasat29PJ(58%)andcoal11.5PJ(23%),withtheremainderbeingpetroleumandbiomass.Electricityisalsousedinthissector,butisaccountedforwithinEnergyIndustries.

Energyconsumptionbythemanufacturingsectorhasincreasedbylessthan2.7PJsince2001,withtheuseofnaturalgasstatic.Theuseofcoal-basedproductsincreasedfrom6.7PJin2001to11.5PJin2006.

Annual amount of energy (by fuel type) used in the commercial sector, 2001 to 2005

TheCommercialandInstitutionalsectorrepresentsjust2.2%ofprimaryenergyconsumption,althoughastheseoperationsarelargelybasedinbuildingselectricityisthissector’smajorsourceofenergy.ActivitieswithinthissectorincludeGovernmentservices,finance and insurance businesses, and accommodation(tourism).Theprimaryfuelconsumptionbythesectorisgas,withremainderbeingpetroleumandwoodwaste.

Annual amount of energy used in the transport sector by fuel type, 2001 to 2005

AccordingtotheDepartmentofClimateChange,theTransportsectorusedabout27%or83.5PJofenergyconsumedinSouthAustraliain2006,astatisticthathasremainedrelativelystaticsince2001.FurtherdetailsoffuelsusedinthetransportsectorcanbefoundintheTransportchapterofthisreport.

Annual amount of energy used in the domestic/residential sector by fuel type, 2001 to 2005

TheDepartmentofClimateChangereportedthatbetween2001and2006,theResidentialorHouseholdsectorincreaseditsenergyusefromapproximately16.8PJto17.7PJ,or5.8%ofthestate’sprimaryenergyusage.This figure excludes electricity use. The AustralianBureauofAgriculturalandResourceEconomics(ABARE),reportsthathouseholdenergyuseincreasedfromapproximately32PJin2001to35.5PJin2006,includingacomponentofelectricityuse.3AustralianBureauofAgriculturalandResourceEcanomics

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Figure 6.30: South Australian electricity

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Figure 6.31: Total Primary Energy Consumption

in South Australia


Figure6.34demonstrateshouseholdenergyuseasreportedbytheDepartmentofClimateChangeandABAREbetween2000-01and2005-06.NB:inthisgraphtheDepartmentofClimateChangedatadoesnotincludehouseholdconsumptionofelectricitygeneration,whiletheABAREdatadoes.

AccordingtotheDepartmentofClimateChange,theprimarysourcesofenergyusedinSouthAustralianhomesin2006asidefromelectricityweregas(11.7PJor66.1%ofresidentialprimaryenergyuse),petroleum(5%)andwood(biomassatapproximately29%).Since2001,woodandpetroleumconsumptionhasdecreasedby2.5%and3%respectively,andgasconsumptionhasincreasedbynearly4%.TheABAREdataalsosuggeststhataround45%ofhouseholdenergyconsumptioniselectricity.

Theprimarysourceofenergyintheagricultural, forestry and fishing sector between2000-01and2005-06,waspetroleum,whichconsumed8.3PJor2.7%ofSouthAustralia’senergy.Thishasincreasedby1.5%since2000-01.

Energy use for water management

SA Water is a significant user of electricity andaparticipantintheGreenhouseChallengePlusProgram.

SA Water’s actions include:

• Annualrecoveryanduseofapproximately 10,000 MWh (36TJ) of wastewatertreatmentbiogas(mostlymethane),atBolivarandGlenelgwastewatertreatmentplants;

• Annualrecoveryandsaleofapproximately 6,000 MWh (21.6TJ) of electricityfromtheHopeValleyminihydroelectricscheme;

• The purchase of 32,000 MWh (115.2TJ)ofaccreditedGreenPowerin2006-07;and

• Maintenance of energy efficiency programsformajorpumpingunitstoachievesavingsofabout12,000MWh of electricity each year.

Despiteachievementsintermsofenergy efficiency and increased recycling,achievinghigherwaterqualitystandards,improvingthequalityofeffluent discharged from wastewater treatmentplantsandstategrowth,areincreasing SA Water’s energy needs.

TheproposedintroductionofdesalinatedseawaterintoAdelaide’s

water supply, as discussed in the Water chapter,couldpotentiallydoubleSAWater’s energy usage. Prolonged droughtandclimatechangeareadditionalfactorsthatwillcontinuetoincreaseenergyrequirements.In2001-02,SA Water consumed approximately 315 GWh or 1.1 PJ of energy, and by 2006-07 this had increased to about 555 GWh, or2PJ,howeverthislargeincreaseinenergy use was significantly influenced by droughtconditions.

Energy use and the expansion of mining in South Australia

ThemuchpublicisedexpansionofmininginSouthAustraliaislikelytoconsiderablyincreasedemandonthestate’senergysuppliesandimpactemissionsreductiontargets.AnexamplerecentlyreportedinTheAustraliannewspaper(26March2008)indicatedtheexpansionoftheOlympicDammineislikelytorequire690 MW when it reaches full production in2018.Aminimumof20%renewableenergyforallnewminingdevelopmentswillberequiredtoensurethatthestate’srenewableenergytargetsremainontrack.ThiswillstillresultinanincreaseinnetemissionsfortheStateandsostrongercommitmentsmayberequired.

ItisenvisagedthattheCarbonPollutionReductionSchemewillassistinensuringthattheimpactofthisadditionalsupplyisminimised,however,strongerregulationofsuchactivitiesisalsorequiredbytheGovernment.

RESPONSE INDICATOR: The amount of electricity derived from renewable sources

Renewableenergyisthatwhichisreplaceableornon-depletablewithinareasonabletimeframe.Sourcesincludeenergyderivedfromwind,solar,someplantandanimalmaterial(biomassandbiogas),hydroandheatstoredunderground(geothermal).

TheSouthAustralianGovernmenthascommittedtopromotingrenewableelectricitygenerationbywayofsettingaStrategicPlantargetofachieving20%renewableenergyproductionandconsumptionby2014.

Takingintoaccountwindfarmsthatare


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Figure 6.32: Electricity consumption in South

Australia - Total Customer Sales

Figure 6.33: Primary energy consumption by

sector, South Australia

Figure 6.34: Household energy use - including

and excluding electricity use, South Australia.

Energy


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

eitheroperational,underconstructionorcommittedforconstruction,thepercentageofrenewableenergyinthestateiscurrently9.4%ofcustomersalesand8.2%ofelectricitygeneration.

TheSouthAustralianGovernment’sprimarygoalfortheenergysectoristo reduce emissions significantly while continuingtosupportproductivityandprosperity.ThegovernmentisprogressingthisgoalthroughtargetsdevelopedwithinSouth Australia’s Strategic PlananditsGreenhouse Strategy, Tackling Climate Change.

TheStateGovernmentalsorecentlypassedtheClimate Change and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Act 2007, committingSouthAustraliatoareductioninemissionsof60%(basedon1990levels)by2050.Thelegislationalsomandatesthetargetofachieving20%ofthestate’selectricityproductionandconsumptionfromrenewablesourcesby2014.

Since2002,SouthAustraliahasmadeencouragingprogressinthepromotionofrenewableelectricitygeneration.In2001,wood(biomass)andbiogasweretheonlyformsofrenewableenergyinSouthAustralia,somebeingusedinboththemanufacturingandresidentialsectors.

Wind farms have been providing the vast majorityofthestate’srenewableenergyintheformofelectricitysincelate2002.In2007-08,around10%ofSouthAustralia’selectricitywassuppliedfromrenewableenergy,withwindfarmsprovidingapproximately90%ofthat.In2005-06,3.8%ofSouthAustralia’stotalenergyconsumptionwasfromrenewablesources,mostlyderivedfromwoodbiomass.

Itisexpectedthatin2008-09windfarmscurrentlyunderconstructionwillincreasetheproportionofrenewableelectricitygeneratedinSouthAustraliatoapproximately20%ofthetotalelectricitygenerated.

While the state is on track to meet its 20%renewableenergytarget,itwillbeachallengetomaintainitinthefaceofincreasingdemandforelectricity,particularlyduetotheexpectedsubstantialgrowthintheminingsector.

Aspreviouslyhighlighted,renewablegenerationtendstobemoreexpensivethanconventionalenergysources,althoughconventionalenergycostsdonot include the significant environmental costsassociatedwithgreenhousegasemissions.Itisexpectedthiswillbeaddressedbythe Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme.

Wind

Sincetheendof2002,sevenwindfarmswith 482 MW of installed capacity have beenconstructedinSouthAustralia,andthreemoreareunderconstruction.

Operational wind farms include Starfish Hill, Canunda, Wattle Point, Cathedral Rocks, LakeBonneyStage1andMtMillarandBrownHill(Hallett1).LakeBonneyStage2windfarmispracticallycompleteaswell.Althoughtheirelectricityoutputcanbevariable,in2007-08windfarmsgeneratedapproximately 1,000 GWh or 10% of South Australia’selectricitygeneration.

TheSnowtownwindfarmisalsoexpectedtobecompletedin2008.Thesefarmswillincreasethestate’sinstalledwindcapacity to approximately 720 MW. The constructionoftheHallettHill(Hallett2)andClementsGapwindfarmshaverecentlybeenannounced,whichwillresultin approximately 868 MW of installed wind capacitywhentheyarecompleted.

ItislikelythatfurtherwindfarmswillcontinuetobebuiltinSouthAustralia,duetoitsattractivewindresources,aneffectivewindfarmplanningpackageandmarketsupportthroughtheCarbonPollutionReductionSchemeandtherecentlyannouncedExpandedMandatoryRenewableEnergyTarget(MRET).

Solar

SouthAustraliacurrentlyhasapproximately37%ofAustralia’sgrid-connectedsolarcapacity.

TheSouthAustralianGovernmentrecentlypassedlegislationthatestablishesaSolarFeed-inLawasameansofsupportingsolarelectricitygenerationforhouseholders.Thefeed-inlawestablishesaminimumtariffrateforelectricitythatissurplustoconsumerneedsandsoisreturnedtothegrid.Itisexpectedthatthefeed-inlaw,SolarCitiesprojectandtheAustralianGovernment’sdoublingofthePhotovoltaicRebateProgramforhouseholdsearningunder$100,000perannum,willprovidefurtherincentiveforprogressivesolarinstallationaroundthestate.

South Australia’s Strategic PlanincludesatargettoextendtheexistingSolarSchoolsProgramsothatatleast250schoolshavesolarpowerwithin10years.ByAugust2007morethan110educationalsiteshadsolarpowerinstalled.

AdelaidehasbeenannouncedasAustralia’s first Solar City, under the FederalGovernment’sSolarCitiesProgram. Up to 1,700 solar panels

Tesco – an example for the retai l sectorThe UK based retailer, Tesco, has undertakenmanyinitiativestocombatclimatechangeandcarbonemissions.TheseincludeusingacarbonfootprintmethodologytoestablishtheCO2emissionscausedbothdirectlyandindirectly.Thishasbeenappliedtostoreanddistributioncentrefunctionality,aswellaslabellingproductswiththeamountofCO2emissionsrequiredtomakeanddistributethem.

Furtherinitiativeshavefollowedtoreducecarbonemissionsthroughoutthecompanyworldwide.Thisincludeseco-mappingtoimproveenergy efficiencies with a 50% reductiontargetforemissionlevelsworldwideby2020(the2000levelisthebaseline).TheuseofHFCsinrefrigeratioanisalsobeingphasedoutandnaturalrefrigerantsolutionsarebeingtestedinthreestores.

Thecarbonfootprintlabellingofproductsisalsoaneffectivewayofinvolvingtheconsumer.Thisprogramisplannedtobeexpandedthroughpromotingandincentivebasedapproaches,includinggreatergreenclub points on energy efficient and environmentallyfriendlyproducts.

source:Tescowww.tesco.com/climatechange/


(approximately 2 MW of capacity) will beinstalledinhomesandbusinessesinthelocalgovernmentareasofAdelaide,Playford,SalisburyandTeaTreeGullyandshoulddoubleSouthAustralia’scurrentsolarpowercapacity.

ThestategovernmenthasestablishedaSolarPrecinctalongNorthTerrace.Thisconsists of 20 kW photovoltaic systems installedontheroofsofSouthAustralia’sArtGallery,Museum,StateLibraryandParliamentHouse.TheFestivalPlazaalsohasinnovativeSolarMalleeTrees,whichlightthearea.

While these developments are exciting, itisexpectedthatenergyfromphotovoltaicpanelswillonlyprovideasmallpercentageofthestate’senergyneedsinthemediumterm.

Biomass, Biogas and Hydro

SouthAustralia’sbiogasgenerationplantscurrentlyprovideapproximately17 MW of electricity generation capacity from landfill and sewerage, and about a further 5 MW of generation capacity fromwoodwastebiomass.Thereisalsoa2 MW capacity hydro turbine located in one of SA Water’s major pipelines.

AswellasusingelectricitygeneratedbybiogasplantsatGlenelgandBolivar, SA Water also sells up to 6,000 MWh of hydro-generated electricity as accreditedGreenPower.

Geothermal

SouthAustraliahasextensivereservesofhotdryrocksdeepundergroundintheCooperBasinandotherareas.Theviabilityoflarge-scalegeothermalelectricitygenerationintheseregions,hasbeenextensivelyinvestigated.Thistechnologyinvolvesdrillingdeepbores.Water is pumped into the bores where it heatsasitpassesthroughfracturesinthehotrocksbeforereturningtothesurfacetodriveturbinesthatproduceelectricity.

GeothermalenergyisnotyetcommercialinAustraliaandwillrequire significant initial investment todemonstrateanddevelop.SouthAustralialeadsthenationinthedevelopmentofageothermallegislativeandpolicyregime,withthegovernmentfacilitatingthegrantingofGeothermalExplorationLicences(GELs),andtheprovisionofbothgeologicalinformationtogeothermalprospectorsandsupportforresearchthatisfocusedoncriticaluncertaintiessharedbythesector.

Therearemanygeothermalexplorationprojectsunderway,eachatadifferentstageofdevelopment.ShouldgeothermalresourcesinSouthAustraliareachcommercialstatusinthenextfewyears,itwillbepossibletoprovidereliable,base-loadelectricitythatisbothrenewableandemissionsfree.

RESPONSE INDICATOR: Annual number of solar hot water rebates issued per year, from July 2001 to the most recent data.

TheSouthAustralianGovernment’sSolarHot Water Rebate Scheme was introduced topromotesustainabilityandreducegreenhousegasemissionsassociatedwithwaterheating.TheschemebeganinJuly2001,andcurrentlyprovideseligiblehouseholdswithrebatesofupto$700towardsthecostofnewsolarhotwatersystempurchasedandinstalledinowner-occupiedhousing.

Thecommunityuptakeofsolarhotwatersystemsincreasedtotheinstallationof3,000systemsin2004-05,buthasthendeclinedto2,073systemsinstalledin2006-07.Nonetheless,sincetheinceptionoftheschemesome15,918householdershavereceivedtherebate,removingabout42,979tonnesofgreenhousegasemissionsannuallyfromtheresidentialsector.

TheAustralianGovernmentisalsoprovidingrebatesofupto$1000forAustralianhouseholdstoinstallgreenhousefriendlyhotwatertechnologies.Thoseeligibleareableinstallsolarandheatpumphotwatersystemstoreplaceexistingelectricstoragehotwatersystems.

TheSouthAustralianGovernmenthasintroducedaminimumgreenhousegasperformancestandardforhotwatersystemsinnewhousingandmajorrenovationswheregasisavailable,inordertofurtherreducegreenhousegasemissionsassociatedwiththeresidentialsector.

AboutonethirdofatypicalSouthAustralianhousehold’senergyconsumptionandacomparableproportionofenergy-relatedgreenhousegasemissions,relatestoheatingwater.

RESPONSE INDICATOR: Annual number of Photovoltaic Rebate Program grants issued per year, from commencement to the latest available data.

Sincethe2008/09FederalBudget,thePhotovoltaicRebateProgramhasbeenre-namedtheSolarHomesandCommunitiesPlan,whichhashouseholdeligibilitycappedat$100,000.TheEnergyDivision

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Figure 6.36: Number of photovoltaic systems

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Energy


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

oftheDepartmentfroTransportEnergyandInfrastructurenolongeradministerstheprogram.TheCommonwealthgovernmentnowadministersitinitsentirety.

BetweenJanuary2000andJune2008,morethan3,512photovoltaicsystemsproviding nearly 5220 kW of generation capacitywereinstalledunderthisprograminSouthAustralia.Thenumberofsystemspurchasedandthecorrespondingcapacityincreasedfromapproximately100systemsperannumbetween2000and2002,tomorethan900systemsbetweenJanuaryandJune2008.

TheCommonwealthGovernmentdoubledthemaximumrebateallowedunderthePhotovoltaicRebateProgramin2007.Therebateprovides$8perpeakwattoutputwithaminimumsystemsizeof 450 Watts, and is capped at $8,000 for a 1000 Watt or larger system. The doubling of thisrebateencouragedfurtheruptakeofsolarpanelinstallationsinSouthAustralia.

InMay2008,theCommonwealthGovernmentintroducedmeanstestingforthisprogramwithhouseholdsearningmorethan$100,000perannumexcludedfromthescheme.PreliminaryinformationfromsolarretailersindicatesthatthishashadaseriousnegativeimpactontheuptakeofsolarpanelsacrossAustraliawithmanyconsumers cancelling orders. While the full impactofthispolicydecisionisyettobefullyrealiseditisdoubtfulthatthepositivetrendin photovoltaic installations identified above willcontinueintheshorttomediumterm.

Energy Efficiency Programs

Government usage

TheSouthAustralianGovernmentisalargeuserofenergy,spendingmorethan$100milliononenergyonitsoperationsandproducingaround625,000tonnesofCO2-eannually.

