8/117/7/15 9:04 AMVitruvian Man proportions of a regular human bodyex: ideal body 8x ideal body

Medical Examslungs - spirometer check lung capacity by blowing into itAbdomen (right) hepatistis or cirrhosis of liverAbdomen (left) leukemia or serious infection may enlarge of the spleenLower back: kidney infection may make back extremely sore to pressure and toughTapping on the knees abnormal reflexes may result in CNS problemsAlternative: MRI scan of brain and spinal cordScratching of the soles of the feet another reflex, typically done with babies, toes should curl down, other reflexes can indicate CNS problems

How do Brains of Men and Women differ?facial recognition women betteraudio womenvisual men bettergross coordination - menfine coordination womenrisk taking behavior menmemory emotional: women, factual: menempathy women

respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems are involved in the exchange of materials between external and internal environmentsother systems are more just internal

endocrine, ductless glands thyroid thymus adrenals, ovaries, testisnot attached to anythingnot connected to each otherhow do they talk to each other? the circulatory system carries signals from one gland to another

Homeostasispositive and negative feedback

Body Planesmidsagittal planetransverse/horizontal planeparasagittal planefrontal or coronal plane

Serous Membranesinside membrane/inner membrane wall visceral serous membraneouter wall = parietal serous membranethis is for ALL organ systemspericardium heartpleura lungs and thoracic cavityperitoneum abdominopelvic cavity

Carbohydrates (C,H,O)CH2Oglucose: 6(CH2O) = C6H12O6disaccharide: sugars coming together, 6(CH2O)+6(CH2O) = C12H24O12 H2O = C12H22O11every reaction, must subtract H2O in order to combine them togetherLipids (C,H,O)Proteins (C,H,O,N)Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, C, H, O, N, P

CarbohydratesMonosaccharidessimple sugars: glucose, fructose, galactoseDisaccharidestwo simple sugars bound together by dehydration:sucrose, lactose, maltosePolysaccharideslong chains of many monosaccharides: glycogen in animalsstarch and cellulose in plantseat pasta for running cause of starch, polysaccharides are good for energy

Human Physiology Lecture 1 7/77/7/15 9:04 AM

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Centriole bundle of microtubule triplets, used to pull cell for cell duplicationhistones compact chromosomes

ribosomes made in nucleolus

smooth endoplasmic reticulum, SER no ribosomesrough ER ribosomesSER makes thing sthat are nonwater soluble, fats, etc.RER not glycerol, sterol derived, made here

The more stages a protein goes through in the Golgi, the more complicated it will be when it comes out.

lysosome like the digestive system of the cell, gets rid of bad stuffTay-Sachs disease dysfunctional lysosomes, accumulation of bad stuff

-ase = suffix for proteins, specifically enzymes-ose = suffix for sugars/carbohydrates

DEF. KNOW HOW TO LABEL HUGE PICTURE OF CELL

ATP (triphosphate) = 3 phosphates

crista=folds in mitochondria= increase in surface area, more reactions can take place

purine vs. pyrimidine

****************memorize the 9 essential amino acids, I Like Humans To Try Making Life Viable & Pleasant !PVT TIM HaLLdont need to know the structure

Vitaminsenzymes helps catalyze reactionsvitamins are coenzymes further helps enzymes to catalyze reactions

Osteoporosis start getting pores in your bones

pyruvic acid half of glucose, has 3 carbons

aerobic respiration produces 38 ATP overall

Lipid Metabolism too much glucose without utilizing the energy, you start to store the energy in fatsgluconeogenesis glycerol being changed back into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to go back to carbohydrate metabolism/respiration

Amino Acid ReactionsTranamination = transfer of amine groupoxidative deamination = ammonia as by productconversion of ammonia to urea

glycogen excess glucose stored in humans (stored as starch in plants)

presynaptic = axon, outputpostsynaptic = dendrites, input

brain has 3 major parts:forebrain (diencephalon + cerebral cortex)midbrainhindbrain (cerebellum + brainstem)

All blood vessels are in pia matter and subarachnoid spaceDO NOT want blood vessels inside brainmeninges - membranes of brainmeningitis - inflammation of meninges

difference between sulci,gyri, and fissure is deepness

corpus callosum in females are larger, allows for better communication between right and left brain.

