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Title:HowtoStudyArchitecture

Author:CharlesH.Caffin

ReleaseDate:December2,2019[EBook#60830]

Language:English

***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKHOWTOSTUDYARCHITECTURE***

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CONTENTS.GLOSSARY

INDEXBIBLIOGRAPHY

LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS(etexttranscriber'snote)

HOWTOSTUDYARCHITECTURE

HOWTOSTUDYARCHITECTURE

BYCHARLESH.CAFFIN

Authorof“HowtoStudyPictures,”“TheStoryofFrenchPainting,”“TheStoryofDutchPainting,”“TheStoryofSpanishPainting,”“AppreciationsoftheDrama,”“ArtforLife’sSake,”etc.

ANATTEMPTTOTRACETHEEVOLUTIONOFARCHITECTUREASTHEPRODUCTANDEXPRESSIONOFSUCCESSIVEPHASESOFCIVILISATION

WITHILLUSTRATIONS

NEWYORKDODD,MEADANDCOMPANY

1917

COPYRIGHT,1917BYDODD,MEADANDCOMPANY,Inc.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author gratefully acknowledges the critical assistance given to him on certain points byProfessor William H. Goodyear, W. Harmon Beers and William Warfield; and his indebtedness toCarolineCaffinforcompilingtheindexandtoIrvingHeylforseveralarchitecturaldrawings.Forsomeof the illustrations he has put himself under obligations to the following publications, through thecourtesyoftheLibrarianoftheMetropolitanMuseumofArt—“Histoiredel’Art,”byPerrotetChipiez;“Assyrian Sculptures,” by Rev. Archibald Paterson; “MonumentsModernes de la Perse,” by PascalCoste; “Ruins of thePalace ofDiocletian at Spalato” byR.Adams, and “TheAnnual of theBritishSchoolatAthens.”

CONTENTS

BookIINTRODUCTION

CHAPTER PAGE

I PRELIMINARYCONSIDERATIONS 3II PRIMITIVESTRUCTURES 13

BookIIPRE-CLASSICPERIOD

I EGYPTIANCIVILISATION 25II EGYPTIANARCHITECTURE 38

III CHALDÆAN,ASSYRIANANDBABYLONIANCIVILISATION 56IV CHALDÆAN,ASSYRIANANDBABYLONIANARCHITECTURE 65V PERSIANCIVILISATION 74VI PERSIANARCHITECTURE 80VII MINOANORÆGEANCIVILISATION 88VIII MINOANORÆGEANARCHITECTURE 95

BookIIICLASSICPERIOD

I HELLENICCIVILISATION 105II HELLENICARCHITECTURE 116III ROMANCIVILISATION 147IV ROMANARCHITECTURE 163

BookIVPOST-CLASSICPERIOD

I EARLYCHRISTIANCIVILISATION 187II EARLYCHRISTIANANDBYZANTINEARCHITECTURE 193III MUHAMMEDAN,ALSOCALLEDSARACENICCIVILISATION 212IVMUHAMMEDANARCHITECTURE 220V EARLYMEDIÆVALCIVILISATION 232VI EARLYMEDIÆVALORROMANESQUEARCHITECTURE 241

BookVGOTHICPERIOD

I LATERMEDIÆVALCIVILISATION 263II GOTHICARCHITECTURE 270III GOTHICARCHITECTUREINFRANCE 281IV GOTHICARCHITECTUREINENGLANDANDWALES 287VGOTHICARCHITECTUREINGERMANY,THENETHERLANDS,ANDSPAIN 301VI GOTHICARCHITECTUREINITALY 310

BookVITHERENAISSANCEPERIOD

I RENAISSANCECIVILISATION 319II RENAISSANCEARCHITECTUREINITALY 338III RENAISSANCEARCHITECTUREINITALY—CONTINUED 357IV RENAISSANCEARCHITECTUREINFRANCE 375V RENAISSANCEARCHITECTUREINGERMANY,THENETHERLANDS,ANDSPAIN 391VI RENAISSANCEARCHITECTUREINENGLANDANDAMERICANCOLONIALARCHITECTURE 410

BookVIIPOST-RENAISSANCEPERIOD

I CLASSICALANDGOTHICREVIVALS 435II THEMODERNSITUATION 454

GLOSSARY:A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,Z 479INDEX:A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,X,Z 497

ILLUSTRATIONS

FACINGPAGE

Stonehenge.SalisburyPlain,England 12SectionandPlanofTreasuryofAtreus 12Teocallior“HouseofGod,”atGuatusco 12SectionofPyramid 38ModelsofMastabas 38TypesofEgyptianColumns 38Temple-TombofRamesesIIatAbou-Simbel 38PlanofRamesseum 38ModelofHypostyleHallatKarnak 39PeripteralSanctuary,atPhilæ 39TempleofEdfou.EntrancetoHypostyleHall 39ExampleofCarvedDecoration 39“Sargon’sCastle.”ConjecturedRestoration 66Partof“LionFrieze”and“FriezeofArches” 66DetailsofWallDecorationatKoyunjik 67TombofDariusI,Persepolis 80PalaceofDariusI,Persepolis.ConjecturedRestoration 80TypeofPersianColumns 81HallofOneHundredColumns,Persepolis.ConjecturedRestoration 81ThePalacesofPersepolis.ConjecturedRestoration 81WallDecorationinPalaceofCnossus 94LionGatewayatMycenæ 94PlanofAcropolisofTiryns 94PartofStaircaseinPalaceofCnossus 95CouncilChamber,withGypsumThrone,PalaceofCnossus 95SomeTemplePlans—Hellenic 116HellenicOrders(ColumnsandEntablatures) 116RomanOrders(ColumnsandEntablatures) 116ModeloftheAcropolis 116ModeloftheParthenon(restored) 116TheParthenon 117TemplesatPæstum 117ChoragicMonumentofLysicrates,Athens 117TempleofNikeApteros,Athens 117PorticooftheCaryatides,Erechtheion 117DetailofOrnament—Hellenic 117StatuesintheRoundofPersephoneandDemeterfromtheEastPedimentoftheParthenon 117FiguresinHighRelieffromProcessionofWorshipers.FriezeoftheParthenon 117

PlanofHouseofPansa,Pompeii 117PlanofTheatreofDramyssus 117RomanForum,ConjecturedRestoration 162MaisonCarrée,Nîmes 162ArchofConstantine 162Pantheon,Rome 162SectionofthePantheon 162Colosseum,Rome 162SectionofColosseum 162BasilicaofConstantine 163RomanVaulting;fromBathsofDiocletian 163GothicVaulting;fromSalisburyCathedral 163TheatreofOrange,France.ConjecturedRestoration 163PlanofTheatreofOrange,France.ConjecturedRestoration 163PortaAurea—GoldenGate—PalaceofDiocletian 163Pont-du-Gard,AqueductNearNîmes 163PeristyleandCourtoftheHouseoftheVettii 163WallPaintingsintheHouseoftheVettii 163S.ApollinareNuovo,Ravenna 192S.Apollinare-in-Classe,Ravenna 192ChurchofKalb-Lauzeh,Syria 193ChurchofTurmanin,Syria 193TombofGallaPlacidia 202InteriorofSanVitale,Ravenna 202DiagramShowingPendentives 202SectionofSS.SergiusandBacchus,Constantinople 202SectionofS.Sophia,Constantinople 202Diagramshowinghowadomerestsoneightpiersenclosinganoctagon,bynichesorsquinches 202

ExteriorofS.Sophia,Constantinople 203InteriorofS.Sophia,Constantinople 203PlanofS.Sophia,Constantinople 203PlanofS.Mark’s,Venice 203ExteriorofSt.Mark’s,Venice 203MosqueofElAzhar,Cairo 220SuleimaniyehorMosqueofSuleiman 220ArcadesoftheMosque,nowCathedral,ofCordova 220CourtoftheLions,Alhambra,Spain 220PalaceofIspahan,Persia.ConjecturedRestorationofPavilionofMirrorsandGardens 221CollegeofShahHussein,Restoration;Ispahan,Persia 221

MosqueofAkbur,Futtehpore-Sikri,India 221TajMahal,Agra,India 221

PisaCathedral,CampanileandBaptistry 240InteriorofPisaCathedral 240S.Ambrogio,Milan 240S.Michele,Pavia 240TheCertosa,orChurchoftheCarthusianOrder,Pavia 240ChurchofVézelay,France 240ChurchofAbbaye-aux-Dames,Caen 240RemainsoftheChurchofClunyAbbey 240ChurchoftheApostles,Cologne 241DoorwayofSalamancaCathedral 241Anglo-SaxonTower,Earl’sBarton,Northamptonshire 241IffleyChurch,nearOxford 241S.John’sChapel,TowerofLondon 241NaveofDurhamCathedral 241PeterboroughCathedral 241EnglishRomanesqueDetail 241SculpturedDetailsfromAmiensCathedralDoorway 270SkeletonStructure,showingmethodofvaulting,bymeansofpointedarch,andconcentrationofthrustsandcounter-thrusts 270

GothicDetail 270GothicDetail 270GothicDetail 270GothicDetail 271GothicDetail 271GothicDetail 271ExteriorandInteriorViewsofLichfieldCathedralShowingtheNaveWidening 271NotreDame,Paris,Plan 280AmiensCathedral,Plan 280AmiensCathedral 280NotreDame,Paris 280RouenCathedral 280RheimsCathedral 280InteriorofNotreDameCathedral 281InteriorofAmiensCathedral 281InteriorofRheimsCathedral 281HôteldeBourgtheroulde,Rouen 281HouseofJacquesCœur 281SainteChapelle,Paris 281

NaveofNorwichCathedral 286SalisburyCathedral,Interior 286

YorkMinster,WestFaçade 286LincolnCathedral 286WellsCathedral,WestFaçade 287WinchesterCathedral 287HenryVII’sChapel,Westminster 287WestminsterHall,TimberRoof 287StrasburgCathedral 300RatisbonCathedral 300TownHallofMunster 300CathedralofS.Gudule,Brussels 300CologneCathedral 300ClothHallofYpres 300TownHall,Louvain 301TownHall,Brussels 301MechlinCathedral 301AntwerpCathedral 301ToledoCathedral 301BurgosCathedral 301SienaCathedral,Interior 310SanMiniato,Florence;MarbleFaçade 310CathedralofFlorenceandCampanile 310Doge’sPalace,Venice 310SienaCathedral,Campanileattached 311OrvietoCathedral,WestFaçade 311MilanCathedral 311MilanCathedral,Interior 311PazziChapel,S.Croce,Florence 338SantaMariaNovella,Florence 338StrozziPalace,Florence 338CaprarolaPalace 338GvimanePalace,Venice 339BasilicaVicenza 339Doge’sPalace,Venice;RenaissancePortal 339S.MariadellaSalute,Venice 339RiccardiPalace,Florence 356PalazzoVecchio,Florence 356Cad’Oro,Venice 356

VendraminiPalace,Venice 356FarnesePalace,Rome 356CourtoftheFarnesePalace 356CapitolPalaces,Rome 357LibraryofS.Mark,Venice 357S.Spirito,Florence 357S.Andrea,Mantua 357S.Peter’s,Rome 357InteriorofS.Peter’s,Rome 357ChâteaudeBlois.GothicpartbuiltbyLouisXII 374MaisonFrançoisI,Paris 374ChâteaudeBlois.PartaddedbyFrancisI 374ChâteaudeChambord 374LuxembourgPalace 375PlanshowinggrowthofLouvre 375Paviliondel’Horloge,Louvre 375CastleofHeidelberg 390AnotherViewoftheHeinrichsbau 390BremenCityHall 390Pellershaus,Nüremburg 390AntwerpCityHall 390Liège,CourtofPalaisdeJustice 390CollegeofSantaCruz,Valladolid 391CourtoftheCasadeZaporta 391CourtoftheCollegeofAlcaladeHenares 391ElevationandPlanofuncompletedPalaceCharlesV 391TheEscoriál 391PlanofTheEscoriál 391WollatonHall,Nottinghamshire 410BanquetingHall,Whitehall 410HaddonHall,Derbyshire 410HaddonHall;theLongGallery 410S.Paul’sCathedral,London 411S.Mary-le-Bow,Cheapside,London 411OldCharlton,Kent 411GeorgianChimneypieceandovermantel 411ChristChurch,Philadelphia 428HomeofthePoetLongfellow,Cambridge,Mass. 428Washington’sHomeatMountVernon 429AnotherSouthernColonialexample,Montgomery,Ala. 429

LaMadeleine,Paris 436S.George’sHall,Liverpool 436Panthéon,Paris 436Arcdel’Etoile,Paris 436

OperaHouse,Paris 436StateHouse,Boston 436CapitolatWashington 436CityHall,NewYork 437St.Thomas,NewYork 437HousesofParliament 437PlanoftheHousesofParliament 437ScotlandYard 454WoodburnHall,NewWindsor,N.Y. 454TrinityChurch,Boston 454CountyBuildings,Pittsburg 454TheBreakers,Newport,R.I. 454DetailofresidenceofMr.ThomasHastings,Westbury,LongIsland 454SchillerTheatreBuilding,Chicago 455WoolworthBuilding 455SteelCageConstruction.SceneinlowerNewYork 455

BOOKI

HOWTOSTUDYARCHITECTURECHAPTERI

PRELIMINARYCONSIDERATIONS

ARCHITECTURE,Sculpture,andPaintingsharethedistinctivetitleoftheFineArts,or,astheItaliansandFrenchmore fitly call them, theBeautifulArts; the arts, that is to say, of beautiful design.They areknownbytheirbeauty.

Bytheirbeautytheyappealtotheeyeandthroughtheeyetothemind,stirringinusemotionsorfeelingsofpleasure—ahigherkindofpleasurethanthatwhichisderivedsolelyfromthegratificationofthesenses—thekindwhichisdistinguishedasæsthetic.

ThetermæstheticisderivedfromaGreekword,meaningperception.Originallyitdescribedtheactof perceiving “objects” bymeans of the senses—“objects” meaning anything that can be perceivedthrough thesenses.But the termæsthetichascome tohaveanothermeaning,especially in respect tosense-perceptions derived from seeing and hearing. It means that the perception gives us pleasure,becauseitstirsinusasenseofbeauty.Itmaydosowithoutanyconsciousactivityonthepartofourmind.Wemaybeabsorbedinthedelightofthesensation;oritmayappealtoourmind—toourmemoryorimagination—insuchawayastosetusthinkingandfeelingnotonlyabouttheimmediate“object”butalsoaboutsomethingwhichourmindassociateswithit.

Forexample:bysimplesense-perceptionwediscoverthatonetreeistallerthananother,orthatonetree is anelm, another a silverbirch.Ourperceptionmay stop there;butnot ifweare in amood tocontemplate.Thentheperceptionthatonetreeis taller thantheothermaybefollowedbythefeelingthatthetallertreegivesusmoresatisfaction.Itmayseemtoustobeabetterproportionedtree:itspartsaremorepleasingly related to thewholemass;or itmay seem tobe ina fitter relation to the spot itoccupiesandtotheother“objects”nearit.Again,havingascertainedbypuresense-impressionthatonetree is an elm and the other a silver birch, we may find ourselves thinking about the qualities ofdifference presented by the two trees. With what splendid assurance the elm trunk rears up! Howmajestically the branches radiate from it and bear their gloriousmasses of abundant foliage!On theotherhand,howdaintyarethestemsandbranchesofthesilverbirch,howdelicatelygracefulthespraysoftinyleaves!“Howsensitive!”perhapswesay.Fortoourimaginationtheslendertreemayseemtobeendowedwithsensesthatrespondtoeverymovementoftheair,toeveryglancingofthesunlight.

Inallthesecaseswehavegonebeyondmeresense-perception.Wearenolongerinterestedonlyinthe“object.”Ourinteresthasbecomesubjective.Weareinterestedinthesubjectnottheobjectoftheverb,toperceive—thesubjectwhoperceives,inthiscase,ourself;howthethingaffectsoneself;howitstirs inoneasenseofbeauty.Bythis timeourthoughtsmayhavebeenwithdrawnfromtheconcreteobject and have passed on to “abstract” ideas, suggested by the object. It is grandeur of growth, asembodied in the elm, fragile tenderness, as expressed in the birch, that absorb our thought; and thewonderalsohowqualitiessodifferentcansurvivetherudeshocksofnature,andfind,eachitsspecialfunctionintheschemeofnature’sbeauty.

Inthusfeelingexternalobjectsthroughourownexperienceoflifeandourownsenseofbeauty,we

are employing the sense-perception that is specially calledæsthetic.And it is in thedegree towhichobjectsofarchitecture,sculpture,orpaintinghavethecapacityofstimulatingthisæstheticappreciationthattheyproperlybelonginthecompanyoftheFineArts.

Architecture is the science and art of building structures that, while in most cases they serve a

usefulpurpose,areinallcasesdesignedandbuiltwithaviewtobeauty.Theirmotiveisbeautyaswellasutility.

Incertaininstances,as,forexample,thetriumphalarch,themotivemayseemtohavebeensolelyoneofbeauty.Ontheotherhand,whenwerecallthatthearchwaserectedasamemorialtosomegreatmanorsomegreatexploit—theArchofTitus, forexample,commemorating thisgeneral’scaptureofJerusalem—the imposing dignity of the structure, by compelling attention and exciting admiration,wouldactuallyservethepurposeforwhichitwaserected.

Indeed, the distinctionwhich people are apt to draw between theuseful and the beautiful is notnecessarilysosharpasissupposedandislargelyfoundeduponignoranceoramistakenattitudetowardlife.Thetendencytobesatisfiedwiththeutilityofathingandtoregardbeautyasafad,impracticalandwasteful,showsthat,althoughourcivilisationmayhaveprogressedinsomerespects,ithasfallenbackinothers.For there is nothingmore surely certain in thehistoryof humanprogress, than that,whileprimitivemanhadtoexercisehisingenuityinprovidingforthenecessitiesoflifeandinthemakingoftools,implements,utensils,andsoforthtoachievehisneeds,hewasnotsatisfiedthathisworkshouldbemerely useful.He had amind tomake it pleasing in shape and bymeans of ornament.And thisattention tobeautygrewasmengrewincivilisation,becomingmostconspicuousas theircivilisationreached its highest point; and continued through the ages, until machinery began to replace theindividualcraftsman.

Fortheindividualcraftsman,responsibleformakingathingfromstarttofinish,must,ifheisworthahillofbeans,takeapersonalprideinmakingitaswellashecan.AstheBiblerelatesoftheSupremeCreator,“AndGodsaweverythingthathehadmadeand,behold,itwasverygood.”Andthecraftsman,solongasheisfreetocreateoutofhisownknowledgeandhisownfeeling,mustbeabletofeelthis,becausethereisaninstinctinhim,animperativeneedofhisownnature,thatheshallbeproudofhiswork.Itisawonderfulfactofhumannaturethatwhenitworksfreely,puttingforthallitscapacities,itispromptedbythisinstinct,notonlytomakeusefulthingsbutalsotomakethemwellandasbeautifulasmaybe.

Butgraduallymachinery tookaway theworkman’scontrolofhiswork.Heceased todesign, layout,andcarrythroughallthedetailsofhisworktoafinish.Hehascometobeintrustedwithonlyapartof theoperation, and that is performed under the control of amachine that turns out theworkwithsoullessuniformity.Thecraftsmanhasdegeneratedintoarepeaterofpartialprocesses;hehasbecometheservantofamachine;acoginavastmechanicalsystem.And,withthedevelopmentofhighpowermachinestheoutputofproductionhasbeenincreased,untilquantity rather thanqualityhas tendedtobecometheambitionofthesystem.

Ithasfollowedasalogicalresultofthistakingawayfrommillionsofmenandwomentheprivilegeofbeingindividualcraftsmen,creatorsoftheirownhandiwork,thattheyhavegrownindifferenttothequality of thework turned out; taste,whichmeans the ability to discriminate between qualities, hasdiminishedandageneralindifferencetotheelementofbeautyhasensued.

Of all the FineArts,Architecture is closest to the life ofman. It has been developed out of the

primitive necessity of providing shelter from the elements and protection against the assaults of all

kinds of aggressors.And chief among the aggressors againstwhich primitiveman sought to defendhimselfwerethemysteriousforcesofnaturewhichhisimaginationpicturedasevilspirits.Towardofftheseand toenlist thesupportofkindlyspirits representedanecessityof life thatdeveloped throughfetishworshipintosomepositiveconceptionofreligion.Thisneedwasembodiedinstructures,which,originatingintheselectionorerectionofasinglestone,graduallybecamecomposedofanaggregationofstonesvariouslydisposed,inheaps,ingeometricgroupsofsinglestones,orintheplacingofstoneshorizontallyupontwoormoreverticalsupportingstones.

Inthesecrudedevicestomarktheburialplacesofdeadheroesandtoprovideforthenecessitiesofreligion,primitivemanusedthestonesashefoundthem,withapreferenceforthoseofenormoussize,toensurepermanency.Meanwhile,inthehutsthatheerectedfortheliving,itisreasonabletosupposethat,whenavailable,themoreperishablematerialoftimberwasemployed.Andhere,again,hewoulduse at first the smaller limbs, planting them in the ground in a circle or square and drawing themtogetheratthetop,sothattheytooktheshapeofaheapofstones;andcoveringthemwithskins,sothattheybecametheprototypeofthetent.Thengraduallyhewouldemploystoutertimbers,plantingthemuprightandkeepingtheminplaceatthetopwithhorizontaltimbers.Onthesewouldbelaidtransversebeamstoformaroof;thespacesbetweenthebeams,asbetweentheuprightsofthewalls,beingfilledinwithwattlesof twigsor reedsand rendered stillmore impervious toweatherbya coatingof clayormud.

The efforts of primitive builders, it is true, are rather of archæological than of architecturalsignificance, yet they have thismuch to dowith architecture, that in them are to be discovered therudimentsoftheart.Forbythetimethatmanhadsuperimposedastonehorizontallyupontwoverticalones,hehadhitupontheprincipleofconstruction,nowvariouslystyled“postandlintel”or“postandbeam”or“trabeated,”thatistosay,“beam”construction.Theembryowasconceivedthatinthefulnessof time would be developed into the trabeated design of the Egyptian temple and the column-and-entablature design of Classic architecture. From the colossal, monolithic form, still preserved, forexample, in Stonehenge, there is a direct progression to the highly organised perfection of theParthenon.

Itisthisfactthatmakesthestudyofarchitecturesovitallyinteresting.Itsevolutionhasproceeded,stage by stage, with the evolution of civilisation. Having its roots in necessity, it has expressed thephasesofcivilisationmoredirectlyandintimatelythanhavetheotherFineArts;whilethecomparativedurability of thematerials inwhich it has been embodied has causedmore of its records to survive.Even out of the fragments of architecture it is possible for the imagination to visualise epochs ofcivilisationlongsinceburiedinthepast;whilethememorialsthathavebeenpreservedincomparativeintegritystandoutthroughthemistypagesofhistoryasobjectlessonsofdistinctillumination.

Accordingly,onepurposeofthisbookrepresentsanattempttostudytheevolutionofarchitecturein

relation to the phases of civilisation that it immediately embodied; to find in the monuments ofarchitecturesomany“sermonsinstone”—discoursesuponthecharacter,conditionsoflife,themethodsandtheidealsofthemenwhorearedandshapedthem.

Andthisinvolvesthesecondpurpose,thatweshalltrytostudyarchitectureasitactuallyevolvedinpractice.Rememberingthatitoriginatedintheneedofmakingprovisionforcertainspecificpurposes,inaword,thatitsmotiveprimarilywaspractical,moreover,thatfromthefirstithasbeentheproductofinvention,wewilltrytostudyitinrelationtoman’sgradualmasteryofmaterialandtheprocessesofbuilding.Wewillregardarchitectureinitsfundamentalsignificanceasthescienceandartofbuilding;tracing,asfarasispossible,thestagesbywhichmanhasmettheproblemsimposeduponhimbythepurposeofthestructureandbytheconditionsofthematerialavailable;howhegraduallysurmounted

thedifficultiesofbuilding,stepbystepimprovinguponhisdevicesandprocessesandtherebycreatingnewprinciplesofconstruction,and,further,howthepracticaloperationsofoneraceandperiodwerecarried on, modified, or developed by other races, under different conditions and in response todifferencesofneedsandideals.

And,whilethusstudyingarchitectureasthegradualsolutionofpracticalproblemsofconstructionwewillalsokeepconstantlyinmindthestagesbywhichasman’sskillinbuildingprogressed,soalsodidhisdesiretomakehisstructuresmoreandmoreexpressiveofhishigherconsciousnessofhumandignity.Howageafteragebuiltnotonlytomeettheneedsoflivingbutalsotoembodyitsidealsofthepresentandthefuturelife;howhandinhandwithgrowingskillinworkmanshipwasevolvedsuperiorachievementinartisticbeauty.

