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How \Vooden ShipsAre BuiltA Practical Treatise onModern American WoodenShip Construction with aSupplement on LayingOif Wooden Vessels

By H. COLE ESTEPEditor of The Marine Review

THE PENTON PUBLISHING COMPANYPublisher of The Marine Review

Cleveland, Ohio1918


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Copyright in The United States and Canadaand

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London1918

By The Penton Publishing CompanyCleveland, Ohio

All Rights Reserved


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A77

Prefeiace^^^7HE revival of wooden shipbuilding in the United States dates from the latter part ofa ^J 1915. In April, 1917, at the time we declared war against Germany, over ISO large^^^^/ wooden vessels were under construction along our coasts, principally in New England,

the South and the Pacific Northwest. With America's entry into the war, the tonnagerequirements of the entente allies were tremendously increased. It soon became evident thatthe United States would be called upon to construct an enormous armada of steel cargo carriersand in addition as many wooden vessels as could possibly be turned out. Subsequent events upto the spring of 1918 have served only to emphasize the problem. The universal cry is ships,shipsand yet more ships ! The necessity, under these conditions, for a large fleet of woodenvessels is no longer disputed, and wooden shipbuilding flourishes all around our far-flung coastline from Maine to Washington.

This revival of the art of wooden shipbuilding has brought with it an insistent demand forinformation on how wooden ships are built. Compared with the needs of today, the numberof expert wooden shipbuilders in the United States at the outbreak of our war with Germanyconstituted scarcely more than a corporal's guard. Thousands of new men have been inductedinto the business. These men must be trained. They must be taught the "know how".

It is to assist in this important work of training that this book is offered. In other words,the book has been prepared to meet a war emergency and it is hoped the information it containsis of practical value.

Most of the material appeared originally in a series of articles published in The MarineReview between June, 1917, and March, 1918. The entire text, however, has been carefully revisedand brought down to date.

The illustrations, which the publisher believes form perhaps the most valuable feature ofthe volume, have been carefully selected. Over 150 of the original photographs were madepersonally by the author expressly for this work. They were taken with the sole purpose ofshowing clearly and accurately how modern wooden ships actually are constructed. The aim inevery case was to present important details of construction rather than general views. To obtainthe photographs and collect the material for this work the author traveled extensively and visitednearly all of the important wooden shipyards in the United States.An effort has been made to produce a book that is practical and illustrative and one thatalso reflects current American practice accurately.

The mathematical theory of ship design and other details which come more within theprovince of the naval architect than the shipbuilder have been omitted. As a supplement,however, two chapters on laying down wooden ships from the treatise of the late Samuel J. P.Thearle have been added. Acknowledgment is made to John W. Perrin, librarian, Case Library,Cleveland, for the opportunity to reprint portions of this rare work published originally byWilliam Collins Sons & Co., London. While Professor Thearle deals with laying down Britishships of the line, the underlying principles of which he treats are unchangeable and it is doubtfulif any present-day author could present the subject more lucidly.

The publisher and author wish to express their appreciation of the generous assistance theyreceived from the leading wooden shipbuilders of the country, without whose aid this work wouldhave been impossible. By permitting full access to their plants and by whole-hearted co-operationin furnishing valuable data, detailed drawings, etc., they have set an example of patriotism andbroadmindedness that many lines of business could emulate.

For particular services, advice and assistance the author wishes specially to acknowledgehis indebtedness to Capt. James Griffiths and Stanley A. Griffiths, Winslow Marine Railway &Shipbuilding Co., Seattle ; S. H. Hedges, Washington Shipping Corp., Seattle ; M. R. Ward,Grays Harbor Shipbuilding Co., Aberdeen, Wash. ; F. A. Ballin, Supple-Ballin Shipbuilding Corp.,Portland, Oreg. ; O. P. M. Goss, West Coast Lumberman's association, Seattle; Frank M. Stetson,Stetson Machine Works, Seattle ; Martin C. Erismann, naval architect, Houston, Texas ; R.Lawrence Smith, New York, and G. W. Hinckley, Brunswick Marine Construction Co.,Brunswick, Ga.


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ContentsChapter I Typical Methods of Construction 1Chapter II Strength and Characteristics of Ship Timbers 7Chapter III Layout and Equipment of Wooden Shipbuilding Plants 15Chapter IV Details of Different Types of Wooden Vessels 23Chapter V Details of Frame and Keel Construction 33Chapter VI Methods of Framing Forward End of Ship 47Chapter VII Framing the After End of the Ship 54Chapter VIII Planking, Keelson and Ceiling Construction 64Chapter IX Construction of Hold Bracing and Deck Elements 73Chapter X Spars, Rudders, Shaft Logs and Engine Beds 83

SupplementChapter I Fundamental Propositions "7Chapter II Fairing the Lines "^


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSPAGE

Fig. 1 Launching a large wooden steamer at a shipyard near New Orleans 1Fig. 2 Detail of keel construction of English ship 2Fig. 3 Midship section of a typical nineteenth century English ship 2Fig. 4 Midship section of a wooden ship designed by a modern Pacific Coast Naval Architect 3Fig. 5 Midship section of a modern American wooden ship of the conventional type 3Fig. 6 Typical construction views in a southern wooden shipbuilding yard 4Fig. 7 Cross section showing method of reinforcement patented by Frank E. Kirby 5Fig. 8 Fashioning curved and irregular timbers on a band saw 7Fig. 9 Special machines have been designed for beveling and edging timbers 7Fig. 10 Timbers long enough to require two cars frequently are needed in wooden shipbuilding 8Fig. 1 1 Boring holes with an air drill 8Fig. 12 Typical lumbering scenes in the northwest 11Fig. 13 West Coast lumbering requires special heavy duty equipment 12Fig. 14 Division of stringer into volumes for consideration of positions of knots 13Fig. 15A well laid out wooden shipyard located in the center of a large city 14Fig. 16 Electrically-driven traveling derrick setting frames in a wooden shipyard 15Fig. 17 Wooden shipyard located on naturally sloping ground with an abundance of room 16Fig. 18A small yard laid out on long narrow strip of ground 16Fig. 19 Yard laid out on irregular plot of ground 16Fig. 20 Yard with four building slips compactly arranged on city property 17Fig. 21A steel framed revolving crane for wooden shipyard 17Fig. 22 Mill containing saws and woodworking machinery 18Fig. 23 Cut-off and band saw sheds in a western shipyard 18Fig. 24 General view of a Seattle shipyard showing beveling machine, arrangement of derricks, building slips, etc. 19Fig. 25 Woodworking machinery in a Puget sound shipyard 20Fig. 26 Bandsawing bevels in a south Atlantic shipyard 20Fig. 27 Derricks and hoisting engine in a southern yard 20Fig. 28 Timber hauling engines in a Grays Harbor shipyard 20Fig. 29 Driving piles for building ways in a Georgia shipyard 20Fig. 30 General arrangement of building ways showing vessels in various stages of construction 21Fig. 31 Portable electrically driven planer 21Fig. 32 Band sawing equipment in a Pacific coast yard 21Fig. 33 Traveling table for handling timber around machines 21Fig. 34A building shed protects the work from the weather 21Fig. 35A 5-masted, topmast wooden auxiliary schooner built at a prominent Pacific coast shipyard 23Fig. 36Midship section and construction details of a 290-foot, 5-masted topmast auxiliary schooner 24Fig. 37 Midship section and construction details of 4000-ton wooden steamer designed for construction on the

Pacific coast 25Fig. 38A 5-masted wooden auxiliary schooner undergoing her trial trip 26Fig. 39 Three-thousand-ton, 4-masted schooner built at Seattle, Wash 26Fig. 40 Midship section and construction details of a 4000-ton motor ship with diagonal planking 27Fig. 41 Outboard profile and deck plan of a typical 4000-ton wooden steamship 28Fig. 42 Outboard profile and deck plan of 4500-ton wooden steamship with propelling machinery aft 28Fig. 43 Outboard profile and deck plan of 4000-ton motor ship designed for overseas service 29Fig. 44 Inboard profile of 5-masted, topmast auxiliary schooner showing arrangement of center girder-keelson... 30Fig. 45A typical 4-masted wooden auxiliary schooner under construction on Puget sound 31Fig. 46 Frame of a typical wooden vessel nearly ready for planking 33Fig. 47 La\'ing-down the lines of a ship on the mold-loft floor 34Fig. 48 Laying the keel of a 4000-ton motor ship 34

viii


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Fig. 49 Finishing the framing of a large wooden ship on the Pacific coast 34Fig. SO Framing stage laid alongside keelthe frames are hoisted into position by means of a simple tackle 35Fig. 51 Assembling frame futtocks on framing stage 35Fig. 52 Resawing frame joints to a proper fit 35Fig. 53 Setting keel blocks to the proper height 36Fig. 54 Setting keel blocks on sand 36Fig. 55 Keel wedged in place on keel blocks 36Fig. 56 Laying the keel in a southern shipyard 36Fig. 57 Scaffolding arranged alongside keel blocks 36Fig. 58 Keel near stern 36Fig. 59 Frame timbers and molds 37Fig. 60 Marking frame timbers 37Fig. 61 Cut-off saw for frame timbers 37Fig. 62 Band saw for shaping frame timbers 37Fig. 63A frame buttock after leaving the band saw 37Fig. 64 General arrangement of framing stage 37Fig. 65 Setting frames by means of a traveling crane 38Fig. 66 Raising frames by means of block and tackle 38Fig. 67 Frames raised, ready for plumbing and horning 38Fig. 68 Hand-winch for hauling timbers through band saw 39Fig. 69 Detail of bolted frame joints 39Fig. 70 Another view of bolted frame construction 39Fig. 71 Ribbands in place and shoring under frame 39Fig. 72 Framing stage in a Georgia shipyard 40Fig. 73Frame of a vessel in a Georgia shipyard 40Fig. 74Two sets of cross spalls sometimes are used to hold the frame sections together 40Fig. 75 Upper part of arch strapping 41Fig. 76 Lower part of arch strapping showing method of fastening the butts 41Fig. 77Detail of standard frame construction 42Fig. 78 Detail of bolted frame construction 42Fig. 79 Frame near bow using natural crooks 42Fig. 80 Framing a ship in a southern yard 42Fig. 81 Sometimes the floors are laid first and the frame pieces raised afterward 42Fig. 82 Detail of frames heeling to deadwood 42Fig. 83Bow construction of a large Pacific coast motor schooner 46Fig. 84 Details of stem showing large natural knee 47Fig. 85 Stem reinforced without use of a knee 48Fig. 86 Detailed drawing of stem of a steamer the general arrangement of which is shown in Fig. 84 48Fig. 87 Interior of bow construction of a 290-foot motor schooner 49Fig. 88 Detail of stem construction of the schooner shown in Fig. 87 illustrating method of fastening forward

