How We Got the BibleHow We Got the Bible

Based on the book by Based on the book by

Neil R. LightfootNeil R. Lightfoot

The Making of Ancient The Making of Ancient BooksBooks

The Bible did not just happen nor has The Bible did not just happen nor has it been preserved by mere chanceit been preserved by mere chance

The story of the Bible is preceded by The story of the Bible is preceded by the making of ancient booksthe making of ancient books

Writing was well established in some Writing was well established in some countries before the establishment of countries before the establishment of the Hebrew nation in Palestinethe Hebrew nation in Palestine– The Bible is not the oldest book in the The Bible is not the oldest book in the

worldworld

Ancient BooksAncient Books

Clay tablets uncovered reveal writing in Clay tablets uncovered reveal writing in Mesopotamia by at least 3000BCMesopotamia by at least 3000BC

Counting Egyptian hieroglyphs on monuments, Counting Egyptian hieroglyphs on monuments, temples and tombs it goes further backtemples and tombs it goes further back

Somewhere between Egypt and Mesopotamia Somewhere between Egypt and Mesopotamia about 1750BC some Semetic persons about 1750BC some Semetic persons developed the alphabetdeveloped the alphabet

The Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions are rock carvings The Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions are rock carvings dated 1500BC and located about 50 miles from dated 1500BC and located about 50 miles from Mt. SinaiMt. Sinai– Bible critics have said that Moses could not have Bible critics have said that Moses could not have

written any of the Bible because writing was unknown written any of the Bible because writing was unknown in that area and time. Until the finding of the Proto-in that area and time. Until the finding of the Proto-Sinaitic carvings. Sinaitic carvings.

Writing MaterialsWriting Materials

Stone – Siloam InscriptionStone – Siloam Inscription– 700 BC told of in 2Kings 20:20 and 2 700 BC told of in 2Kings 20:20 and 2

Chronicles 32:30Chronicles 32:30 Moabite StoneMoabite Stone

– Found in the area of the Dead SeaFound in the area of the Dead Sea– Thirty-four lines of Cannanite scriptThirty-four lines of Cannanite script– Only inscription outside of Palestine that Only inscription outside of Palestine that

mentions YHWHmentions YHWH The earliest writing material mentioned The earliest writing material mentioned

in the Old Testament is stonein the Old Testament is stone

Writing MaterialWriting Material

ClayClay– Most common in MesopotamiaMost common in Mesopotamia– 500,000 clay tablets have survived to 500,000 clay tablets have survived to

modern timesmodern times– Official correspondence between pharaohs Official correspondence between pharaohs

of Egypt and rulers in Palestine, Syria and of Egypt and rulers in Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia from 1350BC have been Mesopotamia from 1350BC have been preservedpreserved

– Nebuchadnezzar put on clay his rebuilding Nebuchadnezzar put on clay his rebuilding of Babylonof Babylon

– Belshazzar from the Book of Daniel left clay Belshazzar from the Book of Daniel left clay cylinders and of prayers and tablets on cylinders and of prayers and tablets on various subjectsvarious subjects

Writing MaterialWriting Material

Wood and WaxWood and Wax– Num 17:2-3; Ezek 37:16-17 make reference to Num 17:2-3; Ezek 37:16-17 make reference to

writing on wooden rods and stickswriting on wooden rods and sticks– In Greek and Roman times a whitened wood board In Greek and Roman times a whitened wood board

was used for public notices and was called an was used for public notices and was called an “Album”. “Album”.

MetalMetal– Exodus 28:36 refers to Gold as writing materialExodus 28:36 refers to Gold as writing material– In Greece and Rome government records, treaties In Greece and Rome government records, treaties

etc.. Were done on bronzeetc.. Were done on bronze– Roman soldiers at the time of their discharge were Roman soldiers at the time of their discharge were

given a small bronze tablet called a “Diploma”. given a small bronze tablet called a “Diploma”. These granted them special privileges and These granted them special privileges and citizenship based on their servicecitizenship based on their service

Writing MaterialWriting Material

OstracaOstraca– Basically broken pottery called potsherdsBasically broken pottery called potsherds– Two have been found with the name of Two have been found with the name of

Narmer the first Pharaoh of Egypt on them Narmer the first Pharaoh of Egypt on them (3100BC)(3100BC)