StrategicPlanTarget(T3.13)isthegovernment’sresponsetothis:Improve the efficiency of energy use in Government buildings by 25% from 2000-01 levels by 2014.

Resultsshowthatbetween2000-01and2007-08,thestategovernmentachievedan 8.77% overall energy efficiency improvementinitsownedandleasedbuildings.Thisisabout35%ofthewaytowardsitsT3.13goal.

Twoofthegovernment’slargestenergyusersaretheRoyalAdelaideHospital(RAH)andtheFlindersMedicalCentre(FMC).Acogeneration plant that would significantly

reducethegovernment’soverallgreenhousegasemissionswasproposedfortheFMC,butthecurrentstatusofthisisuncertain.AsimilarproposalfortheRAHisunlikelytoproceedfollowingthe2007announcementoftheconstructionoftheMarjorieJackson-NelsonHospital,whichistoreplacetheRAHby2016.Thenewhospital would incorporate significant energy efficiency design principles.

Thereislittlesupportavailabletoassistagencies to implement energy efficiency measurestomeetproposedtargets.Agenciesarenoteasilyabletoaccessfundingtoimplementcosteffectiveenergy efficiency upgrades. A dedicated fundingschemeforsuchupgradeswouldprovide significant efficiency gains at minimallong-termcost.

Government programs

TheSouthAustralianGovernmentisalsohelpingtodrivetheMinisterialCouncilonEnergy(MCE)NationalFrameworkforEnergy Efficiency (NFEE), to overcome barriers to energy efficiency on a national basis.StageIoftheNFEEcommencedin2004 and has progressed energy efficiency measuresinareassuchasappliancesandequipment,buildings,industryandtraining.

Further energy efficiency measures were proposedunderNFEEStageIIinDecember2007,andtheMCEagreedtothefollowing:

• ExpandingandenhancingtheMinimumEnergyPerformanceStandardsprogram;

• AHeating,ventilationandaircondi-tioning (HVAC) high efficiency systems strategy;

• Phasing-out inefficient incandescent lighting;

• Governmentleadershipthroughgreenleases;and

• Developmentofmeasuresforanationalhotwaterstrategyforlaterconsideration.

NFEEStageIIisfocussingonenergyefficiency improvements across the residential,commercialandindustrialsectors.Itwillalsoincludeanenergyefficiency data gathering and analysis project,tosupportongoingpolicydevelopment.

Thestategovernmentisalsocommittedtopurchasing20%ofitsenergyfromaccreditedGreenPowerfrom1January2008. This equates to 106 GWh hours per annumofrenewableelectricity,whichistheequivalenttoareductionof111,100tonnesofgreenhousegasemissions.

South Australian Museum Solar Panels.

Photo: DTEI


Allnewgovernmentbuildingsarebeingconstructedtoatleast5-starGreenStarlevel.TheGovernmentisgivingpreferencetobuildingswith4or5–starundertheAustralian Building Greenhouse Rating Scheme, whenleasing offices. The government assisted theGreenBuildingCouncilofAustraliawithfundingtowardsthedevelopmentof‘greenstar’buildingratingtools.Asaresult,pilotratingtoolshavebeendevelopedtoassesstheenvironmentalattributesofnewandrefurbishededucationalandhealthcarefacilities(Tackling Climate Change, 2007).

Improving Household Energy Efficiency

InFebruary2008thestategovernmentannouncedintroductionoftheResidential Energy Efficiency Scheme (REES)from1January2009.TheschemeistobeadministeredbytheEssentialServicesCommissionofSouthAustralia(ESCOSA).

REESwillrequireSouthAustraliangasandelectricityretailers,asaconditionof their licences, to offer financial orotherincentivestoencouragehouseholdstoadoptenergysavingmeasuressuchasceilinginsulation,draught proofing and more efficient appliances. While relevant to all South Australianhouseholds,theschemewillhaveaparticularfocusonlow-incomehouseholds.Atwo-monthconsultationperiodwiththegasandelectricityretailindustry will inform the final operating modelforREES.

TheStateGovernmentisalsoprogressingatarget(T3.14)withintheStrategic Plan thataimsatimprovingtheenergyefficiency of households:

“Increase the energy efficiency of dwellings by 10% by 2014.”

Oneofthekeystrategiesforachievingthisispromotingtheuseoflowgreenhousegasemissionequipmentsuchasgas,solarandheatpumpwaterheatersindomesticproperties.

Thesesystemsarecurrentlybeingpromotedinseveralwaysincludingthrough the Solar Hot Water Rebate scheme.Anotheristherequirementfornewhomesthatareconstructedinareasservicedbygas,toinstallwaterheatersthatmeetagreenhousegasperformancestandard.Electricwaterheatersareexcludedunderthestandard,whichpermitsonlysolar,heatpumpandgaswaterheaters.

SinceJuly2006,a5–starthermalperformanceratinghasbeenarequirementforallnewhousinginSouthAustralia.Itshouldbenotedthata5–starratingdoesnotrepresentgoodthermalperformance.Aratingof7.5starswouldbemoreappropriateandeasilyachievablefornewhousing.Heatingandcoolingaccountforonlyonethirdofhouseholdenergyuseandaholisticstatewideplanningsystem(likeNewSouth Wales’ BASIX – Building Sustainability Index)isneededtoaddressenergyrelatedissuessuchasair-conditioningequipmentandlighting.

Asnewhousingstockwillrepresentonlyasmallproportionoftotalhousingstockformanyyearsprogramstoencourageimprovedenergyperformanceinexistinghousingstockareurgentlyrequired.

Energy efficiency upgrades of existing housingareunlikelytoachievetheratingsoutlinedaboveatsimilarcosttonewhomes,butwillnonethelessmakeanimportantcontributiontoreducinggreenhousegasemissionsandtoGovernment’sgoalofattainingsustainability.Thesinglelargestcauseofincreasedhouseholdenergyuseisfewerpeoplelivinginalargernumberofbighomes.Thiscouldbebettermanagedthroughplanningcontrols(seetheUrban Form and Population chapter).

HouseholdersareabletosupportrenewableelectricityprojectsinAustraliabypurchasingaccreditedGreenPower.Inthisway,theyhelpsupportnewinvestmentinrenewableenergy,ratherthanjustbeingsuppliedfromexistingrenewableelectricitygenerators.

InMarch2008,morethan71,037residentialand1,817commercialcustomerswerepurchasingGreenPowerinSouthAustralia.ThisisadramaticincreasefromAugust2003,whenonly390residentialand4commercialcustomerswerepurchasingGreenPower.Theincreaseresultedinnearly82,446MWh of GreenPower being purchased during2007.

Industry and Business

Industryandbusinesscanchoosemore efficient infrastructure in new developmentsorupgrades,suchasmore efficient lighting systems, to reap therewardsofreducedenergybillsandamoreenvironmentally-friendlypublicimage.Therearecurrentlynoconcertedstategovernmentinitiativestoencourage

The Carbon Pol lu t ion Reduct ion SchemeSince2004,SouthAustralianofficials have been closely involved withotherstatesandterritoriesindevelopingaframeworkforanemissionstradingschemeinAustralia,throughtheNationalEmissionsTradingTaskforce(NETT).

On16July2008,theCommonwealthreleasedaGreenPaperontheCarbon Pollution Reduction Scheme,outliningthepossibledesignelementsforanemissionstradingscheme.

AnemissionstradingschemeislikelytoencourageanewbalanceinthefuelmixinAustraliaasitwouldputapriceongreenhousegasemissions,encouragingmovementawayfromcoalandtowardsgasandrenewableenergygeneration.TheschemewouldalsohelpSouthAustraliaachieveitslegislatedtargetofa60%reductionof1990energyusagelevelsby2050.

AsSouthAustraliahasahighpercentageofgasgenerationandthenation’shighestproportionofwindenergy,itiswellpositionedtoparticipateinanyschemetoreduce

Torrens Island Power Station. Photo: EPA.

Energy


What more should we be doing?Energy TermsWatts

A Watt is a unit of power, of energy per second. One Watt equals one Joulepersecond.

One kiloWatt (kW) is equal to 1000 Watts.

One MegaWatt (MW) is equal to 1 Million Watts.

One GigaWatt (GW) is equivalent to 1000 MegaWatts, or 1 Billion Watts

One kiloWatt hour (kWh) is the amountofenergyconvertedinone hour at a rate of 1 kiloWatt

One MegaWatt hour (MWh) is the energyrequiredtopower10000x100 W light globes for one hour

1 GWh is equivalent to 0.0036 Petajoules

Joules

AJouleisaunitofenergyintheInternational System of Units (SI) andisequaltotheworkdonebyaforceofoneNewton(theforcetoaccelerateonekilogramatrateofonemeterpersecond)actingthroughonemetre.

Kilojoule:1000joules

Megajoule:1Million(106)joules

Gigajoule:1Billion(109)joules

Terajoule:1MillionMillion(1012)joules

Petajoule:1MillionBillion(1015)joules

Hydrocarbons:chemicalcompoundsofhydrogenandcarbon

HUMAN SETTLEMENT

industryandbusinesstoembraceenergy efficiency.

Thegovernment’s Climate Change an d Emissions Reduction Act 2007setsaframeworkforsectoralagreementsforthereductionofgreenhouseemissions,theeffectivenessofwhichwillneedtobemonitoredasthelegislationisrolledout.

Implementationofthe Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme,tooccurin2010,willsignificantly influence the emissions from theactivitiesofbusinessandindustryacrossallsectors.TheprojectedincreaseinthepriceofelectricityandforeachtonneofemittedCO2–e,willprovidethefinancial incentive for improving energy efficiency and decreasing emission intensiveactivities.

Thisisinadditiontotheenergyefficiency strategies for the commercial andindustrialsectorsthataretobeimplementedaspartofNFEEStageII.


R6.3 Increase energy efficiency and renewable energy requirements for all economicsectors.

R6.4 IncludeallgovernmententerpriseswithinSouthAustralia’sStrategicPlanGovernment energy efficiency targets.

R6.5 Increasethermalperformanceminimumstandardfrom5starsto7.5starsintheshortterm.

R6.6 Introduceadomesticscalegross(currentlynett)feed-intariffandextendfeed-intariffstoallrenewableenergysources(notjustsolar).

Estimated Resident Population, States and Territories,AustralianBureauofStatistics:3101.0TABLE4.www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/0/FC09E919F926AE46CA25735D0013F6CA/$File/310104.xls

Australian Greenhouse Emissions Information System (AGEIS) - online database for greenhouse emissions (stationary energy for 2001-2006),DepartmentofClimateChangeandWater, Government of Australia

SA Water (2008), unpublished data on their energyuse.Adelaide,SouthAustralia

National Greenhouse Factors(2008)DepartmentofClimateChangeandWater, ACT

AustralianBureauofAgriculturaland

References


R6.3 R6.4 R6.5 R6.6

Growing Prosperity T1.22 T1.22 T1.22

Improving Wellbeing

Attaining Sustainability T3.5, T3.7, T3.14 T3.5, T3.7, T3.13 T3.5, T3.7, T3.5, T3.7

T3.13, T3.14

Fostering Creativity and Innovation T4.7 T4.7 T4.7

Building Communities T5.9 T5.9

Expanding Opportunities T6.7

ForfurtherdetailonSouthAustralia’sStrategic Plan visit www.stateplan.sa.gov.au


ResourceEconomics(2008), Fuel and Electricity Survey,GovernmentofAustralia,ACTwww.abareconomics.com/interactive/energy_july07/index.html

Stationary Energy Appendix Table for 2005-06,(2008)DepartmentofClimateChangeand Water, ACT

TransportEnergyAppendixTablefor2005-06,(2008)DepartmentofClimateChangeand Water, ACT

PVRP Statistics by State, (2007)Departmentof Climate Change and Water, ACT

Solar hot water rebate statistics, (unpublished,October2007)EnergyDivision,GovernmentofSouthAustralia

AustralianEnergyRegulator,(2007)The State of the Energy Market,GovernmentofAustralia,ACT.

Ramage,J.,(1997)New Edition Energy Guidebook, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK.

ElectricitySupplyIndustryPlanningCouncilofSouthAustralia,(2007) Annual Planning Report,ESIPCofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

EnvironmentProtectionAuthority,(2003)State of the Environment Report for South Australia,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

EnergyDivision,(2008),Annual Energy Efficiency Report 2006-07,DepartmentofTransport,Energy&Infrastructure,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

Office of the South Australian Independent IndustryRegulator(2000) Information Paper No. 3, Impacts of Interconnectors on South Australian Electricity Supply, ESCOSA,Adelaide.

Premier’sDepartment,(2006)Overview of the Inquiry into Electricity Supply in NSW, Government of New South Wales, Sydneywww.premiers..nsw.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/F779AAB0-02DD-4B46-8B18-6D477EE8C7DE/0/chapt1.pdf

NationalElectricityMarketManagementCompany(NEMMCO),(June2005),An Introduction to Australia’s National Electricity Market, NEMMCO,Melbourne,Australia.

Hegerl, G.C., Zwiers F.W., Brannacot, P., et al,(2007)IPCCWorking Group II, Fourth Assessment Report: The Science of Climate Change – Chapter 9, Understanding and Attributing Climate Change IPCC,ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1-report.html,accessed19November2007

DepartmentofPremier&Cabinet,

SouthAustralia’sStrategicPlan,(2007),GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

DepartmentofPremier&Cabinet,(2007),TacklingClimateChange,SouthAustralia’sGreenhouseStrategy,2007-2020GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

Oxford English Dictionary online, definition ofhydrocarbonswww.oed.com

Britannica Encyclopedia online, definition ofaJoulewww.britannica.com/eb/article-9044023/joule

AustralianLaborPartywebsite,(2007),Policiesonenergyandclimatechangewww.alp.org.au/policy/index.php#climate_change_&_environment

GreenpowerAccreditedRenewableEnergy–Newsbulletin22Auguswww.greenpower.gov.au/admin/file/content13/c6/GreenPower22.pdf

GreenPowerAccreditedRenewableEnergy,informationonhowitworkswww.greenpower.gov.au/how-greenpower-works.aspx

CapitalCityAdelaide–NorthTerraceSolarPrecinctwww.capcity.adelaide.sa.gov.au/html/greencity.html#nthtcesolar

Energy Division of the South Australian Department for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure www.dtei.sa.gov.au/energy/

Greenpower www.greenpower.gov.au/home.aspx

Australia’s National Greenhouse Accounts www.greenhouse.gov.au/inventory

The Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE) www.abareconomics.com/

The Electricity Supply Industry Planning Council of South Australia www.esipc.sa.gov.au

Department of Climate Change (Commonwealth) www.climatechange.gov.au

Tackling Climate Change in South Australia (Sustainability and Climate Change Office) www.climatechange.sa.gov.au


Standby wastageAround11%ofAustralia’shouseholdelectricityusagegeneratingapproximately700kgofCO2emissionsperhousehold,iswastedthroughstandbyfeaturesonelectricalproducts.Forexample,asmuchas80%oftheenergyconsumedbyamicrowaveoveninitslifetimeisusedbytheclockandstandbypower.

Australiangovernmentbodiesarenowworkingwithmanufacturersandstandardsorganisationstosignificantly cut standby losses by 2012.

Inthemeantime,thereareafewsimpletipstoreducingstandbylossesandcosts:

1. Switchoffapplianceswhennotinuse.ThisincludesTVs,VRCsandcomputersensuringthe‘standby’lightsturnoff.

2. Switchoffappliancesatpowerpointswhereavailable(TVs,VCRs,computermonitors,washingmachines,driersandotherhouseholdappliances).

Source: Hooper, S. (2005). Watt about Energy? Standbypower,CourtsAdministrationAuthority– Energy Information Bulletin No. 9. N.S.W.

Energy


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Trends

Goals

Water Water and a sus ta inable South Aust ra l ia

• ThequalityofmainswatersuppliedtotheAdelaidemetropolitanarea:100% compliancewiththenationaldrinkingwaterqualityguidelinesinhealthrelatedparametersandallaestheticparametersbarchlorine(83.3%for2002-2007).

• CountrywaterqualitycomplianceagainsthealthstandardsbasedontheAustralian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG): INCREASEDfrom99.5%in2002to99.9%in2007.

• TheaveragedailypercapitahouseholdconsumptionofmainswaterintheAdelaideMetropolitanArea:DECREASEDfrom301L/dayin2000-01to258L/dayin2004-05.

• Theannualvolumeofmainswaterdeliveredinthemetropolitanarea:DECREASEDfrom178,385MLin2002-03to156,014MLin2006-07.

• Re-useoftreatedwastewaterforhorti-cultureandothernonpotableusesintheAdelaideregion: INCREASEDfrom7.6%oftotaltreatedwastewaterin1995to29.7%in2007.

• Averageannualvolumeofstormwaterreused:approximately3,500MLperyearandINCREASINGwithimple-mentationoffurtherwetlandaquiferstorageandrecoveryprojects.

• Averageannualvolumeofstormwatergeneratedestimatedat87,000MLperannum:trendUNCERTAIN.

T3.9Sustainablewatersupply:South Australia’s water resources are managed within sustainable limits by 2018.


SA Water will implement and maintain a Drinking Water Quality Management System consistent with the ADWG Framework to adequately manage risk to drinking water quality and improve performance against aesthetic drinking water criteria.

SA Water Drinking Water Quality Policy 2006

Water is critical to the future prosperity ofSouthAustralia,whichiscurrentlyexperiencingseverewatershortagesthathaveresultedindomesticwaterrestrictionsandreductionsinruralallocations.

The state is faced with a significant challengetosecureitswatersupply.SouthAustralianswillneedtoembracegreater water efficiency and diversifica-tionofwatersourcesincludingfurtherreuseofwastewaterandstormwaterinordertomeetthischallenge.

