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HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

RELATED TO NEURON.

  Submitted by: Aswathy..P

  Natu!a" s#ie$#e

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INTRODU%TION

 Ne!&es a""'w e"e#t!i#a" im(u"ses t' (!'(a)ate a"'$) thei! e"'$)ated #e"" e*te$si'$s

a$d +a#i"itate the t!a$s+e! '+ i$+'!mati'$ th!'u)h'ut the b'dy. Neu!a" tissue is

+'u$d withi$ the #e$t!a" $e!&'us system ,%NS- a$d the (e!i(he!a" $e!&'us system

,PNS- a$d the #'m('siti'$ a$d #'$stitue$t (a!ts '+ $eu!'$s a$d thei! su!!'u$di$)

#e""s di++e! '$"y s"i)ht"y Neu!a" tissue +'u$d i$ the %NS is #'m('sed

'+ gray a$d white matte! . The )!ay matte! i$#"udes $e!&e #e"" b'dies a$d s'me

sh'!t b!a$#hes +!'m these #e"" b'dies. The white matte! is #'m('sed '+ the "'$)

e*te$si'$s '+ the $e!&e the $e!&e +ibe!s.

/ithi$ the #e$t!a" $e!&'us system the!e a!e tw' ma0'! #e"" ty(es1 neurons whi#h

a!e the 2+u$#ti'$a"2 #e""s '+ the #e$t!a" $e!&'us system a$d glial cells whi#h ("ay a

su(('!ti$) !'"e withi$ the %NS. /ithi$ the %NS the!e a!e a"s' a $umbe! '+ 'the! 

#e""s that ("ay a su(('!ti&e !'"e t' the $eu!'$ a$d these

i$#"ude ast!'#ytes '"i)'de$d!'#ytes mi#!')"ia" #e""s e(e$dyma" #e""s a$d #h'!'id

 ("e*us e(ithe"ia" #e""s.

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 NEURON

 Neu!'$ '! $e!&e #e"" is the st!u#tu!a" a$d +u$#ti'$a" u$it '+ a"" the $e!&'us system.

It is the "'$)est #e""s i$ the b'dy .The!e a!e ab'ut 34 bi""i'$ $eu!'$s i$ the huma$

$e!&'us system. Neu!'$s a!e disti$)uished a$d #ate)'!i5ed a##'!di$) t' )e$e!a"

+u$#ti'$1 the!e a!e !e#e(t'! '! se$s'!y $eu!'$s m't'! $eu!'$s a$d i$te!$eu!'$s.

Se$s'!y '! a++e!e$t ,#a!!yi$) t'wa!d the b!ai$- $eu!'$s a!e s(e#ia"i5ed t' bese$siti&e t' a (a!ti#u"a! (hysi#a" stimu"ati'$ su#h as "i)ht ,&isi'$- s'u$d

,auditi'$- #hemi#a" ,'"+a#ti'$- '! (!essu!e ,t'u#h-. M't'! '! e++e!e$t ,#a!!yi$)

away +!'m the b!ai$- $eu!'$s !e#ei&e im(u"ses +!'m 'the! $eu!'$s a$d t!a$smit

this i$+'!mati'$ t' mus#"es '! )"a$ds. I$te!$eu!'$s '! i$t!i$si# $eu!'$s +'!m the

"a!)est )!'u( i$ the $e!&'us system. They +'!m #'$$e#ti'$s betwee$ themse"&es

a$d se$s'!y $eu!'$s be+'!e t!a$smissi'$ '+ #'$t!'" t' m't'! $eu!'$s. Neu!'$s a"s'

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&a!y a##'!di$) t' sha(e. 6'! e*am("e s'me ha&e m'!e e"ab'!ate de$d!iti#

 b!a$#hi$) whi"e 'the!s di++e! i$ the ("a#eme$t '+ the #e"" b'dy !e"ati&e t' 'the! 

 ('!ti'$s '+ the $eu!'$.