– Others have been found with the Hebrew Others have been found with the Hebrew alphabetalphabet

– When the little kingdom of Judah was under When the little kingdom of Judah was under attack potsherds have been found with “May attack potsherds have been found with “May YHWH cause my lord to hear tidings of peace”YHWH cause my lord to hear tidings of peace”

– Twenty-five Ostraca have been found with Twenty-five Ostraca have been found with short passages from the New Testament on short passages from the New Testament on themthem

Writing MaterialWriting Material PapyrusPapyrus

– Book of Job 8:11 “Can papyrus grow where Book of Job 8:11 “Can papyrus grow where there is no marsh?”there is no marsh?”

– All of the other materials had limitationsAll of the other materials had limitations– Papyrus is flexible and was used by Papyrus is flexible and was used by

Egyptians as early as 3000BCEgyptians as early as 3000BC– Universally used for books Universally used for books – Papyrus is the root word for paperPapyrus is the root word for paper– The word biblos was a Greek term for The word biblos was a Greek term for

papyrus, Biblion meant papyrus roll, Biblia papyrus, Biblion meant papyrus roll, Biblia is plural for papyrus rolls and meant “the is plural for papyrus rolls and meant “the Books”, later it came to mean “the Book” Books”, later it came to mean “the Book” of Sacred Scriptureof Sacred Scripture

The word “Bible” goes back to the origins of the The word “Bible” goes back to the origins of the Papyrus plantPapyrus plant

Writing MaterialWriting Material Leather and ParchmentLeather and Parchment

– Animal skins were in use in Egypt as far back as Animal skins were in use in Egypt as far back as 2500BC2500BC

– The word Parchment is derived from the area where The word Parchment is derived from the area where its use was perfected Peragamum (king Eumenes II)its use was perfected Peragamum (king Eumenes II)

– ““Vellum” is another type of skin: related to the Vellum” is another type of skin: related to the English word vealEnglish word veal

– The Dead Sea Scrolls were mostly written on leatherThe Dead Sea Scrolls were mostly written on leather– Jewish Talmud (code of traditional laws) requires the Jewish Talmud (code of traditional laws) requires the

Torah to be copied on prepared skinsTorah to be copied on prepared skins– We can assume that when Paul in 2 Tim 4:13 We can assume that when Paul in 2 Tim 4:13

requests that “parchments” be sent to him that he is requests that “parchments” be sent to him that he is speaking of portions of the Old Testamentspeaking of portions of the Old Testament

– Leather and Parchment are similar but differ in how Leather and Parchment are similar but differ in how the skin is prepared. Parchment gained ground over the skin is prepared. Parchment gained ground over Papyrus as it became less available:Papyrus as it became less available: Through the Through the Middle Ages parchment was the primary Middle Ages parchment was the primary means of writing the word of Godmeans of writing the word of God

Summary of Writing Summary of Writing MaterialMaterial

Practiced hundreds of years before the time Practiced hundreds of years before the time of Mosesof Moses

The material used depended on the time and The material used depended on the time and the place the place

Leather was most important for the Old Leather was most important for the Old TestamentTestament

The early New Testament was written on The early New Testament was written on Papyrus and then later Parchment in about Papyrus and then later Parchment in about the fourth centurythe fourth century

Most surviving New Testament manuscripts Most surviving New Testament manuscripts are of parchment or vellumare of parchment or vellum

DiscussionDiscussion

What information is available to show that What information is available to show that writing was practiced before the time of Moses?writing was practiced before the time of Moses?– Clay tablets, stones, hieroglyphics Clay tablets, stones, hieroglyphics

What material is most important for the Old What material is most important for the Old Testament?Testament?– Parchment/LeatherParchment/Leather

What is the significance of Papyrus as a writing What is the significance of Papyrus as a writing material and for the early New Testament?material and for the early New Testament?– The Greek meaning for papyrus is where we got the The Greek meaning for papyrus is where we got the

name the bible and the availability and prevalence of name the bible and the availability and prevalence of the material made it easy to spread the wordthe material made it easy to spread the word

The Birth of the BibleThe Birth of the Bible

The books of the Bible came together separately and The books of the Bible came together separately and under varying conditions so it is not possible to pinpoint under varying conditions so it is not possible to pinpoint the exact originthe exact origin