Ourmethodsofstudyshallfollow,asfaraspossible,thearchitect’sorderofprocedure.Givenasiteand thecommissionof erecting thereonabuilding for a specificpurpose, thearchitect first concernshimselfwiththeplans:thegroundplan,and,ifthebuildingbeofmorethanonestory,theseveralfloorplans.Helaysoutintheformofadiagramthelinesthatenclosethebuildingandthosethatmarkthedivisionsandsubdivisions;indicatingbybreaksinthelinestheopeningsofdoorsandwindowsandbyisolatedfiguresthepositionofcolumnsorpierswhichhemaybegoingtouseforsupportofceilingsand roofs.The disposition of all these particularswill be determined not only by the purpose of thebuilding, but also by the character of the site and by the nature of the materials and method ofconstructionthatthearchitectpurposestoemploy.

Then,havingacquired thehabitof thinkingofabuildingashavingoriginated inaplan,wewillfollowthebuildingas itgrowsupoutof theplan, takingvertical forminwhat thearchitectcalls theelevation,or,whenheisspeakingspecificallyoftheoutsideofthebuilding,thefaçades.Sometimesweshallstudyoneofthediagrams,whichhecallsasection,whenheimagineshisbuildingintersectedbyaverticalplanethatcutsthestructureintotwoparts.Theonebetweenthespectatorandthecuttingplaneissupposedtoberemoved,andthusislaidbarethesystemoftheinteriorconstruction-work.

In studying the exterior of a building, therefore, we shall keep in mind the interior disposition,arisingoutof theplanning,andacquire thehabitof lookingon theoutsideofabuildingas logicallyrelatedtotheinterior.Thedesignofabuildingwillcometomeantousnotamerepatternoffaçade,arbitrarilyinvented,butanarrangementofverticalandhorizontalfeatures,ofsolidsurfacesandopenspaces,thathasgrownoutoftheinteriorconditionsandproclaimsthem.

Inaword,weshallregardaworkofarchitectureasanorganicgrowth;rootedintheplan,springingup in accordance with constructive principles; each part having its separate function, and all co-ordinated inharmoniousrelation to theunityof thewhole.Forweshall find thatunityofdesign isaspecialelementofexcellence inarchitecture;aunitysecuredby therelationsofproportion,harmonyand rhythm established between the several parts and between the parts and the whole. And, sincearchitecture is primarily an art of practical utility, all these relations are equally determined by theprinciple of fitness; in order that each and every part may perform most efficiently its respectivefunctioninthecombinedpurposeofthewholeedifice.Forthisisthefirstandfinalcriterionoforganiccomposition.

STONEHENGE.SALISBURYPLAIN,ENGLANDPRIMITIVEUSEOFPOSTANDBEAMCONSTRUCTION.PP.8,16

SECTIONANDPLANOF“TREASURYOFATREUS”ATMYCENÆ.EXAMPLEOF“THOLOS”ORBEE-HIVECONSTRUCTION.P.14

TEOCALLIOR“HOUSEOFGOD”ATGUATUSCO,COSTARICA.P.20

CHAPTERII

PRIMITIVESTRUCTURES

THEvariousremainsthatexistofprehistoricstructures,thoughscatteredwidelyoverdifferentpartsoftheworld,presentageneralsimilarityofpurposeanddesign.

Theearliestexamplesofdomesticbuildingsarethelake-dwellingswhichhavebeendiscoveredatthebottomofsomeof theSwiss lakes,aswellas inothercountriesboth in theEasternandWesternhemispheres.They consist of huts, rudely constructedof timber, erectedonpiles, sometimes in suchnumbersastoformafair-sizedvillage.Theirpurposewasapparentlytoaffordsecurityagainstsuddenattacks of enemies, the danger of wild beasts and snakes and themalaria and fever of the swampyshores,whilebringingtheinhabitantsnearertotheirfoodsupplyandofferingacrudebutreadymeansofsanitation.Thesystemstillsurvivesamongthenativesofmanytropicalcountriesandhasitsanalogyintheboat-housesthatthrongtheCantonRiverinChina.

Moreimportant,however,archæologicallyaswellasinrelationtothesubsequentstoryofbuilding,asitgraduallydevelopedintotheartofarchitectureare:thesinglehugestone,knownasaMenhir;theGalgalorCairnofstonespiledinaheap;theTumulusorBarrow,composedofamoundofearthandtheCromlech.

Thesinglestoneseemstohavebeenregardedasanobjectofvenerationandafetishtowardoffevilspirits.ItmayhavebeentheprimitiveoriginoftheEgyptianobelisk, theGreeksteleand themoderntombstone. From the galgal and barrow may have been developed the pyramids of Egypt and thetruncatedpyramidwhichweshallfindtobethefoundationplatformsoftemplesinvariouspartsofthe

worldwhilethecromlechistheprototypeoftemples.Two stones were set upright and a third was placed upon the top of them. This represents in

rudimentary form the so-called “post andbeam”principle of temple construction.Sometimes twoorfour uprightswere surmountedby a large flat stone. It had the appearanceof a gigantic table and iscalledaDolmen.Itisconjecturedthatthiswasaformofsepulchral-chamber,inwhichthecorpsewaslaid, being thus protected from the earth thatwas heaped around the stones into amound. If so, theDolmenistheoriginofthesepulchralchamberthatwasembeddedintheEgyptianpyramid.

Meanwhile,anintermediarystagebetweenthehighlydevelopedpyramidsandtheprimitivedolmenisrepresentedintheAltun-ObuSepulchre,nearKertschintheCrimea.Herethemoundisfacedwithlayers of shaped stones, with which also the chamber and the passage leading to it are lined. Theceilings of both are constructed of courses of stone, each of which projects a little beyond the onebeneathit,untilthediminishingspaceiscappedbyasinglestone.Intheangleofmasonrythusformedisdiscoverabletherudimentarybeginningofthearch.

Itisalsoconvenientheretonote,thoughitanticipatesourstory,themoreelaborateexampleofthisprincipleofroofingwhichisshownintheso-calledTreasuryofAtreusatMycenæinGreece.Inthisinstance,moreover,thereisafartherapproximationtowardthearch,sincetheprojectionsofthestoneshavebeencutsoastopresentacontinuousline.Andthesecontourlinesareslightlyconcaveandmeetatthetopinapoint,forwhichreasonthisclassoftombisknownasbee-hive.

Another formof thismethodof angular roofing is seen in anArchatDelos,which is part of asystemofmasonrythatisknownasCyclopean,afterthenameoftheone-eyedgiantwhomUlyssesandhisfollowersencounteredinSicily,duringtheirreturnfromTroy.Forthemasonryiscomposedoflargeblocksofunshapedstone,theintersticesofwhicharefilledinwithsmallerstones.Here,too,theactualarchiscomposedofarepetitionofhuge,uprightmonoliths,supportingaseriesofsingleblocks,setuponeagainsttheotheratanangle.

While,however, theseprimitiveformsofroofconstructionprefigurethelaterdevelopmentofthetruearch,thestudentiswarnedinadvancethattheyrepresentratherafeelingoftheneedofsomesuchmethodofconstructionthananyapproachtoasolutionoftheproblem.Forthelatter,asweshallfindlater, consisted in discovering how to counteract the thrust of the arch; its tendency, that is, to pressoutwardandcollapse;whereasintheprimitiveconstructionthisdangerwasevadedbyembeddingtheroofinamassofmasonryorearththatmadelateralstrainsimpossible.Thesystem,infact,wasmorelikethatemployedinshoringuptheexcavationsinmoderntunnellingandmining.

Meanwhile, this rudemethodof spanninganopeningwithmore thanonepieceof stonewas theprimitivegermofthelaterdevelopmentofarch,vault,anddomeconstruction,justastheplacingofasingle horizontal stone on two upright ones is the prototype of columns and entablature. Thus theinstinct ofman, in earliest times, reachedout toward the two fundamental principles of architecturalconstruction.

Themostinterestingexamplesofprimitivestructurearetheso-calledCromlechs,ofwhichthatofStonehenge,inEngland,isthebestpreserved.Theunitofthisandlikeremainsisthe“postandbeam”formation, composed of a block of stone, supported on two uprights. In the case of Stonehenge thisformationwasrepeatedsoastoformacontinuouscircleonehundredfeetindiameter.Withinthiswasaconcentriccircle, composedof smaller slabs,whichencloseda seriesof five separatepost andbeamstructuresonahorse-shoeplan.Thelatterisrepeatedbyanotherseriesofslabsandinthecentrestandstheflataltarstone.Seventeenstonesoftheoutercircle,varyingfromsixteentoeighteenfeetinheight,arestillstandingandinpartconnectedbytheirbeamslabs.

This impressive memorial stands on Salisbury Plain, eight miles north of the cathedral city of

Salisbury,intheneighbourhoodofwhicharemanybarrows.Wasitthenthetempleofaburyingplaceofmightychieftainsorwasiterectedinmemoryofsomegreatvictoryinhonourofthedeadheroesandthenation’sgod?AccordingtoGeoffreyofMonmouth(A.D.1154)whoissupposedtohavecompiledmuchofhishistoryfromCelticlegends,StonehengeisaCelticMemorial,erectedtothegloryoftheCelticZeus.

Rhys,inhis“CelticHeathendom,”acceptstheprobabilityofthisaccountandadds:“Whatsortoftemplecouldhavebeenmoreappropriatefortheprimarygodoflightandoftheluminousheavensthanaspaciousopen-airenclosureofacircularformlikeStonehenge?NordoIseeanyobjectiontotheoldideathatStonehengewastheoriginalofthefamoustempleofApollointheislandoftheHyperboreans,thestoriesaboutwhichwerebasedinthefirstinstancemostlikelyonthejournalofPytheas’travels.”PytheaswasaGreeknavigatorandastronomerofthesecondhalfofthefourthcenturyB.C.,whowasanativeoftheGreekcolonyofMassilia(Marseilles)andvisitedthecoastsofSpain,Gaul,andBritain.

Situated some twentymiles to thenorthofStonehenge is theAbury orAveburymonument. Itsremains comprise two circles, formed ofmenhirs, which are enclosedwithin a large outer circle ofmonoliths, about 1250 feet in diameter. This was further surrounded by amoat and rampart, whichsuggestthatthestructuremayhaveservedatoncethepurposesofaplaceofassemblyandastronghold.

AtCarnac,intheoldterritoryofBrittany,inFrance,aretheremainsofabout1000menhirs,someofwhichreachaheightof16feet,disposedinparallelstraightrows,formingavenuesnearlytwomileslong.Theyareunworkedblocksofgranite,setinthegroundattheirsmallerends.Theneighbourhoodalsoaboundswithtumuli,dolmens,andlatermonumentsthatbelongtothePolishedStoneAge.

Furthermore, remains of suchmonuments aswe have been describing are found in Scandinavia,Ireland,NorthGermany(inHannoverandtheBalticProvinces);alsoinIndiaandAsiaMinor,inEgypt,on thenorthwestofAfricaand in the regionabout theAtlasMountains.This fact, assuming that themonumentsareofCelticorigin,testifiestothewide-spreadmigrationsofthisimportantbranchoftheIndo-Europeanfamilywhichinprehistorictimessweptwestwardinsuccessivewaves.Itisknownthatthis racealsooverflowed intoNorthern ItalyandSpain.Thatnoneof theirmonumentsof theRoughStoneandPolishedStoneagesexist in thesecountries seems topoint to themigration thitherhavingbeenmadeatalaterperiod.

FromthetimethattheCelticracefindsitswayintorecordedhistoryithasbeenrecognisedaspre-eminently characterised by artistic genius. The rude menhirs, under the combined influences ofChristianity and art were in time replaced by Stone Crosses that in form closely approximate thethicksetsimplicityofthemonolith,butareembellishedwithcarvedornament.AndthelatterinitsdetailisevidentlyakintothemotivesofdecorationfoundupontheweaponsandearthenwareoftheBronzeAge,combinedwiththeinterlaceoflines,suggestedbytheexampleofweaving,andtheuseofmotivesderivedfromplantforms.Thesesameprinciplesofdecorationwereappliedtothemetal-workinwhichtheCeltexcelledandlatertothedecoratedmanuscriptsinwhichhereachedsohighadegreeofartistry.The Celtic artists in time also introduced human and animal figures into their designs, but alwaystreatedthemsolelyasmotivesofdecorationandneverwiththepurposeofrepresentingthemnaturally.

Theprevalenceof these decorativemotives in ancientAsiatic andEuropeanornamentmayhavebeenduetotheextendedmigrationsoftheCelts.Butnotnecessarily;fortheyareequallytobefoundintheprimitiveornamentoftheSouthSeaIslanders,NorthAmericanIndians,andtheinhabitantsofPeru,Mexico, andCentralAmerica.Primitiveman, in fact, shows a tendency to similarity ofmotives andmethodsatcorrespondingstagesofhisevolution.

In the last three countries have been discovered some of the most remarkable remains of the

Polished Stone Age and the Bronze Age. For it was to this stage—after how many centuries ofdevelopmentisonlyamatterofconjecture—thatthemightynationsoftheIncas,Aztecs,andothershadattained, when the Spanish invaders in the sixteenth century overcame them and wiped out theircivilisations.

Hitherto themost famousexamplehasbeen the ruinsofCuzco, the imperialcityof the Incas inPeru,whichwas captured by Pizarro; but the exploration of ProfessorHiramBingham has recentlyunearthed,alsoinPeru,MachuPicchu,acityofrefuge,perchedalmostinaccessiblyontheheightsoftheAndes. It is thebeliefof theexplorer that this is the traditionalcityofTampuTocco, towhichahighly civilised tribe retreated,when theywere hard pressed by barbarian enemies and fromwhich,legendsays,theydescendedlatertoconquerPeruandfoundthecityofCuzco,undertheleadershipof“threebrotherswhowentoutfromthreewindows.”NowTampameansaplaceoftemporaryabodeandToccomeanswindows;andintheprincipalplazaofthisnewlydiscoveredcityhasbeenfoundatemplewiththreewindows.

Thusit ispossible that itwasactuallyadesertedcityat the timeof theSpanishinvasion,heldinreverence as the cradle city of the Incas.Anyhow, it escaped the knowledge and the ravages of theSpaniards and retains to-day its primitive state, unmixed with the additions of any subsequentcivilisation.

Itoccupiesanimmensearea,onlyrivalledbythatofCuzco,andisconstructedofstones,manyofwhichweighseveraltons,hewnintoshapewithstonehammers.Largeportionsofthemountainsidesarebuiltupwith terraces,whichwereusedforagriculturalpurposesandsuggestananalogywith the“hanginggardens”ofBabylon.Nolessthanahundredflightsofstepsconnectthevariouspartsofthecity, which is divided into wards or “clan groups” by walled enclosures, enclosing houses andsometimes a central placeofworship.The typical designof thehouses ismuch like that of an Irishcabin—agroundstoryandahalfstorywithgabledends,eachpiercedbyasmallwindow.Thewoodenroofshavedisappeared,butthestones,boredwithahole,towhichthetimberswerelashed,arestillinplace.Intheburialcavesbronzeobjectsoffineworkmanshiphavebeendiscovered.

AmongothernotedremainsofearlybuildingsistheTeocallior“HouseoftheGod”ofGuatuscoinCostaRica.Itshowsatruncatedpyramidofmasonry,risinginsteps,thetopformingaplatformonwhichthetemplestands.AstillmoreimportantexampleofthisformofstructuremusthavebeentheTeocalliofTenochtitlan, theancientnameofMexicoCity.Builtabout1446,itwasdestroyedbytheSpaniardsandpartofitssiteisnowoccupiedbytheCathedral.Accordingtoaccountsitcomprisedatruncatedpyramid,measuringat the top,whichwas86feet fromtheground,325by250feet. In theascent itwasnecessary topassfive timesroundthestructurebyaseriesof terraces.Ontheplatformwereseveralceremonialbuildings,theterribleimageofthegodHuitzilopochtli,supposedtobetheonethat is now in theMuseumofMexicoCity, and the sacrificial stone.Upon the latterwere sacrificedimmense numbers of human victims; report saying, though no doubt with exaggeration, that at thededicationofthetempleseventythousandwereslaughteredtoappeasethesanguinaryappetiteofthishideousidol.

The exteriors of the latest remains of Central America and Mexican primitive civilisation areembellished with ornament, the motives of which exhibit curved and rectangular meanders andinterlacings,derivedfromtheexampleofweavingandplaiting,aswellasvegetableandanimalforms.Often,asintheCasadeMonjasinYucatan,theornamentissoprofusethatitobscuresthecharacterofthestructure,while the formsare fantasticandextravagantand insome instanceshorriblygrotesque.Theirintentionapparentlywastostrikeaweintothespectator.

Mostofwhatwehavebeenstudying in thischaptercomesunder theheadofarchaeology ratherthan of art. Nevertheless, since it represents the gradual approach of civilisation toward the artistic

conception,itiswellworthattention.

BOOKII

PRE-CLASSICPERIOD

CHAPTERI

EGYPTIANCIVILISATION

THEmostancientcivilisationknowntousisthatofEgypt,andtheknowledgeofit ismainlyderivedfrom its architectural remains and the sculpture, painting, and inscriptions with which they aredecorated.Inaddition,therearetherecordswrittenuponpapyri,theBiblicalbooksofExodus,andthehistoryofManetho,anEgyptianpriest,wholivedabout250B.C.BythistimeEgypthadbeensubduedbyAlexandertheGreatandhadpassedundertheruleofthePtolemies.SoManethowroteinGreek,butonlyfragmentsofhisworkhavesurvived,throughquotationsmadefromitbyEusebius,Josephus,andotherhistorians.

It is from all these materials that scholars have endeavoured to piece together some sort ofconnectedhistoryoftheperiodcoveredbyManetho;thedifficultybeingincreasedbythefactthattheEgyptian system of chronology reckoned by dynasties and computed the time by the years of thereigningsovereign,beginninganewwitheachsuccession.Furthermore,theinscriptionsomitreferencesto any interruptions that occurred in the sequence of the dynasties; recording only the periods ofEgyptiansupremacyandleavingoutthoseinwhichthecountrysufferedfromthedomination,shortorlong,offoreignconquerors.

Accordingly,whileManethonames thefirst rulerof theFirstDynastyasMenes, there isnothingbuttheconjectureofscholarsastothedate;andthelatterhasbeenvariouslyestimatedasfrom3892to5650yearsbeforeChrist.

ItwillbeahelpattheoutsettosummarisetheDynastiesundertwoheads:(A)thoseofIndependentEgypt;(B)thoseofSubjectEgypt.A.DynastiesofIndependence.

1.I-X—TheAncientEmpire;Capital,MemphisinLowerEgypt.Lastedabout1500years.2. XI-XIII—The Middle Empire, or First Theban Monarchy; Capital, Thebes in Upper Egypt.Lastedabout900years.

3.XIV-XVII—HyksosInvadersoccupyLowerEgypt;theEgyptianprincesruleasvassalprincesinUpperEgypt:from400-500years.

4.XVIII-XX—TheNewEmpireorSecondThebanMonarchy.TheGreatEpochofEgyptianpowerandart.Lastedabout600yearsandendedabout1000B.C.

B.DynastiesofSubjection.5.XXI-XXXII—ThePeriodofDecadenceundervariousforeignrulers;sometimescalledtheSaiticPeriod,because thefirstconquerors, theLibyans,made theircapitalatSais.Lastedfromabout1000-324B.C.

6.XXXIII—ThePtolemaicPeriodofGreek rule, following theConquestofEgyptbyAlexander

theGreat;324-31B.C.7.XXXIV—TheRomanRule:EgyptaProvinceoftheRomanEmpire;31B.C.to395A.D.AtthelatterdateitbecameapartoftheEasternRomanEmpire.

In389theemperor,Theodosius,issuedanedictproclaimingthatChristianitywastoberecognisedas the religion of Egypt. In consequence of this change all knowledge of the old form of writinggraduallydisappearedandtheantiquitiesofEgyptremainedasealedbookforsomefourteencenturies.

The commencement of themodern interest inEgypt, as amine of historical, archæological, and

artistic lore, dates from Napoleon Bonaparte’s invasion, for he took with him a body of savants toexplorethetopographyandnatureof thecountryanditsantiquities.Theresultsof their labourswerepublishedin1809-13intwenty-fivevolumes,illustratedwith900engravings.

Meanwhile, in 1799, Captain Boussard, an engineer under Bonaparte, had discovered in thetrenchesatabletofblackbasalt,inscribedwiththreekindsofwriting,oneofwhichwasGreek.FromthenameofthevillagenearwhichitwasfounditiscalledtheRosettaStoneandisnowintheBritishMuseum.VariousattemptsweremadetodecipherthroughtheGreektheothertwoscripts,whichwere,respectively,hieroglyphicandthedemoticorpopularwriting-formofancientEgypt.

Finally,thecluewasdiscoveredbytheFrenchscholar,Champollion.Hefoundtherehadbeenthreekinds of characterswhich represented successive developments of one systemofwriting: that in thehieroglyphiceachletterwasrepresentedbyapicture-form;thatinthehieraticorpriestlywriting,theseformswere represented in a freer andmore fluentway,whichwas further simplified in the demoticcharacters,usedgenerallybythescribes.Twoof thesehadbeenrepeatedasnearlyaspossible in theGreek text. It is out of this discovery thatEgyptology, or the sciencewhich concerns itselfwith thewriting, language, literature,monuments, andhistoryof ancientEgypt, isbeinggraduallydeveloped.Yetthesubjectisstillinvolvedingreatuncertainty,owingtothedifficultyindiscoveringprinciplesofgrammar,sothatthetranslationsofonescholarvaryfromthoseofothersandallreachonlythegeneralsense,withoutassuranceofaccuracy.

The civilisation of a country is always largely determined by its geographical character and the

latter,inthecaseofEgypt,isofexceptionalsignificance.HerodotuscalledEgyptthe“GiftoftheNile.”Thegreatrivercreateditandhascontinuedtopreserveit.Forthecountrycomprisesanarrowstripofsoilvaryingfrom4to16milesinwidth,borderingthetwosidesofthestream,andextendinginancienttimes, as far as the second cataract, a distance of some900miles; approximating, that is to say, thedistancefromNewYorktoChicagoorfromLondontoFlorence.Itisboundedbyrockyhills,and,asitreachestheMediterranean,fansoutintoadeltaofflatlands,thevariousstreamsbeingkeptinplacebydykes.Theonlythingthathassavedthiscountryfrombeingswallowedupinthedesertistheannualrise of the river, succeeding the tropical rains in the interior and the melting of the snow in themountainsofAbyssinia.Thisfloodsthelowlandsandleavesbehindanalluvialdeposit,sorichlyfertilethatthesoil,warmedbyconstantsunshine,yieldsthreeharvestsannually.Meanwhile,itisaremarkablefactthattherecordsofancienttimestallywiththoseofto-day,bothshowingthattheamountoftherisevariesbutlittlefromyeartoyear.

Before considering how these natural features of the country affected the civilisation of itsinhabitants, a fact is to be noted.At the point of timewhenManetho commenced his history of theEgyptians, variously estimated from about 4000 to about 6000 years before the Christian Era, theyappearasapeoplealreadypossessedofahighdegreeofcivilisation,surroundedbyinferiorraces.Animmense interval of progress separates them from the earliest conditions that we considered in the

previouschapter.Bywhatstagesdidtheyreachthisfootingofsuperiorityandthroughwhatlengthoftime;moreover,whatwas theoriginof theirrace?Tothesequestionsofprofoundinterest there isnoanswerforthcoming.SomerecentscholarsaredisposedtobelievethatthecivilisationofEgypt,aswefirstmeetwith it,hadbeenprecededbyastillmoreremotecivilisation inBabylonia;butasyet theyhavenotshakentheacceptedviewthatpriorityincivilisationbelongstotheLandoftheNile.Sofarasknowledgeexists,civilisationappearedfirstinEgyptandbyawonderfulcombinationofcircumstances,continueduptohistorictimes.

ThetenacityofthecivilisationoftheEgyptiansisacounterpartofthetenacityofcharacterofthepeople,asaresultprimarilyoftheirnaturalsurroundings.WithinthelimitsofUpperandLower,thatistosayofSouthernandNorthernEgypt,theNilehasnotributaries.Consequently,therewasatfirstnourge to the inhabitants topushoutward;andevery inducement tocling to theirownstripof territory.Moreover, since the periodic river floods were constant, there was every inducement, nay almostnecessity, that they should cling to the methods by which they had learned to utilise them. Hence,conservatismwas forced upon them and became ingrained in their character and institutions. It wasfurther encouraged by their isolation; for the adjoining country was desert, meagrely occupied bynomad tribes. Accordingly, that tendency of every nation to consider itself the salt of the earth andespeciallyfavouredofthegodsseemedjustifiedabundantlyintheircase.

Again, theirdependenceon theNile early taught them thehabitofnoting the seasons,while thenecessityofhusbandingthewaterinreservoirsandbyirrigationmadethemskilledinengineeringandgenerally resourceful.And these characteristics ofmethod and constructivenesswere reflected in thesocialorganisation.