BASIC NERVE STRUCTURE

The basi# st!u#tu!e '+ a $e!&e is that '+ a cell body (soma whi#h has a single

long ner!e "iber (a#on atta#hed at '$e e$d t' the #e"" b'dy a$d at the 'the! e$d

t' a$'the! $e!&e #e"" b'dy '! t' a st!u#tu!e !e7ui!i$) $e!&e im(u"ses su#h as

s8e"eta" mus#"e. The i$te!+a#e betwee$ tw' $e!&es '! a $e!&e a$d a$'the! st!u#tu!e

is #a""ed the ner!e syna$se. The #e"" b'dy '+ the $e!&e itse"+ a"s' #'$tai$s

$ume!'us dendrites whi#h i$#!ease its su!+a#e a!ea e$ab"i$) 'the! $e!&e a*'$s t'#'$$e#t with the #e"" b'dy. The #e"" b'dy usua""y has #'$$e#ti'$s with ma$y 'the! 

a*'$s +!'m 'the! $e!&e #e""s with ma$y sy$a(ses '$ the #e"" b'dy. The a*'$ '+ the

$e!&e #e"" is usua""y su!!'u$ded by s'me +'!m '+ i$su"ati$) (!'te#ti'$

'! myelination. This (!'te#ti&e "aye! is #a""ed the mye"i$ sheath.

Soma (Cell Body

The s'ma '! #e"" b'dy is the #e$t!a" (a!t '+ the $eu!'$ a$d #'$tai$s the $u#"eus '+ 

the #e"" the !'u)h a$d sm''th e$d'("asmi# !eti#u"um !ib's'me a$d G'")i

a((a!atus. Simi"a! (!'#esses that w'u"d be u$de!ta8e$ by a$y #e"" '##u! withi$ the

s'ma a$d due t' the '!)a$e""es it #'$tai$s the s'ma is whe!e m'st (!'tei$

sy$thesis '##u!s.

%endrites

The $eu!'$9s de$d!ites a!e e++e#ti&e"y b!a$#hi$) e*te$si'$s '+ the #e"" b'dy.%'""e#ti&e"y these b!a$#hi$) st!u#tu!es '+ the de$d!ites a!e 8$'w$ as the

2de$d!iti# t!ee2. The de$d!ite t!ee is the site whe!e in$ut to the neuron '##u!s &ia

sy$a(ses with a*'$s +!'m 'the! $e!&e #e""s. I$ m'st #ases $e!&e im(u"ses t!a&e"

+!'m 'the! $e!&e #e""s t' the #e"" b'dy a$d a!e the$ #'$du#ted a"'$) the $e!&e #e""9s

'w$ a*'$ t' 'the! #e"" b'dies. H'we&e! de$d!ites themse"&es a!e u$ab"e t'

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 (!'(a)ate $e!&e im(u"ses i$ the ma$$e! '+ a*'$s as de$d!ites a!e u$ab"e t'

se#!ete $eu!'t!a$smitte!s. Simi"a!"y a*'$s d' $'t ('ssess the #hem'!e#e(t'!s that

a!e +'u$d withi$ the de$d!ites a$d a!e the!e+'!e u$ab"e t' !e#ei&e $e!&e im(u"ses.

 Ne!&e im(u"ses a!e the!e+'!e #'$du#ted i$ '$e di!e#ti'$ '$"y.

A#on (Ner!e &iber

The a*'$ is a &e!y +i$e (!'0e#ti'$ that #a$ measu!e u( t' th'usa$ds '+ times the

diamete! '+ the s'ma i$ "e$)th. The a*'$ #a!!ies $e!&e si)$a"s away +!'m the

s'ma. The st!u#tu!e a$d +u$#ti'$ '+ the a*'$ is &e!y simi"a! betwee$ the %NS a$d

the PNS. The a*'$ is #'$side!ab"y thi#8e! a$d "'$)e! tha$ the de$d!ites '+ $eu!'$.