CodexCodex– In the days of papyrus and leather the form of a book was In the days of papyrus and leather the form of a book was

in a roll or scroll and in the case of papyrus they glued the in a roll or scroll and in the case of papyrus they glued the sheets end-to-end and usually the writing was on one side sheets end-to-end and usually the writing was on one side onlyonly

– The writing was arranged in columns about three or four The writing was arranged in columns about three or four inches wide, the rolls limited to thirty-five feetinches wide, the rolls limited to thirty-five feet

– This is important for the New Testament because a roll of This is important for the New Testament because a roll of thirty-two to thirty-five feet would be needed for a lengthy thirty-two to thirty-five feet would be needed for a lengthy book like Matthew or Luke or Actsbook like Matthew or Luke or Acts

– If follows then that Luke and Acts must have been written If follows then that Luke and Acts must have been written separately because of this limitation and that the Gospels separately because of this limitation and that the Gospels and some of the longer letters would have to circulate and some of the longer letters would have to circulate individually as long as the papyrus rolls were in useindividually as long as the papyrus rolls were in use

The Birth of the BibleThe Birth of the Bible

The roll form gave way to the Codex which is a The roll form gave way to the Codex which is a roman term for writing tablet and also a term for roman term for writing tablet and also a term for a book with leaves (a book in the modern sense)a book with leaves (a book in the modern sense)

The Codex was much easier to use, could be The Codex was much easier to use, could be bound and the papyrus could be written on both bound and the papyrus could be written on both sidessides– The book could be carried about and several books The book could be carried about and several books

could be combinedcould be combined Christians found this handy because they could Christians found this handy because they could

bind the Gospels together, then the letters, and bind the Gospels together, then the letters, and eventually the whole Bibleeventually the whole Bible– Codex was first papyrus and then parchmentCodex was first papyrus and then parchment

The earliest extant texts of the NT are in Codex The earliest extant texts of the NT are in Codex form (must have existed before A.D. 90)form (must have existed before A.D. 90)

Early form of the BibleEarly form of the Bible When it came time for God’s divine When it came time for God’s divine

communications to become a permanent record communications to become a permanent record he inspired Moses who is the first person he inspired Moses who is the first person mentioned as writing anything and it was as mentioned as writing anything and it was as early as 1500B.C.early as 1500B.C.

Moses wrote: (1) the memorial concerning Moses wrote: (1) the memorial concerning Amalek (2) the covenant made at Sinai (3) the Amalek (2) the covenant made at Sinai (3) the Ten Commandments (4) the journeys of the Ten Commandments (4) the journeys of the children of Israel in the wilderness, Num 33:2 children of Israel in the wilderness, Num 33:2 (5) the Book of the Law to be kept with the Ark (5) the Book of the Law to be kept with the Ark of the Covenant, Deut 31:9, 24 (6) the Song of the Covenant, Deut 31:9, 24 (6) the Song found in Deuteronomy 32 1-43 and Deut 31:22found in Deuteronomy 32 1-43 and Deut 31:22

The first five books of the Bible (Pentateuch). The first five books of the Bible (Pentateuch). Also held by Jewish law as trueAlso held by Jewish law as true

Confirmed by: Josh 8:31, 2 Kings 14:6, Ezra Confirmed by: Josh 8:31, 2 Kings 14:6, Ezra 6:18, Mark 12:26, Luke 2:22, John 7:196:18, Mark 12:26, Luke 2:22, John 7:19

Early form of the BibleEarly form of the Bible

When divine revelation was written down it When divine revelation was written down it became natural for other revelations and became natural for other revelations and events to be written downevents to be written down– Joshua refers to “in the book of the law of God”Joshua refers to “in the book of the law of God”– This became the practice of other men who wrote This became the practice of other men who wrote

history and prophecyhistory and prophecy– Later generations are found consulting the writings Later generations are found consulting the writings

of their predecessors Dan 9:2, Neh 8:1of their predecessors Dan 9:2, Neh 8:1– In this way the Old Testament grew and became In this way the Old Testament grew and became

assembled and accepted collection about the time assembled and accepted collection about the time of Ezra (400 B.C.)of Ezra (400 B.C.)