referred pain ex: appendicitis, feel pain in belly button, or heart attack some people feel pain on their left shoulder

MUST KNOW all 12 cranial nervesI - OlfactoryII - OpticIII - OculomotorIV - TrochlearV - TrigeminalVI - AbducensVII - FacialVIII - Vestibulocochlear IX - Glossopharyngeal X - Vagus XI - Accessory XII - HypoglossalOh, Oh, Oh, To Touch A Face of a Virgin Gives Victor a Hard-on7/97/7/15 9:04 AM

The NADH and FADH2 formed from citric acid cycle are cofactors to be used to ETC.

NEED TO KNOWstarting material and what you get out of each process in cell respiration

Ketone acids - fatty acids can be converted to ketone bodies, more of a last resort, happens when starvingthree water-soluble molecules that are produced by the liver from fatty acids during periods of low food intake (fasting) or carbohydrate restriction for cells of the body to use as energy instead of glucoseketone bodies are picked up by cells and converted back into acetyl-CoA which then enters the citric acid cycle and is oxidized in the mitochondria for energy. The three endogenous ketone bodies are acetone, acetoacetic acid, and B-hydroxybutyric acid.

nucleic acid vs nucleotidenucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides ~ contain repeating units of nucleotides, linked by phosphodiester bonds, e.g.: DNA is a nucleic acid made up of many nucleotidesnucleoside - has only a nitrogenous base joined to one side

Proteins = repeating units of amino acidsglucose = repeating units of sugar moleculesnucleic acids = repeating units of nucleotides

NEW STUFFMetabolic StatesAbsorptive State - nutrients rare absorbed from the digestive tract & carried by the blood to liverPost Absorptive state - blood glucose levels maintained by conversion of other molecules to glucose'

Muscular activity can change basal metabolic rate.

When you feel light-headed is when you are deprived of glucose and nutrients, need to eat. 25% of glucose consumption occurs in brain.

Starvation Mode - a state in which the body is responding to prolonged periods of low energy intake levelsthe body will be exhausting the contents of the digestive tract along with glycogen reserves stored in muscle and liver cellsshort periods of energy abstinence - body will burn primarily free fatty acids from body fat storesprolonged periods of starvation - body begins to burn lean tissue and muscle as a fuel source

Diabetes = people with elevated levels of blood glucose (sugar). Disruption of glucose metabolism when insulin is absent or when cells don't respond to itInsulin promotes anabolic pathway by stimulating appropriate enzymesglucose makes ATPglucose stored as glycogenfatty acids stored as fatsamino acids to make proteinswithout insulin, enzyme associated with catabolic pathways are more activefats undergo beta-oxidationamino acids go through gluconeogenesis to become glucoseglycogen stores turned back into glucoseglucose produced in cells and inability of cells to absorb glucose = high blood glucose levels = diabetes

Formation of the Neural Tube

spinal cord not even, bulges on bottom and top, need more nerves here for arms and legsform and function

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a little bit of overlap between thoracic nerves and lumbar nerves and sacral nerves

meninges, 3 types: dura, arachnoid, pia

a cluster of neurons = nucleuscell body = soma

Spinal cordDorsal is ONLY sensoryventral is ONLY motor

bundles of spinal branches = plexus

Spina Bifida:congenital defect occuring 1/1000 birthsalso caused by lack of folic B acidspinal cord does not develop correctly, big lump in back

intermediate zone = space around central canal and between dorsal and ventral portions of spinal cord

dorsal root ganglion = sensory 1aventral motor neurons = alpha motor neurons

white matter = mostly myelinated axonsgrey matter = mostly soma

dorsal, lateral, and ventral

signal goes from sensory, intermediate to motor. Dorsal, to lateral (can crisscross to other side) and then out of ventral

ascending tracts - go up to brain, thalamusdescending tracts - go to limbs or anywhere else, PMS

dorsal root ganglion = you have cell bodiesdorsal root = axons going into grey matter

between medulla and spinal cord is Descussation, where neurons start to criss cross

all S1,S2,S3, etc. nerves converge into sciatic nerve

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM

one muscle cell = myofibrilcollection of myofibrils = muscle fiberneuromuscular junction = space between nerve and muscle