TheKingwasthesupremeheadofthewholesystem,descendantoftheSun-god,Ra,theindividualembodimentofthenation’sgreatness,whilebeneathhimthepeopleweredividedintotheofficialclass,middle class, and slaves. The first included generals, high-priests, officers, physicians, overseers,district-chiefs, judges,master-builders, scribes, andmany others—officialdombeing spun like aweboverthelifeofthepeople.Themiddleclass,composedofmerchants,traders,ordinarypriests,artisans,freeworkingpotters,carpenters, joiners, smiths,andagriculturists,enjoyedmanyof theprivilegesoftheupperclasses,butwerenotpermittedtoerecttombs,thoughtheirplaceofburialmightbemarkedbyastelewithinscriptions.Theslavesweremerehewersofwoodanddrawersofwater.

Title to all land, except that attached to the temples, was vested in the King and the land wasworkedfortheStatebyslavesorletoutatanannualrental.InconnectionwiththissubjectcomparethestoryofJoseph,especiallyGenesisxli.

Eachadministrativedepartmenthaditsowntroops—or,tousethemodernword,corvée—ofslaves,under an overseer who kept tally of work done and rations distributed. It was the troop, not theindividual,thatconstitutedtheunit.Agriculturistsrankedhigherthantheartisans;althoughtheworkofthe latter was highly esteemed. The weavers made baskets, mats, and boats of papyrus leaves andproduced linen of the finest quality as well as coarser grades. The carpenter, notwithstanding thescarcityoftimber,didcreditableworkwiththesimplestkindoftools.Littlevariationwasattemptedbythe potters in the forms of vessels,whichwere crude but often finishedwith fine glazes. Themetalworkersusedgold,silver,bronze,iron,andtin;silverexceedinggoldinvalue.Whencetheyprocuredtinisunknown,buttheothermetalscamefromtheminesofSinaiandNubia.

Theprocessesof agriculturewereof the simplest.Theploughwas formedof a sharpened stake,draggedbyoxen;thecropswerecutwithsickles,andthegrainwaswinnowedbycastingitintheair,afterwhichitwasstoredinlarge,tunnel-shapedreceptacles,filledfromthetopbyaladder.WhiletheEgyptians prided themselves on their immense herds of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and asses, theshepherds,livingintheremotemarshes,were“anabominationuntotheEgyptians”(Genesisxlvi,34).

Theirrecreationsincludedthehuntingofwildanimalswithdogs,whilethemenwerearmedwithlassoandspearandoccasionallyabowandarrows. In themarshydistrictsbirdswerebroughtdownwithaboomerangorcaughtinnetsandtraps.Thepeopleindulgedinwrestlingmatches,gymnastics,ball-playing, quoits, and juggling, while work was performed to the accompaniments of music andsinging,andmusicanddancingenlivenedthefeasts.Theinstrumentscomprisedthefluteandakindofwhistle,theguitar,harp,andlyre,thelasttwohavingsometimestwentystrings.

Theschool,“bookhouse”or“houseofinstruction,”waspresidedoverbyascribeandattendedbychildren of all classes. The curriculum included orthography, calligraphy, and the rules of etiquette,togetherwithpracticeinthetechnicalworkofthedepartmentforwhichthechildrenwerebeingtrained.

Theuniformmalegarmentforallclasseswasanapronfastenedaroundtheloins.TothisinearlytimestheKingaddedalion’stailandthenobleapanther-skin.IntheMiddleEmpiretheaprontookapointed, triangular shape in front andbecame longer,whilebydegrees a single aprongaveway to ashort,opaqueunder-apronwithalong,transparentoneoverit.Theshortapron,however,continuedtobethesolegarmentofthepriest.Intime,thecostumeoftheKingincludedgarmentscoveringtheupperpartofthebody,apracticewhichdatesfromtheEighteenthDynasty,whenthevigorousQueenHatasuadoptedthemalecostume.Theuniformdressofwomenwasatransparentrobehungfromtheshouldersbystrapsandreachingfromthebreaststotheankles.Inlatertimesitwassupplementedwithasleevedorsleevelessmantle.

These, and countless other particulars of daily life, are picturedwith precise details, in colouredcarvingsandinpaintingsonthewallsoftombs,soastocontinueafterdeath,forthebenefitoftheKaordouble,theconditionswhichthedeceasedhadbeenaccustomedtoinlife.ThisKawasbelievedtobeseparate from thebody,mind, or soul of the individual; an independent spiritual existencewhich, aslongas itwaspresent,ensured“protection, life,continuance,purity,health,and joy.”Hence thecarewithwhichprovisionwasmadetoinduceittoremainwiththeindividualwhendead.ForcontinuanceoflifeafterdeathwasthecardinalprincipleofEgyptianreligion.Itwasthespiritualisedexpressionofthe people’s intense conservatism; and the preservation of the body as amummy and the taking ofmeasurestoensurethattheKawouldabidewithitor,atleast,visititfrequently,werethechiefdutiesofthepriesthood.Thehomesoftheliving,therefore,wereconsideredoflessimportancethanthoseofthedead;and,whilefewtracesremainofdwellingsorevenofpalaces,EgyptaboundswithTombs.Theseare the memorials of individuals, while the Temples embody the pride and glory of the national,collective life. Indeed, it would seem that during life the individual, except only the King, whorepresented the union of all, was regarded simply as a factor in the collective organisation of thecommunity,thesplendourandpowerofwhichwasvisualisedintheTemples.

HencetheimportancewhichwasattachedtosizeandbeautyofcolourintheTemplearchitecture.Evidence shows the Egyptians were not an intellectual race. That is to say, they were not given tospeculation;nordidtheycarrytheirmathematicalorscientificstudiesbeyondthepointatwhichtheywere needed for material and practical purposes. And equally devoid of abstract qualities was theirimagination.Itconceivedof“better”intermsof“bigger,”and“best”intermsof“biggest.”Throughalltheir centuries of civilisation they did not progress beyond the crude stage of finding sufficientsatisfactioninconstructingorpossessing“thebiggestthingonearth.”Andthebiggestwasconstructedbysheerforceofnumbersofslave-workers,atanimmensehumansacrifice.IthasbeencomputedthateverystoneinthehugeTemplescostatleastonelife.

Accordingly, the distinguishing features of their Temple architecture are colossal height and thespreadingoutovervastareas,assucceedingkingsaddedtotheoriginalbuildinganotherCourtorHalltodemonstratethegrandeurofhisreign.

And,torepeatoncemore, itwastheconservatism,characteristicoftherace, thatencouragedthis

repetition of motives, while at the same time establishing conventionalised forms for the details.Individualityofartisticexpressionwascurbedbythecanonsofformthatthepriestshadlaiddownandenforced age after age.Meanwhile, in the scenes of lifewithwhich they decorated thewalls, somelatitudewasallowedthepaintersandsculptorsinthedirectionofnaturalisticrepresentation;anditwasincreasedwhen,inlatertimes,theinfluenceofCretancivilisationpenetratedtoEgypt.

WewillconcludewithabriefsummaryofthepartplayedbytheseveralDynastiesintheartwhich

isdiscussedinthefollowingchapter.ItistobenotedthatnoinscriptionssurvivefromthefirstthreeDynasties;butthatwiththeFourth

commencetherecordswhichhavebeenrecoveredfromtheTombsorMastabas.ToSnofru(GreekSoris,asgivenbyManetho)isattributedthestepped-pyramidatSakkarah,while

the four pyramids at Gizeh are known by the names of their builders Khufu or Cheops; Khafra orChephren,andMenkaraorMycerinus.TheSixthDynastyclosedwiththereignofQueenNitocris,whois supposed to have facedwith granite the Pyramid ofMenkara, inwhich it is believed her funeralchamberwasconstructed.Afterherreignaperiodofdarknessintervenedduringwhichthepowerofthemonarchywasgraduallydeveloped,until,withthebeginningoftheEleventhDynasty,theGovernmentwasestablishedinThebes.

The Kings of theMiddle Empire, Usertesen I, II, and III, signalised their rule by reaching outbeyond the limits ofLower andUpperEgypt. They conqueredEthiopia to the south and opened uptradetotheeastwardwithSyria,andrecoveredpossessionoftheminesofSinai.Templeswerebuiltandgreatpublicworksofirrigationcarriedout,whilechangeswereinauguratedinwritingandeducation.The process of development seems to have been continued even during theHyksos usurpation. FortheseAsiaticinvaders,whoseraceandoriginareunknown—thetermHyksosmeaningShepherdKingsorBedouinChiefs—confinedtheiroccupationtoLowerEgypt,whiletheEgyptianKingscontinuedtogovernUpperEgyptasvassalprinces.

It was an attempted interference with Egyptian self-rule that precipitated the expulsion of theHyksos.Thelatter’schiefhaddemandedofthe“PrinceoftheSouth”thatheabandontheworshipofRa-AmmonforthatoftheHyksosgod.ArefusalledtowarwhichwasbroughttoasuccessfulendbyAmasisorAhmesI,firstKingoftheEighteenthDynasty.

With thecommencementof theNewEmpireEgyptentereduponaneraofprosperityandpowerthatwerereflectedinthegrandeurofherart.ItcorrespondedinEgyptianhistorytotheageofPericlesinAthens; the Imperial Epoch ofRome, and theHighRenaissance of the sixteenth century in Italy.Amenophis subdued the Libyans to the westward of the Delta. His successor, Thothmes I, carriedconquest as far south as the third cataract and annexed the land ofCush as a province.Having thusconsolidated authority in the neighbourhood of Egypt, he invaded Palestine and Syria as far as theEuphrates.Hisdaughter,QueenHatasu,fittedoutanexpeditiontothelandofPunt(SouthArabia)andbroughtbackincense,wood,andanimals,suchasthedog-headedape;allofwhichisdulyrecordedonthe walls of her temple at Deir-el-Bahri. But the acme of power was reached by her half-brother,ThothmesIII;forthismonarchmadefifteenexpeditions,inthecourseofwhichhereducedtherisingpower of theHittites andmade himselfmaster of the countries west of the Euphrates and south ofAmanus. His two successors managed to hold together this great empire; but in time these foreignentanglementsnecessitatedfrequentexpeditions.

BythetimeoftheNineteenthDynastythefederationoftheHittiteshadbeenconsolidatedandSetiI advanced against them, claiming a victory which was at least not final, for they threatened hissuccessor,RamesesII,who,however,madeatreatyofpeacewiththemandmarriedthedaughterofthe

Hittite king. Rameses II also invaded Palestine and afterwards penetrated as far as the Orontes. Hereigned sixty-sixyears and it hasbeen estimated that half thebuildings inEgyptbearhis cartouche;although inmany cases he probably followed the practice of adding his own cartouche to buildingsalreadyexisting.

Itwasduring the reignofhis son,Meneptah, that theHebrewExodus is supposed tohave takenplace; anevent that indicates theweakeningof thecentral authority,whichwascontinuedunder thisking’ssuccessors.Finally,duringthereignofRamesesIII,oftheTwentiethDynasty,mercenarieswerenot only employed but allowed to settle in the country and during the remainder of the RameseideDynastythemonarchsbecamethetoolsofmercenariesandpriests.Thussetinthedecadenceofpowerandart,whichmarkedtheSaiticDynasty.

ThenfollowedashortperiodofPersiandomination,whichwassohatefultotheEgyptiansthattheywelcomedAlexanderasaliberator.Heappointedaskingoneofhisgenerals,Ptolemy,inwhosefamilythesuccessioncontinuedthroughsixteenrulersofthesamename.DuringthisperiodEgyptbecameanintellectual centre, its splendid library being the nucleus of scholarship. It was by order or at leastpermissionofPtolemyPhiladelphos,about270or280B.C.,thattheHebrewscripturesweretranslatedinto Greek by seventy scholars, whence the version is known as the Septuagint. The Ptolemiessignalisedtheirrulebytherestorationoftheoldtemplesandmonuments,whichhadsufferedfromthehavocofinvasions.

AfterthevictoryofAugustusCæsaratActiuminB.C.31andthedeathofCleopatrathefollowingyear,Egyptbecame,aswehavealreadynoted,aRomanprovince.

CHAPTERII

EGYPTIANARCHITECTURE

THE remains of monumental architecture in Egypt afford a remarkable opportunity of studying thedevelopment fromprimitive typesof structure.Theearliest,whichcomprise thepyramids,mastabas,and two examples of temples, represent developed forms of the tumulus anddolmen, while the latertemples,whichbegantoappearintheTwelfthDynasty,exhibittheiroriginintheprimitivehutofthecountry.

THEANCIENTEMPIRE

Great Sphinx.—Meanwhile among the earliest monuments, of uncertain date and origin, is theGreatSphinxofGizeh.Itistheprototypeofthesphinxesthatwereafterwardsusedtoformavenuesofapproach to the temples, being distinguished from the Greek type of Sphinx by the fact that therecumbentlionbodyiswinglessandcarriesamaleinsteadoffemaleheadandbust.Theheadsofthelatersphinxesrepresentedportraitsofthereigningkings,theconceptionsymbolisedinthewholefigurebeingtheroyalpower.Aninscription,however,uponasmall temple,whichwaserectedbetweenthepawsoftheGreatSphinxintheEighteenthDynasty,recordsthatitwasmadeinhonourofHarmachis,oneoftheformsoftheSun-god,Ra.

Hewnoutofthelivingrock,itfaceseastward,asifonguardoverthepyramidsandtheentrancetotheNileValley.Thedimensions,whenthesandwasclearedfrom

SECTIONOFPYRAMIDSHOWINGKING’SCHAMBER,QUEEN’SCHAMBERANDATHIRDONEBELOW.P.40

MODELSOFMASTABASFROMTHEMETROPOLITANMUSEUMOFART,N.Y.P.40

TYPESOFEGYPTIANCOLUMNS

BELLORCAMPANIFORM HATHOR-HEADEDLOTUSBUD:UPPERFROMBENIHASSAN

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ANDRITUALCHAMBERS.TYPEOFALLEGYPTIANTEMPLEPLANS.P.46

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PERIPTERALSANCTUARYSURROUNDEDONFOURSIDESBYCOLUMNS.ATPHILÆ.P.53

TEMPLEOFEDFOUENTRANCETOHYPOSTYLEHALL.METHODOFADMITTINGLIGHTINPTOLEMAICPERIOD.P.54

EXAMPLEOFCARVEDDECORATIONP.48

thebodyinthenineteenthcentury,werefoundtobe:length,189feet;height,66feet.Theface,whichwasoriginallypaintedred,haslostpartofthenoseandbeard,astheresultofbeingusedasatargetbytheMamelukecavalry.

Pyramids.—ThePyramids,numberingoverahundred,werethesepulchresofthekingsofthefirsttwelveDynasties.Some,forexample,theoneatSakkarah,attributedtoSenefrouoftheThirdDynasty,are of the form known as stepped-pyramids, their sides ascending in six bold steps; there is one atDashourwhichslopessteeplyfromthegroundandthenbreakstoagentlerslope;buttheusualtypeisanunbrokenpyramidonasquarebase.

Threeofthese,situatedatGizeh,areofsurprisingsizeandknownbythenamesoftheirbuilders:CheopsorKhufu;Chephren orKhafra, andMycerinus orMenkara; allof theFourthDynasty.Thelargestofthese,thatofCheops,knownastheGreatPyramid,is482feethigh,withasidelengthof764feet. It is, in fact, 150 feet higher than St. Paul’sCathedral, 50 feet higher than St. Peter’s,while itcoversanareanearlythreetimesthatofthelatter.

Theevolutionofthepyramidformhasbeentracedfromthemethodofburial.Inprehistorictimesthebodywaslaidinasquarepitwhichwasroofedoverwithpolesandbrushwood,coveredwithsand.ThekingsoftheFirstDynastylinedthepitwithwood.Laterawoodenchamberwithabeamroofwaserectedwithinthepit,descenttowhichwasbyastairwayononeside.Stilllater,thewholewascoveredbyapileofearth,heldinplacebydwarfwalls.Then,intheThirdDynasty,theearthwasreplacedbyamass of brickwork with a sloping passage leading down to themummy chamber, and subsequentlystonewasemployed.ThecompleteddevelopmentisrepresentedinthepyramidsofGizeh.

Theyareconstructedoflimestoneuponafoundationoflevelledrockandwereoriginallyfinishedontheoutsidewithmassiveblocksofpolishedstone.Theentranceisonthenorthsidebyapassage,whichfirstdescendsandthenrisestotheprincipalchamber,whichcontainedtheking’ssarcophagus.Thiswaslinedontheeastandwestsideswithimmensestones,supportingseverallayersofhorizontalblocks,crownedwithagable,formedofstones,whicharesoplacedthattheyexertnothrustuponthestonesbelow.AsimilargableformedtheceilingoftheQueen’sChamber,whichissituatedatalowerlevel,whileatastilllowerlevelisathirdchamber.

Thestatuesandsculpturedreliefs,discoveredinthepyramidsandmastabasoftheFourthtoSixthDynasties,exhibitnotonlyahighlydevelopedskillinthecuttingofhardandsoftstone,andivoryandwoodandinbeatingcopperbutalsoremarkableexpressionofcharacter.Theminutestatuetteinivory

ofCheops, though the face isonlyaboutaquarterofan inch in length, isaportraitofextraordinaryforce, and the life-size figure of Chephren, carved in hard diorite, is equally distinguished for itsserenity andpower.The character of all the sculpture, evenof low-reliefs of everyday scenes, is butlittlenaturalistic,beingimpressedwithacertaingrandeur,asofsomethinginevitableandimmutable.

Theearliestexampleofwall-paintingappearsatSakkarahinthePyramidofOnas,thelastkingoftheFifthDynasty;where,amid therecordof ritualobservances, isdepicted thegrindingof thegod’sbonestomakebread.

Mastabas.—Fromthemethodsofburialwerealsodevelopedthetypeofthemastabasortombsofthe royal family, priests, and chieftains,whichwere erected atSakkarah, nearMemphis, during theFourth,Fifth,andSixthDynasties.ThenameisderivedfromtheArabiantermforabench,thefamiliartypeofwhichisaseat,supporteduponboardsthatslopeinward.Similarlythetombhasaflatroofandbattered,orinwardsloping,wallsofmasonry.It isenteredusuallyontheeastside,byapassagethatdescendstotheChamberofOffering,whichcontains,toholdtheofferings,asculpturedtable.Nearitavertical pit, orwell, from forty to fifty feet deep, is sunk in the solid rock, communicatingwith themummychamber.Anotherhiddenchamber,oftenconnectedwiththeChamberofOffering,isknownastheSerdab,whichwas intended toserveasahomefor thedeceased’sKaor“double.” Itcontainedastatueofthedeceasedandsometimesamodelofhishomeandrepresentationsofhisoccupationsduringlife. Thus, in theMastaba of Thy, with a view to inducing the Ka to overlook the break that hasoccurredinthelifeofthedeceased,thereliefsdepictharvestoperations,ship-buildingscenes,theartsandcraftsoftheperiod,theslaughteringofsacrificialanimalsandThyhimselftraversingthemarshesinaboat.

SphinxTemple.—Akintothemastabaistheearliesttypeoftemple,suchastheso-calledSphinxTemple,whichalthoughneartheGreatSphinxisnowattributedtoChephren.Partiallyexcavatedoutofrock,itisTshapedinplan,withtworowsofsquarepiersinthelongitudinalportionandonerowinthetransverse,supportingthestonebeamsof theroof.Thepiersaremonolithsofpolishedgranite,whiletheinteriorwallsareveneeredwithslabsofalabaster.Thewholewasembeddedinarectangularmassofmasonry.AnothertempleoftheFourthorFifthDynastyisrepresentedasrestoredinamodelintheMetropolitanMuseum,NewYork.

FIRSTTHEBANMONARCHYORMIDDLEEMPIRE

WiththeremovaloftheseatofgovernmentfromMemphistoThebescommencedtheFirstThebanMonarchyorMiddleEmpire,comprisingtheEleventh,Twelfth,andThirteenthDynasties.AbydosandBeniHassannowbecametheplaceoftombs.

Two types of tomb distinguish this period. One, frequently found at Abydos, consists of apyramidal structurewith a cubical porchonone side, entered by an archedportal.The latter featureprovesthattheEgyptianswerefamiliarwiththeprincipleofthearch,althoughtheydidnotemployitintheirmonumental buildings. It appears later in the elliptical barrel-vaultingswhich crowned the longtunnel-like cellars thatRameses I (TheGreat) erected for the storageofgrain.The abovementionedtombswerestructural,whereas thoseof thesecondtypewereexcavatedin theverticalrock-wall thatformsthewestbankoftheNile;theirentrancethusbeingtowardtheeast.AtBeniHassanisagroupofthirty-ninesuchtombswhichshowamarkedprogressinarchitecturaldesign.

The front of each presents a porch, composed of columns supporting a cornice, the latter beingsurmounted by a row of projections or dentils that resemble the ends of beams. The shafts of thecolumnsarepolygonal,witheight,sixteen,orthirty-twofaces,andaresurmountedbyasquareabacus.IthasbeenconjecturedthatthesecolumnsmaybetheprototypeoftheDoriccolumnandaccordingly

theirtypehasbeendesignatedasproto-Doric.Meanwhilethecolumnsinsidethetombexhibitastageinthedevelopmentofthelotuscolumn;themotiveoftheirdesignhavingbeenderivedfromapostaroundthetopofwhichhadbeenfastenedthedecorationofaclusteroflotusbuds.Theinteriorwallsofthesetombsaredecoratedwithpictorialscenes,executedinred,yellow,andblue.

Obelisks.—TotheTwelfthDynastybelongstheearliestObeliskstillinposition;thatofUsertesenI, in the necropolis ofMemphis, its companion having fallen. For these developed forms of themonolithicmenhir, regarded by the Egyptians as symbols of royalty and of the Sun-god, Ra, wereplacedinpairs,usuallybeforetheentranceofatemple.Theirdesignwasofgreatrefinement,thetaperbeingregulatedverycarefullyinproportiontothewidthandheight.Thetopwascrownedwithasmallpyramidwhich in certain instances, at any rate,was cappedwithmetal. The sides of the shaftweregivenaslightconvexcurve,orentasis,tooffsettheeffectofconcavitywhichtheymighthaveproducedifrectilinear,andalsotorelievetherigidityofthedesign.ItisoneoftheinstanceswhichprovethattheEgyptiansunderstoodandpractisedtheprincipleofasymmetry,ordeviationfromstrictlygeometricalformality—asubjectweshallstudymorefullyinHellenicandGothicarchitecture.

The two obelisks now known as Cleopatra’s Needles, one of which is on the ThamesEmbankment, London, the other in Central Park, New York, were removed from Heliopolis toAlexandriaby theRomans.TheywereoriginallyerectedbyThothmesIIIof theEighteenthDynasty,whosehalf-sister,QueenHatasu,numberedamongherachievementsthecompletionanderectionofanobelisk,100feethigh,intheshortspaceofsevenmonths.

FromthisperiodoftheMiddleEmpiresurvivethefragmentsofthreetemples.AmidtheruinsofBubastishavebeenfoundexamplesofthetypeofclusteredlotuscolumns,whileportionsofpolygonalcolumns,discoveredamongtheruinsoftheGreatTempleatKarnak,havebeenidentifiedasbelongingto a temple of the Twelfth Dynasty. The evidence which these remains afford of the fact that suchcolumnswereemployedinactualconstructionaswellasinrock-cutform,hasbeencorroboratedbytherecent discovery of a sepulchral temple on the south side of the Temple of Deir-el-Bahri—to bementionedlater—ofwhichitistheprototype.Fortheearlierwasreachedbystepsthatleduptoasolidmass of masonry, which in the opinion of some authorities was crowned by a pyramid. It wassurroundedbyaperistyle,composedofanouter rangeof squarepiersandan inneroneofoctagonalcolumns.

Itissurmised,infact,thatduringtheMiddleEmpire,whichwasaperiodofgreatdevelopmentintheartsofpeace,manyofthearchitecturalproblemswereworkedoutintemples,afterwardsdestroyed,tomakewayforthesuperiordevelopmentsthatwereachievedundertheSecondThebanEmpire.

SECONDTHEBANEMPIREORNEWEMPIRE

No architectural monuments mark the period of Hyksos usurpation. But the expulsion of theinvadersandtherestorationofthepoweralikeofthemonarchyandofthenationalreligionproducedanoutburst of patriotic ardour that was fostered by rulers of exceptional greatness. The Eighteenth,Nineteenth,andTwentiethDynastiesarebrilliantwiththeprowessandarchitecturalcreationsthatareassociatedwithsuchnamesasThothmes,Amenophis,QueenHatasu,SetiandRameses.

TheTombsoftheNewThebanEmpirecomprisedboththestructuralandtheexcavatedtypes.Therock-cut royal tombs are distinguished by the extent and complexity of their shafts, passages, andchambers,designedtobaffletheeffortsofanypossiblemarauder,whilenotwithstandingthedarknesswhichfillsallthespaces,thewallsarebrilliantlydecoratedwithcolouredreliefsforthepropitiationoftheKa.Incontrastwiththeinterioristheextremesimplicityoftheentrance,ofwhichthemainfeaturesare themajesticcolossalseated figuresof theMonarch,which take theplaceof thestatuewithin the

tomb.ThegrandestexampleistheTemple-TombofRamesesIIatAbouSimbel.Anexceptionto thisexternalsimplicity is theTemple-TombofQueenHatasuatDeir-el-Bahri,

which,however,presentsacombinationofthestructuralandexcavatedtypes,forprojectingfromtheface of the rock was an extensive portico, from which steps seem to have descended to a terracebounded by a peristyle and communicating by another flight of steps with the lower ground—animpressivearchitecturalensemble,designed,apparently,forritualceremonies.