HighqualitydrinkingwaterisdeliveredtothemajorityofurbansettlementsofSouth Australia by SA Water via a supply systemconsistingofcatchmentstoragesandmorethan25,000kmofmainsandpipelines.

InsomelocationssuchassuburbanMawsonLakes,thissupplyisaugmentedbyathirdpipesupplyofrecycled,treatedwastewaterthatisusedfordomesticpurposesincludinghouseholdandgardenuse,andforindustry.Householdsaresuppliedthemostmainswater.TheaverageresidentialconsumptionperhouseholdinAdelaideisaround246kLin200607(SouthAustralian Water Corporation, 2007).

Priortotheimplementationofwaterrestrictionsabout40%ofthiswasusedongardensandforotherexternaluses(GovernmentofSouthAustralia,2005),sincethenexternaluseisestimatedtohavedroppedto25-30%.Inthedrieststateinthedriestinhabitedcontinentintheworld,thechallengeofsupplyingappropriatequalitywateressentialforhumanwellbeingandprosperity,whileprotectingthenaturalenvironmentrequirescarefulmanagement.Ensuringsustainableuseofwaterisvitaltoourfuture.

Asameansofensuringwaterforessentialusethroughthedrought,thestategovernmentraisedwaterrestrictionstoLevel3in2007.Theserestrictionshaveimpactedonbothprivateandpublicgardensandrecreationalspaces.SouthAustraliansplaceahighvalueontheirgardensandthecommunitywouldclearlyprefernottohaveatotalbanonoutdoor

River Torrens after rain. Photo: Monica Moss.


watering,whichmayprovenecessaryifthecurrentdroughtpersists.

Thecommunityandindustryhaverespondedtotheprospectofafuturewithlesswater.Inlightoftherestrictionsandwiththesupportofstateandlocalgovernmentrebates,thecommunityhastakenupalternativewatersupplyoptionssuchasrainwatertanksandgreywaterreusesystems.Industryhasrespondedinnovativelyinthesupplyanddesignoftheseproducts,particularlywithgreywatersystemsthat are now widely available. Water savingdevicessuchastaptimers,waterefficient showerheads and flow restrictors arenowalsomorewidelyavailableandused.

Mosturbanrainfallendsupinstormwaterdrainsfromwhereitenterswatercoursesandultimatelythemarineenvironment.InmostofmetropolitanAdelaidewastehouseholdmainswaterentersseparatesewersandistreatedbeforebeingdischargedtoGulfStVincent.

In an effort to use water efficiently, greatervolumesofwastewaterandstormwaterarebeingrecycledandreusedinSouthAustraliathananywhereelseinurbanAustralia.Allspheresofgovernmentandtheprivatesectorhavecontributedfundingforrecycledwaterprojects.Forexample,theMawsonLakesrecycledwatersystemdeliversacombinationofrecycledwastewaterandstormwatertotheentiresuburbforuseingardensandtoiletcisternsandisestimatedtosaveapproximately800MLofpotablewatereachyear.SeveralotherprojectsintheCityofSalisburyreusestormwatertoirrigatesportingfields and parklands.

Aswellasconservingwater,reuseandrecyclingprojectsdecreasethevolumeofwastewaterandstormwaterflowing into the marine environment. The Adelaide Coastal Waters Study revealed the significant damage wastewater and stormwatercausestoourcoastalmarineenvironment,particularlyseagrassesthat provide important fish breeding habitatandsupporttheongoingsustainabilityoflocalcommercialandrecreational fishing industries. Loss of seagrasstodateisapproximately5,200HaandtheEnvironmentProtectionAuthority(EPA)estimatesthistobecostingSouthAustralia$7.98millionper annum in lost fish catch and approximately13,000tonnesofforegonecarbonsequestration.

Theadditionaltreatmentrequiredtobringwastewaterandstormwatertotheappropriatestandardandtransportittothereusesitedoesconsumeenergyandcreatesassociatedgreenhousegasemissions.Thisinitselfcouldbeperceivedasanegative,howeverthisneedstobeconsideredincontextandcomparedtotheenergyandgreenhousecostofothersupplyoptions.

Water supplied from the River Murray is associatedwithatypicalpumpingandwatertreatmentenergyrequirementofapproximately 1.5 MWh/ML. In the 2006-07droughtyearRiverMurraypumpingandtreatmentofapproximately160GLforAdelaide’swatersupplyrequiredapproximately 300 GWh of electricity. TheproposedAdelaideDesalinationPlantatPortStanvacistosupply50GLatamuchhigherenergyintensity(4-5MWh/ML) and could potentially double SA Water’s greenhouse gas emissions shouldstandardelectricitysourcesbeusedratherthanrenewableenergyand/oroffsets.

The associated environmental benefits of reuse as discussed are significant, particularlywhenconsideringthenegativeimpactsoftakingwaterfromtheRiverMurrayanddisposingoffurtherwastewaterintoourfragilecoastalmarineenvironmentsthroughdesalination. While reuse of wastewater hasitsownmanagementissues,nonemore significant than engaging and educatingthecommunityaboutitsuseandgarneringsupport,thesefactorsmustbeconsideredindeterminingtheoptimumfuturemakeupofalternativewatersupplies.

Newtechnologiessuchasthoseoutlinedabove all require significant capital investmentandhavevaryingoperationalcosts,howeverifhouseholdsandindustrywereexposedtothetruevalueofscarcewaterresources,competitionfromprivatelymanagedsewagerecycling,stormwatercaptureanddesalinationbusinesseswouldlikelyincrease(Youngetal,2007b).Thiswouldalsohelpdiversifyandimprovethesecurityofourwatersupplyandisaconceptexploredmorefully later in the chapter under Water pricinganddemandmanagement.

Waterproofing Adelaide (DWLBC, 2005) indicatesthatinanaverageyear230,000ML of stormwater and treated effluent is dischargedintoGulfStVincentandalsothatAdelaide’stotalwaterconsumptionforanaverageyearis216,000ML(ofwhichonly5,000MLaresourcedfrom

Key facts

• Purchasedbottlewaterlevelsinthisstatehaveremainedsteadyat22%since2004,withSouth Australia and Western Australiahavingthehighestproportionofhouseholdspurchasingbottledwateroverall.

• InSouthAustralia8.7%ofhouseholdsreportedtheydidnotdrinkthemainswater,thehighestsuchproportionnationally.

• Nationwide19.3%ofhouseholdssourcedwaterfromarainwatertankin2007.InSouth Australia that figure stood at45.4%ofhouseholds,risingto69.2%ofhouseholdsoutsideAdelaide.Althoughhigherthanthenationalaverage,thestatewide figure represents a dropfrom53.5%in1998.

• AlsodeclininginSouthAustraliaisthepercentageofhouseholdsusingrainwaterastheirprimarysourceofdrinkingwater–downfrom36.7%in1994to22.0%2007.

• SouthAustralianhouseholds(9.7%)areamongthelowestusersofgreywaterfortheirmainsourceofgardeningwatercomparedwithVictoriaat41%andthenationalaverageof25.9%.

• Aneightminuteshowerwitha water efficient showerhead useslessthan72litres,orabout40%lesswaterthanaregularshowerhead.Newwater efficient dual flush toilets generallyuselessthanfourlitresper flush, a third of that for a normal single flush toilet.

Water


stormwaterandwastewater).ThisclearlydemonstratesthatAdelaide’swatersupplycouldlargelybemetbyreuseofstormwaterandwastewater(seeFigure6.37).

Insomenon-urbanareasthereisincreasinguseofmainswaterbytheagriculturalsectorwhosewaterallocationshavebeenreducedasaresultofdrought.Thisinturnputspressureon SA Water’s entitlements, especially fromtheRiverMurray.

Similarissuesarenowbeingseenwithborewatersupplies.Depletedwatertablesacrossthestatearecausingpreviousborewateruserstoresorttomainswateruse.

HUMAN SETTLEMENT

What is the current situation ?

CONDITION INDICATORS

• Quality of mains water assessed against water quality guidelines

ThequalityofmainswaterinSouthAustraliaisassessedagainsttheAustralianDrinking Water Guidelines.

• Freshwater algal blooms in water sources

Ameasureoftheincreasedstressonwatersuppliesfrompollutionfromsurroundinglanduses.

PRESSURE INDICATORS

• Total mains water consumption by sector

Quantifies the volume of mains water usedperyearbymajorwaterusers.

• Per capita consumption

Increasedwaterconsumptionplacespressureontheenvironmentasitfurtherreducestheamountofwateravailableforecosystems.

RESPONSE INDICATORS

• Reuse of treated wastewater

Wastewater reuse can reduce dependencyonfreshwaterreservesandtheimpactofdischargestothesea.

• Urban stormwater reuse versus amount generated

Urban stormwater reuse can reduce our dependencyonfreshwaterreservesandtheimpactofdischargestothesea.

Indicators

Currently,theurbansettlementsofSouthAustraliaareprimarilyreliantontwokeywatersources,theRiverMurrayandtheMountLoftyRanges,withgroundwater,rainwateranddesalinationasminorsources.TheRiverMurraydirectlysupplies26townshipsandaugmentslocalwatersuppliesinthemidnorth,Upper Spencer Gulf, South East and Eyre Peninsula.IndryyearsAdelaideandmuchofSouthAustraliaisheavilyreliantonwaterfromtheMurrayDarlingBasincatchment.

CONDITION INDICATOR: Quality of mains water assessed against water quality guidelines

Salinity

RisingsalinityintheRiverMurrayisacriticalissueforSouthAustraliaandthequalityofdrinkingwaterforthemajorityofthepopulation.BelowaveragerainfallintheMurray-DarlingBasinforthepastdecadehasreducedflows significantly, more recently has increasedsalinityandhasforcedtheclosureofanumberofwetlandstoreduceevaporationlosses(seetheRiver Murraychapter).

SalinitylevelsintheRiverMurraycurrentlymeetdrinkingwaterguidelinesinmostareas.Itisuncertainhowever,whattheimpactwillbeonce the floodplain and disconnected wetlandsreceivewaterandliberateaccumulatedsaltsintothemainchannelattheconclusionoftheextendeddryperiod.

Metropolitan mains water quality

MetropolitanAdelaideissuppliedwithwaterfromsixmajorwatertreatmentplants:AnsteyHill,Barossa,HappyValley,HopeValley,LittlePara;andMyponga.Theseplantstreatwaterstoredintenreservoirs,whichissourcedfromboththeMountLoftyRangesand the River Murray. Water quality ismeasuredbyanumberofmicro-biological,physicalandchemicalindicatorsandassessedagainsttheAustralian Drinking Water Guidelines (theguidelines)(NationalHealthandMedicalResearchCouncil,2004).SouthAustralia’swatersuppliesundergo

99.90%

99.92%

99.94%

99.96%

99.98%

100.00%

2002

/03

2003

/04

2004

/05

2005

/06

2006

/07

%C

om

plia

nc

e

Year

Figure 6.37: Consumption vs wastewater

balance

Figure 6.38: Performance against Australian

drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG 2004),

metropolitan

Echunga STEDS final lagoon pump inlet.

Photo: EPA.

Source: SA Water

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

Consumption Marine Discharge

Source data: Waterproofing Adelaide, DWLBC (2005)

Effluent Discharge Stormwater Discharge


extensivecustomertapsamplingandmonitoringshowsthatmostindicatorsmeettheguidelines(SouthAustralianWater Corporation, 2007).

ThemostcommonandwidespreadhealthriskassociatedwithurbanwaterinSouthAustraliaisthepresenceofmicro-organismssuchasE.coli,CryptosporidiumandGiardia,whichcancausedisease.Theseorganismsareusuallytheresultofcontamination,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,byhumanandanimalfaeces.Between2002-03and2006-07E.coliwasdetectedinthesupplysystemononeoccasionintheAnsteyHillsystemin2002-03,butcompliedwiththeguidelinesonalloccasions.

Therewerenoguidelineinfringementsinrelationtophysicalqualityduringthesameperiod.

ChemicalwaterqualityindicatorscompliedwithnationalguidelineswiththeexceptionofTrihalomethane(THM)concentrations,whichexceededthemonisolatedoccasionsintheBarossasystemduring2003-04andtheMypongasystemduring2006-07.THMsareaby-productofchlorinereactingwithdissolvedorganicmaterialinthewater.

Country mains water quality

Majortreatmentinitiativesbetween2002-03and2006-07haveresultedinsubstantialimprovementsinthequalityofmainswatersuppliedtocommunitiesincountrySouthAustraliaandintheAdelaideHills.Thiswaspartofthestategovernment’sacceleratedCountryWater Improvement Program designed to supply filtered drinking water to a largerregionalarea.Schemesincludethe Mt Pleasant Water Treatment Plant, supplyingwatertothetownsofMtPleasant,SpringtonandEdenValley,andtheKalangadooandLamerooIronremovalplantsinthesouth-east.

ThepercentageofsamplesatcustomertapsthatwerefreeofE. coli stoodat98% in compliance with the ADWG between2002-03to2006-07.

Over the five year period of this report, THMconcentrationshaverarely

exceededguidelinesintheEyrePeninsula(oneoccasion),OuterMetroNorth(three)andRiverland(eight),andoccasionallyintheOuterMetropolitanSouth(23)andKangarooIsland(54)regions.

With regard to physical indicators, turbidity(cloudiness)isanissueforsomesmallcountrytownships,especiallythoseintheRiverlandandOuterMetropolitanregions. These areas rely on an unfiltered, disinfectedsupplyfromtheRiverMurray.HardnessandsaltconcentrationsarealsocommonissuesintheSouthEastandEyrePeninsularegionsduetothenatureoflocalgroundwater.

CONDITION INDICATOR: Freshwater algal blooms in water sources

Oneofthegreatestnaturalriskstorawwaterqualityistheabundanceofcyanobacteria,commonlyknownasbluegreenalgae.Cyanobacteriaarenaturallyoccurringorganismsthatundercertainconditionsthriveandmaydominateawaterbody.

ThemostcommoncyanobacterialspeciesinSouthAustraliaisAnabaenacircinalis, which can fix nitrogen from theatmosphereandhasacompetitiveadvantageovergreenalgalspecies.Oneofthemaincomponentsthatlimitsthegrowthofcyanobacteriaistheavailabilityofphosphorus.

AsreservoircatchmentareasinSouthAustraliaareaffectedbynumerouslanduses,includingagriculture,forestryandurbanliving,controllingtheamountofphosphorusgeneratedfromtheseland uses is difficult. There have been a numberofinteragencyprojectsworkingwith landholders over the past five years toaddressissuessurroundingnutrientgenerationandrun-offfromlanduseactivities.Adecreaseinphosphorousladenrun-offwillhelpreducetheoccurrenceofcyanobacterialbloomsand will also benefit farmers and forestry throughreducedneedforfertilisers.

Analgal‘bloom’inadrinkingwatersupplyoccurswhenalgalcellnumbersexceed500cells/mL.Atthisconcentration it is difficult to see any algalcellsinrawwaterhowever,thislevel

Figure 6.39: Performance against Australian

Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG 2004),

non-metropolitan

Source: SA Water

Source: SA Water

Source: SA Water

Source: SA Water

Figure 6.40: Reservoir algal blooms

Figure 6.41: River Murray algal blooms

Application Of Copper Sulphate To Reservoirs2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07

No. of times copper sulphate applied 11 14 12 13 6

Table 6.7: Application of copper sulphate to reservoirs

Water

99.0%

99.2%

99.4%

99.6%

99.8%

100.0%

2002

/03

2003

/04

2004

/05

2005

/06

2006

/07

%C

om

plia

nc

e

Year

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

35

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Year

No

.o

fblo

om

s>

500

ce

lls

2002

Reservoir Blooms

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

35

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Year

No

.o

fblo

om

s>

500c

ell

Murray Blooms

2002


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

doesindicatetheremaybesomeimpactonwaterquality.Duringthe2002-07reportingperiodcyanobacteriaalgalcellcountsgreaterthan500cells/mLweredetected 53 times in SA Water reservoirs, andafurther100occasionsalongtheRiverMurray.AlthoughtherawdataindicatestheoccurrenceofbloomsintheMurrayisincreasing,thismaybeskewedbyanincreaseinthenumberofsamplestakenoverthepasttwoyears.

ThemostcommonspeciesinbothreservoirsandtheRiverMurraywasAnabaena circinalis.Thisspeciesiseasytodetectandwhenpresentinhighnumberswillimpartatasteandodourtothewaterthatcontainsit.Thismakesthewatertasteearthy.Acyanobacterialspecies,Cylindrospermopsisraciborskiithatwasformerlyconsideredtobeatropicaltosub-tropicalspeciesisnowbeingfoundintheSouthAustralianreachoftheMurraymostlikelyduetotheimpactofclimatechange.Thisspeciesisconsiderablyhardertodetectandworkisunderwaytogainabetterunderstandingofitandhowitspresencemayimpactonwaterquality.

Between2002/03to2005/06,thenumberof copper dosing events in SA Water reservoirswasconsistentlyabove10peryear.In2006-07sawaconsiderabledropinthenumberofcopperdosingeventsandthiscanbeattributedto:

• LowerrainfallintheMountLoftyRangesandMurrayDarlingBasinCatchments,resultinginlowernutrientconcentrationsbeingpresentinboth SA Water reservoirs and the watertransferredtothereservoirsfrom the River Murray. Water clarity hasimprovedasaresult,whichmayencouragealgalgrowthduetoanincreaseinavailablesunlightinthewatercolumn.