Stretch reflex - composed of sensory neuron and motorneuronsensory = afferentmotor = efferent, alpha motor neuron

Reflex arc: sensory neuron (afferent), interneuron, motorneuron (efferent)two synapses, disynaptic

Simple reflex arc: sensory receptor (ex: finger) , sensory neuron, interneuron, motorneuron, and an effector (muscle cells)poly-synaptic

A motoneuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates are referred to collectively as a motor unit.motor unit = 1 alpha motor neuron and ALL its innervated musclesif there are multiple motor units going to same muscle, the STRONGEST one will be the one that controles itpolyneuronal innervation -> mononeuronal innervation -> motor unit

the more motor units you recruit: the more fine motor controlrecruiting one LARGE motor unit = gross muscle movementrecruiting multiple smaller motor units = fine motor control

EVERY muscular pathway goes back to alpha-motor neurons

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stretch reflex ex: you nodding off and then perking your head up, gravity is stimulus, trying super hard to go against gravity and that your body is upright

extrafusal fibers inside the belly of the muscleAlso have connective tissue that encases intrafusal muscle fibers.Inside casing, you have intrafusal muscle fibers.Nerves are wrapped around intrafusal muscle fibers, making muscle spindle.As spring of nerves is excited, intrafusal muscle fibers stretch and nerves send a message to dorsal root ganglion. Transfers to ventral motorneurons that sends a message back to the muscle spindle.monosynapticstretch reflex

gamma motorneurons activate intrafusal muscle fibersalpha motorneurons activate extrafusal muscle fibers

gamma motornerve endings make sure the intrafusal muscle fibers don't stretch too far and tear

wherever joints bend - flexor musclewherever joints don't bend - extensor muscleantagonistic muscle groups

dorsal root and ventral root collectively = spinal nerve

withdrawal reflex - safety mechanism, stepping on a thumbtack you automatically switch to other foot to stabilize yourselfremember, it must connect to both flexor and extensor. It all happens at the same time

There are NO inhibition muscles in skeletal muscles. Any inhibition occurs CENTRALLY, in spine and brain.

PNS

proteins negatively charged, cannot go outside of cell always insideAch comes in, opens sodium channels, resting membrane poteional at -70mV, goes to about -30, becomes so postive to +30, once threshold is reached, you have an action potentialAll-or-none response

chlorine ions Cl- used to regulate action potentials, inhibit action potentials

Characteristics of Resting Membrane Potentialnumber of charged molecules and ions inside and outside cell nearly equilat equilibrium there is very little movement of K+ or ions into or out of the cell

Depolarization - Na+ influx, becomes more positive more positive to threshold (-30), once threshold reached, action potential happensRepolarization - K+ efflux, K+ goes out, K+ channels always open, ready to leave (whereas Na+ channels need ATP to open), goes back down to negative goes more negative than resting potential, more K+ than was originally there leaves and Na+ also leavesHyperpolarization -, then cell resets itself to resting potential

sodium potassium ATP pump -> 2K+ in, 3Na+ out. This is for hyperpolarization to compensate for leaky channels. By letting K+ in but also letting Na+ out, Na-K ATPase Pump allows cell to reset to resting membrane potential

absolute refractory period: complete insensitivity to other stimulus, action potential is gonna happen no matter whatrelative refractory period - a stronger signal than threshold stimulus can initiate another action potential

tetanus - muscle fatigued, does not have time to relaxtetanus- muscles cannot relax, always contracted

peptides - peptide bonds, carboxyl group to an amino group

classical NTs -> glutamate, dopamine, seratonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, GABA, Ach

Chemically-gated channelonce Ach binds to its liganch gated ion channel, Na+ floods in and depolarizes cellonce GABA binds, Cl- floods in and repolarizes cell, cell cannot fire an action potential

Other types of Voltage-gated channels (mostly Na+)AMPA receptor - glutamate binds to this, and opens up AMPA channel to let in Na+, depolarizesNMDA receptor - glutamate also binds to NMDA receptor, but there is a Mg2+ ion that prevents Na+ from flowing. However, Ca2+ can flow out.When you have low Ca, you cannot activate NMDA receptor, binds more to the AMPA receptor.