ends of keelson timbers to stem 49Fig. 89 Arrangement of stem and knighthead at upper end near main deck 49Fig. 90 Staging surrounding a clipper-type bow under construction 49Fig. 91 Details of forefoot showing use of natural knee and angle blocks 51Fig. 92 Another view of the same stem 51Fig. 93 Same stem from the opposite side 51Fig. 94 Steamer type bow under construction partly planked 51Fig. 95 Steamer type bow finished with staging still in place 51Fig. 96 Forward cant frames heeling to deadwood 51Fig. 97 Detail of forefoot of clipper type stem showing na ural knee lock-scarfed to keel 52Fig. 98 Arrangement of floors, keelson and stem of a vessel under construction at a gulf shipyard 52Fig. 99 Details of stem and forward frame construction of a motor schooner under construction on the gulf.... 52Fig. 100 Detail of stern frame of ship being built for United States government 54Fig. 101 Finished transom stern on a 5-masted motor schooner 54Fig. 102 Detail of rudder and rudderpost assembly 54Fig. 103 Detail of upper part of stern framing shown in Fig. 102 55Fig. 104 General view of stern frames and rudder assembly 55Fig. 105 Erecting fore and aft post timbers for a stern of unusually strong construction 55Fig. 106 Detail of transom stern framing of a ship under construction in a southern yard 56


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HOW WOODEN SHIPS ARE BUILTPAGE

Fig. 107 Transom type stern in early stages of construction 56Fig. 108 The next step in the construction of a transom stern 56Fig. 109 Interior of a transom stern before transom timbers are in place 56Fig. 110A closer view of the interior of the same stern 56Fig. Ill Fitting transom timbers to fashion timber 56Fig. 112 Stern frame assembly being hoisted into place : 57Fig. 113 Detail of framing of transom type stern 57Fig. 114 Inside of framing of the stern shown in Fig. 113 57Fig. 115 Detail of stern framing from the inside of a ship 58Fig. 116 Another view of the framing of the same ship 58Fig. 117 Lower part of stern framing of the same ship showing sternpost, deadwood, etc 58Fig. 118 Same stern planked up and nearly finished 58Fig. 119 Details of the elliptical or fantail stern shown in Figs. 105 and 125 59Fig. 120 Timber from which quarter-block is hewed 60Fig. 121 Hewing out the quarter-block 60Fig. 122A pair of quarter-blocks finished 60Fig. 123 Stern framing showing holes left for reception of qltarter-blocks 60Fig. 124 Quarter-block in place 60Fig. 125 General view of elliptical or fantail stern 60Fig. 126 x\nother view of the stern shown in Fig. 125 61Fig. 127 Natural knee used to connect sternpost to other stern elements 61Fig. 128 Shaft log in twin-screw motor ship 61Fig. 129 Detail of fantail stern construction at knuckle line 62Fig. 130 Arrangement of timbers inside the same stern at the point shown in Fig. 129 62Fig. 131 Timber chute for hauling ceiling strakes and keelsons inside the ship 64Fig. 132 Interior of a wooden ship under construction showing timber chute and scaffoldingbilge ceiling in

PLACE 64Fig. 133 Steam box for softening planks 65Fig. 134 Side of ship with plank in place 65Fig. 135 Dubbing-off and raising lines on ship's side for planking 65Fig. 136 Clamping plank in place prior to spiking 65Fig. 137 Clamping ceiling strakes in place prior to bolting 65Fig. 138 Lower ends of stern frame and deadwood rased for planking 66Fig. 139 Ceiling a ship in a gulf coast yard 66Fig. 140 Bolting down keelson timbers with pneumatic hammers 66Fig. 141 Port side of a completely ceiled wooden motor ship 67Fig. 142 Beveling keelson timbers by hand 68Fig. 143 Making a scarf in a keelson timber 68Fig. 144 The first step in building up a center girder-keelson 68Fig. 145 Clamps used for temporarily securing keelson pieces 68Fig. 146 Boring driftbolt holes in center girder-keelson 68Fig. 147 Center girder-keelson nearly completed 68Fig. 148 Ceiling strakes on a table of automatic beveling machinenote batten along top which indicates the

amount of bevel 69Fig. 149 In some yards the ceiling is laid in parallel strakes between the keelsons and the bilge 69Fig. 150 Dubbing-off the inside preparatory to ceiling 69Fig. 151 Keelson construction of a small motor schooner 69Fig. 152 Clamping and bolting upper ceiling strakes in place 70Fig. 153 Ceiling a ship in the way of the stern, showing the use of clamps 70Fig. 154 Detail of stanchion footings in a large wooden ship 73Fig. 155 General view of stanchions in the same ship 73Fig. 156 Stanchions between main and lower deck beams 74Fig. 157 General view of hold framing 74Fig. 158 Safety ladder inside ship 74Fig. 159 Dubbing-off stern bulwarks 74Fig. 160 Arrangement of deck beams near stern 75Fig. 161 Deck of wooden motor schooner nearly completed 75Fig. 162 Deck beams resting on shelf, bolted construction 75


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Fig. 163 Details of fastenings of shelf and clamp 75Fig. 164 Main-deck beams with hanging knees in place 76Fig. 165Main deck beams fitted to shelf 76Fig. 166 Spiking down deck planking 76Fig. 167 Clamping deck planking in place 76Fig. 168 General view of hold beams showing lumber chute 77Fig. 169 Detail of cast steel knees 77Fig. 170 Hold beams in the way of a hatch 77Fig. 171 Lodging knees in the way of a hatch 77Fig. 172 Detail of hatch beam construction 77Fig. 173 Crane used for setting deck beams 77Fig. 174 Surfacing knees on a special planing machineknees also are fayed on this machine in lots of 10 or

12, the operation requiring only 15 minutes 78Fig. 175 Section of deck framing of large wooden ship showing method of reinforcing with steel plates and straps 78Fig. 176 Deck of large wooden motor schooner 79Fig. 177 Caulking deck using heavy maul 79Fig. 178 Finish caulking 79Fig. 179 Inserting pine plugs over spikeheads in deck 79Fig. 180 Rudder details of a 4000-ton wooden vessel 82Fig. 181 Foundation details for a twin-screw oil-engine driven ship fitted with 500-horsepower, 6-cylinder engines 83Fig. 182 Iron-bark rudder stock set up on traveling table of beveling machine 84Fig. 183 Angle chocks used for trimming rudder stock on beveling machine 84Fig. 184 Complete iron-bark rudder for wooden ship 84Fig. 185 Roughing out a spar with an axe 85Fig. 186 Steam-driven cargo winch installed on wooden ship 85Fig. 187 Finishing a spar with a hand plane 85Fig. 188 Steam-driven anchor winch built on Pacific coast 85Midship section standard wooden steamer for government 6New wooden vessels vie with steel 72

SupplementHow Wooden Ships Are Laid On

pageFig. 1 Projecting a point on a plane 88Fig. 2 Determining a point in space 88Fig. 3 Rabatting a line 88Fig. 4 Sheer draft of a sloop of war 88Fig. 5 Waterlines and diagonals 92Fig. 6 Diagram showing method of ending level lines 93Fig. 7 Correct method of drawing bearding line 93Fig. 8 Diagram showing method of drawing a horizontal ribband line 94Fig. 9 Buttock lines and bow lines 94Fig. 10 Contracted method of fairing 95Fig. 11 Accounting for swell for screw shaft 95Fig. 12 Diagram showing method of drawing diagonals in sheer plan 97


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I Hw Woden Skips Are Buaili Illlllllll^

CHAPTER ITypical Methods of Construction

WOODEN shipbuilding was alost art which the gods ofwar decreed must be revived.When the European war broke out

in 1914, there were over forty-six anda half million tons of merchant steam-ers afloat. Most of them were steelcargo vessels suitable for overseas trade.As nearly as can be estimated, thesubmarines accounted for nearly one-fifth of this tonnage up to Jan. 1, 1918.A tremendous revival of shipbuildingthe world over has been the naturalreaction to this situation.Soon after the United States declaredwar it became evident that it would benecessary to construct a large fleet ofwooden vessels to supplement the enor-mous tonnage of steel ships which theemergencies of war demanded. Althoughthe original chimera of a fleet of athousand or more wooden cargo car-riers loosed on the seas to bear thebrunt of the submarine attack has prop-erly faded from the public mind, thewooden ship re-mains an exceed-ingly tangible fac-tor in our ship-building program.At the end of 1917the United StatesEmergency Fleetcorporation had letcontracts for 379wooden steamshipswith an aggregatedeadweight tonnageof 1,344,900. In ad-dition 58 compositevessels had beencontracted for withan aggregate ton-nage of 207,000.If properly con-structed, these ves-sels may be used

for transatlantic service. At all eventsthey will be suitable for many coastwisepurposes, thus releasing valuable steelsteamers for work overseas.The wooden ship is a necessity in

the present emergency. The ranks of "thelittle cargo boats that sail the wet seasroun' " have been seriously thinned bythe unholy submarine warfare of theGerman empire. The dingy tramps ofthe ocean lanes, England's and America'spride, are threatened, and unlike thesituation described by Kipling in 1894,the man-o'-war has found himself un-able "to up an' fight for them" withcomplete success, although tremendousforward strides in the offensive againstthe submarines were made during 1917.