• A commitment from SA Water to reducecopperusetominimisetheimpact on the environment. SA Water recognisesthatcoppersulphatehasenvironmentalimplications,affectingnon-targetspeciesandiscurrentlytriallingalternativemethodsofalgalcontrol.MypongaReservoirwasthe first reservoir in which algae was successfullycontrolledwithouttheuseofcoppersulphate.Thisoutcomewasduetoarethinkoftheoperationofthereservoirandtreatmentplantduringabloom.Actionincludedharvestingwaterfromthebottomofthereservoirinsteadofnearthesurfaceandtheinstallationofa

geotextilecurtaintoisolatethealgalbreedingarea.Thatbreedingareanowcontainsahealthypopulationofzooplankton,whichnaturallypredateonbluegreenalgae.Asanumberofreservoirandtreatmentbarriersareinplacetostopanytasteandodourissuesinthepublicwatersupply,thenewdirectioninalgalmanagementhasprovenasuccessfulalternativetocoppersulphate.

• Alargeincreaseinthecostofcopper,makingiteconomicallyfeasibletodealwithalgalbloomsusingalternativemethods.

While these three factors may vary in thefuture,themoveawayfromcoppersulphateforalgalmanagementwillcontinue as SA Water seeks to deal with the issues at the source. Working with othergovernmentagenciessuchastheEPA,DairySAandlandownersisanimportantcomponentofensuringthatexternal influences on algal growth are minimised.

ThechallengeofprovidingSouthAustraliancommunitieswithsecurewatersupplies,whileensuringthelongtermsustainabilityofwaterresourcesandecosystemsiscompoundedbyclimaticvariabilityandclimatechange.

Continuingdroughtconditionsexperiencedin2006-07resultingin record low inflows to the Murray DarlingBasinandwithdroughtalsoaffectingtheMountLoftycatchmentareathereareunprecedentedpressuresonthestate’smajorwaterresources.Inadditiontopermanentwaterconservationmeasures,waterrestrictionswereputinplaceacrossSouthAustralia.Thecommunityhasrespondedpositivelytotheserestrictionsconservingbillionsoflitresofwater.

OtherchallengestotheprovisionofasustainablewatersupplyforSouthAustraliaincludetheprojectedincreaseindemandforwaterinurbansettlementswithpopulationgrowthandtheimpactofclimatechange,thelattercontributingtoadeclineinrunofffromourcatchmentsinthelongterm.Projectionsofclimatechangesuggestthataveragetemperaturesandevaporationsrateswillriseand

What are the pressures?Recycled water plant for use in Mawson Lakes.

Photos: Steven Mudge.


averagerainfallwillfall,increasinginthefrequencyofdroughtsandsevereweatherevents.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Total mains water consumption by sector

Mainswaterissuppliedtohouseholds,businesses,industry,agriculture,publicinstitutions,andpublicutilities.Figure6.42showsthepercentageoftotalmainswaterusagebymajorsectorsin2006-07forSouthAustralia.Around66%ofallmainswatersuppliedtourbansettlementsisusedinhouseholds.

Between2000-01and2006-07,annualmainswaterconsumptionfortheresidential,commercial,agricultural,andindustrialsectorshasbeenrelativelyconstantexceptfor2002-03whenSouthAustraliaexperiencedaseveredroughtandtotalconsumptionroseapproximately10%(seeFigure6.43).

PermanentwaterconservationmeasureswereintroducedinOctober2003andwerefollowedbyLevel2waterrestrictionsinOctober2006andLevel3water restrictions in January 2007. Water consumptionin2006-07wasreducedbyapproximately10%comparedtothe previous five year average, with the residentialsectorbeingresponsibleforthemajorityofthissaving.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Per capita consumption of mainswater

SouthAustralia’shouseholdwaterconsumptionpercapitaisthirdlowestofallstatesandterritoriesat258L/person/dayin2004-05downfrom301L/person/dayin2000-01(seeFigure6.44).Thenationalaveragein200405was282L/person/day(ABS,2006a,b).Morerecentnon-ABSdata,fromSAWater, indicates that this dropped even furtherto246L/person/dayin2006-07.Ofthishouseholdwateruse,accordingtothe Waterproofing Adelaide document morethan50%ofhouseholduseinSouthAustraliaisforactivitiessuchasgardenand outdoor water use and toilet flushing thatcouldutilisenonpotablewater.

Figure6.45illustratesthechangesindailypercapitaconsumption(includingcommercial,industrialandresidentialsectors)intheAdelaidemetropolitanarea. The figures for average per capita consumptionhavereducedquitesteadilysince2002-03.Inthatyeartheaveragepercapitaconsumptionwas454Lperday,by2005-06theaverage

haddecreasedto374Lperdaybutin2006-07therewasaslightincreaseto388Lperday.

The Waterproofing Adelaide strategy wasintroducedin2005andtargetsa47GLperannumreductioninpotablewaterdemandby2025comparedtotheprojectedbusinessasusualdemand.Implementationofthisstrategyshouldcontributetoafurtherreductioninthepercapitaconsumptionofmainswateroverthecomingyears.

An example of Waterproofing Adelaide atworkwastheintroductionfrom1July2006,oftherequirementforallnewSouthAustralianhomes(includingsomeextensionsandalterations)tohaverainwatertanksplumbedintointernalservicessuchastoilets,waterheatersorwateroutletsinlaundries.Anotherexamplewastheannouncementofa$24millionrebateschemefromtheSouthAustralianGovernment.Theprogrambeganon1November2007andwillincludeapackageofincentivesdesignedtoaccelerateindoorwatersavingplans,providinganestimated5,200ML/year(5.2GL/year)ofindoorwatersavingsby2010.Therebatepackagecoversshowerheads,homewateraudits,gardensmartproducts,washing machines and dual flush toilets.

Water pricing and demand management

Currentlywatersuppliedacrossthestateby SA Water is uniformly priced. The residentialpricingstructureisbasedona fixed service charge and a two-tier volumebasedcharge.In2007-08theservice charge was set at $39.35, the first tier(0-125kL)at$0.50/kLandthesecondtier(additionalconsumptionabove125kL)at$1.16/kL.Commercialandothernonresidentialcustomerspayaslightlyhigherservicecharge,butthevolumetricchargesarethesameasforresidentialusers.

Thetwo-tieredapproachispremisedonsupplyinganaffordablebasewatersupplyandthosewhousemorethanthispayahigherrate.Theresultisacross-subsidyfromlargewaterusinghouseholdstothosewhouseless(Youngetal,2007a).Thiswouldbesensibleifallhouseholdshadthesamenumberofpeopleresidinginthemhoweverthisisnotthecaseandasaresultfamiliesareeffectivelysubsidisinghouseholdswithfewerpeopleinthem.Thisisparticularlysignificant to those families in lower socio-economiccircumstances.Ithas

Residential

Commercial

Industrial

AgriculturalOther (public institutions, public utilities, mining and recreation)

5%

9%

66%6%

15%

Source: SA Water

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

2006-07

160,000

140,000

120,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

0

ML

Residential

Agricultural

Industrial Commercial

Other (public institutions,public utilities, miningand recreation)

Source: SA Water

Figure 6.42: Percentage of mains water used

by sector 2006/07

Figure 6.43: Annual mains water consumption

by sector

Water


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

beensuggestedthatauniformpricingstructureinassociationwith(perperson)rebatesorrebatesonlyforthoseinneedwould be more equitable. Using separate policyinstrumentstoachieveequityandconservationisnecessary(Younget al, 2007a).

Thecurrentpricingstructuredoesnotreflect the true cost of water supply, whichvariesconsiderablyacrossthestatewhenconsideringdifferencesinpumpingandtreatmentcosts,aswellasexternalitiessuchastheimpactonsourceenvironments.Thepricingstructurealsoprovidesminimalincentivetoreducewaterconsumption.

Under this essentially fixed price arrangementtheonlyoptionavailabletoreduceconsumptionintimesofwaterscarcityisthroughtheimplementationofrestrictionsasiscurrentlythecase.Consumerspaythesame,butgetlessaccesstowaterandexperienceconsiderableinconvenienceasthelevelofrestrictionsincrease(Young et al,2007b).

Theserestrictionsareappliedequallytoindividualswhohaveimplementedefficiencies and use relatively low volumesofwaterandtothosewhoare profligate users. Alternative pricing systemsshouldbeconsideredthattakeintoconsiderationscarcitypricingsignals,are market driven, and therefore reflect thetruecostofwatersupply.


SA Water’s Drinking Water Quality Policy 2006statesthatitwill”implement and maintain a Drinking Water Quality Management System consistent with the ADWG Framework to adequately manage risk to drinking water quality and improve performance against aesthetic drinking water criteria”.

SA Water takes a holistic catchment-to-tapapproach,includingprotectionofreservoircatchmentareasandincreasingthehealthofaquaticecosystems.Higherqualitysourcewaterreducesrelianceonchemicaluseforalgalcontrolandintreatment,andreducescosts.Currentactivitiesincludeaddressingdiffusepollution,restrictinglandusesthatmayaffectwaterqualitythroughrunoffofpollutantsandsediments,ongroundactivitiessuchasrevegetation

ofcatchmentareastoimprovesourcewaterquality,andeducationoflandholders.

Recognisingtheneedforactiontowaterproofthestate,in2005theSouthAustralianGovernmentreleasedWaterproofing Adelaide: a Thirst for Change strategy 2005-2025,whichincludes 63 specific strategies to manage existingresources,addressresponsiblewateruse,reduceconsumptionandinvestigateadditionalwatersuppliesandinnovativesolutionsforasustainablesupplywellintothefuture.As a complement to Waterproofing Adelaide,anumberofworkinggroupsandtaskforceshavebeenappointedtoexploreshortandlong-termwatermanagementstrategies.Byimplementingarangeofstrategicinitiativesandutilisingarangeofwater-relatedpractices,thestatecanaddressthechallengesfacedinsustainableuseofwaterinurbansettlementsandachieveoutcomesthat benefit the environment, society andeconomy.

RESPONSE INDICATOR: Reuse of treated wastewater

Reuseofurbanstormwaterandtreatedwastewater,primarilyforirrigatingparks,gardens,vineyardsandhorticulturalcropsandindustry,providesopportunitiestoreducedemandontraditionalwatersources.

Metropolitan area

In2006-07Adelaide’sfourmajormetropolitanwastewatertreatmentplants (WWTPs) treated 85,000 ML of wastewater.Ofthetreatedwastewaterproduced,29.7%(25,129ML)wasreusedandtherest(around60,480ML)wasdischargedintothesea.

ThereuseoftreatedwastewaterfromAdelaide’s metropolitan WWTPs is graduallyincreasing,upfromaround7.6%(5,744ML)in1995tothecurrentlevelofabout29.7%in2006-07.SouthAustraliaisaninternationalleaderindevelopingthetechnologytoreusetreatedwastewaterandstormwaterandmoreopportunitiesareunderdevelopmenttoincreasethisincluding:

• Upgrading of the Glenelg WWTP and piping1,300ML/yearofrecycledwaterfromGlenelgtotheAdelaideParklandscommencingsummer2011.

• ExtendingtheVirginiaPipelineScheme from the Bolivar WWTP to


provideanadditional3,000ML/yearforhorticultureintheAngleValearea,commencingsummer2009.

• Providingforupto4,400MLofadditionalreusefromupgradingtheChristies Beach WWTP and extending recycled water mains in the Willunga Basinarea.Timingofthisissubjecttocommercialarrangements.

TheSouthAustralianGovernment,incooperationwiththeprivatesector,developedthewastewaterreusescheme at Bolivar WWTP in 1999, the largestofitskindinAustralia.In2006-07,40%ofalltreatedwastewaterproducedfrom the Bolivar WWTP was piped to theVirginiaregion(anincreaseof15%overthepreviousyear).ThisrecycledwatersupplementscurrentgroundwaterresourcesatVirginiaandsupportsahorticulturalexportmarket.

RecycledwaterisalsobeingpipedfromBolivartotheMawsonLakesresidentialdevelopmentwhereitismixedwithtreatedstormwatersuppliedbySalisburyCouncil to be used for toilet flushing andwateringgardensandpublicopenspaces.

The Glenelg WWTP achieved 9% reuse ofitstreatedwastewaterin2006-07andnowsuppliesClassArecycledwatertotheAdelaideAirport.TheChristiesBeachWWTP supplied around 35% of its treated wastewaterforreusein2006-07.TreatedwastewaterfromtheChristiesBeachWWTP is piped by a privately funded irrigation pipeline to the Willunga Basin tosupplementthearea’sgroundwatersuppliesandwillallowexpansionoftheviticultureindustry.

Metropolitanreusein2006-07increasedsignificantly from the previous year duetoadditionaldemandinboththeVirginiahorticultureareaandtheWillunga Basin viticulture area resulting fromtheprolongeddrought.

Theseconditionshaveledtothe2006-07reusepercentagesbeing8.3%higherthan the previous five year average.

Country areas

SA Water’s 20 country-based WWTPs treated a total of 10,000 ML of effluent in 2006-07.Intotal,around19%wasreused,58%wasdischargedtoseaand23%wasdischargedtoinlandriversandstreams.Reuseoftreatedwastewaterfromcountry WWTPs is starting to increase as additionalschemesarecommissioned,such as Victor Harbor and Whyalla

whererecycledwaterisbeingusedtoirrigatepublicopenspaceandgolfcourses.

AllofthetreatedwastewaterproducedfromtheGumeracha,Mannum,MurrayBridge and Myponga WWTPs is reused forpurposesincludingirrigationandwetlanddevelopment.Summerreuseat Millicent and Bird-in-Hand WWTPs commencedin2001-02.AsewerminingschemeinPortAugustatosupplyrecycled water to playing fields began operationinearly2007.

RESPONSE INDICATOR: Urban stormwater reuse compared to available runoff volumes

Stormwaterissurfacewaterrunoffgeneratedbyrainfallinginurbanisedareasincludingfrom:

• Surfacessuchasdomestic,industrialandcommercialroofs

• Impermeablesurfacessuchasdriveways,footpaths,roadsandcarparks

• Unpaved surfaces such as gardens andurbanparks.

Localgovernmentgenerallymanagesstormwater.Traditionally,stormwateriseithercollectedonsiteintanksoriscapturedinadrainagenetworkthattransportsittowatercourses,andinthecaseofAdelaide,foreventualdischargetothemarineenvironment.Recentwatershortagesandrecognitionofthelikelyadverseimpactofclimatechangehaveledtoagradualadoptionofinnovativetechniquesforcollecting,treatingandreusingstormwater.

Collectively referred to as Water Sensitive Urban Design, these techniques include creationofurbanwetlandsandwherepossibleassociatedaquiferstorageandrecoveryschemes,useofpermeablepaving,undergroundwaterstoragetanks,andtheuseofvegetatedswalesalongroadsidesinplaceoftraditionalgutters.

Reuseofstormwatercanreducepressureonnaturalwaterresources.ItisapotentiallyvaluablewaterresourceforbothmetropolitanAdelaide,wheremostofSouthAustralia’sstormwaterisgenerated,andregionalcommunitieswithlimitedaccesstogoodqualitynaturalwaterresources.

Thereisconsiderablevariabilityintheseasonalandannualvolumesofstormwateranddirectmeasurement

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Water


HUMAN SETTLEMENT

ofrunoffvolumesisnotpossible.Consequentlytheamountsofstormwatercollectedareindirectlyestimated.Arecentassessmentsuggeststhatanaverageof87GL/yrofstormwaterisgeneratedintheAdelaideandMountLoftyRangesNaturalResourcesManagement(AMLRNRM)region(AMLRNRMBoard2007andGovernmentofSouthAustralia,2005).

If the definition of stormwater is expandedfromthatabovetoincludesurfacerunofffromnonurbanareas,thetotalaverageannualdischargeofrunoffto Gulf St Vincent is significantly higher, intheorderof160GL/yr(GovernmentofSouthAustralia,2005).Stormwatervolumesgeneratedinurbanareasvaryaccordingtofactorssuchasthedegreeofurbanisation(impermeablearea),localclimateandrainfallpatterns.Thestate’saverageannualvolumeofstormwaterrunofffromallurbanisedareasincludingAdelaide,butexcludingrunofffromruralareasisindicativelyabout120GL/yr.

Stormwaterreusecanoccurineitheraplannedmannersuchasbyaquiferstorageandrecovery(ASR)schemesorrainwatertanks,orindirectly.StormwaterASRinvolvescapturinglargequantitiesofotherwiseunusedstormwaterandtemporarilystoringitinundergroundaquifersforlaterreuseduringtimesofdemand.Insomesituations,thewatersourcemaybewatercoursesthatconveybothurbanstormwaterandruralrunoff.

AtypicalcurrentaverageinjectionvolumeofexistingASRschemesintheAMLRNRMregionisabout2.5GL/yr(AMLRNRMBoard,2007).Anestimatedaverageof1GL/yrofdomesticroofrunoffisalsocapturedandusedfromdomesticrainwatertanks.Significant sites of planned ASR stormwater reuseintheAdelaideregionincludeParafield Airport, Kaurna Park, Andrews Farm, Morphettville Racecourse, Northfield andRegentGardens.116sitesintheAdelaideandtheMountLoftyRangesregionareeitheroperationalorhavebeenassessedfortheirASRpotential(AMLRNRMBoard,2007).

StormwaterrunofffromsomeMountLoftyRangessettlementscontributesto flows to Adelaide’s water storage reservoirs,representingaformofindirectreuse.LikewiseMountGambier’sBlueLake,whichsupplieswatertotheregion,isrechargedinpartbystormwaterinfiltration.