*KNOW CLASSICAL NEUROTRANSMITTERS*

At axon, Ca2+ enters cell, changes conformation, allows Ach receptor to open and let sodium to flow in, causing depolarization of the cell

Acetylcholinesterase can allow for the recycling of Ach

Saltatory Conductionschwann cells, nodes of ranvier between schwann cells. Allows for quicker propagation of action potentials

TTX in blow fish is a toxin that blocks voltage-gated Na+channels, thus no action potential is generated causing paralysis.

Autonomic NSSympathetic vs. Parasympatheticsympathetic - stressful situationsparasympathetic - daily activities

autonomictwo synapses -> each synapse has a different NT released1st one - Ach2nd one -> norepinephrine

somatic motoneuronautonomic motoneuronautonomic ganglionpreganglionic neurons BEFORE autonomic ganglionpostganglionic fibers AFTER autonomic ganglion

ligaments - bind bone to bonetendon - bind bone to muscle

sarcolemma = plasma membrane of muscle cellsT-tubules = valleys in sarcolemmasarcoplasm = cytoplasm of muscle cellssarcoplasmic reticulums attached to T-tubublesSRs store calciumalso have mitochondria

myofibrils composed of:troponin - thin filamentactin -thintropomyosin - thinmyosin - thickall thin and thick filaments organized into sarcomere

muscle contraction DEPENDENT on calcium

every time you see another Z line, have another sarcomeresarcomeres are Z line to Z linewhite bands - I band - contains actin2 dark bands + H band = A band -> contains actin, myosin, and other proteins

within the A band, there is the H bandZ line is within I band

Once muscle is in fully contracted mode, H zone disappears.H zone - you see myosin???A zone - you see actin and myosin

Once muscle relaxes, H zone widens again.

calcium binds to troponintroponin moves tropomyosin, exposing sitesmyosin heads bind to active sites, hydrolyzes ATP, causes contraction of actin

isometric - muscle contracts, but does not shortenisotonic = concentric contraction: change in length but tension constanteccentric: opposite of isotonic, muscle lengthens as it gains tension

runners have more slow-twitch musclesprint runners/body builders have more fast-twitch musclesAlso need fast-twitch muscles in stressful situations

in muscle, once Na+ goes in and causes action potential, potentiates to T-tubules, allowing SR to release Ca2+. Ca2+ starrts swiveling shit at sarcomere in the sarcoplasm.

effects of aging on skeletal musclereduced muscle massincreased time for muscle to contract in response to nervous stimulireduced staminaincreased recovery timeloss of muscle fibersdecreased density of capillaries in muslce

Multiple-Wave Summation - as frequency of action potnetials increase, frequency of contraction increasesrelative refractory period

Complete tetanus - no relaxation between contractions7/227/7/15 9:04 AM

muscle cells = muscle fibersmyofibrils (organelle made up of bundles of filaments) contained within sarcolemmasarcomere is a section of a myofibril from Z line to Z line

in skeletal muscle, ALL SYNAPSES ARE EXCITATORY - no signal that causes inhibition of contraction/relaxation. If there is an "inhibitory motorneuron" that causes an antagonist muscle to relax, that just means no signal travels there. What about spindle????????????,

Smooth musclefusiform cells with 1 nucleusnot striatedno sarcomeres, no T-tubulesnon-contractile intermediate filaments attached to dense bodies instead of Z disks

Types of smooth musclemulti-unit smooth muscle - largest arteries, iris, pulmonary air passages, arrector pili muscles, terminal nerve branches synapse on myocytesindependent contractionindividual cells are inervatedsingle- unit smooth musclemost bl. vessels & viscera as circular and longitudinal muscle layerselectrically coupled by gap junctionslarge # of cells for contractionall cells working together, act as a unit

there are excitatory and inhibitory signals in smooth muscleCa2+ source is extracellular fluid in smooth muscles, b/c there is a scanty amount of sarcoplasmic reticulum. Whereas skeletal muscle has a lot of SR, so gets Ca2+ from SR

