How to write an academic paper

Dr. Verónica DonosoVeronica.donoso@soc.kuleuven.be

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Organisation

What is academic writing?

Common stylistic problems

Academic genres

Writing an academic paper

Avoiding common mistakes

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The writing challenge 1

Writing can sometimes be difficult and even frustrating…

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The writing challenge 2

But it can also be rewarding

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Common stylistic problems

Non-native language often sounds translated, not natural

Choppy and disconnected writing style

Sentences are needlessly wordy

Too informal or too direct style

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Non-native mistakes

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We don’t want to write like Tarzan, do we?

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To avoid writing like Tarzan…

Non-native language often sounds translated (not natural): Improve WORD CHOICE

Choppy and disconnected writing style: improve the FLOW

Sentences are needlessly wordy: write CLEARLY and CONCISELY

Too informal or too direct style: Improve the TONE

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What is (“non- Tarzan”) academic writing?

Writing done by scholars for other scholars

Topics and questions of interest to the academic community

What your write must be useful = help your reader to better understand your topic

Present an informed argument = what you know is not what you think about a subject

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Getting started

What do I need to know about my topic?

Try to answer the questions who, what, when, where, why, how?

What do I know about the context of my topic?

What (historical, cultural, etc.) influences might be important to my topic?

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Academic writing

Different academic genres ranging from abstracts to acknowledgements

Our main focus = the research article

Specific structure = abstract, introduction, methods…

Rules= conference proceedings, short-paper, peer- reviewed paper, etc.

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Writing an Academic paper

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Important aspects of an Academic paper

The thesis sentence The paragragh Abstract Introduction Literature review Methods section Results section Discussion section References

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The thesis sentence

Thesis sentence = asserts, controls, and structures the entire argument

Thesis sentence= strong, persuasive, thoughtful to avoid unfocused, weak paper

A good thesis makes a claim = develops an interesting perspective that you can support and defend (+ than a mere observation)

e.g. observation: "Americans are violent”e.g. perspective/position: “Americans are violent because

they are fearful"

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A good thesis sentence...

controls the entire argument and provides it with a structure

determines what to say + what not to say

signals to the reader what your argument is + how your argument will be presented

Every paragraph in your paper must support your thesis

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Tips for good thesis statements (by Erin karper, 2008)

specific = should cover only what you will discuss in your paper

should be supported with specific evidence

usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper

revise your thesis statement to reflect exactly what you have discussed in your paper

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Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement

“The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending class, and socializing with peers.”

The paper that follows should:explain how students spend their time

studying, attending class, and socializing with peers

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Example of an argumentative thesis statement

“High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community service projects before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global awareness.”

The paper that follows should:present an argument and give evidence to

support the claim that students should pursue community projects before entering college

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The writing unit = a paragraph

A paragraph = single "unit" of a paper

Declares a point and offers support for that point

A good paragraph is:

Supportive = supports the thesis

Strong = develops its main idea using sufficient + relevant evidence

Considerate = shows up when + where it's supposed to, makes sense within the text as a whole

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Did you write a good paragraph?

Do I have enough evidence to support this paragraph's idea?

Do I have too much evidence or too many details?

Am I repeating myself in this paragraph?

Can I say, in a nutshell, what the purpose of this paragraph is?

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Some useful writing tips

Move from old to new = readers move from the familiar to the unknown, new information is more important than the old

Use repetition to create a sense of unity BUT don’t be redundant

Use key words and phrases to add coherence

Use transition markers wisely (e.g. to announce some turn in your argument, to emphasize one of your points, etc.)

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Useful Transition Markers

Time - after, before, currently, during, earlier, later,

Example - for example, for instance,

Addition - additionally, also, furthermore, moreover, equally important,

Similarity - also, likewise, in the same way, similarly,

Exception - but, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, yet,

Sequence - first, second, third, next, then,

Emphasize - indeed, in fact, of course,

Cause and effect - accordingly, consequently, therefore, thus,

Conclude or repeat - finally, in conclusion, on the whole, in the end,

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Structure of an Academic paper

Abstract IntroductionLiterature reviewMethods sectionResults sectionDiscussion sectionReferences

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Abstract

Short: Written as a single paragraph

Summarizes the major points of the results

Summarizes the major points of the methods, and the discussion

Does not include bibliographic citations

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Example of abstract

The Ubicomp scenario of wirelessly networked processors embedded in everyday objects has been dubbed "the invisible computer''. Users no longer interact with a computer but with familiar objects whose functionality is transparently enhanced by computing features. Using the results of an extensive survey, we highlight the major problem of this new style of interaction: because the computer is invisible, the user lacks an appropriate cognitive model for it, and cannot predict the behaviour or even the available features of the system. We argue that effective and usable Ubicomp systems will have to make the invisible computer visible.