La!)e! $eu!'$s ha&e a ma!8ed"y e*(a$ded !e)i'$ at the i$itia" e$d '+ the a*'$.

This a*'$ hi""'#8 is the site '+ summati'$ +'! i$#'mi$) i$+'!mati'$. At a$y )i&e$

m'me$t the #'""e#ti&e i$+"ue$#e '+ a"" $eu!'$s that #'$du#t im(u"ses t' a )i&e$

$eu!'$ wi"" dete!mi$e whethe! '! $'t a$ a#ti'$ ('te$tia" wi"" be i$itiated at thea*'$ hi""'#8 a$d (!'(a)ated a"'$) the a*'$.

'yelin Sheath

The Mye"i$ Sheath '+ a $eu!'$ #'$sists '+ +at#'$tai$i$) #e""s that i$su"ate the

a*'$ +!'m e"e#t!i#a" a#ti&ity. This i$su"ati'$ a#ts t' i$#!ease the !ate '+ 

t!a$smissi'$ '+ si)$a"s. A )a( e*ists betwee$ ea#h mye"i$ sheath #e"" a"'$) the

a*'$. Si$#e +at i$hibits the (!'( a)ati'$ '+ e"e#t!i#ity the si)$a"s 0um( +!'m '$e

)a( t' the $e*t. Mu"ti("e s#"e!'sis is #ha!a#te!i5ed by (at#hes '+ demye"i$ati'$

,dest!u#ti'$ '! "'ss '+ the mye"i$ sheath- i$ the #e$t!a" $e!&'us system. Thesym(t'ms that !esu"t +!'m this demye"i$ati'$ a!e dete!mi$ed by the +u$#ti'$s

$'!ma""y #'$t!ibuted by the a++e#ted $eu!'$s. Dis!u(ti'$ '+ mus#"e #'$t!'" s(ee#h

a$d &isua" distu!ba$#es a!e #'mm'$.

The mye"i$ sheath ,a tubu"a! #ase '! e$&e"'(e- )i&es the whitish a((ea!a$#e t' the

white matte! '+ the b!ai$. Mye"i$ #e""s a!e i$#"uded i$ the #ate)'!y '+ Gai" #e""s.

G"ia" #e""s +u$#ti'$ t' su(('!t the (!'#esses '+ $eu!'$s i$ a &a!iety '+ ways. The

)"ia" #e""s +'!mi$) mye"i$ sheaths a!e #a""ed '"i)'de$d!'#ytes i$ the #e$t!a"

$e!&'us system a$d S#hwa$$ #e""s i$ the (e!i(he!a" $e!&'us system. The )a(s

,a((!'*imate"y 3 mi#!'mete! wide- +'!med betwee$ mye"i$ sheath #e""s "'$) thea*'$s a!e #a""ed N'des '+ Ra$&ie!. Si$#e +at se!&es as a )''d i$su"at'! the mye"i$

sheaths s(eed the !ate '+ t!a$smissi'$ '+ a$ e"e#t!i#a" im(u"se a"'$) the a*'$. The

e"e#t!i#a" im(u"se 0um(s +!'m '$e $'de t' the $e*t at a !ate as +ast as 3;4

mete!s<se#'$d. This !a(id !ate '+ #'$du#ti'$ is #a""ed sa"tat'!y #'$du#ti'$.

Mye"i$ated a*'$s a!e !a!e i$ the aut'$'mi# $e!&'us system. I$&e!teb!ates d' $'t

ha&e mye"i$ated sheaths.

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Nodes o" Ran!ier

The )a(s ,a((!'*imate"y 3 mi#!'mete! wide- +'!med betwee$ mye"i$ sheath #e""s

"'$) the a*'$s a!e #a""ed N'des '+ Ra$&ie!. Si$#e +at se!&es as a )''d i$su"at'! the

mye"i$ sheaths s(eed the !ate '+ t!a$smissi'$ '+ a$ e"e#t!i#a" im(u"se a"'$) the

a*'$. The e"e#t!i#a" im(u"se 0um(s +!'m '$e $'de t' the $e*t at a !ate as +ast as3;4 mete!s<se#'$d. This !a(id !ate '+ #'$du#ti'$ is #a""ed sa"tat'!y #'$du#ti'$.