In the meantime, while a method ofcompletely exterminating" the Germanpest is being evolved, and long afterthe last one has been swept from theseas, shipbuilders everywhere will beobliged to proceed at top speed toprovide vessels sorely needed by the

FIG. 1LAUNCHING A LARGE WOODEN STEAMER AT A SHIPYARD NEARNEW ORLEANS

world's commerce. When trade revivesafter the war, the demands for tonnagewill be so great that it now appearsboth wooden and steel shipbuilders areassured a long period of prosperity andprofitable activity.

All sensible men recognize the meritsof the steel ship. Its superior effective-ness in many directions is readilyacknowledged. But we are now face toface with a great national emergencyin meeting which the wooden vesselhas a definite function to perform.

Therefore, mallets and saws are busythroughout the great length of our sea-board, from Maine to Texas and fromCalifornia to Washington building ahost of wooden vessels. As a resultof this activity there has grown up ademand for information of a practicalcharacter on wooden shipbuilding whichit is the purpose of this book to supply.How large may wooden vessels bebuilt? This is one of the first questionsthat arises in considering the construc-

tion of woodencargo carriers, forthe economies oflarge units arethoroughly appre-ciate d throughoutthe maritime world.In the heydey ofthe wooden ship,in England andEurope about 1850,very few vesselslarger than 2000tons were con-structed, and prac-tically none wereover 40 feet beam.Their length wasusually about 200feet. Their tonnagewas limited by thefact that the


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HOW WOODEN SHIPS ARE BUILT

^Middle LineKeblson rLiMBER BoardLuiberStrai

False keel

FIG. -DETAIL OF KEEL CONSTRUCTION OF ENGLISH SHIPnaturally crooked oak timbers used forthe frames grew only in limited sizes.The same limitations existed in regardto long timbers, such as keels,, keelsons,strakes, clamps, shelves and planks,which had to be built up and wellscarfed, locked, hooked and bolted tomake up for lack of large size material.It remained for the Pacific coast of theUnited States with its boundless supplyof timbers of the largest sizes, tofinally demonstrate that wooden vesselsof 3000 to 3500 or oven 4000 tons dead-weight capacity are practicable. Thereis, however, a difference of opinionamong architects as to the extent towhich the largest hulls should be rein-forced with steel. In 1917, two woodenvessels, 308 feet long, 28S feet keel,with a deadweight capacity of 4300tons, not including 2500 barrels of oilfuel for diesel engines, were built onthe north Pacific coast. These vessels,which are so reinforced with steel asto fall almost in the composite classifi-cation, have been given the highestrating by both American and Britishclassification societies. Conservativeopinion leans to the view that vesselswithout steel reinforcement should notbe built over 260 or 270 feet in length.For any vessels over 200 feet archstrapping, at least, seems desirable.As far as the supply of lumber for

wooden ship construction is concerned,there is little to fear. The estimatedtotal supply of merchantable timber inthe United States is placed at thestupendous figure 2,500,000,000,000 feetboard measureover two-thousand bil-lion feet. Canada, in addition has80,000,000,000 feet. Russia has evenmore timber reserves than the UnitedStates. A large portion of the ship-building timber in this country is in thePacific northwest, the state of Washing-ton alone having over 11,700 square

miles of standing timber, exclusive ofnational forest reserves. In the south,along the gulf and southern Atlanticcoasts, there are almost equally im-portant timber reserves, and on accountof its superior strength, southern pine isprized for shipbuilding, although it doesnot grow as large as westernfir. Also, in spite of 300 years ofexploitation, the forests of New Eng-land still contain vast quantities of

ship timber of unusually satisfactorycharacter.

In fact, New England is one ofthe two sections of the country inwhich wooden ship building main-tained a continuous existence throughthe lean years, 1880 to 1916. The northPacific coast is the only other regionwhere the art of building woodenvessels failed of complete extinctionduring the period just mentioned. Itis from the traditions of both of theseimportant sections, separated by 3,000miles of continent, that the revivedart and the new literature of woodenship building must be drawn.

Power for Wooden ShipsWooden hulls are best adapted to

sail power, but for obvious reasonssuch a method of propulsion cannotbe depended upon in modern times,except for certain special trades. Inthe war zones, sailing ships are undera severe handicap because of theirhigh visibility. Some form of me-chanical propulsion, therefore, is de-sirable for practically all of the wood-en vessels now under construction orto be built during the next 24 months.Virtually only three types of powerpresent themselves, oil engines of the

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-MIDSHIP SECTION OF A TYPICAL NINETEENTHENGLISH SHIP


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TYPICAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTIONpure or semi-diesel type, reciprocat-ing steam engines and steam turbines.The advantages of the oil engine in

fuel economy, increased cargo space,low visibility, etc., are well known,and for these reasons a large numberof the wooden vessels built in1916-17 were fitted with internal com-bustion motors, usually working twinscrews. Undoubtedly, this arrange-ment is one of the most satisfactorythat could be devised for large wood-en merchant ships. But it has beenshown there are not enough skilledoil engine builders in the country tosupply the demand at the presenttime. Therefore recourse is had tosteam. The question of obtainingenough skilled engineers also entersinto this problem.For a full-powered ship, the con-

census of opinion seems to bethat about 1,500 horsepower is neces-sary for propelling a 3,000-ton vessel.In spite of the advantages of theoil engine, steam is not without itsadvocates, especially among those whopoint out the space saving possibilitiesof the turbine.

Types of Hull ConstructionCompared with steel vessels, wood-

en ships are weak in both longi-

-MIDSHIP SECTION OF A MODERN AMERICAN WOODEN SHIP OFTHE CONVENTIONAL TYPEtudinal and transverse directions, al-though their greatest structural fail-ings appear to be in longitudinalplanes. Large wooden hulls are sus-ceptible to both hogging and sagging.In the former case, the deck bends con-vexly, the ends becoming lower thanthe midship section; in the case ofsagging, the deck bends concavelyand the sheer is exaggerated. Also,

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-MIDSHIP SECTION OF A WOODEN SHIP DESIGNED BY A MODERNPACIFIC COAST NAVAL ARCHITECT

in a seaway, some wooden hulls aresprung up from the bottom, causingthe decks to bulge. These weaknessesare largely due to the rectangularconstruction of wooden ships, inwhich the fastenings are depended up-on almost exclusively for stiffness.

In the nature of things, it is impos-sible to fasten the members of awooden vessel together as stiffly asthose of a steel ship, but by properdesign and construction a great dealof the weakness inherent in woodenhulls may be overcome. If we con-sider a ship as a beam and resort tothe language of the engineer for amoment, we find that the greateslstrength should be concentrated asfar from the neutral axis (approxi-mately the center of the load water-line plane) as possible; also, thesides of the vessel should be designeeto withstand permanent vertical andlongitudinal stresses; and the connec-tions between the flange and webmembers (decks and sides) should beas rigid as possible.

Typical Wooden VesselsThe accompanying cross sections of

typical wooden ships show how de-signers in various parts of the worldand at different times have attemptedto meet these conditions.

Fig. 3 shows the cross section ofan English sailing ship built to rigidspecifications about 1850. This vesselwas 30 feet beam and about 180 feetin length. A detail of the keel con-struction is shown in Fig. 2. Thisship had considerably more deadrisethan a modern cargo carrier, that isher bottom was much less flat thanis now customary, and this roundedconstruction added tremendously toher strength. In addition, she hadtwo decks, the lower deck beams be-ing 6y x 8 inches and the main


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FIG. 6TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION VIEWS IN A SOUTHERN WOODEN SHIPBUILDING YARD


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TYPICAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTIONdeck beams 9 x 10 inches. Finally,she was very carefully and painstak-ingly fitted together in order to givethe utmost stiffness and permanencyto the hull structure.

Fig. 5 shows a cross section of amodern Pacific coast lumber vesselof the conventional type. It formsan interesting comparison with Fig. 3.This ship is 48 feet beam and about275 feet in length. Her floors are 18inches deep, compared with 9yi inchesin the English ship shown in Fig. 3.But in the latter case, natural bentoak was used for the frames and inthe modern Pacific coast boat, sawnfir. Some architects think that thedepth of the frames in the vesselshown in Fig. S is too small. Thisillustration, however, shows veryclearly the characteristics of cus-tomary American construction. Thefeature of the design is the largenumber of keelsons, nine in all, run-ning from stem to stern like a smallmountain range. Fig. 5 also indi-cates the large size of the plankingand ceiling timbers.A more advanced form of construc-tion, designed by Fred A. Ballin,naval architect, Portland, Ore., isshown in Fig. 4. In this case the

necessity for a large number of keel-sons is obviated, in the designer'sopinion, by the use of deep floors

FIG. 7 CROSS SECTION SHOWINGMETHOD OF REINFORCEMENTPATENTED BY FRANK E.KIRBYand deck beams. Care also is takenin the disposal of the knees, ceilingand planking.

One of the most successful formsof steel reinforcement for wood ves-sels is shown in Fig. 7, illustratinga method of construction patented byFrank E. Kirby, of Detroit, one ofthe most famous naval architects onthe Great Lakes, where a large num-ber of unusually staunch wooden ves-sels were built in the era before thesteel freighter. According to Mr.Kirby's patent, the topsides arestrengthened by means of a steelsheer plate, to which a deck stringerplate is connected with a strong angle.The deck stringer rests directly onthe top of the top timbers of theframes and the iron straps runningdiagonally around the hull are fast-ened to the sheer plate. This issomewhat similar to the method ofreinforcement adopted for the newwooden steamers being built for thegovernment under the auspices of theUnited States Shipping Board Emerg-ency Fleet Corporation, except thatin the case of the government boatsthe deck stringer construction islighter.


