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HSP 3UOFall 2014
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studied cultures of the Pacific islands particularly in Samoa; compared Samoan &North American
adolescents; Samoans considered adults once reached
puberty, acted co-operatively, did not experience teen conflicts;
N. Americans were not considered adults until their twenties, acted aggressively and experienced teen conflicts since they competed with each other
concluded that personality is largely influenced by society/culture in which we live
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Agreed with Mead that culture affects personality development but she also considered role of religion in shaping one’s personality;
She spent time studying the Aboriginal peoples of the American Plains;
During WWII studied Japanese culture to understand national personality
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One of first researchers to locate & examine fossils & other remains to learn about the evolutionary development
of humans; 1924 = Dart made a famous discovery
of a skull in South Africa – believed to rep. the transitional stage b/w apes & humans = called Australopithecus africanus, meaning “Southern Ape”;
Became accepted as a valuable discovery despite earlier criticism
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Produced some of paleontology’s most groundbreaking discoveries; Esp. the 3.2 million year old “Lucy”
skeleton discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia = Australopithecus afarensis
Provided crucial link b/w apes & humans; She had ape-like features such as a
small brain + projecting face but also human traits such as upright walking (bipedalism) providing an important step to dev. of Homo Sapiens
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Developed cultural relativism = there is NO cultural progression from savagery to culture;
Also stated that there were no differences b/w the races of man;
He established the “4 field approach” due to his concern with human evolution, archaeology, language & culture;
Emphasized the importance of language study as cultural window
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Mary: (1913 – 1996) Louis: (1903 – 1972) Richard: (b. 1944)
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Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania was the site of many important discoveries by the Leakey family;
1976/77 Mary found the fossilized footprints near Olduvai Gorge at a site called Laetoli;
these footprints belonged to a species known as Australopithecus anamensis = confirmed that upright walking came before brain size expansion or modern tooth structure;
Louis made radical changes in the way we view early humans – he confirmed human evolution began in Africa;
Pushed back dates for the existence of various species, suggested parallel lines of evolution in human family & stimulated further research (primatology)
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Discovered that chimps use tools, not strictly vegetarian since chimpswould murder & cannibalize; Alpha male system = use of aggression
& strength, he alone mates until defeated by a younger male;
Through her work it was discovered that our ancestors had a highly dev. social structure based on aggression & intimidation = we became meat eaters & hunters
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Lived with mountain gorillas in Rwanda; First researcher to actually touch a wild gorilla since she gained their trust by
imitating their behaviour; Discovered that gorillas shared a lot in
common with our earliest ancestors – had a highly organized social system;
Showed affection towards family members & aggression towards outsiders;
She protected the gorillas from poachers even though they threatened Fossey so that she would abandon her work;
Murdered Dec. 26, 1985 by persons unknown
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Orangutans share 98% of its genetic material with humans; Observations similar to Goodall =
orangutans live in a highly structured social community;
Violence is ever present; Although largely vegetarian orangutans
may cannibalize
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Most influential sociologist of all time; wrote The Communist Manifesto in response to the working conditions during the Industrial
Revolution; Struggle b/w rich and poor for wealth & power
results in class struggle; He argued that capitalist society leaves most
pple with NO control over own destiny = armed revolution will result in change
Terms: factory owners (upper class) = Bourgeoisie versus the working class = Proletariat
Charles Darwin favoured Marxism as it agrees with the natural struggle to survive and he coined the term
“survival of the fittest”
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1st sociologist to use statistics & scientific method to study human groups; He believed that reform of criminals was more effective than punishment; Developed theory of social facts = customs,
institutions & organizations exert control over pple;
His research concentrated on religion, education and esp. suicide – 3 types – 1. egoistic suicide = ind. isolated from societal values, 2. altruistic suicide = sacrifice to protect others, 3. anomic suicide = overwhelmed with social change;
Founder of functionalism = society works to protect the interests of most of its members
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Disagreed with Marx that social class/economics was most important in
determining how society worked; Power can arise from religion, education,
politics and family structure as easily as money;
Believes society can be reformed & improved;
He favours creation of bureaucracies to provide essential social services making revolution unnecessary;