– The Jewish authority Josephus said that no book The Jewish authority Josephus said that no book was added to the Hebrew Scripture after the time was added to the Hebrew Scripture after the time of Malachaiof Malachai

Early form of the BibleEarly form of the Bible

The NT came into being gradually The NT came into being gradually although it was written in a short period of although it was written in a short period of time (A.D. 50-100) generally because Paul time (A.D. 50-100) generally because Paul wrote about 80% of it during his lifetimewrote about 80% of it during his lifetime

The books were mostly letters by inspired The books were mostly letters by inspired men to different churches and peoplemen to different churches and people– They were considered authoritative writings They were considered authoritative writings

and read in public assemblies (1 Thes 5:27)and read in public assemblies (1 Thes 5:27)– Soon afterward the Churches began Soon afterward the Churches began

exchanging the letters (Col 4:16)exchanging the letters (Col 4:16)

Early form of the BibleEarly form of the Bible

The central events of the life of Jesus The central events of the life of Jesus were first told orally but eventually a were first told orally but eventually a written record was neededwritten record was needed– Matthew, Mark, Luke, John and Luke with Matthew, Mark, Luke, John and Luke with

Acts which told the story of the infant church Acts which told the story of the infant church and then as a climax came John with and then as a climax came John with RevelationRevelation

– The result was that a new community of The result was that a new community of people was developed and they had people was developed and they had cherished writings of their own just like the cherished writings of their own just like the Old Covenant Old Covenant

The Form of our Bible TodayThe Form of our Bible Today Divided in two major sections: Old Testament Divided in two major sections: Old Testament

and Newand New– A more accurate translation from the Greek would A more accurate translation from the Greek would

be “covenant” not testamentbe “covenant” not testament– The basic structure of the Bible hinges on the idea The basic structure of the Bible hinges on the idea

that God has made two significant covenants with that God has made two significant covenants with his people and that the New Covenant has his people and that the New Covenant has displaced the Olddisplaced the Old

Old in English Bibles: (1) five books of Law, Old in English Bibles: (1) five books of Law, Pentateuch; Genesis-Deut (2) twelve books of Pentateuch; Genesis-Deut (2) twelve books of history; Joshua-Esther (3) five books of history; Joshua-Esther (3) five books of Poetry; Job to Song of Solomon (4) seventeen Poetry; Job to Song of Solomon (4) seventeen books of Prophets; Isaiah to Malachai books of Prophets; Isaiah to Malachai sometimes divided into five book of Major sometimes divided into five book of Major Prophets and twelve books of Minor ProphetsProphets and twelve books of Minor Prophets

This arrangement is derived from the Latin This arrangement is derived from the Latin Vulgate which is derived from the Septuagint Vulgate which is derived from the Septuagint or Greek versionor Greek version

The Form of our Bible TodayThe Form of our Bible Today The Hebrew Bible grouped differently:The Hebrew Bible grouped differently:

– Law: Gen, Ex, Lev, Num, DeutLaw: Gen, Ex, Lev, Num, Deut– Prophets: Former; Josh, Jud, 1/2 Sam, 1/2 KingsProphets: Former; Josh, Jud, 1/2 Sam, 1/2 Kings

Latter Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Book Latter Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Book of the Twelve – minor prophetsof the Twelve – minor prophets

– Writings: Ps, Prov, Job, Song of Sol, Ruth, Lam, Ecc, Writings: Ps, Prov, Job, Song of Sol, Ruth, Lam, Ecc, Esther, Dan, Ezra, Neh, and 1 and 2 ChronEsther, Dan, Ezra, Neh, and 1 and 2 Chron

If we compare this arrangement we see that If we compare this arrangement we see that there are three division: Law, Prophets, there are three division: Law, Prophets, Writings and the Twelve minor prophets are Writings and the Twelve minor prophets are put in one bookput in one book

Also Joshua, Judges, and the Books of the Also Joshua, Judges, and the Books of the Samuel and Kings as Former ProphetsSamuel and Kings as Former Prophets– We regard these books as historical but they are We regard these books as historical but they are

known to be prophetic because written with a known to be prophetic because written with a prophetic outlook by men who were likely prophetsprophetic outlook by men who were likely prophets

Irrespective of arrangement it is important to Irrespective of arrangement it is important to note that in the English Bible the books are note that in the English Bible the books are precisely the same as those found in the precisely the same as those found in the Hebrew BibleHebrew Bible