Themostmagnificent examples of the purely structural Tomb are theRamesseum orTomb ofRameses II, nearDeir-el-Bahri, and that ofRameses III atMedinetAbou. They may have beenrivalledby theAmenopheum orTombofAmenophis III, ofwhich,however, scarcea trace remainsexceptthecolossalseatedfigures,fifty-sixfeethigh,oftheKingandhisQueen.Theformerisknownasthe“VocalMemnon,”anamegiventoitbytheGreeks,afterthatofthesonofEos(Dawn),becauseofthelegend,thatwhenthestatuewassmittenbytheraysoftherisingsun,itgaveforthasoundasofabrokenchord.

TheRamesseumisasepulchral templeand itsplan, involvingasanctuaryandritualchambers,ahallofcolumnsenteredbetweenpylons,andforecourts,presentsthetypalformofTempleplan.

Temples.—TheNewThebanEmpirewasthegreatageofTempleBuilding.It ischaracteristicoftheconservatismoftheEgyptiansnotonlythatthestyleoftheirmonumentalarchitecturewasevolvedfromtherudeprimitivehut-constructionbutalsothatitpreservedfeaturesofthelatter,eventhoughthenecessity for them no longer existed. And so persistent was the adherence to these features, nowtransformedintoelementsofbeauty,thattheywerecontinuedeveninthelatertemples,builtduringtheperiodofRomandomination.

Ithasbeensuggestedthattheoriginofthestylecanbediscoveredinthemodelledandsculpturedreliefs of the house of the deceased, found in the earliest rock-cut tombs. The house represents adevelopedstageofthestillearlierhut,thecharacterofwhichwasdeterminedbythescarcityofwood.Instead,therefore,ofemployingpoles,connectedbywattledtwigsorreedsandcoveredwithmud,theEgyptians fashioned the alluvial deposit into bricks, dried in the sun, which they laid in horizontalcourses, each layerprojecting inwards,until thewallsmetat the top.Gradually thisbeehive formofconstructionwasmodifiedinthebetterclassofdwellings,bytheadoptionofasquareplanandtheuseof the trunksofpalmtrees toformthe lintelof thedoorandtosupporta flatmud-coveredroof.TherepresentationsatGizehshowthatbundlesofreedswereusedtoreinforcetheanglesofthestructureandwerealsolaidalongthetopofthewalls,soastoformarolledborder,correspondingtowhatislatercalled a torus. This, through theweight of the roof, had a tendency to be forced outward, so that itformedwhatwaspracticallyaconcavecornicealongthe topof thewall.Hencetheso-calledcavettocornicewhichisoneofthemarkeddistinctionsoftheEgyptianmonumentalstyle.Moreover,whilethesun-driedbricksacquireahardnessandcompactness,theyareunabletosustainmuchpressure,sothatitwasnecessarytomakethewallsthickeratthebottomthanatthetop.Fromthisresultedthebatterofthewalls,whichisanotherdistinctivecharacteristicoftheEgyptianstyle.Further,owingtotheintenseheat,windowsweredispensedwithandthewallsinconsequencewereunbrokenexceptbytheentrance.Tothisdaythehousesofthepoorerclassesarebuiltasofoldandpresenttherudimentsoutofwhichwasdevelopedthestyleofthestone-builttemples,sovastlyimpressiveintheembodiedsuggestionofelementalgrandeurandeternaldurability.

From theoutsidewerevisibleonly thewalls andportalof the rectangular templeenclosure.Thewallsslopedbackward,liketheglacisofafortification.Aclusteredtorusmoulding,asofreedsboundtogether at intervals, so as to produce alternate hollows and swells, ran up eachof the angles of themasonryandalongthetopofthewalls,whereitwassurmountedbyacavettocornice,terminatinginasquaremoulding.Asimilarfinishcrownedtheentrancedooranditsflankingpylons.Thedoor,framed

atthesidesandtopwithsquaredblocksofstone,franklyproclaimedthepostandbeamprinciple thatalsogovernedtheinteriorconstructionofthetemple.

Thedoorwasflankedbypylons,eachatruncatedpyramidwithoblongbase;theform,infact,ofahutgrandioselyenlarged intoadecorativefeatureof immense impressiveness.Set into itswallswererings to hold flag-staffs, and the surface of the pylon, like that of the walls, was resplendent withcolouredreliefs,extollingtheprowessoftheKingwhohaderectedthetemple.Hisstatueflankedthedoorway, in front of which soared two obelisks, while the roadway that led to the temple wasembellishedwithanavenueofsphinxes.Theseavenueswereofgreatlength,theonefromKarnaktoLuxorextendingamileandahalf.

On the lintel over thedoorwas thewingedglobe, symbol of theSun’s flight through the sky toconquerNight.Other symbolicornamentsadorned the jambsand thevariouscornices,whilehistoricpictures, recording theachievementsof themonarch’s rule,covered thesurfacesofwallsandpylons.Allwereexecutedinthesamewayasthesymbolicornamentandthepicturesinhonourof thedeity,which covered thewalls, columns, beams, and ceiling of the interior of the temple.The formswereeithercutdowninverylowrelieforenclosedbyincisedlines,theedgesofwhichonthesidenearertotheformwereslightlyrounded, inorder togiveasenseofmodelling.Inbothcases thedesignswerefilledinwiththeprimarycolours,blue,red,andyellow.Thusthedecoration,derivedfromthemethodofdrawingpatternsinthemudofawallwhileitwasstilldamp,wasinset,itshigherpartsbeinginthesameplaneasthewall’ssurface—amethoddistinctivelymuralwhichalsomaintainedtheavoidanceofprojections.Thisavoidanceofprojectingmembers,exceptinthecornice,wasamarkedcharacteristicofthe Egyptian use of the post and beam principle, as comparedwith the use of it by theGreeks andRomans.

Theessentialfeatureofthetemplewithintheenclosurewasthesanctuaryofthedeitytowhomthetemplewasdedicated,aroundwhichweregroupedchambersfortheserviceofthepriestsinconnectionwiththeritual.EntrancetothisHolyofHoliesanditssubsidiarycellswasthroughahypostylehall,socalledbecauseitsceilingofslabsofstonewassupporteduponstonebeamsthatresteduponcolumns.Thelatter,towithstandtheweightofthesuperincumbentmass,wereofgreatgirthandcloselyranged,so thataneffectasof thedepthsofa forestwasproduced, renderedmoremysteriousandapparentlylimitlessbythedimandfitfullight.Thispenetratedthroughclerestorywindows,coveredwithpiercedstoneworkandsetinthesidesofthecentralportionoftheroof,which,supportedonhighercolumns,roseabovethesideroofs,asthenaveofaGothiccathedralrisesabovetheleveloftheaisles.Whenonerecollects that the interior was completely covered with symbolic ornament and pictures, one canimaginenomodeoflightingbetteradaptedtoproduceaphantasyofeffect,toprecludedistinctnessofvistasandpromoteasuggestionoflimitlessimmensity,accordingwiththeideaoftheeternalcontinuityofthesoul’sexistence,onwhichthereligionoftheEgyptianswasfounded.

Theonlyapproximationinarchitecturetothemysteriousgrandeurofthehypostylehall,leadingtothe sanctuary, is the nave and aisles and choir of aGothic cathedral. But the latter presents a greatdifference,sinceitwasarrangedforthecongregationalserviceofcrowdsofworshippersand,partlyforthisreasonandpartlybecauseitwasaproductofthecomparativelysunlessnorth,itisfloodedthroughitsnumerousandlargestained-glasswindowsmoreabundantlywith“dimreligiouslight.”

Itremainstonotetheapproachtothishallthroughanopencourtwhichwassurroundedontwoorthreesidesbyacolonnadeorperistyle,whileanavenueofcolumnsfrequentlyledthroughthecentrefromthemainentranceofthepylonstotheportalofthehall.

This combination of Court, Hall, and Sanctuary with its Chambers, already present in theRamesseum,formedtheessentialofeverytempleplan,evenduringtheperiodofRomanoccupation.Butwhile thenucleusof theplanwasorganically complete, unityof effectwas abandoned in actual

practiceowingtotheadditionsmadetotheoriginaltemplebysuccessivekings,whowouldcontributeanotherhall of columnsor another court and sometimes erect another temple as an annex.ThemostremarkableexampleofthisgradualaccretionofadditionalfeaturesistobefoundatKarnak;agroupoftemplesinhonouroftheSun-godRa-Ammon,thebuildingofwhichextendedthroughouttheperiodoftheNewEmpire.

TemplesofKarnak.—ThenucleusoftheschemewasthegranitesanctuaryandchamberserectedbyUsertesenIoftheTwelfthDynasty.IntheEighteenthDynastyThothmesIaddedtothewestfrontofthis a columned hall with pylon entrances, surrounding the interior wall withOsirid statues, seatedstatuesofOsiris,thewiseandbeneficentruleroftheSecondDynasty,whoafterhisdeathwashonouredastheKingoftheDeadinthenetherworld.LaterathirdpairofpylonswasbuiltbyRamesesI;andthiswasutilisedasoneofthesidesoftheGreatHypostyleHallbegunbySetiIandcompletedbyRamesesII.ItcommunicatedthroughanotherpairofimmensepylonswiththeGreatCourtofSheshonk.

InthenorthwestcornerofthelatterSetiIIoftheNineteenthDynastyerectedasmalltemple,while,protrudingintothecourtontheoppositesidewasthetempleofAmmon,builtbyRamesesIIIof theTwentieth,whoalsobuilttheadjacenttempleofChons,connectedwiththemaingroupofbuildingsbyanavenueofSphinxes. Itwas fromthis temple that the longavenueofsphinxes,alreadymentioned,extendedtotheTempleofLuxor.

Meanwhile, during the Eighteenth Dynasty, Thothmes III had erected at some distance to theeastwardofUsertesen’soriginalsanctuary,alargehallandadjoiningchambers.Thesearesupposedtohavebeenhispalace,thoughitisurgedtothecontrarythattheyofferedbutlittleaccommodationfortheretinue of servants and officials which distinguished an oriental court, besides being gloomy as aresidence.Possibly,however,Thothmesunderthespellofreligiousfeelingmayhaveusedthispalaceforoccasionaloccupation,evenasPhilipIIofSpainbuiltapalace inconnectionwithamonastery,aschool of priests and a great church andmausoleum—the aggregate of functions represented in theEscoriál.

The climax of the architectural ensemble atKarnak is Seti’sGreat Hypostyle Hall, the mostimposing exampleknownofpost andbeamconstruction. It is 338 feetwidewith adepthof170.Adoublerowofsixmightycolumns70feethighandnearly12indiametersupportthecentralnave,oneachsideofwhichtheflatroofissupportedby61columns,eachabout42feethighand9wide.Thecapitalsofthetallercolumnsareoftheso-calledbelltype;thoseofthelowerones,lotusbud.

ColumnTypes.—Referencealreadyhasbeenmadetothelotus-bud typeofcolumnsfoundintheinteriorofsomeofthetombsatBeniHassan.Theserepresentedaconventionaliseddesignasoffourbudswithlongstemsboundaroundacircularpost.Thelatercolumns,however,ofthelotus-budtypewere no longer only a decorative feature but had to support the immense weight of the beams andceiling slabs, consequently the diameter was increased to about one sixth of the height. The capitalsuggestseitheronebudwithnumerouspetalscrowningasmoothcircularshaftoraclusterofbudsandstalksboundatintervalswithrowsoffillets;thedesigninbothcasesbeingmoreconventionalisedthanintheearlyexamples.

Thebell,orcampaniformtypeisdistinguishedbyasmoothshaftcrownedwithaconventionalisedsingleblossomofthelotus,thepetalsofwhichflareorcurveoutwardsoastoresembletheshapeofaninvertedbell.

Anotherexampleoftheflaringcapitalisthatofthepalmcolumn,thefrondsofwhichareboundbyfilletstoasmoothshaft.ItisatypethatappearsinthelatertemplesandwasvariedbythearchitectsofthePtolemaicperiod,whosubstitutedforthepalmothermotivesderivedfromriverplants.

Anexceptionalform,whichappearsinTemplesofIsis,asatDenderah,Edfou,andEsneh,isthe

so-calledHathor-headedcolumn,whichhasacubicalcapital,embellishedoneachsidewithafaceofthegoddessandsurmountedbyaminiaturetemple.Thelattertakestheplaceoftheimpostblockwhichintheothertypesofcolumnsustainstheweightofthebeamandprotectsthecarvingofthecapital.

Incertaininstancesthecolumnsweresupersededbypierswithrectangularshafts,whichsometimeswereunadornedintheirimpressivesimplicity,atothertimesornamentedwithlotusflowersandstalksorheadsofHathor.Intheso-calledOsiridpieracolossalstatueofthegodprojectsfromthefaceofthepier, being theonly exampleof a feature added to a pier or column for purposes solelyof symbolicornamentandwithoutanystructuralfunction.

Next to Karnak in magnificence and extent is the neighbouring Temple of Luxor. Another

importantexampleoftheperiodisthetempleerectedatAbydosbySetiIdedicatedtoOsirisandotherdeities. In consequence it is distinguished by seven sanctuaries, ranged side by side and roofed overwithhorizontalcoursesofstonework,eachofwhichprojectsinwardovertheonebelowit,until theymeetatthetop,theundersidesbeingchiselledintotheformofavault.

A few examples are found of the peripteral type of temple, consisting of a cella or sanctuary,surrounded on the four sides by columns. In one instance—the temple erected byAmenophis III atElephantine—thecolumnsareconfinedtothefrontandrear,whileatthesidesaresquarepiers.Thesestructuresare small, and, in twocases, atPhilae, areunaccompaniedbya cella;which suggests thattheywereusedaswaitingplacesinconnectionwiththeadjoiningtemples.

PTOLEMAICANDROMANPERIODS

Duringtheperiodofpoliticaldecadencethebuildingoftemplesdeclined,butitwasrenewedundertheruleofthePtolemiesandcontinuedduringtheRomanoccupation.While,notwithstandingforeigndomination,theEgyptiantypewasinthemainadheredto,animportantchangeofdetailwasadoptedinthemanneroflightingthehypostylehall.Thelightwasadmittedfromthefront,overthetopofscreenwalls,whichwereerectedbetween thecolumns toabouthalf theirheight.Acelebratedexample isatEdfou,themostperfectlypreservedtempleofthisperiod,whichalsoconformsmostcloselytotheoldtype.Forinotherinstancestherewasagrowingtendencytointroducenoveltiesofdetail,characterisedbygreaterelaborationandornateness.It issignallyrepresentedintheTempleofIsisontheislandofPhilae,forheretheshapeofthesitehasproducedirregularitiesintheplanningofthevariousbuildings,whichenhancesthegeneralpicturesquenessofthewholegroup.Unfortunately,inconsequenceoftheerectionoftheAssouanDam,thesetemplesatPhilaearesubmergedforthegreaterpartoftheyear.

HowfartheEgyptiansstudiedorientation,ortheplacingofatemplewithreferencetothepointsofthecompass, isuncertain.But therearegrounds for supposing that insomecases theyorientated theprincipalentrancetowardthesunoracertainstar,theexactpositionofwhichonsomeparticulardaywouldindicatetotheprieststheexacttimeofyear.

PalaceandDomesticArchitecture.—OfpalacearchitecturetheonlyconjecturedremainsarethebuildingserectedintherearoftheTempleofKarnakbyThothmesIIIandthepavilionofMedinetAbouonthewestbankoftheNileatThebes;theunsuitabilityofwhichasroyalresidenceshasalreadybeennoted.

AcluetothelayingoutofatownandthecharacterofdomesticbuildingshasbeenfoundatTel-el-AmarnaandatKahun,intheFayoum.OnthelattersitePetriediscoveredthewallsofatownwhichwas erected for the overseers andworkmen employed in the construction of the pyramid of Illahun(2684-2666B.C.)andabandonedafterthecompletionofthework.Thestreetsranatrightangles;andthe

houseswerebuiltaroundopencourts,whencethelightwasderived,fortherewerenowindowsgivingontothestreets.Thehousesvariedinsizefromtheoneroomhutofthelabourertothegroupofroomswiththeirowncourtoccupiedbytheoverseer,whileastilllargergroupinthecentreofthetownwastheresidenceofthegovernor.

Fromtheseremainsandfrompicturesof“soulhouses,”foundinthetombs,itisconcludedthatthehouses of the richer classes corresponded to a Roman villa; consisting that is to say of detachedbuildingsbuiltwithinenclosures,whichweresurroundedontheinteriorwithcolonnadesandwerelaidout with groves, fishponds, and other ornamental features. The material employed in the walls andbuildingswassunburntbrickwhichwasoverlayedwithstuccodecoratedinbrightcolours.Thewallsinthecaseoftheresidenceswerecarriedupthroughtwoorthreestorieswithwindowsintheupperonesandaverandahundertheflatroof.Thelatter,constructedoftimbers,supportingsmallerbeams,filledinwithmud,wasreachedbyastaircase in therear.Whentheroomsexceededninefeetorso inwidth,theirceilingsweresupportedbycolumnsorposts.

CHAPTERIII

CHALDÆAN,ASSYRIAN,ANDBABYLONIANCIVILISATION

ROOTED deep in the recesses of the pastwas the ancient civilisation that flourished inMesopotamia.SomelatestscholarsaredisposedtobelievethatitevenprecededthecivilisationofEgypt,withwhichithas some features incommon.For this stripof territory, extending fromnear thePersianGulf in thesouthtothemountainouscountryofArmeniainthenorth,isanalluvialplain,madeandnourishedbyitsrivers—theTigrisontheeastandtheEuphratesonthewest.Thelatterisashallowstream,exceptattheannualflood,whenitsweepsoverthelowbanksandinnundatestheflatlands.ThustheinhabitantsofMesopotamia, like the Egyptians, early learned to control the riverwith drains and dykes and toconstructcanalsandsystemsof irrigation.Andonaparwith theirengineeringprowessbecame theirachievementsinbuilding.

LikeEgyptalso,Mesopotamiacametohaveitsupperandlowerkingdoms.Theformer,theBiblicalPadan-Aram,becameassociatedwiththehistoryof theAssyrians; thelatter, thePlainofShinar,withthatoftheChaldæansandBabylonians.Itwasthelowerorsouthernpartthatseemstohavebeenfirstoccupied,byapeopleapparentlyofnon-Semiticstock,whoseoriginisunknown.Namedbydifferentscholars Akkadians or Sumerians, they were an unwarlike race which early attained a considerabledegreeofcivilisation.TheirchiefcitywasBabylon,whencethecountryderivedthenameofBabylonia.Itissupposedthatthesepeopleinventedthecuneiformsystemofwriting,whichwaslateremployedbythe Babylonians and Assyrians, while its use spread to the other nations from Persia to theMediterranean.

Thiswedge-shapedscriptwasinitsoriginaformofpictorialorideographicwritinganddevelopeditspeculiarcharacterfromthefactthatthewritingwasdoneontablesofsoftclay.Pressurewasneededtomakethemarksandaccordinglythestyluscametobeformedofthreeplanesurfaces,meetingatapoint like the angle of a cubic triangle.As the systemgrew the ideogram frommerely picturing theobjectwasused todenote thefirstsyllableof itsnameand thenbydegrees todenote thatsyllable inwhateverworditmightoccur.

The clue to the reading of the cuneiform script was discovered in 1802 by a German, GeorgFriedrich Grotefind, whose work was carried farther by Christian Lassen of Bohn. Meanwhile, theEnglishman, Henry Rawlinson hadmastered the secret through a study of Persian cuneiform script.Thusan immensemineofknowledgewasopenedup to the scholars, for thekingsofBabyloniaand

Assyriakeptmostextensiverecords,notonlyoftheirwarsandpersonalprowessinthechase,butalsoofcommercialtransactions,whilemanyofthemepitomisedthehistoryofpastperiods.Forexample,itisfromoneoftheserecords,madebyNapa-haik,thelastnativekingofBabylonia(555-538B.C.),thatweget theearliestdateof theso-calledAkkadians.Forhecaused it tobewritten that,whilehewasrestoringanancienttempleatSippar,hefoundamongthefoundationsarecordofSargonI—nottobeconfused with the later Assyrian king of the same name—which dated back 3200 years before itsdiscovery.Moreover,anAssyrianscribemakesthisSargonrelateofhimselfthathewasborninsecret,exposedasaninfantinabasketofrushesonariver,rescuedandbroughtupbyashepherd,chosentheleaderofabandinthemountainsandfinallybecameaking.Itwouldbeinterestingtoknowthedateofthisrecord,butpresumablyitwasaftertheJewshadbeencarriedcaptivetoAssyria.

The prosperity of this early race and its unwarlike character invited invaders. For, it is in this

particularthatthefortunesofMesopotamiadifferedfromthoseofEgypt.Whilethelatterwasisolatedbygreatdeserts and itspeople inearly timeswereneitherdisturbed from theoutsidenor tempted tostraybeyondtheirborders,thedesertssurroundingMesopotamiawerebrokenupwithfrequentspotsoffertility.OnthesesubsistednomadtribesofSemiticorigin,whichearlymusthavelookedwithcovetouseyesuponthesuperiorabundanceoftheriver-enclosedlands.Thusthenon-SemiticinhabitantsbecameinvolvedwithSemiticpeoples:Chaldæans,Elamites,andAssyrians.

Fortunatelyitisnotnecessaryforourpurposetoattemptthedifficulttaskofunravellingthestagesofthisobscurestory.Afewparticularswillsuffice.

TheChaldæans appeared in theSouth andestablisheda capital atUrof theChaldees, extending

theirswayoverwhatwascalledlaterBabylonia.Butsofarfromcrushingtheoriginalinhabitants,theyseemtohaveassumedtowardthemtheattitudeofprotectors.Theywerethestrongmen,asitwere,thatkept the house armed against aggression, while the peaceful occupants continued to pursue theirindustriesandarts.ThusensuedthatperioddistinguishedasTHEEARLYCHALDÆAN(about2250to1110B.C.)whichproducedthosetreasuresofart,especiallyinglazedpottery,thatrecentexplorationhasbeendiscovering.

AndjustasthisoldercivilisationwasrespectedbythewarlikeChaldæans,soalsoitwasborrowed

andimitatedbythewarlikeAssyrianswhograduallygatheredpowerinupperornorthernMesopotamia.TheyfoundedacityandcalleditAssur,aftertheirnationalgod,inwhosehonourtheyerectedatemplein1820B.C.Thisisthefirstdefinitedateofthispeople,basedontheauthorityofKingTiglath-Pileser(about1120-1100B.C.),whorelatesthat,whilerestoringthetemple,hefoundtheancientrecordofitsfounding.It issignificantofthegeneralattitudeoftheAssyrianstowardthecivilisationofBabyloniathattheyalsoborrowedthelatter’snationalgod,Marduk.ThefirstextensiverecordsoftheAssyriansarederivedfromthe“library”ofthisTiglath-Pileser,foundamongtheruinsofAssur.Theydescribehiswarsandhuntingexpeditionsandhowhekilledwithhisownhandstenelephantsandninehundredandtwenty lions. Thismonarch, by the capture ofBabylon, brought to a conclusion the rivalry that hadexisted since the fifteenth centuryB.C. betweenAssyria and theChaldæan-Babylonian kingdom.Wemaydate fromhis reign,namelyabout1110B.C. the supremacyof theASSYRIANEMPIREwhich lasteduntil606B.C.

Meanwhile,thecityofNineveh,nowmarkedbythemoundsofKoyunjikandNebiYanushadbeeninexistenceasearlyas1816B.C.ApalacewaserectedtherebyShalmaneserI(1330B.C.)andatsomedateunknownatempletoIshtar.ShewasthegoddessofLoveandWarandinhervoluptuousaspect

corresponds to Ashtoreth or Astarte of the Syro-Phœnicians. This cult characterised her shrine atNineveh,whileinherwarlikeaspectshewasworshippedatArbela.

ForatimetheprestigeofNinevehwaned,asAssurnazar-pal(885B.C.)andShalmaneserIIerectedpalacesatNimroud, theancientCalah.The lattermonarchwas thefirst, so farasknown, tocome inconflictwithIsrael.HeconqueredAhabandexactedtributefromJehu.