Thevariouslevelsofgovernmentandtheprivatesectoraredrivingorsupporting

initiativestoreuseurbanstormwater.SomemajorASRstormwaterreuseinitiativesarebeingleadbylocalgovernment,forexampletheCitiesofSalisbury,PlayfordandTeaTreeGully.Theseareoftenincollaborationwithlocalindustry,stateandFederalgovernments,naturalresourcesmanagersand/orresearchbodies.ASRfacilitiesarealsoincorporatedinsomenewerurbansubdivisions,suchasRegentGardens,NorthgateandNewHaven

Policy and Programs

Water Proofing Adelaide – a Thirst for Change 2005-2025providestheblueprintformanagingwateruseinmetropolitanAdelaideandadjacentareas.Itincludesstrategiesformanagingexistingwaterresources,encouragingresponsiblewateruse,supportingadditionalsuppliesincludingstormwater,andfosteringinnovation. Water Proofing Adelaide takesaccountofchallengespresentedbytheimpactofclimatechangeandpopulationgrowthsuchaswaterscarcityandtheneedforgreatercommunityengagementinwaterconservationinhomes.

Thisplanaimstoincreasestormwaterusefromlargescaleprojectsby11GLperyear.Italsoaimstosave4GLannuallybyrequiringrainwatertankstobeplumbedintomostnewhomes.Water sensitive urban development isalsoexpectedtoencouragethesubstitutionofanadditional2GLofmainswaterperyearbystormwaterand/orrecycledwater.

Inaddition,thestategovernmentmadeanelectioncommitmentduringthe2006electioncampaignto develop a broad waterproofing strategyforregionalandruralSouthAustralia,tofollowalongthelinesofthe Water Proofing Adelaide strategy. Developmentofthisstrategywillconsideractionstomeetlongtermgoalsthroughmanagementofexistingresources,responsiblewateruseandadditional supplies. DWLBC is the lead agencyforthedevelopmentofthestrategyanditisintendedthatitbeundertakeninconsultationwithNaturalResourcesManagementandRegionalDevelopmentBoards.

In2004SouthAustraliasignedanInter-governmentalAgreementonaNationalWater Initiative. One consequence hasbeentheestablishmentofthe$2

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billion Australian Government Water Fund,amajorelementofwhichistheWater Smart Australia Programme. Major waterproofing projects are being funded underpartnershiparrangementsandwith some support from Water Smart Australia,includetheWaterproofing Northern Adelaide and the Metropolitan Adelaide Stormwater Reuse Projects.

Waterproofing Northern Adelaide is a $90.2millionprojectinitiatedbynorthernAdelaidecouncils,theCitiesofSalisbury,Playford,andTeaTreeGully.Thecouncils,stateandfederalgovernments,andtheprivatesectorarefundingtheproject.Itwillresultinthereplacementwithtreatedstormwaterof12.1GLannuallyofdrinkingwaterthatiscurrentlyusedforindustrialandurbanirrigation.ThestormwaterwillbeinjectedintoandlaterdrawnfromtheNorthernAdelaidePlainsaquiferfornon-potableusesreducingtheregion’sdependenceonmainswaterby6%.Theprojectwillalsosubstitute1.2GLofwaterayearthatiscurrentlysourcedfromstressedgroundwatersystemsandrechargeafurther5GLayeartolocalover-allocatedaquifers.Therewillbeareductioninpollutantsenteringtheocean,helpingtopreservemarineecosystemsincludingfragileseagrasscommunities.

Anadditionalcomponentofthisprojectisresearchtodemonstratethepotentialforaquiferstorage,transferandrecovery,wherebystormwaterisinjectedintoanaquiferwiththeintentionofrecoveringwater fit for human consumption. This researchisbeingcarriedoutusingtheexisting Parafield Airport Stormwater HarvestingFacility.

The$6.91millionMetropolitan Adelaide Stormwater Reuse Project willsave1GLofwaterperyearbyusingstormwatertoreplacetheuseofgroundwater.Wetland areas are being constructed at theGrange,RoyalAdelaideandGlenelggolf clubs to act as filters for urban and pollutedstormwaterthatwouldotherwiserunintotheGulfSt.Vincent.Oncethewater has been naturally filtered via the wetlands,itistobereusedforirrigation.TheAMLRNRMBoardismanagingtheproject,whichisjointlyfundedbythefederalgovernment($2.76million),stategovernment($2.35million)andthethreegolfclubs($1.8million).

The Institutionalising Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) project aims toensurewaterfriendlydesignwillbeincorporatedintoallofGreater

Adelaide’ssuburbs,housesandcommercialandindustrialprecinctsandbuildings.

Thestategovernmentproject,ledbyPlanningSA,isinvestigatinghowtoformalise WSUD principles and ensure bestpracticeisappliedtoallformsofurbandevelopmentintheGreaterAdelaideregion.

For the purposes of this project, WSUD relatestoallwaterresourcesfromwhole-of-catchmentleveltodwellingandallotmentscale,includingsurfacewater,groundwater,urbanandroofrunoff,andsewage.

Theprojectobjectivesaretoeconomicallyandsafely:

• improvewaterquality

• minimisetheuseofpotable(mains)water

• maximisewaterreuse

• reducepollution

• reduce peak flows and flood risk

• restoreandmaintainwaterfortheenvironment

• providevisualandpotentialrecrea-tional benefits in local communities.

The application of WSUD is not constrainedtoprivatedevelopment.Italsoappliestoandrequiresintegrationwith,workscarriedoutonpubliclandssuchasroadsandopenspace.

ReceivingpartialfundingfromtheAustralianGovernment’sNationalHeritageTrustitisbeingjointlymanagedbythefederalDepartmentofEnvironment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,aspartoftheCommonwealth’sCoastalCatchmentInitiative.AdditionalfundingisbeingprovidedbyarangeofstategovernmentagenciesandtheLocalGovernmentAssociationofSouthAustralia(LGA).

Thestategovernment’srainwatertankpolicyrequiresmostnewhomesaswellashouses undergoing significant renovation tohavearainwatercollectionsysteminstalledandplumbedintothehome.Thepolicycameintoeffecton1July2006.Atthesametime,thegovernmentintroducedarainwatertankrebatescheme,providing$0.5millionperyeartoassistwiththeinstallationofplumbedrainwatersupplysystemsinexistinghomes.Theseinitiativescombinedareexpectedtosavemorethan4GLayearby2025.

Mini-hydro schemeA joint venture between SA Water andHydroTasmania,theminihydroprojectatHopeValleyTerminalStoragehasbeeninsuccessfuloperationsincethe12September2003.

Thistechnologyharnessestheenergythatiscreatedwithinthewater supply system when filtered waterproducedattheAnsteyHillWater Treatment Plant gravitates some143metrestotheterminalstoragetankfordistributiontothecommunity.

Until the energy was used to poweranelectricitygeneratingturbine,itwaswastedthroughadissipatervalve.Theelectricityproducedisfedbackintothegrid,providingabout6,000megawattsperyearofrenewablegreenenergyforupto1,000homesacrossthestate.

Source:TacklingClimateChangeinSouthAustraliawww.climatechange.sa.gov.au/research/energy3.htm

Water



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Inrecognitionoftheneedtoensurethesafetyofstormwaterreuse,NationalGuidelines for Water Recycling will includemodulesforstormwaterreuseincludingbymanagedaquiferstorageand recovery. The first phase of the Guidelines,whichfocusesonmanagingthehealthandenvironmentalrisksofsewage effluent and greywater, was completedinlate2006.Phasetwo,coveringstormwaterreuse,managedaquiferrechargeandrecycledwaterfordrinkingiscurrentlyindraft.

In2006,thestategovernmentandtheLGAenteredintoanagreementonstormwatermanagement.Theagreementoutlinesactionstobetakenbystateandlocalgovernmentandotherswhenmanagingstormwater.TheagreementledtotheproclamationoftheLocal Government (Stormwater Management) Amendment Act 2007, whichtookeffecton1July2007.TheActestablishesthelegalframeworkfornewstormwatergovernancearrangementsforthejointmanagementofstormwatersystemsthroughoutthestate.

TheActestablishestheStormwaterManagementAuthoritytobringstateandlocalgovernmenttogethertomaximiseoutcomesthroughfundsinvestedinstormwatermanagementbybothlevelsofgovernment.

TheActrequiresfundingforprioritystormwaterworkstobebasedonwhole-of-catchmentstormwatermanagement

TheEnvironmentalProtectionAuthorityrecommendsthefollowing:

R6.7 Move to a user pays system that reflects the true cost of water and provides anincentiveforreduceddemand

Waterproofing Northern Adelaide, Wetlands

and stormwater harvesting project.

Photos: Monica Moss.

plans.ThelegislationenablesfundstobeusedtocarryoutworksandpreparestormwatermanagementplansbasedonstormwatermanagementplanningguidelinesapprovedbytheNaturalResourcesManagementCouncil.Aspartoftheagreementwithlocalgovernment,thestategovernmenthascommittedfundingof$4millionperyearindexedfor30years.


R6.15

Growing Prosperity T1.1, T1.14, T1.22

Improving Wellbeing

Attaining Sustainability T3.5, T3.7, T3.9, T3.10, T3.11




ForfurtherdetailonSouthAustralia’s Strategic Planvisitwww.stateplan.sa.gov.au


Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Region State of the Region Report (Final Draft, 2007).AdelaideandMountLoftyRangesNaturalResourcesManagementBoard,GovernmentofSouthAustralia.

Environmental Issues: People’s Views and Practices. Cat No. 4602.0(March2004).ABSCanberra.

Australian Demographic Statistics, Dec 2005, cat. no. 3101.0,(2006a)ABS,Canberra.

Water Account, Australia 2004-05. Cat No. 4610.0.ABS(2006b).Canberra.

Water Proofing Adelaide – A thirst for change 2005-2025,(2005)GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (2004).NationalHealthandMedicalCouncil, CITY?.

Annual Report 2007.SouthAustralianWater Corporation, Government of SouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Drinking Water Quality Report 2006. South Australian Water Corporation, GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Wilkinson, J. (2005) Reconstruction of Historical Stormwater Flows in the Adelaide Metropolitan Area. TechnicalReportNo.10preparedforthe Adelaide Coastal Waters Study SteeringCommittee,September2005.DepartmentofEnvironmentalHealth,Flinders University of SA.

Young,M.,McColl,J.,(2007a), Droplet No.10 – Pricing your water: Is there a smart way to do it? www.myoung.net.au/water/droplets.php

Young,M.,McColl,J.,Fisher,T.,(2007b),Droplet No.5 – Urban water pricing: How might an urban water trading scheme work?, www.myoung.net.au/water/droplets.php

References Fur ther in format ion

Greenfields Wetlands, Salisbury.

Photo: Steven Mudge.

Water

Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au

SA Water www.sawater.sa.gov.au/sawater

Water Proofing Adelaide www.waterproofingadelaide.sa.gov.au

Murray Darling Basin Commission www.mdbc.gov.au

Local Government Association www.lga.sa.gov.au

Australian Drinking Water Guidelines www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/eh19syn.htm

National Water Initiative www.nwc.gov.au/nwi/index.cfm

National Guidelines for Water Recycling www.ephc.gov.au/ephc/water_recycling.html

R6.15

Growing Prosperity T1.1, T1.14, T1.22

Improving Wellbeing

Attaining Sustainability T3.5, T3.7, T3.9, T3.10, T3.11





HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Trends

Goals

Mater ia l Consumpt ion, Recovery and Waste

Material Consumption, Recovery and Waste and a sustainable South Australia

• MaterialsConsumption:asdemon-stratedbypercapitawastegeneration, INCREASED by4.8%between2003-04and2006-07.

• Amount of solid waste sent to landfill: DECREASING.

• ResourceRecovery:INCREASING.

• Liquidwaste: DECREASING.

• Participationinrecyclingofhouseholdwaste:UP since2003,a20.6%increaseintheperiod2004-2006.

• Litter: INCREASEDsince2003withpeakincidencesin2004and2005.

• Amountofhazardouswastecollectedandtreated:UP61%since2003,duetoadditionalcollectionpoints.

• Beveragecontainerreturnrates:STEADYsince2003.

T3.8 Zero waste: reduce waste to landfill by25%by2014.


Waste is material discarded, used up orleftoverinthecourseofindustrial,commercial,domesticandotheractivities. This has become a significant mainstreamcommunity,environmentalandpoliticalissue.Societiesworldwidearegrapplingwiththeissuesassociatedwithwastegeneratedbyhumanactivity.

Awarenessisgrowingthatnewandbetterlandfill sites or other technical solutions are awayoftreatingthesymptomsofwaste

ratherthantreatingtheproblem.Broaderissuessuchastheneedforsustainableresourceuse,thehazardsoftoxicwastesand the need to regulate landfill design andoperationhavebecomeincreasinglyimportant.

SouthAustraliadoesnothavetheproblemofhighpopulationdensitiesandlimitedspace for landfills demonstrated in other countries.However,therearelimitedenvironmentallyandsociallyacceptablelocations for landfill facilities and other treatmenttechnologies.Thiscreatesplanning difficulties due to the need to accommodatenewresourcerecoveryinfrastructuredevelopmentwithinthemetropolitanareaanditsadjoiningurban–ruralinterface.

Concurrentwithitswastemanagementissues,SouthAustralia’sgrowingeconomyanditsincreasingpopulationcreatearisingdemandforthegoodsandservicesprovidedbybusinesses,industriesandgovernments.ThemaindriversofwastegenerationinSouthAustraliaareeconomicgrowth,urbanrenewal,thetrendoffewerpeopleinmoredwellings,andcommunitybehaviour.Ourconsumptionpatternsatpresenttendtobelinear:weconsumenaturalresourcestomakeproductsorprovideservicesandwasteisgeneratedasanendresult.

Societyclearlyneedstochangeitsattitudetoavoiding,reducing,re–usingandrecyclingwasteratherthansimplytreatinganddisposingofit.SouthAustraliaisnowworkingtowardsagoalofzerowaste,whichforcesourattentiontothewhole lifecycle of products. This flows throughtheconceptsofeco–design,extendedproducerresponsibility(EPR),wastereduction,re–useandrecycling,andreducedmaterialconsumptionratherthanthepreviouslydescribedlinearmodel.Minimisingwastewillimproveoureconomic,socialandenvironmentalwellbeing.

Reduce consumption and waste to landfill

Waste reduction targets within South Australia’sStrategicPlanseektoaddresstheenvironmental,socialandeconomiceffectsassociatedwiththedisposalofwaste to landfill. These are outlined below.

Pollution of land, air and water

Poorwastemanagementpracticescanleadtothepollutionofsurfaceandgroundwaterresourcesandhabitatsthroughleachatemovement,air

Recycling conveyor at MRF.

Photo: Zero Waste SA.


pollution,generationofgreenhousegasesthrough landfilling, site contamination, litter,generationofodoursandresiduesassociatedwithnewtechnologies.

Hazardous waste

Theimproperdisposalofhazardouswasteto landfill, stormwater drains, surface and undergroundwaterresources,orseweragesystemscanharmtheenvironmentaswellascauseinjuryorharmtohumansandotherorganisms.Examplesofhazardouswasteincludeusedmotoroil,paintsandthinners,chemicals,asbestosandpesticides.Somecommonhighvolumeconsumablesthatarealsoconsideredhazardousincludemobilephonebatteries,fluorescent tubes and office equipment suchascomputers,highlightingtheneedforinnovationinwastecollection.

Consumption of virgin materials

Increasedconsumptionofvirginmaterialsresultsinthedepletionofresources.Lifecycleanalysisofmaterialsindicatesthatgreaterconsumptionoccurswhenlinearproductionprocessesareused.Producingproducts that can be efficiently recovered andrecycled,byemployingcyclicalratherthanlinearprocessesensuresthatwastefulconsumptionisminimisedandoptimalresource efficiency is achieved. Materials canberecovered,re-usedorrecycledforotheruses,ratherthanbeingsingleuseanddisposable.Thiswillresultinaslowerdepletionofvirginresources.

Cost of landfill

Itisstillcheapertodisposeofwastematerials to landfill than to recover, re-use andrecycle.Therearesomeexceptionstothisinregionalareaswherehighunitcostsfor landfill are driving resource recovery. Ironicallyeconomiesofscalemakethecost of landfill two to four times cheaper for metropolitanAdelaidethansomeregionalareas.

Nonethelessthecostofdisposingofwasteto landfill has risen in South Australia. This hasoccurredforanumberofreasonsincluding:increasedtransportcosts;distant locations for new landfills; better enforcementimprovingmanagementofoperations;andinsomecaseshigherEPAstandards for landfill operations. Increases tothesolidwastelevyin2003followedbyamajorincreasein2007,havealsocreatedopportunities for landfill alternatives to become financially viable with this added costbeingbornebyconsumers.

Bales of recycled material.


Economic benefits of recycling and other resource recovery

There are growing economic benefits in recyclingmaterialsthatwerepreviouslywasted. Benefits include the material valueofrecyclates,reductionofcostsinlandfill disposal and preventing greenhouse gasesandotheremissionsassociatedwiththe extraction, refining and manufacturing ofvirginresources.Resourcerecoveryissupportedbygovernmentactionssuchasthe increase to the Solid Waste Levy and infrastructuregrantsprogramsadministeredby Zero Waste SA.

Impact on communities

Thedirectimpactofthedisposalofsolidwaste to landfill on the community includes reducedpropertyvaluesadjacenttolandfill sites, risk of fire, pollutants entering theenvironment,potentialillegaldumping,increasedtransportimpactssuchasroaddamageandnoise,unsightlinessandlitter.Therearealsotheenvironmentalimpactandnuisanceassociatedwithbirds,dust,odours,pestsandvermintoconsider.Disposing of waste to landfill also represents wastefulconsumptionandopportunitieslost;itentombsresourcesthatcouldbeputtofurtheruse.Thisresultsinasocialinequityasitprovidescurrentgenerationswithagreaterbaseofresourcesthanfutureoneswillhave.

IndicatorsPRESSURE INDICATORS

• Per Capita Waste Generation

Currentlythiscanonlybederivedfromreported resource recovery and landfill disposaldata.Thisindicatoristheprimaryindicatorofwastefulconsumptionhoweverthequalityofcurrentdataisunknownduetolackofstandardisationinreporting.