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CHAPTER IIStrength and Characteristics of Snip Timbers

BEFORE any attempt is made tolay down or build a woodenship, the architect, yard super-

intendent and others responsible for thesuccess of the proposed vessel, shouldacquire a fundamental knowledge ofthe physical characteristics and strengthof the timbers that will be used inthe construction of the hull. An in-vestigation also should be made into thedifferent methods of fastening timberstogether in shipbuilding and of theefficiency of such fastenings. In otherwords, a little knowledge of the ele-ments of structural engineering is asessential to the shipbuilder as it is tothe building contractor or bridgeerector.For an intelligent and thorough

grasp of the subject it is necessary, infact, to start with the lumber industry,which bears the same relation towooden shipbuilding as iron-ore miningdoes to the manufacture of steel. Inthis chapter, therefore, a few facts willbe presented regarding the productionof lumber in the United States, to-gether with data on the physical char-acteristics and strength of variousspecies of ship timbers.

In the preceding chapter, figures cov-ering the supply of merchantable timberin the United States and Canada werepresented. To give an idea of theability of lumber manufacturers to fur-

nish ship timbers in quantity, it may bestated that the United States forest ser-vice has estimated the lumber produc-tion of the United States in 1915, thelatest year for which figures are avail-able, at 37,013,294,000 board feet. Dur-ing 1915 there were 29,941 mills in ope-ration. The details of the lumber cutof 1915, showing the number of millsand production of each state are given inTable III. By an inspection of thistable, it is possible to estimate the pro-duction of the two principal kinds ofship lumber, namely, Douglas fir andsouthern yellow pine. The pine grow-ing states turned out 17,010,000,000 feetand the fir states, 5,640,000,000 feet in1915. In 1916, the production of the firstates was approximately 7,000,000,000feet. About 10 per cent of the Pacificcoast cut is available for ship work. Inother words, as far as lumber supplyis concerned, the Pacific coast millsalone can turn out sufficient materialfor 400 3000-ton ships in a year andthe southern mills, because of thesmaller size of pine timbers, enough for500 to 600 more, provided satisfactorylabor supply and mill conditions canbe obtained.Southern yellow pine is the most

abundant of all ship materials, and onaccount of its wide geographical dis-tribution, comparatively close to thegreat eastern centers of population, it is

extensively employed in buildingwooden vessel of all kinds. It comes insufficiently large sizes so that the prin-cipal elements of the ship's structurecan be worked up in a compara-tively few pieces, without the necessityof resorting to an abnormal number ofbutts and scarfs. Yellow pine is aneven grained, easily worked, dense woodDetailed figures on the strength of pinetimbers are given in Tables I, II andIV.Pine is an unusually durable wood,

even when subjected to long continuedstresses in a ship's structure. In thetables just referred to, the modulus ofrupture, or breaking strength, of south-ern pine is given as varying from 6437to 5948 pounds per square inch for thegreen material and 7033 to 5957 poundsfor air-seasoned timber. The weightper cubic foot varies from 38.6 to 31.4pounds. Ships constructed of southernpine along the Atlantic and gulf coastshave a special strength advantage, inthat, when possible, natural crooks havebeen used for the curved frame mem-bers in nearly all cases. Such timbersare appreciably stronger than the sawedframe construction. As a materialwhich is suitable for ship construction,Douglas fir, grown on the Pacific coast,is fully as important as yellow pine, andon account of the exceptionally largesize of the trees, and the relative light-

-FASHIONING SHIP TIMBERS ON ABAND SAW FIG. 9SPECIAL MACHINES HAVE BEEN DESIGNED FORBEVELING AND EDGING TIMBERS


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-TIMBERS LONG ENOUGH TO REQUIRE TWO CARS FREQUENTLYARE NEEDED IN WOODEN SHIPBUILDINGness of the wood, this timber has pe-culiar advantages of its own. Concern-ing this wood, the United States forestservice, in Bulletin No. 88, has putitself on record as follows"Douglas fir may perhaps be con-

sidered the most important of Americanwoods. Though in point of productionit ranks second to southern yellow pine,its rapid growth in the Pacific coastforests, its comparatively wide distribu-tion and the great variety of uses towhich its wood may be put, place itfirst. As a structural timber it is notsurpassed and probably it is mostwidely used and known in this ca-pacity."

Fir an Important WoodDouglas fir comprises more than 25

per cent of the standing timber supplyof the United States, including bothhard and soft woods. The timberstand of Washington and Oregon issuch as to insure a permanent sourceof supply of the highest class of lumberfor shipbuilding. Also, the winter cli-mate in this vast, western timber-beltis mild, enabling the lumber camps andmills to operate continuously, therebyproducing a steady supply of manu-factured products.

Practically all log transportation is bywater and many of the mills are lo-cated on tidewater, in close proximityto shipbuilding plants. These conditionsmake it possible to produce lumber forship construction at a minimum operat-ing cost.

Pacific coast logging operators areprovided with equipment speciallyadapted for handling large logs. Underthe ordinary methods of procedure, thelogs are hauled out from the placeswhere the trees are felled by steelcables operated by powerful hoistingengines. This operation is termedyarding. The yarded logs are usuallyrolled onto flat cars or specially con-

structed trucks, on which they arehauled to the water, either a river ortidewater. Here they are made up intorafts and towed to the mills. To somemills, of course, the logs are delivereddirect by rail.

Big Timbers are CutThe mills on the Pacific coast are

equipped with extra heavy facilities forhandling big logs and getting out bigtimbers and heavy planks speciallysuited to ship construction. Both largecircular and band saws are used towork up the logs, while heavy planingmills are provided to dress the timbers.The modern mills are also completelyprovided with power-driven roller tablesand transfers for handling the lumberduring the process of manufacture. Theaccompanying illustrations show the es-sentials of the logging and lumberingoperations on the Pacific coast.Douglas fir trees grow commonly

from 3 to S feet in diameter and from175 to 250 feet high. Tremendous tim-bers, particularly suited to shipbuilding,therefore are available in quantity.Structural timbers of Douglas fir, 18x 18 inches in section and 120 to 140 feetlong, may be obtained from mills atany time, and timbers 36 inches squareand 80 or 90 feet long are equally avail-able. By the use of such timbers, thelargest boats can be constructed with aminimum of splicing and scarfing,which not only reduces labor costs butmaterially increases the strength orseaworthiness of the vessel.Douglas fir has an average specific

gravity of 0.53 based on its oven dryvolume. The specific gravity based ongreen volume, before shrinkage, is 0.46based on air-dry volume it is 0.48. Thegreen wood weighs 38 pounds per cubicfoot, or 3.166 pounds per board footand the air-dry wood 34 pounds percubic foot or 2.836 pounds per boardfoot. These weights vary in fir as in

other woods but the foregoing figuresare reliable averages. A knowledge ofthese figures is indispensable to thenaval architect or shipbuilder, in com-puting the weights, trim and displace-ment of his vessel. The method offiguring these weights will be broughtout later in this book. Too manywooden ships at the present time areconstructed and trimmed by guesswork,resulting in some exceedingly costly ex-periences for the shipowner.

Preservatives are RecommendedDouglas fir and southern pine are

on a par as to durability, although likeother woods when used for shipbuild-ing, precautions should be taken at thetime the boat is constructed' to see thatpreservatives are effectively applied andthat the necessary amount of ventilationis supplied to prevent the collection ofmoist, stagnant air in any part of thevessel. For preserving the timber, com-mon salt is frequently introduced be-tween the frame joints and between theframe members and the planking andceiling. Most modern shipbuilders,however, prefer creosote, carbolineum,or some similar compound applied witha brush or old broom to the joints dur-ing the process of construction.On account of differences of opinion

recently voiced regarding the advisabil-ity of building wooden boats of greentimber to meet the present submarineemergency, the following data on theshrinkage of Douglas fir, from apamphlet by Howard B. Oakleaf,United States forest service, Portland,Ore., are presented"Douglas fir does not shrink much,

and for this reason it is possible to

FIG. 11BORING HOLES WITH ANAIR DRILL


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STRENGTH AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SHIP TIMBERS

Table I

Average Sttirengllh Valines for Sttraetaral TGREEN MATERIAL

Taken from United States Forest Service Bulletin 10

Weight at Modulu


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10 HOW WOODEN SHIPS ARE BUILTuse partially dried material in emer-gencies, without fear that the additionaldrying after the material has beenshaped will open the seams or cause un-desirable stresses in the members. Thefollowing figures are given for the in-formation of those desiring to know theamount that Douglas fir will shrinkunder normal conditions from green toair dry: Radially, 1.52 per cent, tan-gentially, 2.37 per cent, and longitudi-nally, 0.0091 per cent." Tables I and IIwill be found to contain complete dataon the strength of the principal Ameri-can woods used for shipbuilding andother structural purposes. While it isdifficult to obtain correct comparisonsof the strength properties of structuraltimbers, yet, from a practical point ofview, the full structural sizes furnishthe data sought by naval architects andshipbuilders to guide them in theirdesigns.

tions in weight and strength. Thesevariations are considerable in somecases, depending on the quality of theclear wood, as well as on the gradeand condition of seasoning of the tim-ber. It is essential that the quality ofthe timbers of any species be determinedby due consideration of these factors,rather than locality of growth, etc.Table IV probably contains the best

available data published in any gov-ernment bulletin covering the strengthof different species of structural tim-ber, The data in this table are takenfrom United States forest service bulle-tin No. 108, page 65. This table showsthe results of tests on a large numberof stringers, similar to ship keelsontimbers, of different species, graded bythe tentative grading rule of the forestservice. All the timbers were practi-cally of the same grade. The modulusof rupture of Douglas fir is given as

cases, the relation between dry weightand strength is erratic.A knowledge of timber grading is es-sential to the shipbuilder. Differentgrading rules are used in different partsof the country, and detailed rule booksmay be procured from the variouslumber associations. On the Pacificcoast, the standard grade used at pres-ent to secure high grade structural tim-bers is "Selected Common". This gradecovers timbers selected from the gradeknown as "No 1 Common". No. 1Common is described as follows