WithTiglath-PileserIII(alsocalledPulbytheHebrews)whocarriedaportionofNorthernIsraelintocaptivity(2Kingsxv),begantheperiodofAssyria’sgreatestglory.ThelastdynastycommenceswithSargon(722-705B.C.)whobuilthimselfthefamouspalaceatKhorsabad.HeconqueredSamariaand carried thewhole of northern Israel into captivity, replacing themwithmen “fromBabylon andfromCuthahandfromAvaandfromHamathandfromSepharvaim”(2Kings,xvii,24).ThisallusiontoBabylonissignificant. Itpoints toSargon’spolicyofreducingtherivalpowerof thecity,whichwasdestroyedbyhissonandsuccessor,Sennacherib.Itwasthelatterwho“cameupagainstallthefencedcitiesofJudahand took them,”afterwardsuffering the lossofhisarmy in thesiegeofJerusalem,aschronicled in 2Kings, xviii, xix; though this disaster is notmentioned in the cuneiform records.Herevived the grandeur of Nineveh, which was added to by his son Esarhaddon (680-668 B.C.). Thismonarch’sreignrepresentedthehigh-watermarkofAssyriansupremacy.AmonghisexploitswastheconquestofEgypt,wherebyheaddedtohistitlesthatof“KingofKingsofLowerandUpperEgyptandEthiopia.”Hewasalsoagreatbuilder, restoringBabylonanderecting forhimself a superbpalaceatNineveh,thematerialsforwhichweresuppliedbytwenty-twosubjectkings.

Underhis sonAsurbanipal, theSardanapalusof theGreeks (668-626B.C.), the lastof theSargonDynasty,Assyrianprosperityreacheditsculmination.Being,ashesaid,“endowedwithattentiveears,”Asurbanipalwasinclinedtothestudyof“allinscribedtablets”andcausedthecollectingandre-editingof thewhole cuneiform literature then in existence.A great part of his “library” has been recoveredfromtheruinsofKoyunjikandisnowintheBritishMuseum.

Intheyearfollowingthismonarch’sdeathNabopolassar(625-604B.C.)whoseemstohavebeentheAssyrianvice-royofBabylonia,enteredintoalliancewiththeMedesandthroughtheirhelpdestroyedthesupremacyoftheAssyriansandbecamethefirstkingoftheNEWBABYLONIANEMPIRE.

His son, Nebuchadnezzar, or Nebuchadrezzar, conquered Jerusalem and carried its inhabitants

captive to Babylon. To him this city owed its final magnificence. Occupying both banks of theEuphrates, it was now surrounded by two fortified walls, the outer one being fifty-five miles incircumference,withaheightof340feetandathicknessof85.Itwasfurtherprotectedby250towersandpiercedwithahundredgatesofbrass.Numeroustemplesadornedthecity,thegrandestbeingthatofthenationalgod,Marduk(Merodach).Nearthiswastheroyalpalace,nowrepresentedbytheruinsofAlGasr,“theCastle.”Slopingdownfromittotheriverweretheterracedgardenslaidoutbythekingfor the pleasure of his Median wife, Amytis. They are better known as the hanging gardens ofSemiramis, from theGreek account that attributed variousOriental wonders to thismythical queen.Nebuchadnezzaralsorestored the templeofNeboinasuburbofBabylon,nowcalledBorsippa.Thisfamousshrinewasconstructedintheformofastepped-pyramidandfromitsseventerraceswascalled“TheTempleoftheSevenSpheresofHeavenandEarth.”IncludedinAssyriantempleswasfrequentlyatower,andtheonebelongingtothistempleofNeboisassumedtohavebeenassociatedwiththestoryofthe“TowerofBabel”(Genesisxi).

Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his son, Nabonidus, whose eldest son, Belshazzar, was co-regentwithhimandgovernorofSouthBabylon.Thisisthecuneiformrecord,whichvariesfromthatofDaniel(Chapterv),whomakesBelshazzar thesonofNebuchadnezzarandlastkingofBabylonia.In538B.C.CyrustheGreattookBabylonbystormandthecountrypassedunderthePersianrule.DariusI

razedthefortifiedwallsandXerxesstrippedthetemplesoftheirgoldenimagesandtreasure.Thecityfell into decay, until in 300 B.C. much of it was demolished to provide material for building theneighbouring city of Seleucia.By the time of Pliny (23-72A.D.) the once proud citywas a place ofdesolation.

While theAssyriansandBabylonianswere religiouspeoples, their templeswere insignificant, as

comparedwiththoseoftheEgyptiansnorhavetheyleftanytombsofarchitecturalimportance.Theirreligionwasofaneminentlypracticalkind,devoted tosecuringbenefits in thisworldandconcernedlittle with a future life. Thus their gods were representative of natural phenomena or of their ownpursuits:godsofthesun,moon,theheavens,earth(Bel),weather;ofwaterandcanals,thechase,war,inventionofwritingandliterature;andunfriendlygodsofpestilenceandfire.

Asmaybeseenintheirsculptures,theyvaluedthequalitiesofenergyandphysicalprowess.Theirkings are not represented, like those of Egypt, as of slim, svelte figure, or wrapped inmonumentalcomposure.Theyaregiantsofexaggeratedmusculardevelopment,engagedinconflictwithwildbeastsofcorrespondingstrength.Theyweremightycaptainsofwarandintimesofpeace,mightyhuntersandbuilders.

While Assyria borrowed its culture from Babylonia, the character of the two nations was verydifferent.Babyloniawas a country ofmerchants and agriculturists;Assyria, an organised camp.Thelatter’sdynastieswerefoundedbysuccessfulgenerals;whileinBabyloniaitwasalwaysapriestwhoma revolution raised to the throne and the king remained to the last a priest under the control of apowerfulhierarchy.TheAssyrianKing,onthecontrary,wasanautocraticgeneral,supportedinearliertimesbyafeudalnobilityand,fromthereignofTiglath-PileserIII,byanelaboratebureaucracy.Ineachcountrytherewasalargebodyofslaves.

InAssyriaeducationwasconfinedtotherulingclass;whereasinBabyloniaeveryone,womenaswellasmen,learnedtoreadandwrite.MostoftheBabyloniancitiesandtempleshadtheirlibrariesandthegeniusofthepeopledisplayeditselfmostcharacteristicallyinliterature.Amongworkswhichhavebeendiscovered,wholeorinfragments,werethe“EpicofGilgamesh,”consistingoftwelvebookseachofwhichrecountsanadventureinthehero’scareer;anotherepic,thatoftheCreation,andthe“LegendofAdapa,”thefirstman.InastronomyandastrologytheChaldæansandBabyloniansfromearlytimeswereadepts;observatoriesbeingattachedtothetemplesfromwhichreportswereregularlysubmittedtotheKing.Theywerealsoskilledinmathematicsandmechanics.Forexample,aglasslens,turnedonalathe,wasdiscoveredbyLayardatNimroud,amongtheremainsofglassvaseswhichbearthenameofSargon.

WhiletheChaldæansintimehadbecomemingledwiththeBabylonians,sothatthelatternamewasusedtodesignatebothpeoples,thetermChaldæancametobeusedinaspecialsense.The“WisdomoftheChaldæans”continuedtoberecognised,anditwasprobablytothepureraceofChaldæansthatthepriests,“astrologers”and“magicians”belonged.And theirdistinctionaswisemenevensurvived theoverthrowofBabylon. Inall likelihood theywereChaldæans, those“Wisemen from theEast,”whosawandinterpretedthestarandfollowedittoBethlehem.

CHAPTERIV

CHALDÆAN,ASSYRIAN,ANDBABYLONIANARCHITECTURE

Brick Construction.—In its principal features and general character of construction, thearchitectureofeachofthesethreecivilisationsissimilar,beingbaseduponthemethodsthatoriginated

withtheChaldæans.Thesemethodswerethedirectresultofthegeographicandclimaticconditionsofthecountrytheyinhabited.ForLowerMesopotamia,Babyloniaproper,isanalluvialplain,interruptedbyasingleridgeoflimestonehillswhichweresparselycoveredwithsmalltrees,especiallythescrub-oak.Timberandstonewerescarce,whileeverywhereclayabounded.Accordingly,thechiefmaterialofconstructionwasbrick,shapedinwoodenmouldsandsun-dried.Thelimitedamountoffuelpermittedonlythemakingofburntbricksforspecialpurposes:namely,thefacingofthestructuresandthepavingofthefloors.Andthesesuperiorbricksortileswerefrequentlyglazedanddecoratedwithornamentinbrightcolours.

Meanwhile, in Upper Mesopotamia, Assyria proper, the ground was comparatively arid andplentifully suppliedwith limestone.Yet suchwas the habit of theAssyrians to imitate the Southernkingdom in matters of civilisation, that they also relied upon sun-dried brick for construction, andemployedglazedearthenwarefordecoration.Intime,however,theycametoemploystoneforfacingaswellasforthesculpture,whichwasacharacteristicdecorativefeatureofthepalaces.

Platforms.—We shall see presently how the fierce heat affected the principles of architecturalconstruction,notinginadvancethemeanstakentoprovideagainsttheperiodicalinundationsduetothetorrentialrainsandtheoverflowoftheTigris.Fromearliertimesallimportantbuildingswereerecteduponplatforms,constructedofsun-driedbricksandfacedwithfiredbricksorstone,thewallshavingabatter, that is to say, sloping inward. Approach to the summit was either by flights of steps or aninclinedroadwaythatparalleledthewall—technicallyknownasaramp.Intersectingthesemoundsorplatformswasasystemofarchedculverts,designed,asinmodernrailroadembankments,tocarryoffthewater.

Incourseoftime,asbuildingsfellintodecayorwerereplacedwithneweronesbylaterbuilders,theheightof themound increased.The result is that theplainofBabylonia for220miles is studdedwithimmensemounds,someofthemamileindiameterandattaining200feetinheight,crownedwiththeremainsoftowns.Beneaththese,themodernexplorer,cuttingdownintotheinteriorofthemound,comesuponsuccessivestagesoffoundations,representingtheremainsofvariousepochs.

TempleatNippur.—Theearliestexample,sofardisclosed,isatempleatNippur,whichbearsacloseresemblancetotheoldestpyramidinEgypt,Medum,beforethelatterhadbeenfaced.Itisontheprincipleof the stepped-pyramid, consistingof several stories, eachofwhich setsback from theonebelowit,whilethewallsofallhaveabatter.Theterracesononesideareofextrawidthtoallowforthestairways.Thisoldtypeofstage-temple,calledintheEastziggurat(holymountain),derivedprobablyfromtheancientcustomofworshippingin“highplaces,”wasstillpreservedinthefamous

“SARGON’SCASTLE,”NEARKHORSABADCONJECTUREDRESTORATION.P.67

PARTOF“LIONFRIEZE”AND“FRIEZEOFARCHERS”EXECUTEDINGLAZEDTILES.P.72

DETAILSOFWALLDECORATIONATKOYUNJIK

SHOWING(LEFT)THEHANDLINGOFACOLOSSALBULLSTATUE;AND(RIGHT)THATTHEASSYRIANSUSEDSOMEFORMOFDOME-ROOFS

TempleofNebo,rebuiltbyNebuchadnezzaratBorsippa.Onlyfourstagesofthelattersurvive,buta record discovered in the ruins shows that the original number was seven, dedicated to the sevenplanets anddecoratedwith the colours sacred to each.Theground storyof this templewas272 feetsquareand45feethigh,whilethetotalheightofthestructurewasabout160feet.Itisnoteworthythatthetomb-pyramidofMedumalsoconsistedofsevenstories.

Inaziggurat atTello, openedupby theFrench savant, deSarzac,wasdiscovered amagnificentcollectionof statues of diorite—amixture of granite, felspar andhornblende—darkgrey in colour—whichisnowintheLouvre.Oneofthese,whichhaslost itshead,representsacertainGudea,priest-kingandarchitectofLagash.Heisseatedandcarriesonhislapatablet,onwhichafortifiedenclosureisengraved,whileinthecornerappearadividingscaleandastylos.

Sargon’sCastle.—TheoldestpalaceremainshavebeendiscoveredatNimroud,theancientCalah.TheybelongtothepalaceofAssur-nazar-pal(885-860B.C.).Tenmilestothenortheast,atKhorsabad,theFrenchexplorerP.E.Botta,discoveredin1843theremainsofatowerandpalace,whichsubsequentexcavationshaveprovedtobetheruinsofDur-Sharrukim,“Sargon’sCastle,”builtbySargonasaroyalresidence(705-702B.C.).Theremainsofthepalace,beingthemostextensiveofthosehithertoexplored,canbestudiedasatypeofAssyrianpalacearchitecture.

Theplatformonwhichthepalacestood,constructedofsun-driedbricksandfacedwithcutstone,reachestheimmensesizeofnearlyamillionsquarefeet,raisedforty-eightfeetabovethesurroundinglevelcountry.The totalplatform, therefore,measuredabout23acres,ascomparedwith the3½acresoccupiedbytheCapitolatWashington,orthe8acresoccupiedbytheHousesofParliamentinLondon.MakingallowanceforthefactthattheAssyrianPalacedidnotextendoverthewholeoftheplatformspace,itsactualdimensionsmusthavebeenapproximatelytwiceaslargeastheHousesofParliamentandfourandahalftimesthoseoftheCapitol.

Leadingupfromthelevelonthenortheastsideappearstohavebeenadoubleramp,fortheuseofchariotsandforgeneralservice,whilethestateentrancewasatthesoutheastbyadoubleflightofsteps.Thesemounted toa terrace thatextended thewhole lengthof thepalace front, some900 feet. In thecentreofthisfaçadewastheprincipalgate,whichwassmallinactualsize,butflankedbytwotower-likeprojectionsofmasonry.These,forthemoment,mayrecallthepylonsthatflankedtheentrancetoan Egyptian temple. But the latter stately structures, built with a batter and crownedwith a cavettocornice,weredesignedformonumentaldignity.Ontheotherhand,thetowersofSargon’sCastlewerepiercednearthetopwithloop-holesandsurmountedbybattlements.Theyweredesignedtoservethepurposeofwarlikedefenceandsuggestappropriatelythattheentranceisnotonlytoapalacebutalsotothe castle or stronghold of a feudal chieftain. The same suggestion is prolonged in the battlementedwalls,freeofwindowsandonlyoccasionallypiercedwithloopholes,whichseemtohavesurroundedtheentirestructure.

Gateway.—The towers were embellished with a notably structural decoration, a system ofrectangular panelling, filledwith semi-circular shafts. The ornamental detailswere derived from theChaldæan use of glazed tiles, decorated with rosettes, palmettes, lotus-flowers and the guilloche orrepeatofintertwinedbands,archingroundacentralbutton.Similarlydecoratedisthearchivoltwhichsurrounds the arch of the entrance, the latter being a barrel- or semi-circular-vaulted passageway,carriedrightthroughthethicknessofthewalls.

Colossal Bulls.—In Egypt the entrance to the temples was made solemn and magnificent bycolossal statues of themonarch.Here, the beholdermust have been filledwith awe by the colossalmonstersthatstoodasguardiansoftheportal,projectingfromtheside-postsofthegatewayandrangedinpairsatthefootofeachtower.Thesemonsters,whicharenowintheBritishMuseum,fitlyembodythewarlikeidealsoftheAssyriannation.Theyloomupinheighttotwelvefeet.Theirbodiesarethoseofbulls,mightyinbulkandthews;yettheyarequicktoattack,havingeagle’swings,whiledominatingthem is theheadof aman, large-eyed, thick-lipped, squareof jawandhairy, implacably sensual andcruel.

Themodeling of thesemonsters is for themost part as broad as aBarye bronze; thoughminutedetailisattainedinthesculpturingofthebeards,hairandhead-dresses.But,whiletheirtreatmentisin

the main naturalistic, their motive is not representation of nature, but the representation of an ideathroughnaturalsuggestion.Accordingly,eachembodimenthasfivelegs;thetwoforelegs,plantedsidebyside,beingsupplementedbyanotherintheactofwalking;sothatwhetherthemonsterbeviewedfrom the front or the side, the full significance of the legs is emphasised—the forelegs representingfirmlyestablishedpower;thesideviewshowingthelegsinfreeandpowerfulmovement.

NoColumns.—ThearchedentranceleadsintoalargeopencourtthatcorrespondstothegreatcourtofanEgyptian temple,althoughhere thesidesarenotembellishedwithcolonnades.For,nowhere inAssyrianarchitecturehasthecolumnbeenfoundasastructuralmember.Thesingleexamplewhichhasbeenexcavated,measuredonly three feet four inches inheight and, it is conjectured,wasused for apavilion,possiblytosupportanawning.Theabsenceofcolumnarconstructionintheearlybuildingsofthe Lower Kingdom is easily accounted for by the scarcity of stone; and the northern builders indispensingwithcolumnswereonlyfollowingtheirusualhabitofimitation.

NoWindows.—Meanwhile,anotherreasonfortheabsenceofcolumnsmaybefoundinthefierceheatofMesopotamia,againstwhichcolonnadeswouldprovenoprotection.Thesamecauseexplainsthe absence ofwindows inAssyrian palaces, for nonehave been foundor shown in anyof the bas-reliefs.Ithasbeenconsideredpossiblethatsuchlightaswasneededwasadmittedthroughterra-cottapipes or cylinders, formany of the latter have been come upon in the ruins and thismethod is stillemployedintheEastforthelightingofdomes.

?BarrelVaults?—Another feature of the interior constructionwas the immense thickness of thewalls, which varied from nine to twenty-five feet in solid brickwork. The object may have been tosecureadditionalcoolness,but this reasonwillscarcelyaffordacompleteexplanationof theextrememeasurement.Itissignificantthatthelatteroccursinthehallsofstatewhicharealsodistinguishedbytheirgreatlengthof150feetascomparedwiththewidth,30feet.Whenthenarrowwidthofthehallsisconsideredinrelationto the immensethicknessof thewalls, itseemsreasonable toconcludethat thelatterwereintendedtosupportthedownwardstrainofbarrel-vaultedceilings.AdditionalprobabilityisgiventothisconclusionbyLaPlace’sdiscoveryofgreatblocks,curvedlikethesoffitsofavault,whichhadapparentlyfallenfromaheight.Moreover,inabas-relieffoundbyLayardinKoyunjiksomeofthebuildingsareshowntoberoofedontheoutsidebydomes.Accordingly,itisnowthegenerallyacceptedbeliefthattheusualstyleofceilingemployedbytheAssyrians,wasthebarrel-vault.

Theoriginofthelattermaybefoundintheculvertsbywhichthemoundsweredrained;buthow,considering the scarcity of timber, itwas possible to construct vaults of thirty feet span, is purely amatterofconjecture.Ithasbeensuggestedthat,whiletimberwascostly,slave-labourwascheap,anditispossiblethattemporarystructuresofbrickwereerectedasanunderpinningtosupportthevaultwhilein process of construction. On the other hand, we shall note later on that the architects of Gothiccathedrals,incountrieswheretimberwasscarce,adoptedthemethodofrib-vaulting.CanitbepossiblethatthisinventionwasanticipatedbytheAssyrians?

Decorations.—Thewalls of these halls of statewere decorated up to a height of nine feetwithsculpturedslabsofdelicatewhitealabasterorbrilliantlyyellowlimestone,onwhichtracesofpainthavebeendiscovered.AsinthecaseoftheEgyptiantemples,scenesofeverydaylife,aswellasofwarorhunting, are represented, with a vividness that shows how closely nature had been studied by thesculptors,who,however,weremoreintentuponrepresentingthespiritofthesceneandpreservingthefeelingofdecorationthaninimitatingnature.

Thus,when they represented an archer, stretching his bow, neither the string nor the arrowwasallowed tocut the linesof the figure.Bothwere shownas if thehandwhichheld themwereon theopposite side of the body. It is needless to say that this could not have been due to ignorance ornegligenceonthepartofthesculptor,whootherwiseprovedhisknowledgeandobservationofnature;

butwasadeliberatekindofconventionalisation,adopted,likethefivelegsofthecolossalbulls,forawell-consideredpurpose—perhaps,nottointerferewiththeactionofthefigure.

Abovethedadoofsculpture thewallswereembellishedwithglazedtiles,decoratedwithwingedfiguresof theKing, andoccasionallywith animals, especially lions, framedwithbordersof rosettes.Theusualcolourswereyellow,blue,green,andblack.Colouredtilesalso,aswellasslabsofalabaster,formedthepavingofthefloors,which,inthecaseofsmallerrooms,wereformedmerelyofstampedclay,covered,nodoubt,whileinuse,withmatsorrugs.

Wall paintings of figures and arabesques seem to have been an exceptional form of decoration,foundatKhorsabadonlyinthelargerroomsoftheharem.

Yetforall thisbrillianceofdecoration, theeffectof the interiorsmusthavebeenoneofsubduedrichness.Theimagination, indeed,picturesthevastpalacewithits labyrinthofsevenhundredrooms,surroundingthreesidesoftheentrancecourt,wheretheglareofsunshinewouldbepitiless,asasortofsubterraneanarrangementoftunnel-likepassagesandchambers.

Their distribution can be studied in the ground plan restoration. There were three groups, eachdisposed around its owncentral court.On the left of themain court lay theharem,with its separateprovision for four wives, while on the opposite side was accommodation for the service, includingkitchen,bakery,winecellars,andstables.Fronting themainentrancewere theKing’ssuiteof roomsandthequartersofhisofficialstaff,beyondwhichwerethehallsofstate.Intheopenspace,adjoiningthe royal rooms, rose the ziggurat, or terraced temple, the three lower stories of which still exist,connectedbyawindingramp.

The conception that one gathers of this huge pile is, externally, of a stronghold, somewhatforbidding;internally,ofacrypt-likemaze,offeringperhapscomfort,butlittlebeauty—thelairoftheabsolutemonarchofaracetowhomthemarket-placeandfieldsofbattleandhuntingrepresentedthechiefidealsofexistence.

CHAPTERV

PERSIANCIVILISATION

THE name Iran,bywhich thePersians still call their country,preserves theoriginof their race.TheywereAryans,asdistinguishedfromtheSemiticpeoples;abranchoftheracewhichmigratedfromthecountrynowcalledSouthernRussiaandTurkestanintotherichlandsoftheSouth.Onebranchpushedon to the Ganges and became identified with India; the other settled about the Indus, whence theygraduallypushedtheirwaywestward.Thisbranchcomprisedmanytribeswhichintimedevelopedintopeoples.

ThemostpowerfuloftheseattheperiodwhentheAryansfirstcameintoconflictwiththeSemiticrace,wastheMedes,whooccupiedthenorthernpartofthewestsideofwhatisnowPersia,whilethePersians,whorosetosupremacylater,occupiedthesouthernpart.Thiswesterndivisionofthecountry,separatedbyadesertfromtheeastern,entirelydiffersincharacterfromMesopotamia.

Foradistanceof50milesfromthePersianGulfitisflat,swampy,andunhealthful.Thenitrisestoasystemofmountainranges thataveragefive thousandfeet inheight,brokenupwithvalleys, lakes,andcountlessstreams.Itwasacountryadmirablyadaptedtorearahardyandindustriousraceofmenandfinebreedsofcattleandhorses.TheAryansseemtohavealwaysbeencattlebreeders,fromwhichfactissupposedtobederivedthereverenceofthecow,whichstillexistsinIndia.Theywerealsogreatlovers of the horse and itwas not until after 1700B.C.when advancedposts of theAryanmigrationcamein touchwith theSemiticnationsof theWest, that thehorsemadeitsappearanceinBabylonia,

Egypt,andGreece.But,whilethebas-reliefsoftheEgyptiansafterthisdateshowthehorseusedonlyinchariots,itsgeneraluseamongthePersianswasforridingpurposes.SotheloveofthemodernAryanracesforthehorseandhorseexerciseisaninheritedinstinctthatknitsthemliketheirlanguagetotheirearliestancestors.

OftheAssyrianKings,ShalmaneserIIwasthefirsttocomeinconflictwiththeMedes,andfromthisdate(836B.C.),theMedesarefrequentlymentionedinAssyrianrecordsaspayingtribute.Finally,in626B.C.,thefortunesofwarbegantobereversed.TheMedianKing,Cyaxares,aswehaveseeninaprevious chapter, formed an alliance with Nabopolassar that resulted in the ousting of the AssyriandominationfromBabylonandtheestablishmentoftheNewBabylonianEmpire.TheMedesfollowedthisupbyavigorouscampaignagainstAssyriawhichresulted,in606B.C.inthetakinganddestructionofNineveh.NewcapitalswerebuiltatSusaandEcbatanaand theswayof theMedesextendedoverNorthernMesopotamia,Armenia,andCappadocia.

Then in550B.C. theMedian supremacyceased.Cyrus,KingofPersia,of theclanAchæmenian,rebelledagainsthissuzerain,Astyages, thesonofCyaxares,conqueredhiminbattleandbecamethefounderofthePersianEmpire.HecapturedBabylonin538B.C.andgraduallyextendedhisswayfromtheIndusRivertotheÆgeanSeaandthebordersofEgypt.InhishomelandofPersiahefoundedthecityofPasargadae,themodernMurghab,wherehebuilthimselfapalaceandatomb.ForitwasherethathisPersians,urgedonby theirwomen-folk,hadstruck thefinalblowthatconquered theMedes.Accordingly, each king of theAchæmenian dynastywas here, in the temple of thewarrior goddess,investedwiththegarbofCyrusandpartookofamealoffigs,terebinth,andsourmilk;and,wheneverhevisitedthecity,gaveagoldpiecetoeverywoman.