Coined term verstehen = understand social behaviour by putting ourselves mentally in another person’s place
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Founder of psychology; Significant contribution to the development of of psychiatry; The mind is divided into conscious and unconscious
– the unconscious mind which stores memories can be “unlocked” by free association (patient responds to a list of words while relaxed) and dream analysis;
There are also three elements to the human mind: 1. ID = the “pleasure principle”, primitive responses – aggression & sex drive; 2. EGO = deals with reality; organizing/ synthesizing force of the personality; 3. SUPEREGO = “the moral arm of the personality”, opposes forces of ID; your conscience – sense of right & wrong;
Freudian therapy (psychoanalysis) involves replacing ID by EGO; psychological health largely a function of ego strength
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Divided the psyche into three parts: 1. ego = conscious mind; 2. personal
unconscious = includes anything which is not presently conscious, includes memories; 3. collective unconscious = could call it your “psychic inheritance” – a reservoir of our experiences as a species, knowledge we are all born with;
Jung originated four psychological functions – sensation, intuition, thinking, feeling – personality types are determined by which function is dominant – result = introvert vs extrovert;
Developed archetypes – contents of the collective unconscious – archetype is an unlearned tendency to experience things in a certain way;
Reflect universal themes/patterns common to us all Examples: hero, mother, wise old man, maiden, shadow, etc.
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Developed Classical Conditioning – interested in stimulus and response & if this pattern could be used to teach animals new behaviours; Conducted experiments using dogs
unconditioned stimulus (US) = food) → unconditioned response (UR) = drooling, natural reaction) then Pavlov rang a bell before giving food & the dog would associate the bell with food & drool, therefore, the conditioned stimulus (CS) = bell ringing → conditioned response (CR) drooling with only bell ringing & no food;
Conclusion, responses can be conditioned, meaning behaviour can be manipulated;
Humans can also be conditioned & their behaviour manipulated, therefore, behaviour can be consistent across species
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Developed Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning = learning through reward & punishment;
An association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour;
The learner “operates” on the environment & receives a reward for certain behaviour (operations);
Positive reinforcement (Reward): a stimulus such as food can be delivered when good behavior happens
Negative reinforcement (Escape): the removal of an aversive stimulus, increases a behavior's frequency ex. a loud noise is removed upon completion of a behavior…this is what fire alarms are about – the correct behavior is to leave the building!
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Positive punishment (Punishment) (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
Negative punishment (Penalty) (also called
"Punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior
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cognitive development (learning & knowledge use) are influenced by
social & psychological factors; there are 4 stages of mental
development that change with age & which are influenced by social experiences –
1. age 0 – 2: sensorimotor stage = learn by direct experience;
2. ages 2 – 7: pre-operational stage = see world from their own point of view;
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3. ages 7 – 11: concrete operational stage = can do complex operations with the objects, understand cause & effect, see things from others’ point of view;
4. Adolescence: formal operational stage = can think abstractly, use of logic, imagine alternatives to reality
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human psychological & personality growth lifelong process – “psychosocial stages”; success in meeting the challenge at each stage allows one
to move on to the next; (0 – 11) infancy & childhood = child matures
emotionally, socially, intellectually & physically; (11 – 18) adolescence = strives for personal identity; (18 – 25) early adulthood = learn to form close,
lasting relationships & career; (25 – 50) middle adulthood = productivity @ work &
with children, some tackle new endeavors; (50+) = late adulthood = feelings of power &
prestige, still active & productive Each stage MUST be completed before moving to the next.
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Developed a theory that human needs could be arranged in a pyramid = Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs – We need to fulfill our basic physiological
needs first before fulfilling esteem, cognitive & aesthetic needs; also identified personality traits of a self-actualized individual –
i.e. live according to definite moral or ethical standards, have a task or mission in life rather than focus primarily on themselves, see things as they are, not as they wish them to be, etc.
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Believed that all kinds of power motivates people not just sex (unlike Freud); Downplays the unconscious mind; People are aware of guiding goals & values; Introduced our struggle against feeling
inferior (inferiority complex); Becoming well-adjusted requires high self-
esteem & pursuit of worthwhile goals help; Believed that dreams were important in
understanding human personality (similar to Freud); developed a system of therapy know as individual psychology