Mye"i$ated a*'$s a!e !a!e i$ the aut'$'mi# $e!&'us system. I$&e!teb!ates d' $'t

ha&e mye"i$ated sheaths.

Syna$se

The Sy$a(se ,G!ee8 sy$: u$i'$ ass'#iati'$- is the ('i$t '+ #'$$e#ti'$ betwee$

tw' $eu!'$s '! betwee$ a $eu!'$ a$d a mus#"e '! )"a$d. E"e#t!'#hemi#a"

#'mmu$i#ati'$ betwee$ $eu!'$s ta8es ("a#e at these 0u$#ti'$s. The sy$a(se

#'$sists '+ th!ee e"eme$ts: 3- the (!esy$a(ti# memb!a$e whi#h is +'!med by the

te!mi$a" butt'$ '+ a$ a*'$ ;- the ('stsy$a(ti# memb!a$e whi#h is #'m('sed '+ ase)me$t '+ de$d!ite '! #e"" b'dy a$d =- the s(a#e betwee$ these tw' st!u#tu!es

whi#h is #a""ed the sy$a(ti# #"e+t. S'me #e""s i$ the $e!&'us system ha&e as ma$y

as tw' hu$d!ed th'usa$d sy$a(ti# #'$$e#ti'$s.

Terminal Buttons

The Te!mi$a" >utt'$s '+ a $eu!'$ a!e the sma"" 8$'bs at the e$d '+ a$ a*'$ that

!e"ease #hemi#a"s #a""ed $eu!'t!a$smitte!s. The te!mi$a" butt'$s +'!m

the P!esy$a(ti# Neu!'$ '+ the sy$a(se. A$'the! te!m used +'! the (!esy$a(ti#

te!mi$a" butt'$ is e$d bu"b. >e#ause the !e"ease '+ $eu!'t!a$smitte!s e*(e$ds "a!)eam'u$t '+ e$e!)y mit'#h'$d!ia a!e usua""y ("e$ti+u" i$ this !e)i'$ '+ the $eu!'$.

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STRUCTURA CASSI&ICATI)N

M'st $eu!'$s #a$ be a$at'mi#a""y #ha!a#te!i5ed as:

3. U$i('"a!  : de$d!ite a$d a*'$ eme!)i$) +!'m same (!'#ess.

;. >i('"a! : a*'$ a$d si$)"e de$d!ite '$ '(('site e$ds '+ the s'ma.

=. Mu"ti('"a! : tw' '! m'!e de$d!ites se(a!ate +!'m the a*'$:

?. Pseud'u$i('"a! $eu!'$

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NEUR))*ICA %IS)R%ERS

Charcot+'arie+Tooth disease

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Charcot+'arie+Tooth disease ,%MT- a"s' 8$'w$ as hereditary motor and 

 sensory neuropathy ,HMSN- hereditary sensorimotorneuropathy a$d peroneal 

muscular atrophy is a hete!')e$e'us i$he!ited dis'!de! '+ $e!&es ,$eu!'(athy-

that is #ha!a#te!i5ed by "'ss '+ mus#"e tissue a$d t'u#h se$sati'$

 (!ed'mi$a$t"y i$ the +eet a$d "e)s but a"s' i$ the ha$ds a$d a!ms i$ thead&a$#ed sta)es '+ disease. P!ese$t"y i$#u!ab"e this disease is '$e '+ the m'st

#'mm'$ i$he!ited $eu!'"')i#a" dis'!de!s with =@ i$ 344444 a++e#ted.