DariusI,fourthoftheAchæmeniandynasty,foundedPersepolis,aboutfortymilesnortheastofthemodernShiraz,commencedbuilding thefamouspalaceandconstructedforhimselfa tomb.XerxesIaddedapalaceandatombofhisown,whiletombsalsowerebuiltbyArtaxerxesIIIandDariusII.But,whilePersepolisremainedthefavouriteresortofthePersianKings,itwastooremoteaspottobetheseatofgovernment,whichcontinuedtobedividedbetweenBabylon,Susa,andEcbatana.

Meanwhile,underXerxesIthePersianpowercameintoconflictwiththeHellenicandwasworstedin thebattlesofPlatæaandThermopylæand the sea-fightatSalamis.Henceforth theadvanceof thePersian Empire was checked; dissensions began to weaken it; the central authority relapsed intofeebleness,with lurid intervalsofcruelty,until finally it succumbed to the rising tideofMacedonianconquest.In331B.C.AlexandertheGreatcrushedthearmyofDariusIIInearArbela;tookinturnthecitiesofBabylon,Susa,andEcbatanaandstrippedthemoftheirtreasure,finallycapturingPersepolis,andsettingfiretoit.

Thisactofvandalismhasbeenvariouslyexplained.Onestory,whichformsthesubjectofDryden’s“OdetoSaintCecilia’sDay,”haditthatthewantonactwasinstigatedbythecourtezan,Thais.AnotherstoryisthatitwasanactofrevengeforthedestructionofGreektemplesbyXerxesI;whilestillanotherrelates that in this destruction of the very heart of Iran, Alexander wished to impress the Orientalimaginationwiththeabsolutenessofhissupremacy.

Afterbeing subject to the ruleof the successorsofAlexander and to thedominationof the laterParthianEmpire,Persiaoncemorebecamean empireunder theSassanianDynasty,Ctesiphonbeingoneofitschiefcities.IntheseventhcenturyA.D.itwasconqueredbytheSaracensandenteredintotheMohammedancivilisation,whichweshalldiscussinalaterchapter.

Therapidriseof thePersianpowerwasdueto thehardinessof thismountainraceanditshighly

organisedpreparationforwar.EveryPersianabletobeararmswasboundtoservetheKing:thegreat

landownersonhorseback, the commonaltyon foot.The army, therefore, unlike thoseof theOrientalnationsitencountered,wascomposedofcavalryaswellasinfantry;and,whilethelatter,armedwithbows,kepttheenemyatadistanceandharassedthemwithstormsofarrows,thecavalry,operatingontheirflanksandrear,completedtherout.Itwasonlywhenthepowerhadbecomeunwieldybyitsveryvastness, that this method of warfare proved useless against the Greek hoplites and the massedformationoftheMacedonianphalanx.

InitsbeginningthePersiansystemwasabeneficentfeudalism.Thenobles,excusedfrompersonalcultivationof thesoil,werepledged toappearatCourtasfrequentlyaspossible.Theirchildrenwerebroughtupincompanywiththeprinces“attheGateoftheKing,”instructedinriding,hunting,andtheuse ofweapons, educated to the service of the State and a knowledge of the law, as well as to thecommandmentsofreligion.UnderDarius,whocompletedthevaststructureofempirewhichCyrushadfounded,theorganisationofgovernmentandsocietywasonbroadandfreelines;anempireestablishedinrighteousness,followingthepreceptsofZoroaster.

ItisconcludedfromvarioustestimonythatthisgreatprophetoftheAryanpeopleslivedabout1000B.C. He taught that in this world there is a continual conflict between the Powers of Good—Light,CreativeStrength,Life,andTruth—andthePowersofEvil—Darkness,Destruction,Death,andDeceit.AttheheadoftheGoodPowersistheGreatWisdomAhuramazda,whosehelpersarethesixpowersofGoodThought,RightOrder,ExcellentKingdom,HolyCharacter,Health,andImmortality.AttheheadoftheEvil,Ahriman.MidwaybetweenthesePowersisMan,whohastomakehischoiceonwhichsidehewill takehisstand.HeiscalledtoservethePowersofGood; tospeakthetruthandfighta lie; toobeythecommandoflawandtrueorder;totendhiscattleandfields;topractisetheGoodandTrueinthought,word,anddeed,andtokeepfrompollutiontheelementsoftheearth,water,andparticularlyfire.ForZoroasterpreservedtheoldAryanbeliefintheelementoffire.Altarswereerecteduponthehills,tendedbyfire-kindlers,whoweretheministersofthetruereligionandtheintermediariesbetweenGodandman.

Moreover,Zoroastrianismwasaproselytisingreligion.Ahuramazda,whomkingandpeoplealikeacknowledged,hadgiven themdominion“over the earth afar, overmanypeoples and tongues.”Yet,whiletheyfeltittobetheirdestinytorulethewholeworld,thePersiansbelievedthatitwasthewillofAhuramazda that they must govern it aright. Hence they treated the conquered with clemency andemployedtheirleadersasadministratorsandgenerals.Cyrus,forexample,permittedtheJewstoreturnto Jerusalem and restored to them the temple vessels of gold and silver which had been taken byNebuchadnezzar.

Thus, the religionof Iranhad todowithpractical life, thisworldand the joy thereof, andmoralconduct;andaslongasitretaineditscharacterofplainlivingandhighthinking—ofwhichthesimplecoronation ritual of the kings was symbolical—the Empire continued strong. Luxury, however,graduallycreptin;thePersianKingsviedwiththeKingstheyhadconqueredinmagnificenceoflivingandslowlybutsurelythestrengthoftheEmpirewassapped.

CrueltyalsobecamepartofthePersianreligion,asindicatedbyremainsofhumansacrificestakenfromash-heapsthatstoodbesideZoroastrianaltars.Thisalsocausedadegenerationtodevil-worship,whichinsomelocalitiessurvivesto-day.

CHAPTERVI

PERSIANARCHITECTURE

Combination of Style.—In the days before their supremacy the Persians, as agriculturists and

breedersofcattleandhorses,preservingtheirsimpleexistence,hadnodesireorneedofmonumentalarchitecture.ButwhenCyrus had overthrown the domination of theMedes,made himselfmaster ofMesopotamia and extended his conquests to the shores of the Ægean Sea, he too was minded toimmortaliseinarchitecturethemightofthePersianEmpire.Accordingly,ashisracehadnotraditionsinbuilding,heborrowedfrom themethodsandstylesof thenationshehadconquered.ThusPersianarchitecturerepresentsaminglingofMedian,Assyrian,AsiaticGreekand,inasmalldegree,Egyptian.

TheboyhoodofCyruswasspentatthecourtofAstyagestheMede,sothattheMedianpalacesatSusaandEcbatanawerefamiliar tohim.Thoseof the lattercity,according toPolybiusconsistedofporticoes and hypostyle halls, the columns being of cedar or cypress, overlaidwith plates of silver.Thesehave longsincedisappeared,and the remainswhichnowexistatEcbatanaareofcolumnsofstone,whicharesupposedtobepartof therestorationof thepalaceunder thePersianKings.For thesubstitutionofstoneforwoodinthecolumnsdistinguisheseverywherethePersianarchitecture.

Tombs and Palaces; No Temples.—The remains of Persian architecture comprise tombs andpalaces.The

TOMBOFDARIUSIEXCAVATEDINTHEMOUNTAINSIDE,PERSEPOLIS.P.82

PALACEOFDARIUSI,PERSEPOLISCONJECTUREDRESTORATION.OFWHICHTHETOMBFAÇADEWASANIMITATION.P.82

TYPESOFPERSIANCOLUMNSP.83HALLOFONEHUNDREDCOLUMNS,PERSEPOLIS

CONJECTUREDRESTORATION.P.85

THEPALACESOFPERSEPOLISCONJECTUREDRESTORATION.P.84

Zoroastrianreligionhadnousefortemplesmadewithhands.Itstemplewastheuniverse;thefloorofitthemountaintopsofPersiafromwhichcountlessaltars,tendedcontinuallybytheFire-Kindlers,sentupflamesinworshipoftheelementofFire.MeanwhileitwasthedesireofeveryPersianMonarchwhomwarandgovernmentobligedtobeabsentsomuchfromthehomeland,that,whentheydied,theirbodies should be brought home “to the Persians.” Accordingly, when Cyrus erected a palace atPasargadae,themodernMarghab,healsobuilthimselfaTomb,whichstillexists.

ItsstyleisasingularmixtureofAssyrianandAsiaticGreek.Builtoflargeblocksofwhitepolishedmarble,itconsistsofaplatformofsevensteps,onthetopofwhichisasmallshrineorcella,rectangularinplan,coveredbyapitchedroofthatterminatesinthefrontandrear,inagable-endorpediment.Itis,infact,aGreektempleofveryrudimentarysimplicity,mountedonaziggurat.Theruinsshowthatthetombwassurroundedonthreesidesbycolonnades.

FollowingtheAssyrianprecedent,thePalaceofCyrusoccupiedaplatform,ofabout40,000squarefeet,whichstillexistsandisknowntothenativesas“TheThroneofSolomon.”Butheretheterraceisofnaturalrock,facedroundthesideswithcutstonewallsdistinguishedbythebeautyofthemasonry.Itis the earliest instance known of the so-called drafted masonry, of which a magnificent example isfoundintheterracesofHerod’stempleatJerusalem.Itrepresentsamethodofcutting,whichleavesthesurfaceoftheblockofstonerough-hewn,aswhenitleftthequarry,butdressestheedgestoa“draft,”orsmooth,bevelledsurface.

Such scanty remains as have been found suggest that Cyrus’s palace was of the simplest kind,includingacentralhall,theroofofwhichwascarriedbytworowsofstonecolumns,thirtyfeethigh,withporticoesinantis.ThelatterisafeatureborrowedfromGreek-Asiatictemple-building;theterm,in

antis,beingusedwhenthecolumnsoftheporticoaresetbetweentheprolongationofthesidewallsofthemainbuilding.

It is,however, fromthe remainsof thegroupofbuildingsatPersepolis that themagnificenceofPersianarchitecturecanbebestappreciated.Here,again,isaterraceofnaturalrock;butofvastsize,covering an areaof about onemillion sixhundred thousand square feet.This, like the terraceof theEscoriáloftheSpanishKings,projectsfromthefootofarockymountainside.TheEscoriálincludesaroyalmausoleum,builtwithintheconfinesofthepalace;but,atPersepolis, threetombs,oneofthemunfinished,areexcavatedbehindthepalace in themountainwall.Twoaresupposedtobe therestingplacesoflaterkings,ArtaxerxesIIandIII,whiletheunfinishedoneisthatofArses,whoreignedonlytwoyears.

Meanwhile theTombofDarius I, the founder of Persepolis, has been identified as one of fourtombs,eightmilesdistantfromthepalace.Thesealsoareexcavatedinthemountainside,andatsuchaheight from the bottom of the valley, that they corroborate the account which Ctesias, the GreekhistorianofPersia,givesofthetombofDarius,thatitwasonthefaceofarockandonlytobereachedbyanapparatusofropes.ThethreeothertombsofthisgroupareascribedtoXerxesI,ArtaxerxesI,andDariusII.

TheTombofDariusIisofspecialinterestbecauseitbearsuponitsfaceasculpturedrepresentationofthepalacewhichhebuiltatPersepolis.ThismodeofdecoratingatombwasprobablyderivedfromtheLycians,whosecustomitwastofacetheirrock-cuttombswitharepresentationofthehousewhichthedeceasedhadoccupiedwhilealive.Meanwhile,thereislittledoubtthattheLyciansderivedtheideaoftherock-hewntombfromEgypt.

ThesculpturedfrontofDarius’stombshowstheporticoofthepalace,andaboveit,upontheroof,themonarchhimselfuponhisthrone.Thelatterisanimmensecube,thefaceofwhichisdecoratedwithanupperandalowerrowofwarriors,orperhaps,tribute-bearers,whilethecornersarebuttressedwithbaluster-shapedcolumns,surmountedbybulls’heads.Themonarchstandsbeforethealtar,withhandsuplifted in worship of the sun and moon. This recognition of the religion of the Babylonians andAssyrians is characteristic of the Persian attitude toward conquered nations, and recalls Cyrus’sproclamation to these nations, guaranteeing them their life and property and designating himself thefavouriteoftheirownsun-god,Marduk,Bel-Merodach.

ThelowerpartofthefaçadeofthetombrepresentstheporticoofDarius’spalace.Thefourcolumnsare set in antis, but we have to imagine the second row of columns aswell as thewindowswhichflankedthedoor,and,likethelatter,wereconstructed,astheruinsofthepalaceshows,withmonolithicjambsandlintels.

Thecolumnssuggesttwoconsiderations:first,theuseofthem,ascomparedwiththeentireabsenceofthestructuralcolumninAssyrianandBabylonianarchitecture,and,secondly,thepeculiardesignoftheir capitals. The usewas derived through theMedes probably fromAsiatic-Greekmodels; but theformof thecapital ispeculiar toPersianarchitecture. It iscomposedof theheadandforelegsof tworecumbentbeasts,whichhavebeencalledbulls,butbearmuchmoreresemblancetohorses,andwhentheyhaveahorn,totheunicorn,afabledcreaturethatearlylegendattributedtoIndia.ItwasidentifiedwithstrengthandfleetnessandmightwellhavebeenusedsymbolicallybyaracethatderivedfromthesameAryansourceastheIndians;whiletheuseofthehorseindecorationwouldcomenaturallytoanationofhorse-lovers.Itisalsonoticeablethatthesebeastsareembellishedwithtrappingsthatsuggestharness.

However this may be, the tomb carving shows between the heads, the ends of the beams thatsupportthecorniceandroof.AsthesearenotfoundinthecaseofthecolumnsatPersepolis,itappearsthattheroofsofthepalaceswereconstructedofwood,whichperishedinthefireofAlexander.Ithas

beenremarkedthatthecharacterofthiswholeportico,takeninconnectionwiththewoodencolumnsatPasagardae,suggeststhatthestyleofPersianpalacearchitecturewasderivedoriginallyfromaprimitivewooden construction. But, while this may be true, its development into stone construction was notaffected by the Persians themselves. They employedAsiatic-Greekworkmenwhose style of temple-building,likethatoftheMainland-Greeks,showsthetracesofprimitivewoodconstruction.

Before leaving this tomb, there is one other feature to be noticed; namely, that the lintel of thedoorway is surmounted by a cavetto-cornice, decorated with rows of conventionalised lotus-petals,derivedthroughLycia,fromEgypt.

TherestoredplanoftheplatformofpalacesatPersepolisexhibitsamonumentalapproachonthewestside,formedofadoubleflightofmarblesteps,setindoubleramp.Thestepsare22feetwide,withariseof4inchesandatreadof15,sothattheycouldeasilybemountedbyhorses.Thestairsledtoaterrace,paved,aswasthewholeplatform,withmarble,inthecentreofwhichwastheentrancegate,or,tousethelaterclassicterm,aPropylæa.Thiswassquareinplan,withaportal,frontandrear,flankedbywinged bulls,while the ceilingwas supported by four columns. Itswalls, like those of the otherbuildings,builtofsun-driedbricksorrubblemasonry,setwithclaymortar,havelongsincecrumbledintoruins.

TheearliestpalaceofthegroupisthatofDariusI,totheporticoofwhichwehavealreadyalluded.Itsplanshowsaroom,rightandleftoftheportico,inwhichmayhavebeenstairsleadingtotheroof;thenasquarehypostylehallofsixteencolumns,setinrowsoffour,withvariouschambers,alongthesidesandattheend.

In one building, theHall of a Hundred Columns, the roof was carried by ten ranges of tencolumns;forthehall,asindeedwereall thehallsatPersepolis,wassquareinplan.Thiscanscarcelyhavebeenamerecoincidence.Isitfancifultoimaginethatapeople,trainedinZoroastrianism,foundintheprincipleofthesquareafittingsymbolof“CreativeStrength”and“RightOrder”?

ButthemostimportantbuildingatPersepolis,“oneofthemoststupendousrelicsofantiquity,”isthegreatPalaceofXerxes.Elevatedonaterraceofitsown,twentyfeethigh,whichwasascendedonthenorthsidebyfourflightsofsteps, itoccupiedanareaofonehundredthousandsquarefeet,morethandouble thatof theGreatHallatKarnak,and larger than thatofanyGothiccathedral inEurope,MilanandSevillealoneexcepted.Tworowsofsixcolumnssupportedeachofthethreeporticoes,andsixtimessixtheceilingoftheHall:inwhichcombinationonemayperhapsdetectasymboloftheSixHelpersofAhuramazda,“thespiritualWiseOne”or“GreatWisdom.”

Thecolumns,includingbaseandcapital,rosetoaheightof65feet,whichmaybecomparedwiththe69feetofthecentralnavecolumnsintheHallofKarnak.Thelatter,however,hadadiameterof12feet,andwereseparatedbyintervalsofscarcelytwicethatwidth;whilethoseinXerxes’palaceweresetatacomparativelyfargreaterdistancefromoneanotherandmeasured indiameteronlyabout5feet.Moreover,insteadofaminimumoflightpercolatingthroughaclerestoryasatKarnak,thelightandairstreamed freely through the windows in the walls of Xerxes’ palace, so that in every respect theimpressionproducedbythetwohallsmusthavebeenverydifferent.

ThegrandeurofKarnakwasweighteddownwithmysteryandawe,whileXerxes’“lordlypleasurehouse”wasanexaltedsymboloftheZoroastrianbeliefinthejoyoflife.Forinadditiontothegrandeurof its structural features, the imaginationmust picture the accompanying gladness of marble floors,water basins, fountains, and flowers, andvaricoloured rugs andhangings.Thewalls, also,mayhavebeenresplendentwithbrilliantlyenamelledtilesasinXerxes’otherpalaceatSusa,wheretheFrenchexplorer, M. Dieulafoy, discovered the magnificent frieze of archers, a frieze of lions, and otherdecorations executed in bright-coloured enamels on concrete blocks.ThatXerxes spared no pains torenderhispalaceatPersepolisassuperbaspossiblemaybeinferredfromthecolumnsinthehalland

northportico.Forinthemthedoublecapitalofbeastsdoesnotrestdirectlyontheflutedshafts,butissupplementedbytwolowermembers;thefirstacuriousarrangementofscrollsorvolutes,thesecondasortofconventionalisedcalyxofthelotus,beneathwhich,inbell-likeform,isaconventionalisationofpendantleaves.InthevolutesasuggestionoftheIoniccapitalhasbeendetected,whilethelowerpointstoanEgyptianorigin.

Thismedleyofmotiveshasacertaindecorativevalue,butlacksthesupremebeautyofarchitecturalrelationshipbetweenthepartsandthewhole.Thatis tosay, theuseofthevariouspartshasnotbeenregulatedbyconstructive logic, necessity, or fitness; but represents a purelywhimsical and arbitrarymultiplicationofmotive.ThestudentmayassurehimselfofthisbycomparingthePersiancolumnwiththeDoricOrder.Inthelatterhemayobserveasuperiorqualityoffitnessintherelationshipofthepartsandofthesenseofaninevitablelogicalgrowthinthecompositionasawhole.

The fantastic elaboration of the columns at Persepolis, aswell as the general conglomeration ofmotivesinPersianarchitecture,pointstothefactthatthelatterwastheworkofforeignartists,importedfromvariouspartsofthegreatPersianEmpire.Itrepresentsthecharacteroftheempire—avarietyinunity;aunity,however,notofnaturalgrowth,butonethat,havingnoartistictraditionsofitsown,putstheworldundertributetosupplymotivesfortheexploitationofitsmagnificence.

CHAPTERVII

MINOANORÆGEANCIVILISATION

SO farour studyofancientcivilisationandarchitecturehasbeen fairlyconsecutive.Wehavenow tobreak thecontinuityof thestoryand takea leapback intoa remotepastandexplore theoriginsofacivilisationwhichwas a forerunnerof that ofGreece.This civilisationhadbeen called “Mycenæan”becauseitsexistencewasfirstbroughttomodernknowledgebySchliemann’sdiscoveriesinMycenæ.But subsequent explorationhasproved that the civilisationwas far spread and thatMycenæwasnoteventhecentreofit.

One of themost astonishing results of recent exploration is the knowledge of a civilisation thatdevelopedwithoutbreakfromthepolishedstoneageandreacheditshighestpointcontemporaneouslywiththeNewEmpireinEgypt;ending,thatistosay,about1000B.C.NottheleastinterestingfeatureofthediscoveryisthatitthrowsanewlightonthecivilisationofprehistoricGreece.

The classicalwriters ofGreece pointed toMycenæ and Tiryns inArgolis as being the principalevidence of a prehistoric civilisation, which was assumed to belong to the Homeric period or evenfartherback toa rudeheroicbeginningofHelleniccivilisation.Thisopinioncontinued tobeheldbyscholarsuntilA.D.1876. In thisyear,however,Dr.Schliemann,openingup thegraveswhichare justinsidetheLionGatewayofthecitadelatMycenæ,cameuponaquantityofobjectswhichprovedthehighstateofcivilisationtowhichtheprehistoricinhabitantsofthecityhadattained.Furthermore,theycorrespondedincharactertothevasesandgold,silver,andbronzeobjectswhich,threeyearsearlier,hehad dug from the ruins of the “BurntCity” (Troy) atHissarlik in theTroad.These objects from thepeninsulaofPeloponnesusandthemainlandofAsiaMinorwerenotonlysimilarincharacterbutalsoof a fabric and decoration which differed from those of any known art. But a relation between theobjectsofartdescribedbyHomerandthese“Mycenæan”treasureswasgenerallyallowed.

In1884-1885SchliemannandDörpfeld,exploringtheruinsofTiryns,cameuponabuildingwhichoffersthemostcompleteexampleinGreeceofapalaceofthe“Mycenæan”age,belongingtoaperiodprobably between 1400 and 1200 B.C. During the subsequent years of the nineteenth century, whenexplorationwas extended to other parts of thePeloponnesus andNorthern parts ofGreece, dome or

beehivetombs,suchashadbeenfoundatMycenæ,werediscoveredinAttica,Thessaly,andelsewhere.Bydegrees,explorationwascarriedbeyondthemainlandofGreecetotheIonianIslandsandtheislandsoftheÆgean,particularlytoCyprusandCreteandthemainlandofAsiaMinor.Thisresultedinfurtherdiscoveries of objects, related in a common family, distinct from that of any other art division.Meanwhile,objectsofsimilarcharacterweremetwithinEgypt,Italy,Sicily,Sardinia,andSpain.

Finally,theculminationofallthismassofcorroborativeevidencewasreachedbytheexplorationsofDr.A.J.Evans,atCnossusinCrete,whichhavebeenfollowedupbyexplorationsinPhæstus,andotherCretansites.ThenetresultistoestablishtheknowledgethatCretewasthecentreofacivilisationwhich had dealings with Egypt andMesopotamia and extended to the sea-coast of AsiaMinor andPhœnicia,theotherislandsoftheÆgeanArchipelago,theIonianIslands,andthemainlandofGreeceandspread itsoffshootsalong thewestshoresof theAdriatic, intoSardiniaandSpainand tookdeeprootinSicily.Tothefar-extendingramificationsofthiscivilisationhasbeengiventhecomprehensivenameofMinoanorÆgean.

In a most remarkable way the discoveries in Crete have corroborated the Greek legends of theCretanKingMinos.ItisconjecturedthataMinosmayhavebeenthefounderofadynastyandthatthename passed into a title of all the rulers, corresponding to the title, Pharaoh, in Egypt. Scholars,therefore,havegiventhenameMinoantothecivilisationofCrete;dividingitintoEarly,Middle,andLateMinoan.

In the EarlyMinoan Period, represented in the contents of early tombs and dwellings and suchobjects as stone vases and seal-stones, there is evidence that the Cretans had already reachedconsiderable cultivation and had opened up communications with the Nile Valley. The date of thisperiod is conjectured to have centred around2500B.C., and to have corresponded, roughly speaking,withtheearlieroftheEgyptiandynasties.MostremarkableofDr.Evans’sdiscoverieswasthefindingin1900ofwholearchivesofclaytabletsinthepalaceofCnossus,whichprovethattheCretanshadahighly developed system of hieroglyphics and lineal script 2000 years before the time when thePhœniciansintroducedwritingintoGreece.Incidentally, thisknowledgecorroboratesthestatementofthehistorianDiodorus,thatthePhœniciansdidnotinventletters,butonlyalteredtheirforms.

The Middle Minoan Period centres round 2000-1850 B.C., and corresponds with the TwelfthDynasty inEgypt. Itwas the ageof the earliest palace building.Already appears the beginningof aschoolofwall-painting,whileamanufactoryoffinefaiencewasattachedtothepalaceatCnossus.