Autonomic efferent innervationmyelinated preganglionic fibers -> automatic ganglion -> unmyelinated postganglionic fiber -> visceral effectors

gray matter of ANS is smaller, b/c it relies on two, not one, don't need a lot of cells in spinal cord, autonomic ganglion takes some of the workneed more gray matter in skeletal muscle b/c thats your only source

enlargements in spinal cord -> more cells, more skeletal muscle innervationswhen it gets thin, more ANSANS1st synapse -> Ach2nd synapse -> Ach or norepinephrine

chain of sympathetic ganglia short b/c you want immediate response in fight or flightparasympathetic divisions longer, don't necessarily need immediate responsethe both innervate pretty much the same organs, but have different effects

preganglionic neuron is a motorneuron, b/c it comes out of ventral horn

postganglionic cell, not technically a neuron

lacrimation = crying, important to keep eyes lubricated all the time

splanchnic nerve -> skip skynapsing, exception

preganglionic cells = spinal nervessympathetic nerves = postganglioinic nerves

adrenal gland exception : preganglionic nerve goes directly to adrenal gland, adrenal gland acting like post ganglionic cell

splanchnic shift - in a fight or flight response/situation, switch to more of the splanchnic nerve and adrenal gland, need more and more adrenalineall blood goes to limbs rather than digestion/parasympathetic organs

glycogen to glucose -> glycogenolysisfat cells break down triglycerides -> gluconeogenesis

if second synapse in ANS releases norepinephrine or epinephrine -> excitatoryif release Ach in second synapse, inhibitory7/287/7/15 9:04 AM

autonomic motoneurons go to visceral organs

splanchnic shift - happens in F/F. splanchnic nerve decreases digestion, adrenal gland stimulated and secretes adrenaline, happens simultaneouslygoes from gut, to arms, to blood so u can fight

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEMchordae tendineae - ???heart is one ginormous muscle with tendons and ducts and valves

vena cava -> vein -> venules -> capillariesaorta -> arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries

capillaries - site where oxygenated and deoxygenated blood exchange in tissues and organs

blood pressure - functions to keep blood oxgenated and get deoxygenated blood to heart

AV valves - atriaventricular valves, bicuspid/mitral (left) and tricuspid (right) valves, between arteries and ventriclesvalves have connective tissue that attaches to ventricles in order to prevent valve from opening the other way. helps prevent backflow

both atria contract together, both ventricles contract together, all happens simultaneously

KNOW FLOW OF BLOOD

Once AV node has an AP, all ventricles contract.SA node - once has an AP, all atriums contract

in cardiac muscle, intercalated disks function similar to Z discsfunction of gap junctions: allow for fast passing of ions between adjacent cells to generate APsAP of longer duration and longer refractory period. -> in order to maintain synchronous, well-coordinated contraction. you don't want heart to go into tetanus mode,Cardiac gets Ca2+ gets from sarcoplasmic reticulum AND extracellular fluid

desmosomes in cardiac are like dense bodies in smoothhold cells together like an anchorprevents cells from separating, don't want cardiac muscle cells to branch off, b/c you can't have coordinated contractiondesmosomes attach to the actin and myosin

SA node - autorhythmic, generates its own APs spontaneouslyAP jumps from each cardiac muscle cell through gap junctions

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cardiac nerve = sympathetic nerve that attaches to heartheart gets Ca2+ from both extracellular fluid and sarcoplasmic reticulum, b/c you don't ever want the heart getting fatigued.

gap junctions allow APs to propogate from one cardiac muscle cell to another

because of the plateau phase, it prolongs the absolute refractory period. cannot cause contraction during plateau phase.

autorythmic cell - plateau phase wider (SA node)difference in AP pattern in contractile cell (cardiac muscle cells)wider plateau phase wider b/c you also have more calcium influx

Atrial systole = contraction, both atria contract at the same timeAs the atria contract, the blood pressure in each atrium increases, forcing additional blood into the ventricles.The additional flow of blood is called atrial kick.Atrial kick is absent if there is loss of normal electrical conduction in the heart, such as during atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter and complete heart block.

Ventricular systole - "lub-dub" sound made by the heart as it beats.This first heart tone "lub-dub" (S1) is created by the closure of AV valve at the beginning of centricular systole.The second part of the "lub-dub" (S2), is caused by the closure of the semilunar valves at the end of ventricular systole.As the left ventricle empties, its pressure falls below the pressure in the aorta, and the aortic valve closes. Similarly, as the pressure in the right ventricle falls below the pressure in the pulmonary artery, the pulmonic valve closes.