Books of the New Books of the New CovenantCovenant (1) five books of history; Matthew – Acts (2) twenty-(1) five books of history; Matthew – Acts (2) twenty-

one books of Doctrine; Romans – Jude (3) one book of one books of Doctrine; Romans – Jude (3) one book of Prophecy; RevelationProphecy; Revelation– The books of History may be divided into the Gospels The books of History may be divided into the Gospels

and Actsand Acts– The first three Gospels are the “Synoptic Gospels” The first three Gospels are the “Synoptic Gospels”

because of their similar contentbecause of their similar content– John was probably written later and presupposes some John was probably written later and presupposes some

knowledge of Jesus life; also edited.knowledge of Jesus life; also edited.– Acts is a continuation of the Gospels detailing the early Acts is a continuation of the Gospels detailing the early

churchchurch Thirteen of the twenty-one books of Doctrine were Thirteen of the twenty-one books of Doctrine were

written by Paul: The Pauline letters are of two groups; written by Paul: The Pauline letters are of two groups; before two-years imprisonment in Rome and after (1 before two-years imprisonment in Rome and after (1 and 2 Tim and Titus) these are called the Pastoral and 2 Tim and Titus) these are called the Pastoral EpistlesEpistles

The book of Hebrews is sometimes attributed to Paul The book of Hebrews is sometimes attributed to Paul but no one knows for sure but no one knows for sure

The one book of Prophecy or Apocalypse, Revelation is The one book of Prophecy or Apocalypse, Revelation is suitably at the end of the Bible since it summarizes in suitably at the end of the Bible since it summarizes in symbolic language the principles revealed in the symbolic language the principles revealed in the preceding books while giving a prophetic look forwardpreceding books while giving a prophetic look forward

Languages of the BibleLanguages of the Bible Understanding the languages of the Bible provides a link to Understanding the languages of the Bible provides a link to

its historyits history– Three original languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, and GreekThree original languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek– Hebrew spoken in Israel, Aramaic spoken in Syria and others, Hebrew spoken in Israel, Aramaic spoken in Syria and others,

Greek all over the MediterraneanGreek all over the Mediterranean Almost all of the Old Covenant written in Hebrew which Almost all of the Old Covenant written in Hebrew which

comes from a family of languages called “Semitic”comes from a family of languages called “Semitic” Hebrew is written right to left and has no vowelsHebrew is written right to left and has no vowels

– Modernists had to add a system of vowel pointsModernists had to add a system of vowel points– Not always a help: new Hebrew is printed without vowelsNot always a help: new Hebrew is printed without vowels

Aramaic is similar to Hebrew and became common after the Aramaic is similar to Hebrew and became common after the exile (500 B.C.) Neh 8:8 is read in Aramaic because people exile (500 B.C.) Neh 8:8 is read in Aramaic because people did not know pure Hebrewdid not know pure Hebrew

Aramaic was spoken by Jews several centuries before Christ Aramaic was spoken by Jews several centuries before Christ so some of the Old Covenant is written in Aramaicso some of the Old Covenant is written in Aramaic

The longest Old Covenant section in Aramaic starts at Dan The longest Old Covenant section in Aramaic starts at Dan 2:4 where the first part is Hebrew and then it switches to 2:4 where the first part is Hebrew and then it switches to Aramaic with the response of the Chaldeans “O king live Aramaic with the response of the Chaldeans “O king live forever”forever”– The Dead Sea Scrolls produced a segment of Daniel and in the The Dead Sea Scrolls produced a segment of Daniel and in the

middle of Dan 2:4 the Hebrew stops and Aramaic begins just as middle of Dan 2:4 the Hebrew stops and Aramaic begins just as in our Bibles two-thousand years laterin our Bibles two-thousand years later

– The Hebrew writing begins again at the end of Dan chapter 7 The Hebrew writing begins again at the end of Dan chapter 7 and the Dead Sea Scrolls confirm this as welland the Dead Sea Scrolls confirm this as well

Languages of the BibleLanguages of the Bible Jesus spoke Aramaic: “Abba” is Aramaic Jesus spoke Aramaic: “Abba” is Aramaic

for fatherfor father Maran atha is Aramaic “our Lord come” Maran atha is Aramaic “our Lord come”