"This grade shall consist of lengths 8 feetand over (except shorter lengths as ordered)of a quality suitable for ordinary construc-tional purposes. Will allow a small amountof wane, large sound knots, large pitch pock-ets, colored sap one-third of the width andone-half the thickness, slight variation in saw-ing and slight streak of solid heart stain.Defects to be considered in connection withthe size of the piece. Discoloration throughexposure to the elements or season checks

Table IIILumber U 1915 bj

Data Compiled by the United States Forest SeNo. of Production No

StateWashingtonLouisiana

millsactive440500

Mississippi 1,250North CarolinaTexasOregonAlabamaVirginiaWisconsinCalifornia

2,9005001,1504101,3502,400600150400600450950900

Georgia 1,400Pennsylvania 1,900South Carolina .800Tennessee

FloridaMichigan . .MinnesotaWest Virgini;Maine

Kentucky210

1,300500

l thousaboard feet3,950,0003,900,0002,200,0002,000,0001,850,0001,800,0001,690,0001,500,0001,500,0001,300,0001,130,0001,110,0001,100,0001,100,0001,100,0001,000,0001.000,000950,000800,000800,000777,000560,000500,000

lillsState activeNew York 1,600Ohio 850Missouri 850Indiana 750Montana 104Vermont 500Massachusetts 400Oklahoma 225Maryland 400

Illinois 350Connecticut 200Colorado 144New MexicoNew Jersey . .IowaDelawareSouth DakotaWyomingRhode IslandUtah

Totals

Productionin thousandboard feet

475,000400,000350,000350,000328,000260,000250,000230,000165,000110,00090,00079,50075,91565,78740,00035,00025,00023,80017,40015,00010,892

29,941 37,013,294

For Tables I and II we are in-debted to the West Coast Lumbermen'sassociation, Seattle, O. P. M. Goss, con-sulting engineer. In the preparation ofthe tables, showing the various proper-ties of structural timbers, every effortwas made to obtain the most reliableand up-to-date figures. In all com-parisons, consideration was given tothe size of the timbers, general quality,moisture condition and other factorswhich affect the strength. Many pub-lications have presented data containingstrength values for structural timbers,but in many cases the timbers havebeen unlike in grades and have variedmaterially in moisture content. Due tosuch variations, comparisons, in many caseshave been very misleading. This point hasbeen recognized in preparing the ac-companying data, and every effort wasmade to eliminate comparisons thatwere not on the same basis.

All species of timber show varia-

6919 pounds per square inch ; the corre-sponding figure for long leaf pine is6140 pounds per square inch.The dry weight of small, clear speci-mens, particularly for wood containing

little or no resinous substance, is adefinite indication of the strength of thewood fibre. This fact is shown forDouglas fir in United States forestservice bulletin No. 108, in which it isstated that with an increase in dryweight of from 19 to 36 pounds percubic foot, there is an accompanyingincrease in strength (modulus of rup-ture) of from 5500 to 10,500 pounds persquare inch. These figures indicate in-creases of 47.2 and 47.7 per cent respec-tively for weight and strength, basedon the maximum values. In timbersof structural sizes, however, such as areused in shipbuilding, this law does nothold good on account of the influenceof the knots on the strength. In such

not exceeding in length one-half the widthof the piece, shall not be deemed a defectexcluding lumber from this grade, if other-wise conforming to the grade of No. 1Common."From the foregoing specifications for

No. 1 Common, the following specifica-tion for Selected Common, suitable forhigh class constructional purposes, in-cluding bridge timbers, floor joists, shiptimbers, etc., designed to carry heavyloads most satisfactorily, is deduced:"Selected Common is a grade selected from

No. 1 Common and shall consist of lumberfree from defects that materially impairthe strength of the piece, well manufacturedand suitable for high class constructional andstructural purposes."

Considerable more information mightbe presented on the strength and physi-cal characteristics of ship timbers, butenough has been included to embracethe fundamental facts, and for moreexhaustive data the reader is referredto civil engineering hand books and to


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STRENGTH AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SHIP TIMBERS 11

FIG. 12TYPICAL LUMBERING SCENES IN THE NORTHWEST


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12 HOW WOODEN SHIPS ARE BUILT


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STRENGTH AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SHIP TIMBERS 13the various special booklets on struc-tural timber, such as that issued by theWest Coast Lumbermen's association.It might be added, however, that a safefibre stress for fir or pine, is consideredto be from 1600 to 1800 pounds persquare inch in tension, 1600 pounds forcompression parallel to the grain, and400 pounds for compression across thegrain. The weaknesses introduced bythe practice of sawing out the bilgeturns in the frame timbers of largeships are indicated by the great varia-tion in the last two sets of figures.

How Timbers are ShapedBefore going on into the design and

construction of ships in detail, it isadvisable briefly to consider the methodsof shaping and fashioning timbers forship construction and also the principalmethods of fastening the various ele-ments together. The data about to bepresented is of a purely general char-acter. More detailed methods of work-ing up timbers and fastenings will beconsidered later.

Generally speaking, timbers are shapedby sawing, chopping, planing and bor-ing. As far as possible, in modernwooden shipyards, machines are sup-planting hand labor for all of theseoperations. Band saws or jig saws,together with common circular saws areused for a great variety of operations.Air-driven boring augers are used andspecial machines have been developedfor beveling timbers and performingother operations peculiar to shipbuild-ing. In many cases, however, handtools must be used, as for instance indubbing-off the inside of the hull pre-paratory to laying the ceiling. Formany operations such as this, the adzis indispensable. For rough hewing,axes are employed, while hand planes,bits, chisels, and all the tools found inthe carpenter's kit also are utilized.For fastenings, dowels, treenails, drift

bolts, spikes and screw bolts are em-ployed. The various pieces may also be

and clenched on steel rings in the in-side.For "sticking" the planking to the

frames and other preliminary fastenings,treenail is driven home with an airhammer. After it is in place, it is cutoff, split on the end, and wedged to atight fit. The subsequent action of thewater is supposed to swell the treenailand make it fit tighter.Although treenails are used exten-

sively in modern shipbuilding, there isdoubt as to their efficiency after the

possible such bolts are driven throughas well as for securing the deck planks,galvanized standard ship spikes areused. Usually they are J^-inch squareand 8 or 10 inches long. Screw boltsalso are used for some forms of fasten-ings, as well as bolts fitted with wash-ers and nuts. The latter may be takenup from time to time as required.

Tests of SpikesSome tests of spikes were made at

the Seattle testing laboratory of the

Table IVAverage Stoems

(Grade 1, Tentative Grading RuliGREEN MATERIAL


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CHAPTER IIILayout ana Equipment of Wooden

Shipbuilding PlantsIN THE two previous chapters in this book, thegeneral possibilities and limitations of wooden ships

were discussed and the structural characteristics ofship timber were studied in detail. Before the actualwork of building the ship can commence, there is stillanother problem to be disposed ofthe shipyard mustbe planned and equipped. If the prospective builder isgoing into the construction of wooden ships on a per-manent basis, this problem is perhaps the most importantone he will be called upon to solve. Mistakes in thedesign or method of building a given hull can be rectifiedwhen the next ship is laid down; blunders in the layoutor equipment of the shipyard can seldom be corrected,except at prohibitive expense. Like most other old saws,the adage about the poor workman always blaming histools is only a half truth; good workmanship demandsthe use of the best tools and is intolerant of slipshodequipment. Therefore, the shipbuilder who starts outwith a half-baked, poorly laid out, pinched and skimpedplant, is saddling himself with a handicap that may laterspell ruin. The impression is all too prevalent that awell planned, thoroughly equipped plant,carefully arranged and organized, isrelatively unnecessary for building wood-en ships. Quite the reverse is true, anda study of the plants that have builtships continuously for a generation ormore, through good times and bad, re-veals the fact that they are all as com-pletely equipped for their task as anysteel shipyard. In fact, one of the un-fortunate results of the present boom isthe multiplication of hay-wire yards onboth eastern and western coasts. If

wooden shipbuilding is to establish itself permanently,the idea that anybody's back lot will do for a buildingsite and a chest of carpenter's tools for equipment, mustbe definitely abandoned. Wooden shipbuilding is no longera haven for irresponsible promoters. Success in this fielddemands money, brains, skill and experiencethe more thebetter.The location of the yard is the first phase of the

problem to be considered. Four factors govern theselection of the site: The supply of labor, the cost ofthe land, the contour of the ground and the depth ofthe water. Labor supply and real estate prices are com-plementary; where labor is abundant, property is ex-pensive, and where land is cheap the supply of labor isdubious. The builder must compromise these conflictingelements to the best of his judgment and ability, remem-bering that a busy yard may carry a high overhead, butno plant can be run without men. It is significant thatthe most successful of the modern wooden shipbuildingplants on the Pacific coast are located in or near largecities. This would indicate that labor supply is thecontrolling factor.In selecting a site for wooden shipbuilding, the slope

and contour of the ground is important. Preferably, the shipsshould be built on dry land that has just sufficient natural

slope to permit the laying of the keel blocks conveniently.There also must be level property for the construc-

tion of buildings and the storage of lumber.These conditions are not always easily ful-

filled, although they are found in manyof the oldest and most successful

yards. In some cases, where longtide flats are encountered,

filling has been resortedto, and although it is

an expensive proc-ess, an ideal

site can becreated inthis man-

ner. Anexample

FIG. 16ELECTRICALLY-DRIVEN, TRAVELING DERRICK SETTING FRAMES IN A WOODEN SHIPYARD15


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FIG. irWOODEN SHIPYARD LOCATED ON NATURALLY SLOPING GROUND WITH AN ABUNDANCE OF ROOM