Ventricular diastole is when the ventricles are relaxing, while atrial diastole is when the atria are relaxing.

Cardiac muscle is myogenic, which means that it is self-exciting.The heart's rhythmic contractions occur spontaneously, although the frequency of heart rate can be changed by extrinsic (nervous or hormonal) influences such as exercise or the perception of danger.Phrenic nerve (cnIII-V) accelerates heart rateVagus nerve (cnX) decelerates heart rateCardiac nerve accelerates heart rate

1,2. ventricles contract blood flows from ventricles to systems, 3. atria fill with blood when both semilunar valves and AV valves closed4,5. atria contract, transferring blood to ventricles

Measure QT interval to measure heart efficiency. Don't want long QT interval. ECG used to identify heart irregularities

brachycardia and trachycardia - conditions where heart rate is abnormal all the time, even in situations where it would cause the HR to change like exercise, Left ventricle much larger than right ventricle. B/c LV goes to systemic circulation, need more muscle to pump to all of body. RV goes to pulmonary, and lungs are right next to lungs so don't need as much muscle.

RENAL PHYSIOLOGY!!!!!

don't need to know branches of arteries, but NEED TO KNOW capillaries!

Nitrogenous WastesUrea - proteins->amino acis->NH2 removed -> forms ammonia, liver converts to ureaUric acid - nucleic acid catabolism8/47/7/15 9:04 AMCreatinine - creatine phosphate catabolism

blood pressure drives absorbing of substances into the Bowman's capsule, which filters

fenestrated = pores

afferent aterioles = goes to glomerulusefferent arteriols = goes away from arterioles

no venous system in the glomerulus (all arterioles)

Renal Auto-regulation of GFRincrease BP -> constrict afferent arteriole and dilate efferentdecrease BP -> constrict efferent arteriole and dilate afferent

chances in PCT and DCT to go back into blood cells - absorptionif blood cells decide don't need it - secretion

thick segment of loop of Henle - exchange of ions, active transport of salts, impermeable to waterthin segment of loop of Henle - only water permeableform=function, thick segment made for a lot of transport

co-transport - one thing comes in, another comes out

as you go down descending loop, becomes more concentrated as you lose wateras you go up ascending loop, you lose ions so become a lot more dilute

in vasa recta, water and salt diffusing in and out

last chance for reabsorption and secretion to happen is in the collecting duct

aldosterone acts on the distal tubuleADH acts on the collecting ducthormones as a last act to push material out

ACE inhibitor - inhibits enzyme that converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, angiotensin II responsible, makes more dilute

WHAT TO KNOW FOR KIDNEYSunderstand filtration, secretion, absorption, effect of blood pressure, different regions of kidney

ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEMEnteric Nervous System = for digestive system

internal circular, oblique, and longitudinal muscles in esophagus responsible for peristalsis

fundic region is the region of the stomach that expands

vagovasal reflex

receptive/relaxation reflex - the more food you eat, stomach stretches so you can eat more

before going to heart, blood must be filtered through liver in case there's anything toxic that you ate that got absorbed into the blood

portal system = local system, within its own local system

cholecystokinin = hormone that triggers gallbladder to release bile

pancrease makes enzymes like amylase to break down carbohydrates

gallbladder and pancreas contribute in the duodenum space in small intestine

alpha and beta cells in pancreasebeta cells secrete insulinalpha cells secrete enzymes for digestion, like trypsin, amylase, lipases, etc.

zymogens - proenzymes, precurose to many enzymesex: cymotrypsinogen -> chymotrypsincarbohydrate enzymes like amylase responsible for breaking down polysaccharides like starch into glucose

all hormones also made in brain and have different functionsex: cholecystokinin goes back to brain and tells you you're full, stop eating

1. presence of food in stomach2. presence of chyme in the duodenum stimulates colon3. stimulates mass movement4. defecation reflexes

the longer you hold your feces, the less water in your feces, which can result in constipation