TheLateMinoanPeriodcoverstheperiodoftheHyksosusurpationinEgyptandreacheditsownculmination about the time of the Eighteenth Dynasty when the New Egyptian Empire or SecondTheban Monarchy commenced. We have already noted the appearance in Egypt of this Cretaninfluence, inducingahabitofnaturalisticrepresentationinplaceof theoldconventionalisedformsofsculptureandpainting.TothislateMinoanperiodbelongsthegreatestdevelopmentofpalacebuilding,asseenatCnossus,Phæstus,andTiryns,whilethepaintingonwallsandvasesbecomesmorefreeandanimatedthananythingofthekindinEgypt.

Toward1400B.C.aperiodofdeclinebecomesapparentinCretanart,whichisreflectedallovertheÆgean area. The conclusion is that the islands and mainland of Greece had been invaded by lesscivilisedconquerors,who,havingnocultivationoftheirown,adoptedthearttheyfoundandspoiledit.ProbablytheycamefromtheNorthofGreeceandwereprecursorsofthelater“Hellenes.”

Finally,about1000B.C.,thepalaceatCnossuswasagaindestroyed,neveragaintoberebuilt;andatthesametimethe“BronzeAge”ofMinoanandMycenæancivilisationcametoanend.Itfellbeforeanation,barbarous,butpossessedof ironweapons;probably the tribeswhich laterGreek traditionandHomer knew as Dorians. Then followed a period of several centuries of unrest, as, successively,Achaæn,Æolian,andDoricmigrationscamefromtheNorth throughthemainlandofGreeceand the

islandsoftheÆgean,whileanIonianmigrationfromArmeniaspreadtothewestshoreofAsiaMinor.Finally,whentheÆgeanareaemergesintohistory,itisdominatedbyHellenes.

TheÆgeanArchipelagohasbeencalledtheancientbridgebetweenthecivilisationsoftheEastandWest, and the imagination pictures Crete at the southern end of it, within easy distance of threecontinents and engaged in peaceful intercoursewith all; the head of amaritime confederacy of sea-roverswhoplantedtheirtradingstationsthroughouttheMediterranean,theirarteverywherefollowingtheirtrade.Sheherselfwasprotectedfromaggressionbyherislandwalls;whiletheoutpostsofcultureonthemainlandofGreece—MycenæandTiryns—werecompelledtoerecttheirpalaceswithincitadels.

FromthefactthatnoremainsofMinoanandMycenæantempleshavebeenfound,butonlyshrineswithin the precincts of the palaces, it has been concluded that, as in Assyria and Babylonia, themonarchswere also priests. Evidence points to the principalMinoan divinity being a kind of EarthMother,whowasassociatedwithasatellitegod.OnepartofherreligiousattributessurvivedinthelaterAphrodite,theotherinRhea,themotheroftheOlympianZeus.Whileimagesofthedeityweremadeasearlyas2000B.C.theprincipalobjectsofworship,orfetishes,intheMinoanagewerenaturalobjects:rocksandmountainpeaks, trees,andcuriouslyshapedstones,andevenartificialpillarsofwoodandstone.Sometimes,asinthefamousinstanceoftheLionGateatMycenæ,thefetishobject—hereapillar—wasguardedbyanimals.

Aspecial formof fetish for the twoprincipaldivinitieswas thatof thedoubleaxes:onedouble-headed axe above another on the same handle. “It has been discovered,” says the EncyclopædiaBritannica (11th edition), “that the greatMinoan foundation at Cnossuswas at once a palace and asanctuaryoftheDoubleAxe.Wecanhardlyanylongerhesitatetorecogniseinthisvastbuilding,withitswindingcorridorsandsubterraneanducts,theLabyrinthoflatertradition.Itisdifficult,also,nottoconnect the repeatedwall-paintings and reliefs of the palace, illustrating the cruel bull sports of theMinoanarena, inwhichgirlsaswellasyouths tookpart,with the legendof theMinotaur,orBullofMinos,forwhosegrislymealsAthenswasforcedtopayannualtributeofherownsonsanddaughters.”Actualfiguresofamonsterwithabull’sheadandman’sbodyhavebeenfoundonsealsinCrete,andevidencepointstothesebullsportsbeingpartofareligiousceremony.

Eventhesmallerhouseswereofstone,plasteredwithin,whilethepalacessuggestaluxuriousmodeofliving;beingrichlydecorated,withseparatesleepingapartmentsandlargehalls,finestairways,bath-chambers,windows,foldingandslidingdoors,andremarkablymodernarrangementsforwatersupplyanddrainage.Thefurnitureincludedthrones,tables,seats,constructedofstoneorplasteredterra-cotta;agreatvarietyof cookingutensils andvesselsof all sorts fromstonewine jars, ten feethigh, to thetiniestointment-holders.

Ladies, in curiously modern costumes, formed a favourite subject both for wall-decoration andminiaturepainting;manyof the latter showinggroupswitharchitectural and landscape surroundings,donewithremarkablespiritandnaturalness.

Theclay tabletsarealmostexclusivelyconcernedwith inventoriesandbusiness transactions,andprovethatadecimalsystemofnumerationwasused.

NexttoCnossusthemostimportantsourcesofknowledgeconcerningthisancientcivilisationhavebeenHissarlik,Mycenæ,Phæstus,HagiaTriada,andTiryns.

WALLDECORATIONINPALACEOFCNOSSUSSHOWINGMALEANDFEMALEBULL-FIGHTERS.P.93

LYONGATEWAYATMYCENÆP.98

PLANOFTHEACROPOLISOFTIRYNSP.100

PARTSOFSTAIRCASEINPALACEOFCNOSSUSP.96

COUNCILCHAMBERWITHGYPSUMTHRONEINPALACEOFCNOSSUS.P.96

CHAPTERVIII

MINOANORÆGEANARCHITECTURE

INsofarastheprehistoricremainsofMinoanorcivilisationbelongedtothePolishedStoneAgeandBronzeAge,theyareinthephaseofdevelopmentthatisrepresentedinthePeruvianremainsofthecityofMachuPicchu.Meanwhile,initsactiveconsciousnessofbeautyasamotive,theMinoanreachedaperfectionwithinthelimitsofitspossibilitiesthatcarrieditfarbeyondthePeruvian.

ThismayhavebeenpartlyduetotheinfluenceoftheneighbouringcivilisationofEgypt,andalsotothefactthatthepeopleoftheÆgeanareamixedfreelyintheirrovinglifewithoneanotherandwithoutside peoples, so that there was a free-trade in ideas, and the seed which they planted grew andmultiplied.Butitmustalsohavebeenduetosomethinginherentintheraceitself.Whattheracewashasnotbeendetermined.Sofar, theexaminationofskullsandbonesinCretantombshasestablishedonly the fact that the race,whileshowingsignsofmixture,belongedon thewhole to thedark, long-haired“Mediterraneanrace,”whoseprobableoriginlayinMid-EasternAfrica.Themaininterestofthisis to discredit an Asiatic source for Minoan civilisation. It is apparent from its achievements inengineeringandtheartsandindustriesthatitwasaraceofgreatintelligence,withanactiveinterestinlifethatledittostriveforthebeautyaswellastheconveniencesofliving.

PalaceofCnossus.—ThepalaceofCnossusoccupiesanareaofaboutsixacres,surmountingthedebris of human settlements,which go back, it has been estimated, to a distance of from 12,000 to14,000 years before the Christian era. The remains show that the palace formed a hollow square,constructedaroundacentralcourt.Theprincipalentrancewasuponthenorth,thoughwhatappearstohavebeentheroyalentrancewasuponthewest,openingontoapavedcourt.

Thewestwingcontainedasmallcouncilchamber,oroffice,inwhichwasfoundathrone,madeofgypsum in a design curiously Gothic, around which were lower stone benches. The walls of thischamberweredecoratedwithsacreddragonsrepresentedinaNilelandscape.Theywereexecuted,liketheotherpaintingsfoundintheseCretanpalaces,infresco;thatistosay,inwatercoloursmixedwithsomegelatinousmedium, laidon the still dampplaster, so that as the latter dried the colourbecameincorporated in the actual material of the walls. To this council chamber was attached a bathroom,probablyforritualpurposes.

Nearitwasalsodiscoveredasmallshrine,containingfiguresandreliefs,exquisitelyfashionedinfaience,oneofwhichshowsasnakegoddessandhervotaries;thisbeingoneoftheaspectsofthechiefdivinity.ThewallsandpillarsofthesechambersarerepeatedlydecoratedwiththesignoftheDoubleAxe,whileminiaturefrescoesonthewallsexhibitpillaredshrines,withdoubleaxesstuckintosomeofthewoodenpillars.

For the remainsof thepalace itself show that thepillarsused in this constructionwereofwood,roundedlikeposts.Thecircularsocketsstillremaininthestoneworkandacomparisonofthetopandbottomonesshowsthatthepillartapereddownward,thediameteratthebottombeingsix-seventhsofthetopone.

Anotherfeatureofthiswestwingisaseriesofeighteenmagazinesorstoreroomswhichcontainedquantities of clay documents and great stone jars. The latter are decorated with horizontal bands,connectedbydiagonalones,likethestrawworkonamoderngingerjar.Thisdesign,wroughtuponthestonesurfaceofthesecolossaljars,isaninterestingmementoofoneoftheprimitivemethodsofclaymodelling.For,before the inventionof thepotter’swheel, themethodof shaping, almostuniversallyadopted,wasoneofthethreefollowing:(1)scoopingoutfromaballofclay;(2)orcoiling,inwhichtheclaywasrolledoutintothinropes,whichwerecoiledroundandroundupononeanotherandthen

smoothedover;(3)orthebuildingupoftheformuponashapeofbasket-workormatting.A large bathroom was discovered in the northwest corner of the quadrangle but the actual

residentialquartersseemtohaveoccupiedtheeastwing.TherearetheremainsofaMegaron,orgreathall of state, approached directly from the central court, near which were found painted reliefs,illustratingscenesofthebull-ring,withfemaleaswellasmaletoreadors.Theseandotherreliefs,someof which also commemorated incidents of bull-fighting, were not carved upon the stone, as in theEgyptiantemples,orexecutedintiles,asinAssyrianorPersiantemples,butappliedtothewallwithhard plaster. Thismethod, known asgessowork,was used later inByzantine decoration and by theItalians of the Renaissance, for decorative details; by Pinturricchio, for example, in the Borgiaapartments of the Vatican. It has been revived by modern mural decorators; John S. Sargent, forinstance,employingitinsomeofhispanelsintheBostonPublicLibrary.

To the south of the great hall a staircase, of which three flights and traces of a fourth are stillpreserved,descendedtoaseriesofhallsandprivaterooms.Attachedtooneofthese,identifiedasthe“Queen’sMegaron,”wasabathroom,decoratedwithfrescoesofflyingfish.Thedrainagesysteminthispartofthepalaceincludesawater-closetandisofacompleteandmodernkind.

The character and features of this palace are repeated on a smaller scale in those discovered atPhæstus,HagiaTriada,andotherspotsinCrete,andresembleinthemainthoseofMycenæandTiryns.

AglanceatthemapofancientGreeceshowsthattheselasttwocities,situatedatthenorthoftherich plain of Argolis, commanded the approaches to the peninsula of the Peloponnesus; Mycenæoccupying a strategic position on the highroad; Tiryns, on the sea. They were equally important inresistinginvasionfromtheNorthacrosstheIsthmusofCorinth,andinthestruggleforsupremacythatwaswagedbetweenArgolisandthePeloponnesus.Accordingly,thedistinguishingfeatureofeachcitywasthatitoccupiedanacropolis,thenaturalstrengthofwhichwasincreasedbyfortificationsbuiltwithirregularblocksofstoneofgreatsize,inthestyleknownasCyclopean.

Mycenæ.—Those atMycenæ surrounded an area which is roughly triangular in plan, the mainentrance being through the above mentioned portal of theLion Gate. Its side posts and lintel arecomposed of monoliths and surmounted by the famous lion-relief, which fills the triangular spaceformedbythegradualprojectionofthestonesofthewall.Thepillarorfetish-postcorrespondstothealabastercolumns,nowintheBritishMuseum,whichflankedtheentranceoftheTreasuryorTombofAtreus,justoutsidetheLionGate.

The shaftof thesecolumns iswithoutabaseand tapers slightly to thebottom.Ornamentedwithbands of repeated chevrons, which alternately are plain and embellished with flutings, it supports acushionorechinus,decoratedwithplainandspiralbands,onwhichrestsasquareplinthorabacus. Itcomprises,infact,thefeatureswhichinlatertimesweresimplifiedintotheDoriccolumn.

The tomb itself isa subterraneanchamber,of thestyleknownasbeehiveor inGreek, tholos. Itscircular plan has a diameter of nearly 50 feet, and the domed ceiling, commencing at the floor andformed of inwardly projecting courses of stone, rises to about the same height. It leads into a smallsquare chamber and is itself approachedby ahorizontal avenue, 20 feetwide and115 feet long, thesidesofwhichareofsquaredstone,slopingupwardtoaheightof45feet.

Atraceof thissubterraneanbeehivemethodseemstosurvive insomeof therock-hewntombsatMyra, inLycia.Here the façade represents the front of a house,which is clearly of primitivewoodconstruction.InlaterinstancesitiscomposedofIoniccolumnsandcornices.Intheolderexamplestheentranceissurmountedbyagable,whichfrequentlytakesthecurvesofthebeehive.

IntermediatebetweentheseLycianTombsandtheMinoanstructuresarecertainrock-cuttombsinPhrygia which recall the Lion Gate. The façade comprises a cornice supported by columns, above

whichisagable,occupiedbycolossallions.AtArslan,oneofthesepedimentsshowstwolions,inthisinstancenot rampant,whichsupportacentralpillar. Inside,however, tworampant lions flankanudehumanfigure.

AtMycenæareearliertombsthanthatofAtreus,whichconsistsimplyofadeepshaftloweredintotherock.ThesearesituatedjustinsidetheLionGate,theareawhichtheyoccupybeingenclosedbytwoconcentriccirclesofthinslabs,setuponendwithotherslaidacrossthetopofthem.Itisafeaturethatin its attenuated form seems to recall Stonehenge.Dr. Schliemann reached the conclusion that thesewere thegraveswhichwere shown toPausanias, asbeing thoseofAgamemnon,Cassandra, andhercompanions.

On the summit of the Acropolis at Mycenæ are the remains of a palace, similar to, but lessextensivethan,thatofTiryns,whichwemaythereforeexamineinpreference.

Tiryns.—ThepalaceofTiryns,whichprobablydatestoaperiodbetweenthefourteenthandtwelfthcenturiesB.C.,seemstohavecombinedtheluxuriousnessoftheresidenceofanOrientalkingwiththefeudalstateofamediævalbaronandhiscrowdofretainers.Theacropolisisofovalshape,withitslongaxisnorthand south, surroundedby immense rampartsofCyclopeanmasonry, from30 to40 feet inthickness,whiletheoutsideheightwasabout50feetandthatoftheinside10feetfromtheleveloftheground.Incertainpartschamberswereembeddedinthethicknessofthewall,androunditsinnersideranacolonnade,supportedbywoodenposts.

Theareathusenclosedwasdividedintothreesuccessivelevels,ofwhichthehighestwasexcavatedbySchliemannandDörpfeld,1884-1885.Theplanshowstheentrancesituatedonthewestside,awayfromthesea,whichprobablywasoncefittedwithagatewaysimilartothatatMycenæ.Theapproachpassesbetweenmassivewalls to anothergate,whence itproceeds toapropylæa,with rooms for theguard.Thisopensintoaforecourt,fromwhichanotherpropylæagivesapproachtotheactualpalace.

ThefirstfeatureofthePalaceisacourtboundedonthreesidesbyapost-supportedcolonnade.AnaltarorsacrificialpitisinthesamepositionasthatoccupiedbythealtarofZeusinalaterGreekhouse.ItmaybepossibleinthisconnectiontoseeevidencethattheprincipaldeityonthemainlandofGreecewasalready,unlike thatofCrete, amale;perhapsa terribleprototypeof the laterbenignantZeus, towhomhumansacrificesweremade,astothehideousMexicandivinity,Huitzilopochtli.

Onthenorthsideofthecourtaportico,succeededbyavestibule,givesaccesstotheMegaron.Inthecentreof this is thehearth,afeaturenotneededin thewarmerclimateofCreteandthereforenotfoundinthepalacesofthatisland.Fourcolumnssupportedtheroof,thecentreofwhichmayhavebeenraisedtoallowopeningsforlightandsmokeescape.Adjoiningthesleepingchambersonthewestsideofthishallisabathroom,about12feetby10feet,thefloorofwhichiscomposedofasingleslabofstone,slopedsothatthewaterdrainedoutthroughapipeinthewall.

Anothergroupofbuildings,supposed,thoughwithoutauthority,tobethewomen’squarters,liestotheeastofthegreathall,fromwhich,however,itiscompletelycutoffbyasolidwall;itisenteredbytwo circuitous passages, one leading from the first propylæa, the other from a postern gate in thewestern rampart.Here again the plan shows an open court,without an altar, fromwhich a vestibuleadmitstoasmallermegaron.

Thefloorsofthemegaraareofstucco,incisedwithaseriesoflines,colouredblueandred,whilethewallsaredecoratedwithfrescoesas in thepalaceatCnossus,oneof thebestpreservedpaintingsshowingabull-fightscene.Ontheotherhand,thepalaceofTirynsshowspartofafriezeofalabaster,sculptured in reliefwith rosettes and interlacing patterns and studdedwith jewel-like pieces of blueglassorenamel.

The walls to a height of about three feet above ground were of stone, above which they were

continuedwithsun-driedbricks;theupperstorybeingprobablyofwood,withroofsofstampedearth.Thedoorways, thoughsometimesofwood,weremoreusuallyconstructedofmonoliths.Bronzecup-likesockets,letintothestonethresholds,showthatthedoorsrevolveduponapivot.

ItisagreedthatwhilethepalaceofTirynsrepresentsthegeneralcharacterofaroyalhouse,asitispicturedintheHomericpoems,itisamistaketolookinitforanexplanationofdetailsofarrangement.

BOOKIII

CLASSICPERIOD

CHAPTERI

HELLENICCIVILISATION

THEuseofthetermHelleniccanbetracedbacktotheseventhcenturyB.C.Itwasthenameunderwhichthevarious streamsofmigration—Achæan,Æolian,Dorian, and Ionian—merged their differences intheproudrecognitionofacommonrace.

Thedateandextentofthesemigrationsarecloudedwithobscurity;butcertainpointsareclear.TheIonianscamefromArmeniaandsettled inAsiaMinorand theadjacent islands,while theother threepenetrated into Greece from the shores of the Baltic. The Achæan was the first to arrive and hadmaintainedalongcivilisationbeforethelatermigrationofÆoliansandDorians.TheDorianinvasionseems to have been especially aggressive and after fastening a hold upon the mainland of GreeceextendedtotheÆgeanArchipelago,overrunningCreteandwrestingsupremacyoftheMediterraneanfromtheMinoanSea-Kingsabout1000B.C.

Hellenic,however,never impliedanationalbond.TheHelleneswereneverunitedasonepeopleunderonegovernment.Hellaswasacongeriesofindependentstateswhichevenallowedtheircolonies,fromthefirst,completeself-government.Thebondwhichlooselyheldthemtogetherwasthecommonsenseofsuperioritytoallotherraces;andastheircivilisationdeveloped,acommonprideinitsglory,notthatthiswassufficienttopreventcontinuousrivalryandfrequentwarfarebetweenstatesandcities.Consequently,thereisproperlyspeakingnosuchthingasGreekhistory;norwoulditbeprofitableforourpurpose to trace the rise anddeclineof the several states. It is better to considerHellenismas aprinciple,themoreorlesscommonidealofapeople,notconfinedtoHellas,butspreadoverthelittoraloftheMediterranean;whereverHellenessettled—araceofmarinersandmerchants,thinkersandartists,who lifted themselves to so high a pitch of civilisation, that it became a source of inspiration to allsubsequentculture.

IntheMinoanandMycenæanAgethepoliticalsystemwasamonarchythatcombinedthefunctionsofhighpriestandcommander-in-chief.IntheHomericAgetherewerestillkingswholedtheirarmiesandactedas the intermediariesof thegods,but theirpowerwascontrolledbyaBoule,orconsultingassembly.WiththeDorianstheruleofkingspassedtothatofoligarchies,chosenfromoneormoreofthenobleclasseswhoseclaim togovernmentwas foundedonbirthand theownershipof land.TheywereassociatedwithaBoule,representativeoftheprivilegedclasses,whilethepriestlyfunctionswereexercisedbymagistrates,who,however,weredrawnfromthearistocracy.

InmanypartsofHellastheoligarchiesgavewayto“tyrannoi.”Thesearenottobeunderstoodinthe sense that our word “tyrant” has. They were a step in the evolution of popular government,inasmuch as theywere ameans of breaking up the exclusive authority of the privileged classes. Toconsolidatetheirownpower, thetyrannoisought thefavourof thepopulaceandmadeconcessionsinthe direction of popular government. Accordingly, while some of the tyrannoi were succeeded by areturntotheoligarchies,inmorecasestheypreparedthewayforademocraticformofgovernment.

In order to take religion out of the exclusive domain of the aristocracy, the tyrants establishedpopular cults. Peisistrates, for example, tyrant of Athens, is thought to have established the GreatDionysiac festival and raised the Panathenæa to the position of the chief national festival of theAthenian State. Everywhere the tyrantswere the patrons of literature and the arts. To Peisistrates isattributedthefirstcriticaleditionofthetextofHomer,whileundertheencouragementofhimselfandhis successors (the Peisistratids) which lasted from 560-511 B.C. architecture and sculpture alsoprogressed toadegree thatmadepossible theirgrandeur in the“GreatAge.”He isalso said tohaveencouragedThespes,theAtticpoet,toimpersonatecharactersandthusconvertthenarrativepoemintodramaticform,layingthefoundationofGreekdrama.

Peisistrates also gave the people a constitution, extended the power ofAthens by alliances, andincreaseditscommerce.WiththefallofthePeisistratidstheruleofthemany(hoipolloi)wasassured.ThegovernmentofAthensbecamedemocratic.

It is to be noted that while there were various forms of democratic government in Hellas, alldiffered from ourmodern conception of democracy. The latter is based upon the principle of doingawaywithprivilege,whiletheGreekformimpliedprivilege,althoughitenlargeditsarea.Noforeignercould acquire citizenship, which also was denied to native-born inhabitants who were of foreignextraction, on either the father’s or themother’s side. Furthermore, theGreeks regarded labour as adisqualification for political rights, and almost all unskilled labour and most of the skilled wasperformedbyslaves.Thelatter,however,werewell treatedandnotonlyenjoyedpersonal libertybutalsotheopportunityofbecomingprosperous.

Again,thegovernmentundertheHellenicdemocracywasnotrepresentative.ThecitizenbodywassosmallthatallcouldmeetintheEcclesiaandregistertheirvotedirectlyonanyquestion.Appointmenttoofficewasbylotandnotelection,andaccordinglythenumberofcitizenswhoheldatonetimeoranother big or little offices included a great majority of the whole body. The result of this was anintimacyonthepartofallthecitizenbodywiththemachineryofgovernmentandtheprosandconsofeveryquestionasitarose.Theyvotedwithintelligenceandtheirvotescounteddirectly;asystemwhichhelpedimmenselytocultivatetheirintellectualkeenness.

ThetwoPersianinvasions,thefirstunderDatisandArtaphernes(490B.C.)inthereignofDariusI,thesecondbyXerxesinperson(480-479B.C.),hadprovedtheneedofcloserco-operationamongtheHellenicStates,andtheDelianLeaguewasformedundertheleadershipofAthensandwithAthensasthe“predominantpartner.”Anannualtributewaspaidbyallthemember-statesforthemaintenanceofafleet.AthenswasthetreasurerandthefleetwasmainlyAthenian,whilethecommanderswereentirelyso. The power thus concentrated in Athens gave her somarked a supremacy that Pericles used theLeaguetoformanAthenianEmpire.Thislastedaboutthirtyyears(461-430B.C.),duringwhichperiodAthensreachedtheculminationnotonlyofherpowerbutalsoofhermagnificence.ForPericlesspentthemoney,contributedbythealliesforcommondefence,inbeautifyingtheAcropolis;theexcusebeingthatindoingsohewasgivingglorytoAthena,whowasthepatrongoddessoftheLeague.Periclesalsoencouraged literature and counted amonghis friends three of the greatestGreekwriters—Sophocles,Herodotus,andThucydides.

ButthepowerofAthensincitedtheenvyoftheotherstates,whichrangedthemselveswithSparta.In the Peloponnesian wars, the supremacy of Athens was broken and the Athenian Empire wassucceededbyaSpartanEmpire,whichintimesuccumbedtotheThebanHegemony.FinallyHellaswasconqueredbyPhilipofMacedonandpassedintotheMacedonianEmpire,establishedbythiskingandenlargedbyhisson,AlexandertheGreat.