Al,heimer-s disease

Al,heimer-s disease ,AD- a"s' 8$'w$ sim("y as Alzheimer's is

a $eu!'de)e$e!ati&e disease #ha!a#te!i5ed by

 (!')!essi&e #')$iti&e dete!i'!ati'$ t')ethe! with de#"i$i$) a#ti&ities '+ dai"y

"i&i$) a$d $eu!'(sy#hiat!i# sym(t'ms '! beha&i'!a" #ha$)es. The m'st st!i8i$)

ea!"y sym(t'm is "'ss '+ sh'!tte!m mem'!y ,am$esia- whi#h usua""y ma$i+ests

as mi$'! +'!)et+u"$ess that be#'mes steadi"y m'!e (!'$'u$#ed with i""$ess

 (!')!essi'$ with !e"ati&e (!ese!&ati'$ '+ '"de! mem'!ies. As the dis'!de! 

 (!')!esses #')$iti&e ,i$te""e#tua"- im(ai!me$t e*te$ds t' the d'mai$s '+ "a$)ua)e ,a(hasia- s8i""ed m'&eme$ts ,a(!a*ia- a$d !e#')$iti'$ ,a)$'sia- a$d

+u$#ti'$s su#h as de#isi'$ma8i$) a$d ("a$$i$) be#'me im(ai!ed.

.ar/inson-s disease

.ar/inson-s disease ,PD- a"s' 8$'w$ as Parkinson disease is a de)e$e!ati&e

dis'!de! '+ the #e$t!a" $e!&'us system that '+te$ im(ai!s the su++e!e!9s m't'! 

s8i""s a$d s(ee#h. Pa!8i$s'$9s disease be"'$)s t' a )!'u( '+ #'$diti'$s

#a""ed m'&eme$t dis'!de!s. It is #ha!a#te!i5ed by mus#"e !i)idity t!em'!  a

s"'wi$) '+ (hysi#a" m'&eme$t , b!ady8i$esia- a$d i$ e*t!eme #ases a "'ss '+ 

 (hysi#a" m'&eme$t ,a8i$esia-. The (!ima!y sym(t'ms a!e the !esu"ts '+ 

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de#!eased stimu"ati'$ '+ the m't'! #'!te* by the basa" )a$)"ia $'!ma""y #aused

 by the i$su++i#ie$t +'!mati'$ a$d a#ti'$ '+ d'(ami$e whi#h is (!'du#ed i$ the

d'(ami$e!)i# $eu!'$s '+ the b!ai$. Se#'$da!y sym(t'ms may i$#"ude hi)h

"e&e" #')$iti&e dys+u$#ti'$ a$d subt"e "a$)ua)e (!'b"ems. PD is b'th #h!'$i#

a$d (!')!essi&e. 

'yasthenia gra!is

'yasthenia gra!is  is a $eu!'mus#u"a! disease "eadi$) t' +"u#tuati$) mus#"e

wea8$ess a$d +ati)abi"ity du!i$) sim("e a#ti&ities. /ea8$ess is ty(i#a""y #aused by #i!#u"ati$) a$tib'dies that b"'#8 a#ety"#h'"i$e !e#e(t'!s at the ('stsy$a(ti#

$eu!'mus#u"a! 0u$#ti'$ i$hibiti$) the stimu"ati&e e++e#t '+ the $eu!'t!a$smitte! 

a#ety"#h'"i$e. Myasthe$ia is t!eated

with immu$'su((!essa$ts #h'"i$este!ase i$hibit'!s a$d i$ se"e#ted

#ases thyme#t'my.

%emyelination

Demye"i$ati'$  is the a#t '+ demye"i$ati$) '! the "'ss '+ the mye"i$ sheath

i$su"ati$) the $e!&es. /he$ mye"i$ de)!ades #'$du#ti'$ '+ si)$a"s a"'$) the

$e!&e #a$ be im(ai!ed '! "'st a$d the $e!&e e&e$tua""y withe!s. This "eads t'

#e!tai$ $eu!'de)e$e!ati&e dis'!de!s "i8e mu"ti("e s#"e!'sis a$d #h!'$i#

i$+"ammat'!y demye"i$ati$) ('"y$eu!'(athy.