FIG. 18A SMALL YARD LAID OUT ON LONG NARROW STRIP OF GROUND

FIG. 19YARD LAID OUT ON IRREGULAR PLOT OF GROUND


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LAYOUT AND EQUIPMENT OF PLANT 17of the relativeimportance o fproperly prepar-ing the site isfound in the es-timates for asmall Californiayard, in whichthe cost ofbuildings is giv-en as $9280 andthe yard workat $16,520, in-cluding $4720 forfilling. In somePacific coastyards where nat-ural groundconditions areunfavorable, thebuilding ways,framing stagesand even thefoundations forbuildings andlumber storagehave been placedon piles. Onfresh -water riv-ers, safe fromthe ravages ofthe toredo, thisprocedure is notso objectionableas on salt water,circumstances it isicism on accountporary and a sourcepense for renewals,be defended only in

-YARD WITH FOUR BUILDING SLIPS COMPACTLY ARRANGED ONCITY PROPERTYbut under all builder feels his business is so purely

subject to crit- transient that the expense of filling-inof being tern- permanent foundations or payingof continual ex- enough for a suitable natural site, isThis practice can unjustified,cases where the In many wooden shipyards too lit-

tle considerationhas been giventhe influence ofthe shape of theproperty on theprogress of thematerial throughthe plant. Manyyards, especiallysome of thenewer ones, arelaid out with nothought what-ever, apparently,to the labor thatmight be savedby properly andthoughtfully rout-ing the work. Theprinciples ofstraight - lineprogress that areso ingrained inthe metalworkingindustries andmost other pro-ductive establish-ments, have beencompletely over-looked. The re-sult is chaos anda tremend ouswaste of money.This comes from

the practice of throwing the yards to-gether rather than having them de-signed by a competent, experiencedengineer.

If routing alone is to be consid-ered, a long, narrow yard, in which

FIG. 21A STEEL FRAMED REVOLVING CRANE FOR WOODEN SHIPYARD


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FIG. 22MILL CONTAINING SAWS AND WOODWORKING MACHINERYthe raw material comes in at oneend and proceeds in a straight lineto the building ways at the other, isideal. This arrangement can seldombe realized, and the next choice is arectangular yard in which the ma-terial flows around only one cornerand does not double back at anypoint. Regardless of the shape of theplot, however, and the limitations ofproperty lines, a skilled designer canso arrange the equipment as to getthe most out of the situation at handand avoid waste in handling materials.The accompanying illustrations, Figs.18, 19 and 20, illustrate some of theprinciples of yard arrangement. Fig.18 shows a small yard for three shipsdesigned by Martin C. Erismann,engineer. In this case, a long, narrowpiece of ground was available and astraight-line plant was the result.

Fig. 19, detailing the yard of theGrays Harbor Motorship Corp., Aber-deen, Wash., shows what can be donewith a comparatively shallow, irreg-ular plot on which a large numberof building slips must be placed. Inthis case, extra room and properrouting is obtained by placing theslips at an acute angle with the har-bor line. The advantages of angularlayouts of this general character havelong been understood by industrialengineers.

Getting the Most Out of CityProperty

Fig. 20 shows what can be done oncomparatively restricted ground area inthe heart of a city. In this case,four building slips for ships of thelargest size are provided, togetherwith ample room for shops of a moreelaborate character than are usuallyfound around wooden shipbuildingplants, yet the plant is not over-crowded. The lumber moves across

the yard from south to north and isproperly distributed by means of thetraveling cranes between the first andsecond and third and fourth slips.The steel fittings, which are made-upin the plate shop, move in the op-posite direction. This plant is oper-ated by Supple & Ballin, Portland,Oreg. How the arrangement worksout in actual practice is shown clearlyin Fig. IS, which gives a good gen-eral view of the yard under operatingconditions.The patent advantages of an almostperfect natural site, with unlimited

room, are shown in Fig. 17, whichillustrates the yard of the WinslowMarine Railway & Shipbuilding Co.,Winslow, Wash. In this case, pilingor filling are unnecessary, for theground has the correct natural slopefor laying keel blocks and the waterdeepens rapidly from the shore. Theways are laid out along the shore and

covered by sheds, with the shops,mill, etc., immediately in the rear.The cost of wooden shipyards varies,

of course, within wide limits, depend-ing on the locality, price of theground, number of building slips andthe completeness of the shop andyard equipment. In altogether toomany cases the latter item is danger-ously slighted. Probably $45,000 rep-resents the minimum for three slips,and in this case the margin is hardlycomfortable. From this figure, theinvestment ranges up to $500,000.While no definite suggestions can begiven where so many variables areto be considered, it is safe to saythat a reasonable sum invested in theplant and its equipment makes forpermanent success.

Proper Design and LayoutThis chapter is concerned with the

general phases of yard design andlayout. Details, such as the construc-tion, slope and arrangement of thekeel blocks and the foundations ofthe building slips will be treated laterin the chapters devoted to construc-tion procedure. Various methods oflaying out the building slips are sug-gested by the drawings, Figs. 18, 19and 20, previously mentioned.

In the north Pacific coast region,on Puget sound and the Columbiariver, the question of protecting thebuilding slips with sheds is a mootone. There is no doubt the protec-tion of the work from the weatherduring construction tends to add tothe life of the vessel, and that fromthe standpoint of the comfort of theworkmen and their efficiency, espe-cially in the winter time when rainis frequent, sheds are desirable. Onthe other hand, they add greatly tothe cost of the yard, and this isthe principal reason why so much

X A WESTERN SHIPYARD


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LAYOUT AND EQUIPMENT OF PLANT 19

Table VCostt of Buiildliirigg, ettCo, for Small

Yard Shown in Figo ISThree Building Slips

Mold loft, 2-story, 45 x 100 feet, bottom floor contain-ing joiner shop, 45 x 80; tool room, 45 x 30 andstore room, 45 x 40 $4,500

Office, 18 x 35 feet 1,000Blacksmith shop, 20 x 25 feet 350Oakum store, 20 x 30 feet 400Boiler house and compressor room, 30 x 40 feet 800Steel storage racks 150Paint shop, 18 x 25 feet 150Saw sheds, 45 x 70 feet 250Steam boxes, two 3 x 3 x 50 feet 180Piping for water and air 1,500Spur track 800Filling and bulkheading 4,720Ways, piling and flooring 10,000Miscellaneous 1,000

Total $25,800

Table VIEqmipinnieett for Small Sitim

Sliowm imi Figo 18One 48-inch band saw $2,600One 20-horsepower motor for band saw 421Two 30-inch saws for loft and joiner shop 330Two motors for 30-inch saws 200One circular table saw 425One buzz knee planer or 24-inch jointer 700One bolt cutter 350Grindstones and emery wheels 200Mauls, dogs, chains, rope, peavys 2,000Forty jacks 320Clamps, screws, Nelson iron 1,000Two anvils 150Two forges 200Two steam winches 3,000One drill press 450One air compressor 2,696Six 90-lb. air hammers 300One extra heavy hammer 175Six wood boring machines : 450Air hose 300Motors 1,000Boiler, pumps, etc 1,500Miscellaneous . . . 1,000

Total $19,767

work is being done out-of-doors onboth coasts. A well designed, light,permanent building-shed big enoughto protect a hull up to 300 feet inlength, is shown in Fig. 34. Such ashed costs over $20,000. This shedis provided with a monorail cranesystem for economically handling ma-terials. Some modern wooden ship-builders have not provided sheds be-cause they preclude the use of cranesthat are considered to be of an un-usually efficient type.This brings us to the consideration

of the equipment necessary for eco-

nomically handling materials, which,with the tools required for working-uptimbers, constitutes the bulk of themachinery in a wooden shipyard. Inmany wooden shipyards, as previous-ly suggested, the problem of handlinglumber and other materials has beengiven scant consideration. Too oftenthe traditions of the logging campand the old-line sawmill have beenhanded on to the shipyard withoutany thought of the difference in theproblems to be solved.

In the smaller yards, however,where the overhead soon becomes

serious, simplicity of equipment ispermissible. In such cases, a smallhoisting engine or two and a fewhundred feet of wire rope are aboutall that are required for handlingtimbers, supplemented by a few dol-lies or lumber trucks. The timbersare handled by skidding them fromplace to place in the conventionallumberman's fashion.

Fig. 28 shows the hoisting and skid-ding equipment for a Pacific coastshipyard with three building ways.In this case the outfit consists ofone double-drum and one single-drum

FIG. 24GENERAL VIEW OF A SEATTLE SHIPYARD SHOWING BEVELING MACHINE, ARRANGEMENT OF DERRICKS,BUILDING SLIPS, ETC.


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FIG. 25WOODWORKING MACHINERY IN A PUGET SOUND SHIPYARD

FIG. 26BANDSAWING BEVELS IN A SOUTH ATLANTIC SHIPYARD. FIG. 27DERRICKS AND HOISTING ENGINEIN A SOUTHERN YARD

FIG. 28TIMBER HAULING ENGINES IN A GRAYS HARBOR SHIPYARD. FIG. 29DRIVING PILES FOR BUILDINGWAYS IN A GEORGIA SHIPYARD


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LAYOUT AND EQUIPMENT OF PLANT

FIG. 30GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDING WAYS SHOWING VESSELS IN VARIOUS STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION.FIG. 31PORTABLE ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN PLANER. FIG. 32BAND SAWING EQUIPMENT IN A PACIFIC COASTYARD. FIG. 33TRAVELING TABLE FOR HANDLING TIMBER AROUND MACHINES. FIG. 34A BUILDINGSHED PROTECTS THE WORK FROM THE WEATHER


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22 HOW WOODEN SHIPS ARE BUILThoisting engine with a vertical nigger-head for handling the manila haul-back line. The steam is supplied bya vertical donkey boiler 5 feet indiameter and 8 feet high. It carriesabout 80 pounds pressure and burnswood refuse from the yard that other-wise would go to waste. Almost thewhole expense of operating this rig,therefore, is the wages of the engi-neer, $4.50 per day. A J^-inch wirerope is used for hauling the timbers.This equipment serves three hullshandling all the timbers for frames,keelsons, ceiling, etc. The cost ofsuch an outfit should not exceed$1500. Frequently second-hand con-tractor's equipment is purchased atlow prices. The services of the don-key engine are usually supplementedby a few rough timber derricks, asshown in Fig. 27.In more elaborately equipped yards,

and in most cases where thoroughlysatisfactory results are desired, someform of crane equipment is provided.In cases where there are buildingsheds, rope or electrically drivenI-beam monorail hoists running thefull length of the shed have beenfound to fill the bill. Where thework is out in the open, travelingcranes of the types shown in Figs. 16and 21 are most frequently employed.