(1 Cor 16:22)(1 Cor 16:22) Greek: Although Aramaic was the Greek: Although Aramaic was the

spoken language our books comprising spoken language our books comprising the NC were written in Greekthe NC were written in Greek

Greek was known throughout the Greek was known throughout the Mediterranean and was the universal Mediterranean and was the universal tonguetongue

The NC was not written in classic Greek The NC was not written in classic Greek but more literary yet common or but more literary yet common or “Hellenistic” and with a Semitic element “Hellenistic” and with a Semitic element because most of the writers were Jewish because most of the writers were Jewish and wrote with Semitic idiomand wrote with Semitic idiom

Praise of Ancient ScribesPraise of Ancient Scribes In Mesopotamia and Egypt the trained scribe was In Mesopotamia and Egypt the trained scribe was

highly prizedhighly prized– Books were being dictated and sold all over the Greek Books were being dictated and sold all over the Greek

and then Roman worldand then Roman world– The earliest copies of Christian writings were probably The earliest copies of Christian writings were probably

done for local churches by congregation membersdone for local churches by congregation members As Christianity grew it was necessary to have more copies in As Christianity grew it was necessary to have more copies in

more languagesmore languages– Scribes would work in Scriptoriums and listen to the Scribes would work in Scriptoriums and listen to the

reader read aloud from a textreader read aloud from a text– We know that Origen had a scriptorium in Caesarea and We know that Origen had a scriptorium in Caesarea and

had a team of stenographershad a team of stenographers– This is how the great Christian library at Caesarea came This is how the great Christian library at Caesarea came

to beto be– Monasteries all had scriptoriums to preserve and foster Monasteries all had scriptoriums to preserve and foster

the wordthe word– Scribes sometimes wrote notes in the margins or at the Scribes sometimes wrote notes in the margins or at the

end to tell us of their workend to tell us of their work– Scribes would not sit at a desk: they likely sat on a bench Scribes would not sit at a desk: they likely sat on a bench

or stool with something to hold up their legs. They used or stool with something to hold up their legs. They used a stylus, a reed pen, a sponge, carbon ink, and a pen-a stylus, a reed pen, a sponge, carbon ink, and a pen-knife to sharpen the reed, and a pumice stone to smooth knife to sharpen the reed, and a pumice stone to smooth the reed or the Codexthe reed or the Codex

SummarySummary Our Bible is a collection of extraordinary Our Bible is a collection of extraordinary

books written over a period of fourteen or books written over a period of fourteen or fifteen hundred yearsfifteen hundred years

The Bible gradually grew until its completion The Bible gradually grew until its completion near the close of the first century A.D.near the close of the first century A.D.

The order of books in our English Old The order of books in our English Old Covenant basically goes back to the Greek Covenant basically goes back to the Greek which was widely used in the early churchwhich was widely used in the early church

Our NC writings are arranged logically not Our NC writings are arranged logically not chronologicallychronologically

The OC is predominantly Hebrew but by the The OC is predominantly Hebrew but by the first century Greek was a world-wide first century Greek was a world-wide language which is why the NC was written in language which is why the NC was written in GreekGreek

For DiscussionFor Discussion What is a Codex?What is a Codex?

– A bound bookA bound book Who is mentioned in the Bible as being the first author Who is mentioned in the Bible as being the first author

of anything?of anything?– MosesMoses

At about time were the books of the NC writtenAt about time were the books of the NC written– A.D. 50-100A.D. 50-100

Are the books of the English OC the same as the Are the books of the English OC the same as the Hebrew?Hebrew?– Yes, although arranged differentlyYes, although arranged differently

What are the three main divisions of the NC?What are the three main divisions of the NC?– Five books of history, twenty-one books of Doctrine, one Five books of history, twenty-one books of Doctrine, one

book of revelationbook of revelation Which writer is responsible for the largest group of NC Which writer is responsible for the largest group of NC

books?books?– PaulPaul

Name the three original languages of the BibleName the three original languages of the Bible– Hebrew, Aramaic, GreekHebrew, Aramaic, Greek

What language was normally spoken by Jesus? How do What language was normally spoken by Jesus? How do we know?we know?– Aramaic, because of his use of Aramaic words to call out Aramaic, because of his use of Aramaic words to call out

and describe thingsand describe things