Introduction+ theory

Methodology

ResultsConclusions

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Introduction (1)

Get your reader interested in your subject

Inform, but not to the point of being dull

Intrigue, but don’t be vague

Take a strong stance, but not to the point of alienating your reader

Your introduction needs to "place" your argument into some larger context

Announce your topic broadly, then declare your particular take

Provide any background material important to your argument

Define key terms, as you intend to make use of them in your argument

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Introduction (2)

Introduction = the first impression your argument makes on your reader

Introduction: persuasive, interesting, and clear Define the terms for your reader. e.g. how do you

understand the term “usability“? Acknowledge your opponents: (1) summarize the point

of view of your adversaries, (2) state your own position in opposition to theirs.

Consider your audience and their background (very knowledgeable about the subject, less knowledgeable, etc.)

Write your introduction AFTER you've written the rest of your paper

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Example of introduction

“Since the end of the first phase of Ubiquitous Computing (Ubicomp) which was marked by the deployment of initial prototypes, there have been a number of increasingly sceptical views on Mark Weiser's vision of hundreds of information appliances connected together in order to relieve the human being of common frustrations of traditional computing. These concerns are mainly associated with "over-automation'' and the loss of control arising from it, the lack of appropriate feedback, the breakdown of traditional mental models for the system functionality and difficulties in using ubiquitous interfaces. We believe that most of these difficulties could be solved by concentrating on a simple idea…

( Rehman, Stajano and Coulouris, 2002, p. 213)

Background information

Your own stance

Place your argument within a larger context

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Literature review

Critically read and evaluate the sources (trustworthiness, relevance, up-to-date)

Use current sources

Check that the author is a credible source who has authority and expertise in the field

Use more than one or two key sources = lend weight to your argument

Be concise

Include all your sources in your reference list

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Tips to avoid plagiarism

Extract important information

Paraphrase

Compress and write in your own words

Make notes, don’t take notes = Highlight key passages

Translate and rewrite notable research findings

Summarise findings: Research has shown that 95% of students listen to the radio while they study

Quote opinions as Dr. Z "believes" that …

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Methods section

Similar to an instruction manual = describe the apparatus and the procedure that you used in your research

Clearly and specifically written = your research can be exactly duplicated

Do not (necessarily) describe materials and methods that are standard to your field

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Useful questions about your methods section

How was the research designed?

On what subjects or materials was the research performed?

How were the subjects/materials prepared?

What machinery and equipment was used?

What sequence of events did you follow as you handled the subjects/materials or as you recorded data?

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Method section example

“Two user-based usability evaluations were conducted, one in a usability laboratory and one in a field setting. Both evaluations were based on Rubin’s guidelines for planning and conducting usability tests (…).The two evaluations involved users that were skilled worker apprentices (…). The evaluations were conducted while they were at the technical high school. A teacher at the school described initial task proposals, which were then modified to fit the purposes of the evaluations (…). This resulted in nine specific tasks, which dealt with the following working assignments (…)

(Nielsen, Lagerlöfs Vej, Bach Pedersen, Stage, 2006)

Research design

Procedure

Machinery,equipment

Participants

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Results section

Talk about what you discovered, invented, or confirmed through your research

Present your data, observations, and outcome

Focus on the facts of your research and present them in a straightforward way

Organize your results section in the clearest and most logical way

The most common way to organize information is chronologically

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Results section example

“In this section we provide an overview of the problems identified in the two usability evaluations: Evaluation Type and Number of Problems.

The two usability evaluations identified 76 different usability problems altogether. 27 usability problems were categorized as critical, 30 problems as severe, and 19 as cosmetic. The laboratory evaluation identified 104 occurrences of usability problems and the field evaluation 123 instances....”