A#onal degeneration

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A"th'u)h m'st i$0u!y !es('$ses i$#"ude a #a"#ium i$+"u* si)$a"i$) t' (!'m'te

!esea"i$) '+ se&e!ed (a!ts a*'$a" i$0u!ies i$itia""y "ead t' a#ute a*'$a"

de)e$e!ati'$ whi#h is !a(id se(a!ati'$ '+ the (!'*ima" a$d dista" e$ds withi$

=4 mi$utes '+ i$0u!y. De)e$e!ati'$ +'""'ws with swe""i$) '+ the a*'"emma a$d

e&e$tua""y "eads t' bead "i8e +'!mati'$. G!a$u"a! disi$te)!ati'$ '+ thea*'$a" #yt's8e"et'$ a$d i$$e! '!)a$e""es '##u!s a+te! a*'"emma de)!adati'$.

Ea!"y #ha$)es i$#"ude a##umu"ati'$ '+ mit'#h'$d!ia i$ the (a!a$'da" !e)i'$s at

the site '+ i$0u!y. E$d'("asmi# !eti#u"um de)!ades a$d mit'#h'$d!ia swe"" u(

a$d e&e$tua""y disi$te)!ate. The disi$te)!ati'$ is de(e$de$t

'$ ubi7uiti$ a$d #a"(ai$  (!'teases,#aused by i$+"u* '+ #a"#ium i'$- su))esti$)

that a*'$a" de)e$e!ati'$ is a$ a#ti&e (!'#ess. Thus the a*'$ u$de!)'es

#'m("ete +!a)me$tati'$. The (!'#ess ta8es ab'ut !'u)h"y ;? h!s i$ the PNS

a$d "'$)e! i$ the %NS. The si)$a"i$) (athways "eadi$) t' a*'"emmade)e$e!ati'$ a!e #u!!e$t"y u$8$'w$.

Ner!e regeneration

It has bee$ dem'$st!ated that $eu!')e$esis #a$ s'metimes '##u! i$ the

adu"t &e!teb!ate b!ai$ a +i$di$) that "ed t' #'$t!'&e!sy i$ 3. H'we&e! "ate! 

studies '+ the a)e '+ huma$ $eu!'$s su))est that this (!'#ess '##u!s '$"y +'! ami$'!ity '+ #e""s a$d the '&e!whe"mi$) ma0'!ity '+ $eu!'$s #'m(!isi$)

the $e'#'!te* we!e +'!med be+'!e bi!th a$d (e!sist with'ut !e("a#eme$t.

It is '+te$ ('ssib"e +'! (e!i(he!a" a*'$s t' !e)!'w i+ they a!e se&e!ed. Re#e$t

studies ha&e a"s' sh'w$ that the b'dy #'$tai$s a &a!iety '+ stem #e"" ty(es that

ha&e the #a(a#ity t' di++e!e$tiate i$t' $eu!'$s. A !e('!t i$ Nature su))ested that

!esea!#he!s had +'u$d a way t' t!a$s+'!m huma$ s8i$ #e""s i$t' w'!8i$) $e!&e

#e""s usi$) a (!'#ess #a""ed t!a$sdi++e!e$tiati'$ i$ whi#h 2#e""s a!e +'!#ed t'

ad'(t $ew ide$tities2.

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%ON%LUSION

 Neu!'$s a!e se$siti&e t' su!!'u$di$). They !es('$d t' stimu"i#ha$)es b'th

i$side a$d 'utside '+ the b'dy. The $eu!'$s !ea#t by #ha$)i$) ('te$tia"di++e!e$#e a$d by #'$du#ti$) the ('te$tia" #ha$)es as we a"'$) thei! memb!a$e.

This (!'(e!ty is 8$'w$ as e*#itabi"ity. The!e a!e ma$y diseases a++e#ted by the

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neurons  ty(es '+ $e!&e #e""s a!e a++e#ted. The !e$'w$ed E$)"ish (hysi#ist

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$eu!'$ disease.

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