Two Types of CranesBoth of these cranes were designed

specially to meet conditions in woodenshipbuilding yards. The main fram-ing of the crane shown in Fig. 16 iswood; the one illustrated in Fig. 21has a steel frame. Both cranes aresimply variations of the travelingderrick.The timber-framed derrick shown in

Fig. 16, sometimes called a "monstros-ity", has a boom 72 feet in length,set on a base 30 feet above the

ground. It will handle 7 tons, andmight be termed a shear legs onwheels. It is electrically operated,the power being supplied through alooped, insulated cable that slides ona wire stretched alongside the run-way. To give the machine stability,the hoisting machinery is placed onthe lower of the two platforms shownin Fig. 16. A 50-horsepower motorgeared to a 3-drum hoist is provided.The hoist also is equipped with asmall niggerhead for skidding lighttimbers. The operator's cab is onthe upper platform, at the foot ofthe derrick. The foot-spread, or gageof track on which the crane runs, is35 feet. One such crane will servetwo building slips.The crane shown in Fig. 21 is

mounted on a turntable that permitsthe boom to swing through 360 de-grees, an advantage the timber-framedtraveler just described does notpossess. The boom in the case ofthe revolving crane shown in Fig. 21has a reach of 50 feet.For handling light timbers in single

pieces, ordinary lumber dollies andwide-tired four-wheel trucks are usedin great profusion in wooden ship-yards. These vehicles usually are ofthe simplest character, consisting ofnothing more than a timber frame towhich the wheels and axles are bolt-ed. They may be moved by manpower, although horses are usuallyemployed. In some of the moreprogressive yards, small gasoline-driven tractors have been introduced,making it possible to handle the lum-ber trucks in trains.

Woodworking MachineryThe equipment required for work-

ing-up timbers, including the bandsaws, cut-off saws, jig saws, planingmachines, automatic beveling ma-

chines, etc., must be carefully ar-ranged so the work can be gottenout expeditiously with a minimum ofrehandling. There are two generalmethods of arranging this equipment.In some yards it is grouped togetherin a mill located, usually, at a con-venient point in front of the buildingways. In other yards, the apparatusis scattered among a number of smallsaw sheds, on the unit principle. Inthe latter case, each building slip isprovided with an individual saw out-fit, located, generally, at the head ofthe ways. A mill in which all thesawing equipment is grouped to-gether is shown in Fig. 22. A pairof individual saw sheds of the unittype is shown in Fig. 23. In thisillustration, the cut-off saw, with der-rick and hoisting engine for handling-timbers, is in the background, withthe band-saw shed, in which thecurved frame sections are shaped, inthe right foreground. The simple andinexpensive character of the equip-ment is clearly shown. A searchlightfor night work is mounted on theband-saw shed.In order to give a concrete idea

of the equipment required for woodenshipbuilding and its cost, Tables Vand VI are presented, giving the costof buildings and equipment for the3-way yard shown in Fig. 18. Theprices are based on quotations inApril, 1917. The equipment listedmay be considered a minimum forthe work to be done, and if moremoney were available considerableapparatus could be added, such ascranes, automatic beveling machines,etc. The total cost of the threemajor items is as follows: Buildings,$9280; yard work, $16,520; machineryand tools, $19,767; total, $45,567, ex-clusive of real estate, supplies orworking capital.


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CHAPTER IVDetails of Different Types of Wooden Vessels

AFTER providing for the layout,equipment and organization ofhis plant, the wooden shipbuilder

turns naturally to a consideration of thestructural details of the various typesof vessels he may be called upon toturn out. The successful builder is fa-milar with all kinds of ships, and isbroad minded enough to realize thatvaluable suggestions may be obtainedfrom a study of even the so-called freakdesigns. He knows also that before hecan go ahead with the details of hisbuilding operations, he must becomethoroughly familiar with the generaloutlines of a large number of boats. Itis logical, therefore, to insert a chapterat this point in our book which willset forth the salient facts regarding anumber of different wooden ship modelsin such a manner that the reader mayreadily compare the various designs.This can best be done by presenting anumber of detailed drawings, supple-mented by such descriptive text as maybe necessary. The drawings and repro-ductions of photographs, however, reallytell the story and they should be studiedcarefully.

The Conventional TypeFig. 5 shows a cross section of a

modern American wooden ship of theconventional type. The salient featuresof this type were discussed in Chapter I.

Details of an old English ship also werepresented. The ship shown in Fig. 5 is48 feet beam and about 27S feet in length.Her floors are 18 inches deep. The keelis 18 x 20 inches. The bottom plankingis 4z/2 x 14 inches. The ceiling over thefloors is 10 x 16 inches and over thebilges 12 x 12 inches. The backboneconsists of nine keelsons 20 inches squaresurmounted by a 20 x 24-inch rider keel-son. The keelson assembly is connectedto the lower and upper deck beams bymeans of 14 x 14-inch stanchions. Bothsets of deck beams are 14 x 16 inches incross section. These few dimensions arepresented to give an idea of the size oftimbers used in the construction of ves-sels of this class.This type of ship was developed and

brought to a high state of perfection onthe Pacific coast where it is employedprincipally in the lumber carrying trade.Experience has shown, however, thatvessels of this general designthey arecalled steam schooners on the west coastare not suited to long off-shore voy-ages or for carrying general cargo.Their hull construction is too shallowfor one thing.Furthermore, although the builders of

these boats are exceedingly lavish in theuse of timber, their strength is not allthat could be desired. It has been foundthat when running light in heavy seasthey have a tendency to hog. As a mat-

ter of fact, what really happens is thatowing to their transverse weakness, thefloors are bulged up from the bottom,sometimes seriously distorting the hullstructure. The only way the old linebuilders have found to correct this ten-dency to hog or bulge is to use heavierceiling and add more lumber to the hullstructure. This, however, is hardly alogical method of attacking the problem.

Weakness StudiedThe problem of overcoming the in-

herent weaknesses of wooden ship con-struction has been the object of closestudy by a large number of naval archi-tects for a couple of yearsever sincethe revival in wooden shipbuilding setin in earnest. As a result of this in-tensive effort, a number of somewhatmodified designs have been evolved, cov-ering the construction of wooden vesselsfor deep sea service. The latest designsprovide for boats up to 308 feet inlength and of 4000 tons capacity. Insome of them steel is employed exten-sively.The question of using steel reinforcing

in some form to counteract some of thecharacteristic weaknesses of wooden hullsis a moot one. Some builders, particu-larly of the older generation, claim it isnot practicable to fasten wood and steelmembers together in a satisfactory man-ner. It is interesting to observe, how-

FIG. 35A 5-MASTED, TOPMAST WOODEN AUXILIARY SCHOONER BUILT AT A PROMINENT PACIFIC COAST SHIPYARD


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24 HOW WOODEN SKIPS ARE BUILT


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DETAILS OF TYPES OF WOODEN VESSELS 25

^ kJ *O I- 5"to j~ y^ i 5

o o.1 -I

^


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Main Deck

FIG. 41OUTBOARD PROFILE AND DECK PLAN OF ATYPICAL 4000-TON WOODEN STEAMSHIP

Principal Dimensions joo'x4S'xe7'

FIG. 42OUTBOARD PROFILE AND DECK PLAN OF 4500-TON WOODEN STEAMSHIP WITH PROPELLING MACHINERY AFT


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DETAILS OF TYPES OF WOODEN VESSELS 29hold is obtained through three 16 x24-foot hatches.A full-powered, 4000-ton motor shipof the standard Pacific coast type isshown in Fig. 43. This vessel is equip-ped with twin screws, each driven by a400-horsepower, 6-cylinder oil engine.The boat is 265 feet in length, 43 feetbeam and 26 feet deep. The machineryis placed aft as in the case of the steamvessel shown in Fig. 42. The general ar-rangement of the hull in fact, is verysimilar to that of the steamer. Themain hold is reached by three hatches,the forward one being 16 x 23 feet andthe after two 16 x 26 feet. The cabinaccommodations are ample and plentyof oil capacity has been provided. Thethree vessels shown in Figs. 41, 42 and43 were designed by Fred A. Ballin,Portland, Oreg.