(Nielsen, Lagerlöfs Vej, Bach Pedersen, Stage, 2006)

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Discussion section

Begin with a discussion of the data

Consider how the data addresses the research problem or hypothesis outlined in the introduction

Discuss what can be inferred from the data as they relate to other research and scientific concepts

Emphasize the importance of your own contribution

Identify the nature and extent of any limitations of your research, especially if your results are inadequate, negative, or not consistent with earlier studies or with your own hypothesis

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Conclusions

Conclusions = opinions, based on the evidence presented in your report

Usually a very short section that introduces no new ideas

Summarise your findings + generalise their importance

Convey the importance of your research to your reader

Raise questions that remain unanswered and discuss ambiguous data

State your conclusions clearly and discuss their implications

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Useful sentences for writing conclusions

Present your conclusions: “This research demonstrates…”

Discuss implications “This research

suggests . . .” or “This research implies . . .”

To warn readers that they should not generalize your conclusions: “Under the following circumstances,” “In most instances,” or “In these specific cases”

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What you are NOT going to do...

http://nl.youtube.com/watch?v=ynhGiZNCyeo&feature=related

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References

Referencing: standardised method of acknowledging sources (books, articles, websites, etc.) of information and ideas that you have used

If you don’t you could be accused of plagiarism

Direct quotations, facts, figures, ideas and theories (from both published and unpublished works) MUST be referenced

Many acceptable forms of referencing (e.g. APA style)

Necessary to verify quotations, and to enable readers to follow-up and read more fully the cited author’s arguments

Insert the citation at the appropriate place within the text

Provide a reference list at the end of the document

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Referencing (1)

For journal article include:

• Author(s) of the article, • Title of the article,• Title of the journal• Volume and issue number of the

journal, • Year of publication,• Page numbers

e.g. Anderson, R.E. Social impacts of computing: Codes of professional ethics. Social Science Computing Review 10, 2 (1992), 453-469.

For books include: • Author(s)/editor(s), • Title, • Edition,• (Volume number), • Place of publication and publisher • Year of publication,

e.g. Schwartz, M. Guidelines for Bias-Free Writing. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, USA, 1995.

Note down the full bibliographic details of the source from which the information is taken:

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Referencing (2)

For all electronic information include: database name or web address (URL) + the date that you accessed the information

e.g. Yahoo Finance (2003) ‘Yahoo! and Carat Unveil Research Results Showing Teens Are Truly Born To Be Wired’, URL (consulted January 2004): http://biz.yahoo.com/bw/030724/245198_1.html

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In-Text Citations (1)

When citing references within the text = name of the author + year of publication e.g. Comfort (1997) claimed that…

Authors of different references with the same family name = include the author’s initials

e.g. Hamilton, C. L., 1994 or C. L. Hamilton (1994)

If two or more authors are cited at the same point in the text = separate names by a semicolon + present alphabetically by author

e.g.(Brown 1991; Smith 2003)

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In-Text Citations (2)

When directly quoting from another source = relevant page number + double quotation marks around the quote

e.g. “… to achieve consistency” (Madden & Hogan, 1997, p. 45).

When paraphrasing or referring to an idea from a book or lengthy text = include relevant page number e.g. The theory was first presented in 1993 (Comfort, 1997, p. 58)

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In-Text Citations (3)

3, 4 or 5 authors = Cite all authors the 1st time the reference occurs

e.g. Guerin, Labor, Morgan, Reesman, and Willingham (2005, p. 6) found …

Subsequent citations = surname of the first author + et al. + year

e.g. Guerin et al. (2005, p. 6) found …

6 or + authors = Rodgers et al., 1996, p. 35

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How to Create a Reference List (1)

Reference list: books, articles, etc. that are cited in the text

Reference list: arranged alphabetically by author No author = cite by title (ordered in the reference

list alphabetically by the 1st significant word of the title)

APA Referencing 2007http://library.curtin.edu.au/referencing/apa.pdf American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington DC: APA.

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A practical example on how to cite

http://nl.youtube.com/watch?v=96QEIDznXI4&feature=related

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Let’s see how much you’ve learned...

http://nl.youtube.com/watch?v=pkpwFpMYShY&feature=related

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Useful Links

http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/ac_paper/write.shtml

http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/index.html

http://www.oed.com/ http://thesaurus.reference.com/http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/54

5/01/

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/545/01/

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Thank you for your attention

and

Have a nice weekend!