Carbohydrates1. starches, glycogen, sucrose, lactose, glucose, fructose, polysaccharides broken down to monosaccharides2. monosaccarides taken up by active transport or facilitated diffusion and carried to liver3. glucose transported to cells requiring energy

osmoregulation = regulation of salts

liver also responsible for:detoxification of toxinsstorage of iron and vitamin B12destruction of old erythryocytessynthesis of bilesynthesis of various blood proteinsdefense against various antigensB-oxidation of fatty acids -> ketones (ketones can be converted back into Kreb's cycle for energy)conversion of carbohydrates, fats and amino acidsliver only organ that can regenerate

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrinology - science that studies the internal secretions of a gland or a cell, that are directly released into the blood stream.These internal secretions are called hormones.

vasopressin = antidiuretic hormone

MUST KNOW THESE ENZYMESaromatase = converts testosterone to 17 -estradiol5-reductase = converts testosterone to 5-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

DHT responsible for secondary male characteristics

cholesterol->progesterone->testosterone->estradiol or DHT

anterior vs. posterior pituitary glandsPosterior: ADH or VP, OxytocinAnterior: a bunch, GH, TSH, ACTH, MSH, LH , FSH , PRL

hypothalamus ___RH -> anterior pituitary ___ => target organex: ACTHRH "CRH" -> ACTHex: GHRH -> GHRH = releasing hormone

goiter = thyroid becomes inflammed

prolactin -> stimulates milk PRODUCTIONoxytocin -> stimulates contraction and RELEASE of milk8/5/7/7/15 9:04 AMinhibit GnRH -> FSH/LH, b/c you want to prevent getting pregnant right after having a baby

Negative feedback on hormonestaking extra steroids cause gonads to atrophy, shrink up

areola, bumps, provide fluid during breast feeding

oxytocin made in hypothalamus, goes to posterior anterior, then go directly go to target, like boobs,

male anatomy system3 glands that make fluid to make semeninside in testis, have cells that make sperm cellssperm stored in epidydymistransferred up vans deferenceseminal vesicle, get nutrients/fructose solutionsalkaline solution from prostate gland increase survival of sperm cellsprostate gland also produces prostanglandin, allows contraction so that when it enters male urethra, it can be ejected into female tractbulbourethral glandcowper's gland in malesreleases a substance that nuetralizes any urine in the urethrain order to increase survival of sperm cellpreejaculatory fluid before ejection, still can make girl preggo

female reproductive tracturethra in females shorter than males, females have increased chance of UTIs b/c bacteria can travel up shorter urethra

fimbriae releases eggmyoometrium - smooth muscle

cortical adrenal gland produces testosterone, cortisolmedullary adrenal gland produces norepinephrine/epinephrine

*****cholesterol -> progesterone -> testosterone -> aromatase or 5a-reductase -> 17B-estradiol or 5a-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

fat affects when you go through puberty, cuz steroids derived from cholesterol

in menstrual cyclethe more you build up, the more you have to release, the more you bleeeeed

surge of LH during ovulation, causes release of eggcorpus luteum produces a lot of hormones, like estrogen, progesterone, MOSTLY progesteroneprogesterone is hormone of pregnancy

baby and mothers blood DO NOT mix

when doing pregnancy test, measure HCG, human chrononic gonadotropin

pituitary releases FSH/LHPlacenta releases hCG, which goes to fetus ovary, to release E,P, and ThCG (produced from placenta) ~= FSH/LH (produced from pituitary, anterior)

TDF=testis determining factor

Determining maleextra testosterone gets converted to estrogen by aromatase in female brain = malefemale doesn't have that extra tesosteroneestrogen can't go into braincyclic GnRH - translates into menstrual cycle

REVIEW QUESTIONS

in ascending limb, as salt is diffused/transported out, makes surround area super salty, making concentration gradient which allows water to diffuse out in descending limb

cephalic phase - vagus nerve innervates lining of stomach, innervates myenterix plexus. once food goes in, gastrin and histamine releasedonce chyme goes into duodenum , makes secretin GI{ and CCKstomach is distended too much, you vomiting cut off air circulationvagovagal inhibition vomitingvagovagal excitationCCK causes gallbladder contraction to occur

bile released by GB into duodenum mixes, digests fats