• Volume and composition of solid waste to landfill

Solid waste disposed to landfill each year generatespollutionandwastesresources.

• Waste materials recycled

Recyclingplaysanimportantroleinthemanagementofwasteshouldbeencouragedtoreducetheneedfordisposal.Recyclingprotectsagainsttheextraction,processinganduseofadditionalvirginmaterialsandtherefore,



HUMAN SETTLEMENT


TheissueofwasteisnowconsideredwithinthebroadercontextofmaterialconsumptionandrecoveryandthecontributionofwastemanagementpracticestowardssustainabilityinSouthAustralia.

Limited specific research has been undertakenintotheconsumptionpatternsofconsumersinSouthAustralia.InMarch2005theAustraliaInstituteproducedtheDiscussionPaperWasteful Consumption in Australia,whichexaminedthebehaviourpatternof‘wastefulconsumption’(acquisitionofgoodsorservicesthatareeithernotusedatallorarenotusedtotheirfullpotential).Theresearchwasbasedonanationalsurveyof1644respondents.Thepaperrevealedthatacrossthenation,foodismostcommonlywasted.Otheritemsincluded:clothes,shoes,books,CDsandelectricity.

Theresearchrevealedthatincreasingly,Australiansareshoppingasaformofmoodenhancement.ThismeansthatmoreAustraliansaregoingshoppingforthethrillofthepurchaseratherthantheanticipatedpleasureofowningor using something. When people

purchaseproductstomeetpurelypsychologicalneeds,increasedwasteisalikelyoutcome.InwealthyconsumersocietiessuchasAustralia,dealingwiththeconsequencesofconsumptionisnolongerjustanengineeringproblem,butpresentspsychologicalandsocialproblemstoo.

ResearchbytheAustraliaInstituteshowedhowever,thatSouthAustraliaisoneofthestateswherewastefulconsumptionislowerthanthenationalaverage.Thisislikelytoberelatedtopercapitaincome,ratherthananypolicyorsystematicreasons.

Althoughthisisapositiveoutcome,addressingthechallengesofconsumption,resourcerecoveryandwastemanagementwillrequireSouthAustralianstobemoreawareoftheenvironmentalandsocialimpactsoftheiractivities.

Sincethe2003StateoftheEnvironmentReport significant changes have occurredinwastemanagementinSouthAustralia. On 1 July 2003, the Office of Zero Waste SA was created to promote wastemanagementpracticesthatasfaraspossible,eliminatewasteoritsconsignment to landfill and advance thedevelopmentofresourcerecoveryandrecycling,basedonanintegratedstrategyforthestate.

TheSouthAustralianGovernmentestablishedanewlegislativeframeworkin2004toenablestateandlocalgovernment,industryandthecommunitytoworktogethertodriveanewstatestrategyforwasteavoidanceandreduction,wastereuseandrecycling,andwastedisposal.ThiscommitmentarosefromtherecognitionthatwastemanagementinSouthAustraliawasstillfundamentallyrelianton landfill and that despite efforts to datetherehadbeennosubstantialalleviationofthatreliance.

South Australia’s Waste Strategy 2005-2010wasadoptedon4July2005anditsaimistoensureahealthyenvironmentforSouthAustraliansnowandintothe future. The first five year strategy is focusedonthefollowingkeyobjectives:

• Fostersustainablebehaviour–behaviourchangeisnecessary,simplyprovidinginformationwillnotinfluence people to recycle or re-use materialorresourcesinasustainableway.

• Lesswaste-achievingsubstan-

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Source: Zero Waste SA

Figure 6.48: Household expenditure on wasteful

consumption by State and Territory ($/annum)

Figure 6.49: The Waste Hierarchy

has significant greenhouse gas reduction benefits.

• Amount and composition of litter

Theamount,compositionandlocationsoflitterprovidesusefulinsightsintoconsumerbehaviourandlittertypetrends.

• Quantity, composition and disposal of hazardous wastes (including intractable wastes)

Recordingthevolume,typeandsourceofhazardouswasteisimportantinhelpingtoprotecttheenvironmentfromcontaminationwithhazardousandintractablewastethatrequiresahigherlevelofmanagement.

• Amount of liquid wastes collected and treated

Recordingthevolume,natureandsourceofliquidwasteisimportantinhelpingtoprotecttheenvironmentfromcontamination.ThiswascoveredintheSoE Report 2003.


tially less waste going to landfill in SouthAustraliameansthatmaterialsmustberedirectedtowardsmorebeneficial uses.

• Effectivesystems-SouthAustralianeedstoestablish,maintainandincreasethecapacityofrecyclingsystemsandre-processinginfrastruc-tureinmetropolitanandregionalareas.

• Effectivepolicyinstruments-economic,regulatoryandotherpolicymeasuresmustbeintroducedtogivethenecessarytractioninthemarketplacetoencourageavoidance,reduction,re-useandrecyclingofwaste.

• Successfulcooperation-targetsofthisandfuturestrategieswillonlybereachedwiththesuccessfulcooperationofarangeofstake-holders.

Thestrategysetskeymaterialandrecyclingtargetsforeachwastestream.The2006targets,detailedhere,werefulfilled.

Thewastemanagementhierarchyunderpins the approach of Zero Waste SAandisanationallyandinternation-allyacceptedphilosophyforprioritisingandguidingeffortstomanagewaste.Itis a guiding principle of the Zero Waste SAActandthefoundationuponwhichSouth Australia’s Waste Strategyhasbeendeveloped.Thewastemanagementhierarchyestablishesapproachestowastemanagementaccordingtotheirimportanceandpreferenceindescendingorder.

SouthAustralia’swasteiscomposedofthreewastestreams:

• MunicipalsolidwasteThisisprimarilycomposedofhouseholdwastecollectedbylocalgovernmentkerbsideanddrop-offservices,butalsoincludes

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Figure 6.50: Landfill reduction in South Australia

2000-2001 to 2006-2007 showing target for SA

Waste Strategy

Waste Stream By 2006 By 2008 By 2010 By 2014

Municipal Solid Waste At least 25% of 50% of all material 75% of all material Reduce waste toall material presented presented at the presented at the landfill by 25% (asat the kerbside is kerbside is recycled kerbside is recycled required by Southrecycled (if food waste is Australia’s Strategic

included) Plan)

Commercial and 5% increase in 15% increase in 30% increase inIndustry recovery and use of recovery and use of recovery and use of

C&I materials C&I materials C&I materials

Construction and 20% increase in 35% increase in 50% increase inDemolition recovery and use of recovery and use of recovery and use of

C&D materials C&D materials C&D materials


Table 6.8: Waste targets under the SA Waste Strategy

wastearisingfromcouncilservicessuchasparksandgardens,andstreetsweeping.Householdwasteisdominatedbygardenorganics,food,packaging,paper/cardboard,plastics,glassandsteelcans.Increasingly,however,householdsarelookingforresponsiblewaystodisposeofmaterialssuchaselectronicwaste,householdchemicals and compact fluorescent lightglobes.

• Commercialand/orindustrialwasteCommercialwasteisgeneratedbyoffice buildings, shops, cafes, theatres, hotelsandthelike.Industrialwasteismainlygeneratedbythemanufac-turingandprocessingsector.Theseareasaredominatedbyfood/kitchenwastes,cardboard,paper,wood/timber,metals,plastics,greenorganicsandtyres/rubber.

• Constructionand/ordemolitionwasteConstructionanddemolitionwasteisprimarilygeneratedfromnewbuildingconstruction,refurbishmentorthedemolitionofoldbuildings.Thekeywastematerialsproducedaresoil,rocks,rubble,concrete,asphalt,bricks,metalandtimber.

The introduction of South Australia’s Waste Strategyandtheformationofadedicatedagency, Zero Waste SA, has resulted in dramaticchangestowastemanagementsincetheSoE Report 2003.

Zero Waste SA has offered a suite of financial incentives, advocacy and strategicpartnerships,tofacilitatetheachievementofSouth Australia’s Waste Strategy.Fundinghasbeenprovidedfor:

• improvedmunicipalkerbsiderecyclinginfrastructure;

• infrastructureforrecyclingmaterialssourcedfromthecommercialandindustrialandconstruction/demolitionsectors;



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

• assistanceforpublicplacerecycling;and

• marketdevelopmentforproblematicwastestreams.

Behaviourchangetoachievegreaterwastereduction is also promoted by Zero Waste SAthroughprogramssuchasthePlasticBagReduction Program and Wipe Out Waste programinvolvingschools.

Theuptakeofkerbsiderecyclinghasimprovedinbothregionalandmetropolitanareas,withallmetropolitancouncilsnowofferingkerbsiderecyclingandgreenorganicsrecyclingcollections.Anumberofregionalandruralcouncilsarealsomovingtowardsofferingarecyclingservice.

Therecyclingofconstructionanddemolitionwasteshasincreasedmarkedlysince2003,duepartiallytothe2004closureoftheWingfield landfill and to other initiatives to promoteresourcerecoveryinthiswastestream. Waste management for the commercialandindustrialsectorisemergingasakeyissueacrossAustraliaandisbeingaddressedwithinthisstatebydevelopmentofnewandimprovedfacilities,automatedtechnologies,reuse(swap)centresandMaterialRecoveryFacilities.

Anindependentreviewoffourgrantandincentive programs offered by Zero Waste SAfoundthattheprogramsaregenerallyeffectiveinachievingSouthAustralia’swastetargets.Grantrecipientsdiverted266,607 tonnes of waste from landfill in 2006and319,708tonnescumulativelyin2005and2006.Thisislikelytobeunderestimatedasprogramimpactsdonotaccommodatethefactthatonceestablishednewsystemsincreasediversionfrom landfill in the ensuing years.

Keyissuesformaterialrecovery,reducingwastegenerationandconsumptionofresourcesincomingyearswillincludethedevelopmentofnewtechnologiestoincreasewasterecovery,attractionofinvestmentandemploymentinresourcerecoveryandinitiativestopromotethehigherlevelsofthewastehierarchy.Avoidingtheproductionofwasteandidentifyingopportunitiestore-usematerialswillreduceuseofvirginresourcesandpromote a range of lifestyle benefits includingtheachievementofasmallerecologicalfootprintforSouthAustralia.

Atpresenttheeasilyachievableactionshave been targeted such as financially beneficial recycling activities. Waste avoidance and EPR for difficult wastes are thechallengeforthenextplanninghorizon.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Per Capita Waste Generation

Increasedrecyclingobscuresincreasedconsumptionasthefocusisonreducedwaste to landfill. As shown by Table 6.9 thetotalwastegeneratedpercapitaincreasedby4.8%(104kg/person/year)between2003-04and2006-07.Itisthisincreaseingeneratedwastethatdemonstratesincreasedconsumptionofmaterialsinthecommunity.

While recycling is a critical part of wastemanagementinSouthAustralia,whenconsideringthewastehierarchyillustratedinFigure6.49itispreferabletoavoid,reduceandreuse.Thetrendofincreasedwastegenerationindicatesthat there is currently insufficient public awarenessoftheadvantagesofavoiding,reducingandreusing.Thereisalsoalackofproducerresponsibilityforthesehighertargetsinthewastehierarchy.Greaterattentionbygovernmentandindustryisneededforadoptingthesetargets.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Annual amount and composition of solid waste consigned to landfill

Theamountofwastebeingsenttolandfill in South Australia has decreased over the past five years

The declining trend in waste to landfill is expectedtoachievethe25%reductionby2014targetedinSouth Australia’s Strategic Plan.

In2006-07,about1,144,429tonnesof waste was sent to landfill in South Australia,incomparisonwith1,277,892tonnesin2003-2004:adropof10.4%.

Inthemetropolitanarea,theamountofwastedisposedofhasdroppedfromapproximately1,040,745tonnesofwastein2003-04,to908122tonnesin2006-07:adecreaseof9.5%.

Innon-metropolitanareasatotalof136,934tonnesofsolidwastewassentto landfill in 2006-07. This apparent increase from the 2003-04 figure of 120,582tonnesishowever,mostlikelyduetoachangeinreportingmethodsfor some landfills from a population basedformulatoamoreaccurateweight-basedformula.Thepreviouspopulation-basedformulawasfoundtounderestimateactualdisposal.Future


Green organics contamination picker.



datawillthereforerevealmoreaccuratetrendsintheamountofsolidwasteconsigned to landfill in non-metropolitan areas.

Theamountofwastedisposedoffromcouncilsourceshasalsomarkedlydecreased,from117,346tonnesin200304,to99,408tonnesin2006-07,adropof15.3%.(EPAdata)

Thetrendofincreasedeconomicactivityandresultantincreaseinbuildinganddemolitionwastereportedin2003hascontinued.

In 2004 Zero Waste SA commissioned theLandfill Survey,adisposalbasedauditofmetropolitangeneratedwaste disposed to landfills servicing the Adelaidemetropolitanarea.Theprojectfocusedonestimatingthequantity,sourceandcompositionofcommercialandindustrial,andconstructionand demolition waste entering five nominated landfills, for the purposes of identifyingopportunitiestoreducethevolume and divert it from landfill torecycling/reprocessingfacilities.The project also identified recurring waste issues that would benefit from targetedresearchintoalternativedisposalpathways.Thesurveyaimedatbetterunderstandingthepotentialimpact of the closure of the Wingfield Waste Depot.

Resultsindicatedthatconstructionanddemolitionwasterepresentedapproximately31.4%ofthewastestream entering the nominated landfills, commercialandindustrialwasteapproximately29.47%anddomesticwaste18.99%.Theauditrevealedseveralareasthatcouldbetargetedtoincreasediversion of waste from landfill. For the commercialandindustrialstreams,keytargetwasteincludesfood,foundrysandsandcardboard.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Amount and composition of litter

LitterisahighlyvisibleandoffensivecomponentofthewastestreamanditscontinuingpresenceintheSouthAustralianenvironmentisaconcernforbothgovernmentandthecommunity.ItisathreattowildlifeandSouthAustralia’sreputationasthe‘cleanstate’.

TheKESABLitterIndexprovidesinformationonthetypeofwastethatislitteredonaseasonalbasisinSouthAustralia.Litteritemsarecountedquarterlyatanumberof

sitesrepresentativeofareascommonlysubjecttolittering,suchasresidentialareas,beaches,industrialsites,carparks,shoppingcentres,retailareas,recreationalparksandhighways.

SouthAustralia’slittermonitoringprogramwas adopted nationally for the first NationalLitterIndexthatcommencedinNovember2005.Theindexdetailslitterbytype,locationandbrandandmakescomparisonsbetweenrepresentativesitesineachstate.Inordertoprovidemethodsforcomparisonbetweenstates,numbersoflitteritemsarequotedagainstanaverage1,000squaremetrearea.

The results of the first National Litter Indexin2005-06foundthat,whileSouthAustraliawassimilartootherstatesintheamountoflitterfound,thereweresignificantly less beverage containers inthelitterstream.Thisisduetotheverysuccessfulbeveragecontainerdepositsystemoperatinginthisstate.SinceContainerDepositlegislationwasextendedin2003toembraceabroaderrangeofbeveragecontainers,therehasbeenapositiveoutcomewithafurtherreductionofdrinkcontainerlitterfrom4%to2%ofthetotallitterstream.Thedepositamountincreasedfrom5centsto10centsonSeptember1,2008.

In2005avolumetriclittercountwasaddedtotheitemcountdatabase.Thenewdatacollectedprovidedacalculusfor“space”occupiedbythelitterstream.In2005-06,thenumberoflitteritemsper1,000m2was60,whiletheaveragevolumewas7.23litresper1,000m2.Howeverfortheyear200607,theoverallaveragenumberofitemsper1,000m2acrossthe151sitessurveyedwithinthisstatewas61,whilsttheoverallaverageestimatedvolumeper1,000m2was11.08litres. These figures reveal a marginal increaseintheaveragenumberofitemspersurveysite,andalargerincreaseinthevolumeoflitterpersurveysite.Thisincreaseinvolumeisassociatedwiththeproblemsofillegaldumpingandroadsidelitter - issues KESAB and Zero Waste SA programswillfocusonduringthenextreportingperiod.

Themostlitteredsites(byvolume)surveyedwithinSAin2006-07were:

• Industrialsites,whichwereassociatedwithlargevolumesoflitterandmoderatelylargenumbersoflitteritems.

• Retailsites,whichwereassociatedwithlargenumbersofitems,butasmallestimatedlittervolumeper1,000m2.

Recycling truck emptying.




HUMAN SETTLEMENT

• Shoppingcentres,whichwereassociatedwithlargenumbersofitems,butonlyasmallvolumeoflitterper1000m2.

Aswasthecaseintheprecedingreportingperiod,cigarettebuttswerethe most frequently identified item across allSouthAustraliansitesrepresenting42%ofalllitterrecordedor25buttsper1,000m2 in the 2006-07 figures. Butts were followedinfrequencybypaper,plasticsandplasticsnackbagsorwrapsPlasticobjectscontributedthelargestvolumetoourlitterstreamat2.94litresper1000m2

HighwayshavebeenthemostconsistentlylitteredareabycountinSouthAustraliaforthepast5years.Otherareaswithhighlittercountsarecarparksandindustrialareas(seeTable6.12).

Lifestylesthataresynonymouswithconsumerconveniencewillresultinlittermanagementanddisposalinfrastructurechallengesastheyhavethepotentialfor significant volumes of new litter. While morewasteandresourcesarebeingcollectedthroughhouseholdrecyclingsystems,litterisbeingincreasinglycreatedandenteringtheenvironmentonadailybasis.