Fig. 36 shows the midship section of

keelson and by steel arch strapping onthe sides.The floors, which are sided 12 inches,

are 26Yz inches deep at the keel and 19inches at the lower turn of the bilge.The frames, which also are sided 12inches, are molded 16 inches at the up-per turn of the bilge and 10 inches atthe main deck. The frames, of course,are double and are spaced on 32-inchcenters. The keel is 20 x 24 incheswith a 4 x 20-inch false keel or shoe.The three garboard strakes on eitherside of the keel are 11 x 18, 9 x 18 and7 x 16 inches, respectively. Betweenthe garboard strakes and the bilge keelsthere are three courses of planking, S x16 inches, S x 14 inches and 5 x 12inches, respectively. The bilge keels,which are arranged as shown in Fig. 36,are 12 x 16 inches, fitted with a 4 x 12-inch shoe. Above the bilge keels there

of an arch, extending up to the heightof the hold beams amidship and taperingdown on both ends. The general ar-rangement of this central girder isshown clearly in Fig. 44.The method of fastening the various

elements of the hull structure togetheris shown clearly in Fig. 36.The steel reinforcing consists of two

arch straps on each side of the vessel.These straps, which are built up of M x14-inch universal plates securely rivetedtogether at the ends, are let into theframes under the planking as shown inFig. 36. The two lines of strapping areabout eight feet apart. They extend thefull length of the ship in the form ofan arch rising amidship to a point 3feet above the main deck. At the endsthey run down to the line of the bilge.These straps, supplemented by the cen-ter girder-keelson, add considerably to

Forecastle Deck

FIG. 43OUTBOARD PROFILE AND DECK PLAN OF 4000-TON MOTOR SHIP DESIGNED FOR OVERSEAS SERVICE

the standard S-masted auxiliary schoonerillustrated in Figs. 35 and 44. A num-ber of these vessels have been built bythe Grays Harbor Ship Building Co.,Grays Harbor, Wash. They are of thefollowing dimensions : Length over all,290 feet; length under deck, 274 feet;length between perpendiculars, 268 feetbeam, extreme, 48 feet; beam, molded,46 feet, 10 inches ; depth, molded, 26 feet9 inches ; depth of hold, 24 feet 6inches. They are equipped with twinscrews driven by 400-horsepower, 4-cyl-inder, crosshead type, 2-cycle oil en-gines built by the H. W. Sumner Co.,Seattle.A study of their cross section, Fig.36, indicates that in their general de-sign these vessels are similar to thestandard Pacific coast type previouslydescribed, except that they are strength-ened by means of a heavy center girder-

are two courses of planking consistingof eight strakes of 6 x 10-inch planksand 22 strakes of 7 x 8-inch planks.The ceiling over the floors is 10 x 16inches ; over the bilges it is 14 x 14inches and over the sides 12 x 12inches. There are two sets of beamsincluding 14 x 16-inch hold beams and16 x 16-inch main beams. The hatchbeams are 16 x 20 inches.The keelson construction is one of

the features of these vessels. The mainkeelson structure consists of five 20 x20-inch pieces laid on the floors, sur-mounted by three 20 x 20-inch sisterkeelsons and a 20 x 24-inch rider. Inaddition, and this is where the con-struction differs from ordinary practice,there are eight 12 x 18-inch keelsonslaid on top of the rider keelson. Theselatter keelsons form a sort of centergirder. They are arranged in the shape

the longitudinal strength of the vesselIn addition, the deck beams are tiedtogether by M x 4-inch straps laid infour courses the full length of the ship.This vessel requires about 1,350,000 boardfeet of timber for its construction.The cross section details of a 4000-

ton wooden steamer are shown in Fig.37. They form an interesting contrastto the motor ship illustrated in Fig. 36.This vessel is 290 feet in length overall, 270 feet between perpendiculars, 49feet beam over the planking, with adepth of hold of 26 feet. In its gen-eral features, the design is somewhatsimilar to that prepared by Theodore E.Ferris for the United States EmergencyFleet Corp. The floors, however, havemore dead rise than in the Ferris boatand some of the timber scantlings aredifferent. The general dimensions ofthe planking and ceiling are about the


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FIG. 45A TYPICAL FOUR-MASTED WOODEN AUXILIARY SCHOONER UNDER CONSTRUCTION ON PUGET SOUND


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32 HOW WOODEN SHIPS ARE BUILTstructed with the skin planking in twothicknesses, one or both of which hadthe planks worked diagonally; it wasthen unnecessary to fit diagonal riderplates to assist the skin against rack-ing strains.The Diagonal System of Planking"This diagonal system of planking has

also been adopted in some special classesof wooden ships with great success.The royal yachts are examples of thissystem of construction. Three thick-nesses of planking are employed, thetwo inside being worked diagonally andthe outer one longitudinally. The twodiagonal layers are inclined in oppo-site directions and the skin thus formedpossesses such superior strength to theskin of an ordinary wooden ship thatthere need be comparatively little trans-verse framing above the bilges. Directexperiments with models and the ex-perience gained with ships built on thisplan, have demonstrated its great com-bination of strength and lightness. Theroyal yacht Victoria and Albert, builton this plan, with her unusually pow-erful engines and high speed, is sub-jected to excessively great sagging mo-ments, but has continued in service fornearly 40 years with complete ex-emption from signs of weakness. Likemany other improved systems of con-struction, this is found rather more ex-pensive than the common plan, but ifwood had not been so largely super-seded by iron and steel, probably muchmore extensive use would have beenmade of the diagonal system."

It is necessary when building awooden ship to work out the weightsof the various items in the structurecarefully. The following table will givean idea of what these figures come toin the case of an actual ship. The fig-ures given below are the hull weightsof a motor schooner built by the Aber-deen Shipbuilding Co., Aberdeen, Wash.,for the French-American Shipping Co.,New York. These boats are 252 feetin length over all and 221 feet betweenperpendiculars. The length of the keel

is 220 feet. The extreme beam is 43feet, the molded beam 40 feet 2 inchesand the depth of hold is 21 feet. Thehull weights are as followsItem PoundsOakum 8,000Auxiliaries 8,000Anchors and chains 38,350Boats 2,000Cabin and forecastle fittings 10,000Davits 2,000Deck piping and pumps 3,000Donkey boiler 8,000Engine room piping, air bottles, leadsleeve 4,000Exhaust piping 2,200Fastenings 266,000Fresh water , 58,156Lumber 3,166,350Main engines 56,000Oil 270,000Propellers 4,000Rigging 20,000Spars 49,200Shafting : 10,000Steering gear 1 ,000Strut 4,000Tanks 26,000Windlass 16,000Winches, 3 30,000Spikes 40,000Clinch rings 2,500Iron bark 30,000Paint 70,000Total 4,206,756An interesting formula for estimating

the carrying capacity of wooden shipsof the standard Pacific coast type withheavy center keelsons has been workedout by western engineers. This formulais as followsC = 1.15 L W.Where C is the carrying capacity in poundsL is the number of board feet of lumberrequired to build ship.YV is the weight of the timber per board

foot.

If actual experience is any guide, itrequires from seven to nine months tobuild a wooden vessel on the Pacificcoast under existing conditions. Claimshave been made that 3500-ton boats couldbe built in four months, but in no caseunder the writer's observation, has thisbeen substantiated, even approximately.It is the writer's judgment that withthe proper yard organization and carein assembling materials promptly, theseboats might be constructed in five orsix months at the minimum.While it is possible to crowd the con-

struction by adding more men to thejob, the point is soon reached whereadditional men do not result in propor-

tionately increased progress. One ofthe oldest practical ship builders onthe Pacific coast claims that it is noteconomical to work over 50 to 60 menon one hull. About 25 per cent of thesemen should be skilled.

It is believed a study of the draw-ings, reproductions of photographs anddata included in this chapter will givethe reader a clear idea of the generalfeatures of modern wooden ship con-struction. It is not intended in thisseries to go into the theoretical side ofthe problem. The purpose of this workis simply to present practical facts re-garding actual construction operations.

Theory is ComplicatedIf the reader is interested in' becom-

ing familiar with the methods of de-signing and laying down ships, includ-ing the preparation of the lines, thecalculation of the displacements, trim,etc., he should refer to standard works-on naval architecture dealing with thissubject. It might be stated, however,that the theoretical side of ship designis exceedingly complicated. Even thecomparatively simple problem of pre-paring the sheer draft or lines of awooden vessel involves a knowledge ofthe principles of descriptive geometrynot possessed by persons who have notmade a special study of this branch ofmathematics.One great trouble, however, with the

product of many modern wooden shipbuilding yards, lies in the fact that ina large number of cases the boats arenot designed by competent architects,but are simply built by rule of thumbmethods. In this day and age, suchprocedure is hardly acceptable in anydepartment of the mechanical world.On the other hand, it must be thor-oughly understood that the scientificprinciples of ship designing cannot belearned in a few months, particularlyby persons who have not had the bene-fit of general technical and mathemat-ical training.


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CHAPTER VDetails of Frame and Keel ConstructionWE NOW come to the consider-ation of construction procedure,

to the details of which the re-maining chapters of this book will bedevoted. Laying the keel is popularlysupposed to be the first step in the con-struction of any vessel, be it wood orsteel. As a matter of fact, it is not thefirst operation to be performed. Beforethe keel can be laid, the ways must beprepared and the keel blocks assembledin their proper position. The first step,therefore, in actually building a woodenship, consists in preparing the ways orfoundation for the keel blocks. InEuropean shipyards, the building slipsor ways frequently are paved withstone in order to insure a permanentlysmooth, true surface. In such caseslarge blocks of wood are let into themasonry and the keel blocks, shores,etc., where necessary, are bolted orspiked to these blocks.

In American yards it is not consid-ered necessary to pave the buildingslips. In fact, in most wooden ship-yards, the amount of work involved inpreparing the ways is comparativelyslight. If solid ground is available onwhich the blocks may be laid, it issimply necessary to grade the site toa comparatively true surface. It is, ofcourse, better in such cases if theground slopes properly. If the groundhas no slope it is necessary to build theblocks up rather high under the for-

ward end of the vessel in order to givethe proper declivity to the launchingways.

If the ground is sufficiently solid, thekeel blocks can be laid directly on theearth, which in some cases may betamped a trifle. If the ground is softor if it has been recently filled, pilesmust be driven to support the weight ofthe ship under construction. In somecases, particularly on the Pacific coast,as previously mentioned, the entirebuilding slip rests on piles which maybe driven out over the water to aconsiderable distance. In cases wherethis is done in salt water, more or lessfrequent repairs will have to be madeto the foundation. It is better, there-fore, where possible, to lay the keelblocks on dry land.

Arrangement of Keel BlocksThe keel blocks usually are arranged

as shown in Figs. 53 and 54. Thestructure, it will be noted from th

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