Cigarettebuttlitterreductioncampaignscostingstakeholdersanestimated$150,000havebeenimplementedthroughout South Australia by Zero Waste SAandKESABsince2003achievinga33%reductioninbuttlitter

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Quantity, composition and disposal of hazardous wastes

Hazardouswastesaresubstancesthatposearisktohumanandenvironmentalhealthand require specific disposal techniques toreducethoserisks,andtheyshouldnotbe disposed of to landfill in substantial quantities.Hazardouswasteisrecycled,incinerated,treatedorstoredpendingtheavailabilityofsuitabletreatmentoptions,orconsigned to a landfill licensed to receive hazardouswaste.

ThekeytypesofhazardouswastesobservedinSouthAustraliaincludeinorganicchemicals,paints,resins,inksanddyes,organicsolvents,pesticides,batteries,asbestosandclinicalandpharmaceuticalwastes.Asin2003,hazardouswastesaregeneratedprimarilywithinthecommercial,industrialandtradesectors,includinghospitals,food-processingplantsandchemical,paintandplasticsmanufacturers.

TheamountofhazardouswastecollectedanddisposedofinSouthAustraliafor2006-2007stabilisedfollowinganincreaseobservedin2005-06.

Theuncontrolledstorageanddisposalofhazardous waste can pose a significant threattopublichealthandsafety,andtotheenvironment.Approvedtypesofhazardouswastecanbesafelydeposited at the EPA Hazardous Waste DepotatDryCreek,fromwhereitisdisposedofsafely.

Zero Waste SA has implemented theHouseholdandFarmChemicalCollectionProgram,amobilesystemfortheproperdisposalofhouseholdhazardouswasteandfarmchemicalsacrossmetropolitanandregionalareasofthestate.

BetweenMarch2004andAugust2007,collectionshaveoccurredat134siteswithin68councilareasandtheOutbackAreasCommunityDevelopmentTrust.Atotalof724,621kgofwastehasbeencollectedfrom13,860participants.

Overallthetopthreewastesreceivedfromthepublicwerewasteoil(226,365kg–31.2%),wastepaint(190,552.5kg–26.3%)andleadacidbatteries(97,631kg–13.5%).Inregionalareas,agriculturalchemicalswerethemostcommonlycollectedmaterials.Theaverageamountofwastedeliveredperpersoninthemetropolitanareawas31.64kgandfortheregionalareaswas145.30kg.Approximately70%ofthewastecollectedthroughthisprogramhas been recycled or reused. While it has successfully diverted significant amountsofwaste,collectionshavebeeninfrequentandurgentattentionisneededtoexpandtheprogram.TheDrummusterprogramalsoconductssuccessfulchemicaldrumcollectionsthroughoutSouthAustraliaeachyearwith significant numbers of processed chemicaldrumscollected.

Continuedgovernmentresourcesarenecessarytoensurethatthestorageandtreatmentofindustrialhazardouswasteismanagedinaccordancewithbestpracticestandards,andthattheimpactontheenvironmentisminimised.PermanentstoragefacilitiesarerequiredtoresponsiblymanagehazardousandintractablewastesinSouthAustralia.

OtherpolicymeasuressuchasProductStewardshipschemeswillalsoformpartoffuturedirectionsforthemanagementof specific wastes. For products such

Al ternat ive Fuels CompanyThepracticeofwastebeingdivertedtoResourceCoforAlternativeFuelsCompanyforuseintheAdelaideBrightonCementkilnbeganinFebruary2004.Thisinvolvesshreddingtheresidualcomponentoftheconstructionanddemolitionwasterecyclingprocess,andusingtheproductofthatasanalternativefuelsourceforthekiln.

Thematerialusedinthekilniscombustibleandwaspreviouslydisposed of to landfill. In 2006 the AlternativeFuelCompanyinvestedinanewshreddertoincreasethevolumeofmaterialprocessedfrom50,000to1,000,000tonnesperannum.Thisalsoenablesawiderrangeofmaterialstobeprocessedand improved the efficiency of theshreddingoperation.Theuseofalternativefuel(predominantlybiomass)conservestheamountofnaturalgasusedandreducescarbondioxideemissions.


aspaintsandoils,greaterindustryresponsibilityforlifecycleimpactswillbeconsideredatthestateandnationallevels.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Amount of liquid wastes collected and treated

Liquidwastesreceivedbytreatmentfacilitiesincludeoil,oil/watermixtures,greasetrapwaste(generallysourcedfromrestaurants),paintsludgesandsolvents.LeviesarepayableforliquidwastethatrequirestreatmentundertheEnvironment Protection Act 1993. Waste oilsandsolventsarenormallyrecycledandsodonotattractaliquidwastelevypayment.

TheEPAcollectsgeneralinformationonliquidwastes,whichincludesoilandsolventsaswellasliquidssubjecttothelevy.TheamountofliquidwastecollectedandtreatedbyfacilitiesinSouthAustraliahassteadilydecreasedsince2003.In2003-04,theamountcollectedandtreatedwasapproximately48,060tonnes.In2006-07thetotalamountofliquidwastetrackedwasapproximately38,637tonnes,adecreaseof19.6%.Thepredominantsourcesofliquidwastein2006-07werewasteoil/watermixtures(approximately40%ofthetotal),wasteoil(approximately30%),andotherliquidssuchaswashwater(approximately10%).

Liquidwasteistreatedviaanumberoftechniquesincludingphysicalseparation,filtration and neutralisation. This waste mayberecycled,composted,disposedto landfill or incinerated. See emerging issuesforfurtherinformationonwasteoil.

Radioactive waste

Radioactivewasteisgeneratedfromtheuseofradioactivematerialsinmedical,research,agriculturalandindustrialprocesses.Australia’sradioactivewasteiscategorisedaslow-level,short-livedintermediate-levelandlong-livedintermediatelevelwaste(DEST,2002a).

In2003theEPAcompletedanauditofradioactivematerialsinSouthAustralia,whichindicatedthatSouthAustraliastoresapproximately22m3ofradioactivewastein134locations.Theauditreportprovidedrecommendationsforthefuturemanagementofradioactivematerial.

AfeasibilitystudycommissionedbytheEPArecommendedthatallwasteshouldbecollectedandmovedtoacentralstoreintheOlympicDamregion,whichhasexistinginfrastructureandsecuritytoappropriatelymanagethewaste.TheSouthAustralianGovernmenthascommittedtoestablishinganinterimstoreandrepositoryforSouthAustralia’sradioactivewasteintheOlympicDamregionandiscurrentlyplanningfortheimplementationphaseoftheproject.

2003-04 2006-07 Change

Diversion from landfill (tonnes) 2,041,776 2,434,128 19.2%

Waste to landfill (tonnes) 1,277,892 1,144,429 -10.4%

Total waste generation (tonnes) 3,319,668 3,578,557 7.8%

SA diversion rate 61.5% 68.0% 6.5%

South Australian Population 1,540,399 1,584,513 2.9%

Per capita diversion (kg/person) 1,325 1,536 15.9%

Per capita landfill (kg/person) 829 722 -12.9%

Per capita total waste (kg/person) 2,154 2,258 4.8%

Source: Recycling Activity in SA 2006-2007

Source: Table 7 from Molino Stewart Report

Grant Type Waste Diverted (tonnes) Waste Diverted (tonnes) Waste Diverted (tonnes)2005 2006 Cumulative Total

Kerbside Performance 49,824 169,223 219,047Incentives

Regional Infrastructure Grants 3,027 8,738 11,765

Re-use and Recycling 250 88,645 88,895Infrastructure Grants

Total 53,101 266,606 319,707

Table 6.10: Waste diverted through projects funded by ZWSA

Table 6.9: Annual South Australian landfill diversion and overall waste recycling



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Year Glass Metal Paper Plastic Misc Butts Total

May 07 2% 303 8% 1,256 20% 3,002 24% 3,510 6% 810 40% 5,921 14,802

May 06 2% 293 7% 1,099 19% 3,003 24% 3,866 5% 814 43% 6,814 15,889

May 05 2% 335 6% 1,527 20% 4,768 23% 5,553 5% 1,249 44% 10 322 23,754

May 04 1% 206 1% 151 19% 3,902 22% 4,731 9% 2,268 48% 9,796 21,054

May 03 2% 287 1% 191 23% 3,345 26% 3,641 13% 1,780 35% 5,032 14,276

Year Highway Residential Beach Industrial Car Park Shopping Retail Recreational Total Centre (Strip Park

May 07 36% 6% 4% 14% 14% 9% 12% 5% 14 802

May 06 29% 8% 5% 15% 17% 12% 10% 4% 15 899

May 05 40% 6% 5% 13% 15% 7% 11% 3% 23,754

May 04 48% 5% 5% 12% 12% 6% 8% 4% 21 054

May 03 39% 7% 5% 8% 13% 8% 12% 8% 14 276

Note: Description of items counted was reviewed during 02/03/04 period to more clearly identify specific metal, plastic and CDL items eg: plastic and metal bottle tops and ring pulls were separated, plastic bags and sheeting expanded

Item May 07 May 06 May 05 May 04 *May 03

Cigarette Butts 1 1 1 1 1

Paper - Other paper 2 2 2 2 2

Plastic (other) 3 3 3 3 3

Plastic (snack bags/ wraps) 4 4 4 4 4

Metal tops / pull rings 5 5 5 5 5

Plastic bottle tops 6 6 5 5 5

Paper Cigarette packs 7 7 9 9 8

Metal other Foil 8 10 12 12

Paper take away cups 9 9 7 11 9

Misc. clothes & materials 10 8 10 10

Metal pieces 11 12 11

Plastic straws 12 6 7

Plastic take away cups 11 8 8 7

Plastic bags/sheeting 6 6

Table 6.11: Litter by type (items counted and %)

Table 6.12: Litter by location

Table 6.13: Dirty Dozen (ranking by count)

RESPONSE INDICATOR: Amount of waste materials recycled

AsatMarch2007,69.4%ofSouthAustralia’stotalwasteisbeingrecycled,an increase of 6% on the 2003 04 financial year figure.

In2005-20062.4milliontonnesofmaterialsrangingfromasphalttotextileswerediverted from landfill to recycling. On a percapitabasis,SouthAustraliaisthenationalrecyclingleaderbecauseofitsstrongperformanceintheconstructionanddemolitionrecyclingandresourcerecoverysector.

The 2008 Municipal Solid Waste target of50%ofmaterialcollectedatkerbside

beingrecycledhaslargelybeenachieved,withanaveragerateofapproximately55%ofmaterialsnowbeingrecycledwithinmetropolitancouncils.

SouthAustraliahasexperiencedsignificant improvement in recycling activityforrecyclablesandgreenwastecollectedatthekerbsideandforbuildinganddemolitionmaterialssuchas concrete, steel, timber and fly ash. To achievethe2010 Waste Strategytargetofa30%increaseinrecoveryanduseofcommercialandindustrialwaste,itwillbenecessarytofurtherincreasecapacityincommercialandindustrialrecyclingandestablishanetworkofbestpracticerecyclablecollectionstandardsforthiswastestream.

Materialsthatcanbereadilyrecycledremainthelargestcontributorstothewastestream.Theseincludegreen


‘Green’ shopping bags. Photo: Zero Waste SA


Tonnes Cubic Metres Kilolitres Undefined

(ie # of drums)

2003 52,158.78 47,152.69 45,977.62 4,418.00

2004 73,565.47 19,701.22 53,600.36 48,037.00

2005 215,633.76 5,872.13 24,311.26 62,020.56

2006 121,483.62 3,974.58 21,562.41 66,072.20

2007 112,380.47 7,949.14 25,750.20 29,324.00

Source: EPA

Table 6.14: EPA Hazardous Waste Statistics

andorganicwaste,constructionanddemolitionwaste,andplastics.Somerecycledproductsmanufacturedfromsuchwastehavestrongmarkets,but there are significant additional opportunitiesforproductandmarketdiversification and hence further growth.

SouthAustraliaperformswellinrecyclingofconstructionanddemolitionwaste,beveragecontainersandsteel,andleadsthewayinsomeplastics(predominantlythoseusedinthebeveragesectorsuchasPETandHDPEpolymers).SouthAustraliahasalargenetworkofapproximate110privatelyoperateddropoffcentres,andcouncilsthatarecommittedtosustainabilityandresourceconservationbyworkingwithstategovernmentandindustry.Thestatealsohasindustryleadersinthecompostingsector.

Disposal of waste to landfill

Since2003therehasbeenadecreasein waste to landfill of almost 9.5% in the metropolitanareaandareductionof5.5% in rural areas. These are significant reductionsgiventhestate’sgrowingeconomy.

Thedevelopmentofinitiativestopromoterecyclingandotherresourcerecoveryhascontinuedsince2003,includingcost-basedinitiativestoincreasethecostofwaste being disposed of to landfill. Such initiativesinclude:

• Improved landfill design standards for new and upgraded landfills ensuring betterenvironmentalperformance;

• Closure of the Wingfield landfill in 2004andconsequentexpansionofoperationsatsitesinDublin,Inkermanand Uleybury.

• Doubling of the solid waste landfill levyon1July2007

• Furtherinvestigationintotrendsofmaterials entering landfill

• Arangeofprogramsthatsupportandassist the establishment more efficient resourcerecoveryinSA.

• TheextensionofthevarietyofbeveragecontainersembracedwithinCDLRegulationsin2003.

The Zero Waste SA Act establishes a dedicatedfund,the Waste to Resources Fund, whichconsistsprimarilyof50%ofthelevypaidbywastedepotlicenceholdersundersection113oftheEnvironment Protection Act 1993.TheEPAcollectsthelevyandtheappropriateproportionistransferredtotheWaste to Resources Fund to support Zero Waste SA inachievingitsobjectives.

On1July2007thewastelevyincreasedto$23.40pertonnefordisposalofmetropolitanwasteand$11.70pertonneforwastedisposalbyoronbehalfofnon-metropolitancouncils.TheGovernment’sdecisiontodoublethesolidwastelevyhasresultedinincreasedfundsbeingavailable for Zero Waste programs, and hasreducedtheEPA’sdrawonTreasuryappropriations.

Manyinlocalgovernmenthavehadissuewiththeincreasedlevyexpressingconcernthatitmayencourageillegaldisposal,howeverthishasbeenrecognisedbytheEPA,whichhasaskedthattheGovernmentconsiderwhatcanbedonetoaddresstheproblemandtheassociatedimpostoncouncils.

AllallocationsfromthewastelevyintoZero Waste programs are reported in Zero Waste SA Annual Reports.Thelevyprovidesafurtherincentivetorecycleasitispaidonlyonitemsthataredisposedto landfill; it is not paid on items that arerecycledoronmaterialsusedaswaste fill. The EPA is also working on a wastemanagementreformprojectthataddressescommercialillegaldisposal,stockpilingstandardsandstandardsforresourcerecoverytoensurethatdiversionisappropriateandnotashort-termavoidanceofthelevy.

Landfill compactor. Photo: Zero Waste SA



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Reuse Opportuni t iesReuseisanaimnearthetopofthewastehierarchyasitpresentsanopportunitytoavoidconsumingvirginmaterialsandmakeswastereductiongoalsaccessibletoconsumers.AstheamountofreusecurrentlyundertakeninSouthAustralia is difficult to quantify, Zero Waste SA has not yet sought data onreusetrends.

Opportunitiesforthereuseofgoodswill be a future focus for Zero Waste SAfunding,possiblythroughthedevelopmentofreusecentres.

Anewguideline,Environmental Management of Landfill Facilities (municipal solid waste and commercial and industrial general waste),developedinJanuary2007,setoutacomprehensivestandard for landfills in this state to ensure thattheyareengineeredtominimisetheirpotentialtoharmtheenvironment.TheguidelinerequiresallSouthAustralianlandfills to be compliant with the guidelinesby1July2010.

AnythatdonotmeetordonotintendtomeettheguidelinerequirementswererequiredtobeclosedorhaveanEPAapprovedclosureplaninplaceby1July2008.Thisresultedintheclosureof31landfills prior to that date with a further 92committingtoclosurepriorto1July2010.Ensuringthattheseclosuresoccurinamannerthatavoidsenvironmentaldamageisaseriousissue.Atpresentgovernmentfundingisunavailabletoassistcouncilswithclosingthesefacilities.

MorerecentlytherehasbeenastrongpushatthenationalleveltoimplementExtendedProducerResponsibility(EPR)orproductstewardship.EPRseekstodesignateresponsibilityforthelifecycleimpactofproducts.Italsoimprovesvaluation,pricingandincentivemechanismstogetherwithincreasingopportunitiesforinvestmentininfrastructureandresearchanddevelopment.AdoptingEPRacrossanumberofindustrieswillhelptominimiseproblemwaste,reducetoxicityandimprove resource efficiency.

Waste items that will benefit from EPR programsincludeE-wastesuchastelevisionsandcomputers.EPRisbeingimplementedoverseas,particularlyin Europe, and is already having flow on effects in Australia, as many firms operatingherearebeingexposedtoproductstewardshipthroughexportmarkets.

ItisimportantforAustraliatodevelopanationalapproachtoproductstewardshipsothatitishandledconsistentlyinallstatesandterritories,andthatanyapproachadoptedlinkswellwithinternationalprograms.

InApril2008theEnvironmentProtectionandHeritageCouncilreleasedaconsultationpackageoutliningajointindustryandgovernmentapproachtothewhole-of-lifemanagementoftyres.Industryandgovernmentexpecttheproposaltodriveinnovation,decreaseenvironmentalimpactandbuildend-of-lifemanagementcostsintoproductpricing.

Non-domestic recycling

Zero Waste SA commissioned the reportRecyclingActivityinSouthAustralia2006-2007togaugeandassessrecyclingoperationsinthestate.

ThereportshowedthatSouthAustraliaisaleaderinConstructionandDemolitionwasterecycling.Morethan1.1milliontonnesperyearisrecycledfromthiswastestream,withC&Dwasteaccountingfor47.5%ofmaterialssourcedforreprocessing.

In2005-06,commercialandindustrialwasteaccountedfor35.8%ofmaterialssourcedforreprocessing.Thewidevarietyofbusinessesmeansthatuniformsolutionsarechallengingtoimplement.

Significant changes have occurred inthecommercialandindustrial,andconstructionanddemolitionwastesectorsoverthepastthreeyears,withlargeinvestmentinnewinfrastructureandinnovation:

• Zero Waste SA’s Reuse and RecyclingInfrastructureGrantsProgramisproviding$1.4millionoverthreeyearstoimprovinginfrastruc-tureinthecommercialandindustrialwastesector.Overthreeyears,$2.05millionwillbeprovidedingrantstoregionalcouncilsandrecyclerstoassistwiththedevelopmentofrecyclinginfrastructureandhelptosecurethelong-termviabilityofrecyclingthroughoutthestate’sregionalareas.Futureroundsofgrantfundingwillbefocusedoncollectionandsortingarrangementstoimprovefacilitiesandintroducenewtechnologies.

• Zero Waste SA’s Research and MarketDevelopmentIncentiveSchemewasinitiatedin2004-05andaimstobuildthestate’scapacitytodevelopinnovativerecycledproductsandtoexpandopportuni-tiesforlocalbusinessinAustralianandoverseasmarkets.

On behalf of Zero Waste SA, KESAB has beenworkingtoengagethebuildingandconstructionindustrytoimprovewastemanagementpracticesandresourcerecoverythroughCodesofPracticeandrecyclingsystems.

TheCleanSiteprogrameducatestheindustryaboutimprovingworkpracticesonbuildingandconstructionsitesintheareasoflitterandwastemanagement,resourcerecoveryandrecycling,andcontrollingsedimentanderosion


topreventstormwaterpollution.Theprogramaimsto:

• Raiseawarenessandintroduceeducationinitiativesincooperationwiththeindustry;

• Deliverabestpracticeenviron-mentalprogramincorporatingtrainingandonsiteinitiativesinpartnershipwithindustryandstake-holders;and

• Work with local government to promotegreatercomplianceandenforcementofwasteandpollutionissuesatbuildingandconstructionsites.

TheHousingIndustryAssociationandMasterBuildingAssociationnowincludetheCleanSitebestpracticestandardsasanenvironmentaleducationplatform.Thisprojecthasresultedinanincreasednumberofrecyclingbinsandwasteseparationonsite(upfrom44%to82%);areductioninwastepilesonsite(from42%downto26%)andincreasedpreventionofsoilerosiononconstructionsites(8%increasedto40%).

Domestic recycling

Participationinrecyclingisdependentoncommunitybehaviourandeducation,aswellastheprovisionbycouncilsandtypeofcollectionservices.Sincethe 2003 State of the Environment Report,highperformancekerbsidecollectionofrecyclablesandwastehasbeenadoptedthroughoutmostofAdelaide’scouncilsandmanymajorregionalcentres.

Zero Waste SA’s Kerbside Performance IncentiveProgramhasbeenestablishedtosupportcouncilsandthecommunitytomoveprogressivelytowardsachievingSouth Australia’s Waste Strategy target of 50%ofkerbsidematerialbeingrecycledby2008.Theprogramprovidesanincentiveforcouncilstointroduceandupgradekerbsiderecyclingsystems.ThefuturedirectionsofresourcerecoveryinregionalareaswillbeafocusoftheprogramduringthenextStateoftheEnvironmentreportingperiod.

31councilsnowhavehighyieldingkerbsideprogramsservicing370,000householdsandmorethanhalfofallhouseholdsinthestatehavehadtheirkerbsiderecyclingupgradedthroughgrants from Zero Waste SA. Incentive grantstocouncilstotalled$1,389,579for2005-2006.Intotalmorethan$3.5millionhasbeenprovidedtocouncils

asincentivestotakeupnewkerbsidesystems.

Auditscarriedoutduring2005-2006showedthatcouncilsoffering3binsystems(240litrebinsforrecyclablesandgreenwaste,withasmallerbinfortheresidualwaste)arerecyclingasmuchas55%ofkerbsidematerialwithanaverageof45%.Allmetropolitancouncilsnowofferkerbsideandgreenorganicsrecyclingservices,incomparisonwithonly12councilsin2003.

Anincreasingnumberofcouncilsarealsoimplementinghardwastecollectionstodealwithbulkierwaste.Thisupgradedinfrastructurehasresultedinasubstantialincreaseinrecyclablematerialsyieldedfromthekerbside.

DataaboutkerbsiderecyclingisalsopresentedtothenationalforumviareportingundertheNationalPackagingCovenant.In2002-0365,644tonneswerecollected,whilein2005-06113,915tonneswerecollected.Theperiod2005-06sawa20.6%increaseoverthepreviousyear. These figures reflect an increased recyclingrate,butarealsoindicativeofincreasingconsumption.

While it is commendable that recycling ratesarecontinuingtoriseandgreaterrecyclinginfrastructureisnowinplace,thehigherlevelsofthewasteproductionneedgreaterattention,includingavoidanceofwasteproductsandpackaging,andgreaterreuseofgoodswherepracticable.

Free collection of hazardous wastes.

Photos: Zero Waste SA



HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Container Deposit Legislation

SouthAustraliaistheonlystatetohaveContainerDepositLegislation,aneffectivelitterreductiontoolthatdivertsmostbeveragecontainermaterialsfromlandfill to recycling processes.

After30yearsofoperation,thepublicremainspositiveabouttheschemewith92%ofthosesurveyedindicatingtheirsupport.TheschemewasawardedBankSAHeritageIconstatusin2006.The Western Australian Government hasnowmadeacommitmenttoinvestigateacontainerdepositschemeandisprogressingitsdevelopmentinconsultationwithpartiesinvolvedinthesysteminSouthAustralia.

EPAdatashowsthatsincetheintroductionofnewcontainerstothecontainerdepositschemein2003,itachievedaveragereturnratesin2006of:

Glass 85%

Aluminium 73%

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) plastic 70%

Liquid PaperBoard (LPB) 40%

High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) plastic 45%

Morethan420millioncontainersperyear are diverted away from landfill into recyclinginSouthAustraliaincluding:

• 140millionglassbottlesequatingto29,100tofglass

• 168millionaluminiumcansequatingto2,550tofaluminium

• 92.2millionPETbottlesequatingto5,570tofPET

• 20millionliquidpaperboardandothercontainers(fruitdrinkandflavoured milk cartons)

The Zero Waste SA Reuse and Recycling InfrastructureProgramhasprovidedfundsforthedevelopmentandimprovedoperationofnumerouswasteandrecyclingdepotsinmetropolitanandregionalareas.Enhancedcapacityforawiderdiversityofmaterialshasmeantgreater profitability for many collection depotsthatwereestablishedtocollectdepositcontainers.

ExamplesofgrantsprovidedincludethosetoEdmondsRecyclingtoassistinthedevelopmentofelectronicsrecycling,technologyupgradesfromwoolbalestocratesattheGoolwaDepot,newcagesattheLoxtonDepot,ashedextensionfor

adrivethroughserviceattheSeafordDepotandarecyclingshedattheJamestownDepot.

Policy and programs

Zero Waste SA is working with thecommunity,stateandlocalgovernments,businessesandtherecyclingandwastedisposalindustriesin implementing South Australia’s Waste Strategy.

TheEPAcontinuestoprovidearegulatorybasisforwastemanagementreforminSouthAustraliaandisworkingwith Zero Waste SA to achieve the state’slongtermvisionforwastemanagement.TheEPAisintheprocessofdevelopingtheEnvironmentProtection (Waste to Resources) Policy (EPP) that will establish specific standardsandguidelinesforwastemanagement.

The Zero Waste Events Program has fosteredalargenumberofpubliceventrecyclinginitiativesinSouthAustralia.Theprogramhasprovidedpubliceventorganiserswithfundingandsupport,tominimisewasteandmaximiserecyclingattheirevents.Thishassentaneducationalmessagetothewidercommunityreinforcingtheconnectionbetweenhome-basedrecyclingandthatdoneawayfromhome.

Theprogramhasshownthatthepublicwillengageinrecyclinginpublicplaceswith82%ofpeoplepreparedtodividetheirwasteintoseparaterecyclingbinsifthosewereavailable.Infuturetheprogramwillberedirectedtoincludeguidanceonwastemanagementandminimisationforoutdoorandindoorevents.

TheWipe Out Waste (WOW) schools programwaslaunchedinSeptember2006.Educatorsregarditasaleadingexampleofasustainability-focusededucationalprogram.Developedfor Zero Waste SA and delivered inconjunctionwithKESABandtheDepartmentforEducationandChildren’s Services, WOW encourages schoolstoreducewasteandraisestudentawarenessaboutrecyclinganddisposal. It is the first program in Australia thatspanskindergartensthroughtoprimaryandsecondaryschools.Sinceitslaunch220staffrepresenting154ormorethan10%ofschoolsstatewidehavebecomeinvolved.Schoolsprovidea significant opportunity to increase

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Figure 6.51: Annual volume of oil recycled since

the Product Stewardship for Oil Program began


Cigarette Butt LitterIncreasedcigarettebuttlitterislikelytoresultfromnewregulationsincludingsmokefreebuildingsanddiningimplementedfrom1November2007.Majorevents such as Clipsal 500, Fringe Festival and the Tour Down Under, add to the litterstreamandcleanupcosts.

Toaddresscontinuingtrendsofincreasedlitter,thestategovernmentisconsideringamendmentstoitsrangeoflitteroffences.Thecurrentlegislativestructuredoesnotdiscriminatebetweencategoriesoflitterandpenaltiesarehigh.Consequently,enforcementoflitteroffenceshasprimarilyoccurredforlargescaleincidencesofillegaldumpingratherthansmallscalelitterincidents.Investigations are being undertaken into new offences based on NSW and Victorianmodels,whichdifferentiatebetweentypesoflitterandofferarangeofpenaltiesbasedonthehealthandenvironmentalimpactsofeach.Cigarettebutts were specifically targeted in NSW resulting in a 50% reduction in the number ofsmokerslitteringwithcigarettebutts.

Theintroductionofcigarettebuttrelatedoffencesalsorevealedthatfewpeoplerecognisedcigarettebuttsaslitter,butresultedin30percentofpeoplechangingtheirminds.Futuredirectionsmayalsotargetreductionsinfoodpackaging,anddevelopmentcontrolssurroundingtakeawayfoodoutlets.AmendmentstolitteroffencesinSouthAustraliawouldalsoseektoexpandthenumberofcomplianceoptionsavailable.

recyclingaswasteauditsconductedin2005showedthat50%ofwastegeneratedtherecouldbecomposted,recycledorreused.

Establishedin1999,theNationalPackagingCovenantisanationalagreementformanagingpackagingwaste.Itaimstominimisetheenvironmentalimpact,closetherecyclingloopanddevelopeconomicallyviableandsustainablerecyclingcollectionsystems.AnoverallrecoverygoalfortheCovenantis65%recoveredpackagingbyJune2010.

Afterinitiallyoperatingfrom1999-2005,asecondcovenantwassignedinJuly2005andwilloperateuntilJuly2010.Amid-termreviewwasscheduledforJune2008.Thecovenantnowhasagreaterfocusoncapturingincreasedmarketshareofbrandowners,partlythroughathresholdof$5millionannualturnoverbeingsetasthestartingpointfromwhichcompaniesaretargetedassignatories.Havingcapturedapproximately90%marketshare,thecovenanthad537signatories(423renewalsand114new)atAugust2007.Therewere34SouthAustraliansignatories.

ThereisagrowingmovementamongSouthAustralianbusinessestowardseco-efficiency, which means using less energy andrawmaterialstoproducegoodsand,resultinginlesswaste,pollutionand

cost.Since2003,thestategovernmenthasrecognisedtheneedtoadoptacoordinatedwholeofgovernmentapproachtowardsaddressingclimatechange,andissupportiveofacoordinatedbusinesssustainabilityprogramaspartofitsTacklingClimateChangeStrategy.

ABusinessSustainabilityAlliancehasbeenformedbetweensevengovernmentagenciestocoordinateactivitiesandavoidduplicationinthedeliveryofindustryprograms.

Recycling Used Oil

Around500millionlitresoflubricatingoilissoldinAustraliaannuallytoindustryandtheminingsector,andformachinerysuchascars,trucksandfarmingequipment.OilproducersandimporterspayaCommonwealthlevyforpetroleumbasedoilsandtheirsyntheticequivalents.

Industryandthecommunitygenerateatleast250millionlitresofusedoileachyear.Theimproperhandlinganddisposalofthiswastecanpolluteland,andmarineandfreshwateraquaticsystems.Used oil is a valuable resource that is recycledandreprocessedforuseasafuelinpowerstationsandcementkilns.ViablecollectionarrangementsandendusemarketsareessentialtoensurethecontinuedreuseofwasteoilgeneratedinSouthAustralia.

Cigarette Butt on road.





R6.8 Expanduseofexistingwasteandrecyclinginfrastructuretoenablecollectionofabroaderrangeofwastetypeseg‘e-waste’andimproveaccesstocollectionfacilitiesforhazardouswastes.

R6.9 Improveinformationsystemsforbettermanagementofdifferentwastetypes

R6.10 AdjustSASPTarget3.8—Zerowaste,applyingatargetforreducedwastegeneratedpercapitaby,say,25%by2018.

R6.11 Makestategovernmentsupportformajoreventscontingentuponawastemanagementplanbasedonthewastehierarchy.

R6.12 Improveenforcementoflitterlegislation.


TheAustralianGovernmentintroducedtheProductStewardshipforOilProgram(PSO)in2001toprovideincentivestoincrease recycling of used oil. The benefit ratepaidtousedoilrecyclersvaries.Ahigher benefit rate is applied to used oil that has been re-refined to a base oil standard with a lower benefit rate for usedoilthatisdevelopedasindustrialburnerfuel.AlthoughthePSOprogramdoesnotprovideorguaranteemarketsforusedoil,collectionandrecyclinglevelsacrossAustraliahaveincreasedsinceitwasintroduced.

In May 2005 Zero Waste SA signed an agreementwiththeCommonwealthDepartment for Environment, Water, HeritageandtheArts(formerlytheDepartmentforEnvironmentandHeritage)toinstallaminimumof10additionalusedoilcollectionfacilitiesaroundthestate.FundedthroughthePSOprogram,16newfacilitieswereprovidedthroughthisagreementbringingthetotalnumberofcollectionfacilitiesinSouthAustraliatoabout110.

Asurplusofusedoilrecentlyoccurredin Western Australia due to a decline in

HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Liqud paperboard good to recycle.

Photo: Zero Waste SA

markets.AnationalworkinggrouphasbeenformedtoadvisetheEnvironmentProtectionandHeritageCouncilonpreventativemeasurestoavoidfutureoccurrences of this problem in WA and otherjurisdictions.

ForfurtherdetailonSouth Australia’s Strategic Planvisitwww.stateplan.sa.gov.au

R6.8 R6.9 R6.10 R6.11 R6.12

Growing Prosperity

Improving Wellbeing

Attaining Sustainability T3.8 T3.5, T3.7, T3.5, T3.7, T3.5, T3.7, T3.8

T3.8 T3.8 T3.8





Hamilton,Denniss&Baker,2005.Wasteful Consumption in Australia.TheAustraliaInstitute,Canberra

HyderConsulting,2007.Recycling Activity in South Australia 2005-2006,ZeroWaste SA

KeepAustraliaBeautifulNationalLitterIndexwww.kab.org.au/_dbase_upl/4%20SA%20PR.pdf

KESABAnnualReportJune07,(2007)KESAB,Adelaide

KESABLitterStrategyMonitoring2003–2007,KESAB,Adelaide

McGregorTanResearchCommunity Awareness and Acceptance of Container Deposit Legislation, (2004).EPA,SouthAustralianGovernment,Adelaide

McLennonMagasanikAssociates,BDAGroup,EconSearch,South Australia’s Waste Strategy 2005-2010 Benefit Cost Assessment, Volume 2: Technical Report, (2007). Zero Waste SA, South Australian Government,Adelaide

Tackling Climate Change: South Australia’s Greenhouse Strategy (2007).SouthAustralianGovernment,Adelaide

TheHonGailGagoMP,Media Release 4 March 2007SALeaderinRecycling(2007).SouthAustralianGovernment,Adelaide

Zero Waste SA (2006). Alternative Waste Technologies Position Paper. GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

Zero Waste SA (2004). Analysis of Levies and Financial Instruments in relation to Waste Management.SouthAustralianGovernment,Adelaide

Business Case for Councils to Undertake Co-Collection of Food Waste with Garden Organics, (2007). Zero Waste SA, SouthAustralianGovernment,Adelaide.

Landfill Survey Zero Waste South Australia June 2004, (2004). Zero Waste SA, South AustralianGovernment,Adelaide

Rewords: Industry Highlights May/June 2006 (2006). Zero Waste SA, South AustralianGovernment,Adelaide

Zero Waste SA Annual Report 2004-2005,(2005). Zero Waste SA, South Australian Government,Adelaide

Zero Waste SA Annual Report 2005-2006.(2006). Zero Waste SA, South Australian Government,Adelaide

ReferencesZero Waste SA Business Plan 2007-2008.(2007). Zero Waste SA, South Australian Government,Adelaide

South Australia’s Waste Strategy www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/waste_strategy.php

National Packaging Covenant www.packagingcovenant.org.au/page.php?name=home

Environment Protection and Heritage Council www.ephc.gov.au

Zero Waste SA Green Fit-out www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/news.php

Environment Protection and Heritage Council www.ephc.gov.au



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