ThroughallthesestrugglesAthens,thoughdespoiledofhersupremacy,playedabigpartuntilshewasconqueredbyPhilipatChæronæa,in338B.C.ThelatterdateisadoptedastheendoftheGreatAge

which had lasted since 480 B.C., including within its circumference the age of Pericles. Besides itstriumphantachievementsinarchitectureandsculpture,theGreatAgecomprisedindramathenamesofÆschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes; in history, Herodotus, Thucydides; in oratory,Demosthenes; in philosophy,Aristotle andPlato.Meanwhile, the century preceding it had produced,amongthepoets,AnacreonandSappho;and,asrepresentativesofmathematics,astronomy,geography,and metaphysics, Thales, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaximander, andHecatæusofMiletus.

ItissignificantthatnoneoftheselastnamedpoetsandthinkersbelongedtothemainlandofHellas,but to the islands and cities of the Ionian group or to the adjacent Cyclades. And what is true ofliteratureisequallytrueofarchitectureandsculpture.InfactduringthefifthcenturyB.C.andalsothethree preceding centuries, culture had beenmore developed in Ionia than inAttica. For, through itscommercewith theEast, Ionia reachedahighstateofprosperityandborrowedsomethingofEasternluxuriousnessaswellasEasternthoughtandartideals,justasinturntheEastborrowedfromit.MiletuswasforalongtimethewealthiestandmostluxuriousofHelleniccities,rivalledonlybySybarisonthegulfofTarentum;oneoftheflourishingcitiesoftheso-calledMagnaGræciainthesouthofItaly.

SimilarlyCorinthundertheruleofhertyrants,CypselusandhissonPeriander(657-581B.C.),hadenjoyed a period of great prosperity. She extended her trade fromAsiaMinor and Egypt toMagnaGræciainthewest,andwasalsoagreatindustrialcentre,famousforitspottery,metalwork,andotherdecorativecrafts.Moreover,itwasreportedtohave“invented”painting.

Thesebriefreferencesservetoemphasisetwopoints:first,thewidespreadofHellenicculture;and,secondly, thevariety that itexhibited.Themostcherishedsentiment inHellas,aswehave remarked,was that of autonomy. Even under the hegemonies and empires, individual cities and colonieswerepermitted self-government and, as its corollary, self-development. Hence the variety in unity thatcharacterised Hellenic culture. The unity was strengthened and the variety diffused throughout thewholebytheFestival-contestswhichwereheldatregularintervals.Theseoriginatedinlocalreligiousfestivals,whichintimewerethrownopentocompetitorsfromallpartsofHellas.

Theoldest and thegreatestwas theOlympicFestival, held in thevalleyof the riverAlphæus inElis,whichwascelebratedatintervalsoffouryears.TheeventbecamesoimportantinthelifeofHellasthat the interval of four years between one celebration and the succeeding one, called anOlympiad,becamethemeasureforcomputingtime,thefirstOlympiadbeingreckonedas776B.C.Originallythefestival was held in honour of Hera, to whom a temple—the earliest as yet known in Hellas—wasdedicated,1000B.C.LaterthechiefhonourwaspaidtotheOlympianZeus.Histemple,whichintimecontained the celebrated chryselephantine statueof thegodbyPheidias, stood in a sacredgrove, theAltis,whichwasadornedwithstatuesof thesuccessfulathletes,madeby themost famoussculptors.Thesacredenclosurewassurroundedbywallsandcolonnades,adjoiningwhich,ononeside,werethegymnasium,palæstra,andbathsfortheuseoftheathletes,whosetraininginthesacredprecinctslastedfortenmonths,beforetheycouldcompeteinthestadium.ThelatteradjoinedtheAltisontheeastside.

FromallpartsofHellas,statesandcitiesviedwithoneanotherinfurnishingcompetitorsand,asthedateoftheFestivalapproached,heraldsproclaimedthroughouttheHellenicworldthe“TruceofGod”underwhich,forthetimebeing,warlikeoperationsweresuspendedandsafeconductwasguaranteedtoallvisitorstoOlympia.

TheinfluenceofSpartahadregulatedthecharacterofthecontestsofendurance:running,leaping,wrestling, boxing, towhich in timewas added chariot racing.But as the spirit of culture spread theOlympianandtheotherfestivalsincludedmusicalcontests,whilethepoetdeclaimedhisversesandthepaintershowedhisworkforthepleasureandprofitoftheassembledmultitudes.

The Olympic festival, in fact, was the supreme realisation of the Hellenic ideal: perfection of

physical development, joined to highest intellectual development and the finest development of thesenses. It was an ideal that involved the possible perfection of thewholeman, a harmony of body,senses,andintellect—theHellenicidealofBeauty.

Olympia,wroteLysias, is “the fairest spot on earth,” and, surely, in the loveliness of its naturalsetting,intheembellishmentswhichthearchitectandsculptorhadadded,inthegloryoftheyouthfulvigour of the competitors and the inspiration of poets and musicians, and, not least, in the joyousenthusiasmofthespectatorswasrealised,asperhapsnowhereelseatanytime,theBeautyofLife;theidea,asPlatotaught,thattheGoodistheBeautiful,theBeautifultheGood.

SuchwastheHellenicideal.Andanideal,needoneadd,isnotanaimthatisactuallyachievedbutone beyondour capacity to achievewholly, that yet gives continuous incentive to higher and noblereffort.Thisidealofthepossibleperfectionofmaninallhispartsisthehighesttowhichmanhaseveraspiredand theHellenesof theGreatAgecame thenearest toachieving it.Hence theirexamplehasbecometosucceedingagesClassic.

Having this ideal, theHellenes translated it as far aspossible intovisible form.NoathletecouldcompeteatOlympiaunlesshisbodyandhischaracterwerefreefromblemish;nostatueortemplemustbeerectedexceptasthefinestpossibleexpressionoforganicperfection.

For the beauty involved in the Hellenic ideal is organic beauty. Everything about Olympia, aseverythingaboutaHellenicTemple,mustperformitsfunctionintheorganicbeautyofthewhole.

Further,itistobenotedthatinthepursuitofthisidealtheGreeksdidnotrelyuponthefeelingofthesenses,noryetuponthejudgmentoftheintellect;butuponaunionofthetwo.Theysubmittedtheinspirationofthesensestoprocessesofreason.Inaword,theyintellectualisedtheirsensations.ItisthiswhichhasmadetheexpressionoftheiridealClassic.

It isnotnecessaryforourpresentpurposeto tracetheebbandflowof the influenceof this idealthroughthecenturies.ButwemayobservethatwhiletheRomansdespoiledHellasofherworksofartandimitated,asfarastheycould,theexternalsofheridealofbeauty,theArabs,Moors,andSaracensinlateryearsmoreintimatelyimbibeditsspiritandgavetheirownexpressiontoit.Italy,however,inthelatterhalfofthefifteenthcenturyandduringthesixteenth,camenearerthananyothernationtoboththespiritandtheformofHellenicculture.ForherscholarsandartistsweremoreinclinedtoemulatethantoimitatetheexampleoftheGreeksandtriedtoincorporatetheHellenicidealintotheirownlives.

Ontheotherhand,theClassicalrevivalwhichbegantowardtheendoftheeighteenthcenturyandhascontinuedintermittentlytoourownday,hasforthemostpartmadethemistakeofimitatinginsteadofemulating.Artistshavetriedtocopytheform,withoutimbibingthespirit.Butformsousedisliketheletterthatkilleth;withoutthespiritthatgivethlife.

Meanwhile,thereareindicationsthattheworldto-dayisgoingtoapproachnearertotheHellenicideal thaneverbeforeand insomerespects tobetter it.For therewasaflawin the latter. Itdespisedlabouranddeniedworkmenashareingovernment.Itsdemocracywasmerelyanextendedaristocracyand,sincethoseprivilegedtoshareinitreceivedpaymentwhilefillingoffice,ithasbeensaidthat“themajority of theAthenian citizenswere salaried paupers.”On the other hand, the theory, at least, ofmodernsocietyisthehonourablenessoflabour,andoneofthebestrecognisedproblemsofto-dayistheshaping of conditions in order that labourmay in truth be honourable—a blessing and not a curse,enhancingthebeautyoftheworker’slifeinsteadofstarvingit.Infact, themodernworldinadoptinganewtheHellenicidealofthebeautyofthewholelifeisgoingtocarryitfurther,toincludethewholelifeofthewholecommunity.

Moreover,ourhopeinbeingabletorevivetheHellenicidealandeventocarryitfartherconsistsinthe fact that the foundation of our progress, as of the Greek, has again become reason, and reason

establishedonawiderandfirmerbasis,owingtotheimmensedevelopmentofmodernscience.And,whilescienceencompassesevery fieldofhuman thoughtandactivity, its tendency ismoreandmoredirected to promoting the health and happiness of life. It is aiming anew at the Hellenic ideal ofphysical,moral andmentalperfection,not confined to a few,but embracingwhole communities andpeoples.

TherewasafurtherflawintheHellenicsystem.Itrelegatedwomentoaninactivepositioninthepublicaffairsoflife.Womenwereexcludedevenassight-seersfromtheOlympicGames.TheGreekworshipped the physical inwoman, but refuseddevelopment of her intellectual faculties.Their idealwas, in fact, centred in a single sex; it could not breed and perpetuate itself. But to-day the idea isspreadingthatthisisawoman’saswellasaman’sworld,andthattoapproximatetotheidealofhumanperfectionneedsthefull,free,andindependentco-operationofthewomanandtheman.

InconclusionletusnotehowinonerespecttheHellenicidealstilltranscendsourown.TherewasalogicintheGreek,towhichwehavehardlyyetattained.Itpracticallyamountedtothisthat“atreeisknownbyitsfruits.”Ifathingisgoodphysically,morally,andmentally,itmustnaturallymanifestitsgoodness so that it canbe appreciatedby the senses.Beautymust bemadevisible and audible.Thepossibilityof the idealmustbemadefamiliar toall, in literature, song,dance,drama,and theartsofbeautifuldesign.

To the Greeks æsthetics, the study of what is appreciated as beautiful by the senses, was not aseparatedepartmentoflife,asitisapttobewithus,butonlyanotheraspectofmoralityandreligion.Itwasthenaturalandinevitableexpressionoftheinwardspiritoftheideal.Howcouldaman’slifereachitshighestpossibilityifitdidnotloveandseekafterbeauty;howcouldacitybetrulygreatunlessitweremanifestlybeautiful?

OnecanhardlyimagineaHellen,whowishedtoretainanyreputationforintelligence,asserting,asmanypeoplearesatisfiedandevenseemproudtodointhesedays:“Idon’tknowanythingaboutart,butIknowwhatIlike.”Tothisitisonrecordthatanartistretorted,“Andsodoesacow.”Whichwouldhave been the sort of retort that aHellenmight havemade to the speaker,whom hewould at oncedeterminewasapersonoflowintelligence.

For Greek art, as we have already said, was not an expression solely of the senses; but of thesensationsguidedby the intellect;and itwas justasmuchapartofaGreek’s intellectual training toknowandunderstandandfeel—inaword,appreciate—art,asitwastofithimselfforotherservicestotheState.Yet,donotforgetit,theHelleneswerearaceoftradersandmanufacturers,likethebackboneofourcommunitiesto-day.

CHAPTERII

HELLENICARCHITECTURE

WEhavenotedinthepreviouschapterthatHellenicart,likeHellenicculturegenerally,wasaproductofthesensesguidedbytheintellect—theexpressionofintellectualisedsensations.Tohiscrudesensationstheartistappliedverymuchthesameprocessthatthemodernscientisthasappliedtocrudeoil,until,throughexperimentsguidedbyobservationandreasoning,hehasdevelopedrefinedoil,whichgivesthepurestandintensestpossibleillumination.ThustheHellenicartists,throughgenerations,refineduponthe forms of their architecture, to create a unity, distinguished by fitness, proportion, harmony andrhythm,until theybroughtit tothehighestdegreeofexpressionalcapacity;appealingaliketofeelingand to reason. It reached its highest expression in the temple, the supreme monument of thecommunity’scivicconsciousness.

ThedevelopedformoftheHellenicTempleresembledtheEgyptianinbeingaproductofthe“postandbeam”principleofconstruction;butdiffered in itspurpose that theoutsiderather than the insideshouldpresentsuperiordignityofdesign.ThechieffeatureofthelatterwastheOrder,asitiscalledinHellenicandRomanarchitecture,orcombinationofcolumnsandentablature.Itmightbeconfinedtoaportico at the entrance or supplemented by another portico in the rear, or still further extended by acolonnadethatsurroundedall

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THEPARTHENONP.140,ETC.

TEMPLESATPÆSTUMPOSEIDON,ATTHERIGHT.P.125

CHORAGICMONUMENTOFLYSICRATES,ATHENS.P.131

TEMPLEOFNIKEAPTEROSATHENS,“WINGLESS.”NOTICELOOPINGFILLETSINCAPITALS.P.141

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foursidesofthecellaordomos,houseofthegod,inwhichcaseitiscalledaperistyle.Theemphasisof theorderasaconstructiveanddecorativefeaturehasbeentracedbackbysome

students to theDorianpeople’sprimitivecustomofworshippingingroves.Thereligiousceremonies,which included a processionof theworshippers,wouldbe conducted amid the trees surrounding thealtarorshrine,andintimearoofingofcrosspiecesthatchedwithboughsmayhavebeenattachedtothetrees.Accordingly,thosewhoadoptthisviewsuggestthatwhentheuseofagrovewassucceededbyaconstructed temple, theoriginal featurewas theperistyle.Andpossibly there is a commemorationofthisintheperistyleoftheParthenon,whereaprocessionofworshippersofthegoddessisrepresentedinthesculpturedfriezethatembellishestheoutsideofthewallsofthecella—thusembodyinginthemosthighlydevelopedformofHellenictempleitsorigininprimitivereligion.

Thecharacteroftheformseemstohaveoriginatedinwoodconstruction,certainfeaturesofwhich—tobe referred to later—were retainedafterstoneormarblewasemployedandwere translated intodetails of decoration.Thegradual transition tomaterials of construction, less at themercyof fire, ishinted at by Pausanias, a Greek geographer and writer on art of the second century B.C., in hisdescriptionoftheHeraionorTempleofHera(Juno)atOlympia,theoldestknownexampleofaDoricTemple,attributedto1000B.C.

Thecellawall,hesays,wasconstructedofsun-driedbricksonalowercourseofstonework,buttheentablaturewas stillofwood,coveredwith terra-cotta.Onewoodencolumnwasstill standing in theopisthodomos,butelsewhereasthewoodencolumnsdecayedtheyhadbeenreplacedbystoneones;thedesign of their capitals showing that thework of restoration lasted from the sixth century toRomantimes.Theroofwascoveredwithtiles.Thecellawasdividedintoacentralnaveandside-aislesbytworowsofcolumnsforthesupportoftheroof,andtheaisleswereintersectedbysmallscreenwalls;thusforming alcoves, corresponding to the side-chapels of a Gothic cathedral. In one of these alcovesGerman explorers in 1878 discovered theHermes of Praxiteles, which is probably the only marblestatueinexistencethatwasactuallywroughtbythehandsofoneofthegreatsculptors.

EarlyDoric Examples.—TheDorianmigration pushed down throughMacedonia and Thessalyinto the peninsula ofGreece and spread through the islands of theÆgean as far asCrete, afterwardplanting colonies at Pæstum and other sites in Southern Italy and at Syracuse, Selinus, andAgrigentum inSicily.Throughout all thiswidearea theycarried theirparticular styleofOrder—theDoric. In developing it, they brought into play what has been judged their distinguishing trait ofcharacter—senseofproportion.

TheearliestknownexamplesofDorictemples,builtoriginallyofstone,areatCorinthandthatofPhœbusApolloontheislandofOrtygia,attheentrancetotheharbourofSyracuse.Inthese,whichareattributedtotheseventhcenturyB.C.,thecolumnsaremonolithswithwidelyprojectingcapitals,andsetso close together that the intercolumniationwas less than one diameter of the column.For the earlyGreeksappeartohavebeendistrustfulofthebearingcapacityofstoneascomparedwithwood.

BelongingtothesixthcenturyarethecolossalTemplesofZeusatSelinusandAgrigentumandtheTempleofPoseidon (Neptune) inPæstum. In the last the columns are composed of sections or“drums,”andtherearestillinpositioninthecellathesmallercolumns,superimposedonthemainonesforthesupportoftheroof.

The temples of the fifth century are distinguished by increased refinement in the matter ofproportion and details and by superior skill andworkmanship. They include theTemple ofAthene(Minerva) on the island ofÆgina; the so-called Theseum, supposed to have been dedicated toHeracles(Hercules),inAthens;andtheTempleofZeuswhichformsoneofthegroupoftemplesatOlympia. It is the most complete temple-group yet discovered, and was the scene of the religiousceremoniesinconnectionwiththePan-HellenicGames.

With the secondhalf of the fifth centurybegan the supremacyofAthens in the affairsofHellasunder the rule of Pericles,which enabled her as custodian of theHellenic treasury to undertake thebeautifyingoftheAcropolis.ThisculminatedintheParthenon,thenoblestexampleoftheDoricstyleand,asMr.A.D.F.Hamlinwrites,“themostfaultlessindesignandexecutionofallbuildingserectedbyman.”

Following,apparently,thetraditionofworshippingingroves,theDoriansplacedtheirtemplesinatemenos,orenclosureinwhichwereothershrines,altars,andtreasuries.Whetherthistemenoswasonahill-top,asinthecaseoftheAcropolisinAthensandthesiteofthetemple-groupinAgrigentum,orinavalleyonslopinggroundasatDelphi,theirregularitiesofthegroundweretakenadvantageofinthedispositionofthebuildings.Thuswascreatedanensembleinwhichartandnatureunited,whileinthe

case of a level site, as atOlympia,Delos, and Pæstum, the temples were grouped in picturesqueirregularity.

TemplePlans.—Thenucleusof the templeplanwas thenaos, containing the statueof thedeity.Adjoiningitwereotherchambers,connectedwiththeritualofworship;andthisaggregateofnaosandchambers,enclosedwithinwalls,isknownastheCella.

Itwasapproachedfromthefront,whichfacedtheeast,byacovered,columnedvestibule,openatthesides,calledthepronaos.Thiswasoftenrepeatedattherearunderthenameofepinaos,or,astheRomanscalledit,posticum.

Thepronaoswasenteredthroughaportico.Whenthelatterwascomposedofcolumns,setbetweentheprolongedsidesofthecella,thetypeofplanwascalledinantis.

When the side-walls were not prolonged, but terminated in pilasters, known as antiæ, and thesupportingmembersofthefrontfaçadeweresolelycolumns,thetypewascalledprostylarorprostyle.

If, under the same conditions the portico was repeated at the rear, the type was called amphi-prostylaroramphi-prostyle.

Ifthewholeweresurroundedbyacolonnadeorperistylethetypewasperipteral;whileifasecondrowof columnswere addedon each side, as in thegreatTemple of theOlympianZeus, erected inAthens during the Roman occupation, the type was dipteral. The external aisle, formed by thecolonnadeoneachsidewasknownasthepteroma.

Wheretherewasnoperistyle,butcolumns,knownasfalseorengaged,werebuiltintothewallofthecella,thetypewaspseudo-peripteral.

Therearealsotobementionedtheoctagonalplan,asseenintheToweroftheWindsinAthens;thecircularperipteralplanoftheTholosatEpidaurosandtheexamplesofirregularplanningpresentedbytheErechtheionandPropylæa.

Thetypewasfurtherdistinguishedbythenumberofcolumns—four,six,eight,orten—composingtheportico,as,respectively,tetrastyle,hexastyle,octostyle,anddecastyle.

ThustheParthenonisoctostyleperipteral;TempleofPoseidon,Paestum,hexastyleperipetral;ofJupiterOlympios,Atucus,octostyledipteral;ofApollo,Bassæ,inantis.

TempleForm.—Thecella,orchamberforthegod,wasbuiltoriginallyofwood;laterofsunburntbricksonalowercourseofstonework,thewholebeingcoatedwithathinlayerofstucco,asisfoundtohavebeenthepracticealsoinlaterDorictemplesinSicilyandItaly,wherethematerialwassoftstone.Toprotect itfromthedampofthegroundaswellastodignifyit, thecellawasraisedonaplatform,approachedbysteps.

Onthetopofthewallswaslaidaframeworkoftimbersills,crossedbytransversebeams,onwhichstoodpoststoholdtheridge-piece,fromwhichtheraftersslopedtothesills,sothattheroofwhichwasofwood,coveredwithsunburntbrickandlaterbytiles,formedeavestoprotectthecellafromtheroof-rain.

Thenextsteptoadddignitytotheentrancewouldbetoprolongthegableendinfrontandsupportitbyposts,soastoformaporchorportico.Atfirsttheweightofthismightbechieflycarriedbyanextensionofthesidewalls.Thenasuperioreffectoflightnessanddignitywouldbegiventotheporticobyomittingthesupportofthesidesandsubstitutingposts;while,forfurtherembellishment,asimilarporticomightbeextendedfromtherearofthecella.

Then, in thesearch fordignityandalso togivemoreprotectionfromweather to thewallsof thecella, the eaves of the roofwould be further prolonged outward andmade to rest on sills thatweresupported by a series of posts. In this way the cella was completely surrounded by a colonnade or

peristyle.As the use of stone or marble was adopted, the platform became the stylobate, which was

approachedbythreesteps,carriedalongtheentirelengthofallthesides.Thecellawasbuiltofmarbleorstucco-coveredstone,andmarbleorstonetooktheplaceofthesillsandbeamsoftheroof,butthelattercontinuedtobeconstructedofwood,supportedbysmallcolumnsrestingonthecapitalsoflargerones.Theoutsidesheathingoftheroofwasofterra-cottaormarbletiles.UnliketheroofofanEgyptiantemplewhichwas raised in thecentre toadmitclerestorywindows, thatofaHellenic templehadanuninterruptedslope.Whencethenwasthelightderivedfortheinterior?

Lighting.—Since all roofs, being of wood, have perished, the explanations that have beenattemptedarepurelyconjectural.AremarkbyVitruvius,theRomanarchitectandauthoroftenbooksonarchitecture,regardingtheTempleofZeusatAthensthatitwashypæthral(opentothesky)hasledtoasuggestionthatpartoftheroofmayhavebeenopen,asinthecaseofthePantheoninRome.But,atthetimehewrote,thecellawasexposedbecauseSullahadcarriedofftoRomesomeofthesupportingcolumns. Another Romanwriter, Strabo, describes the decastyleTemple ofApollo nearMiletus ashypæthral,butgivesas the reason theenormoussizeof the cella, inwhichpreciousgrovesof laurelbushesgrew.So,itispurelyasurmisethattheportionoftheroofmayhavebeenomittedandthatthetempleswerehypæthral.

Another theory, founded upon the discovery in a temple atBassæ of threemarble tiles, or thinslabs,piercedwithholesabout18inchesby10,isthatsomefiveofthese,letintoeachsideoftheroof,wouldhavelightedtheinterioramplywithoutadmittingmuchrain.Again,theuseofmarbletileshasafforded a suggestion that, Parian marble being very translucent, the light might have penetratedthrough.JamesFergusson,ontheotherhand,conjecturedthatatrenchwasletintoeachsideoftheroof;butthiswouldhaveneededdrainstocarryoffthewaterandnosignofasystemofdrainagehasbeenfoundinany temple.Otherauthorities,however,maintain that itwasonly throughtheopendoorwaythat lightwas admitted,which owing to the clear atmosphere ofGreece and the reflection from themarblepavement,wouldbesufficient.

TheOrders.—InHellenicarchitecture thereare twofullydevelopedOrders—orcombinationsofColumnsandEntablature—theDoricandtheIonic.Totheseareusuallyaddedathird,theCorinthian,which, however, though invented by the Hellenic artists, did not receive its full development as anindependentorderuntilemployedbytheRomans.Theprincipalmembersoftheclassiccolumnarethecapital,shaft,and,exceptintheDoricorderwheretheshaftwassetdirectlyonthestylobate,thebase.

DoricColumn.—ItispossiblethattheDorianstookthecharacteroftheircolumnoriginallyfromtheexampleofMinoanarchitecture.ForinafrescoatCnossosappearthefaçadesofthreetempleswithcolumns,andtherepresentationofthelattercorrespondswiththefactsdiscoveredintheactualremainsof thepalace.Thecolumnsareofwood, andhavenobase, since the shaft is let intoa socket in themasonry.Itiscrownedbyatorus,orcircularcushionwithahalf-roundedge,onwhichrestsasquareblock,theabacus.Theshaftdiffersinonerespect,itnarrowsdownward;whereasallHelleniccolumnstaperupward.ThereasonassignedfortheCretanpracticeisthatthetree-trunkwasinvertedsothatitmightretainthesap.

AllthesefeaturesarereproducedinstoneinthecolumnsofthedoorwayoftheTombofAtreusatMycenæ,whichhasbeenalreadymentioned.Theshaftsofthesecolumnsaredecoratedwithchevrons,whereastheGreeksintheirbestexamplesneverdecoratedtheshaft,nor,infact,anyotherpartofthestructurethatcarriedthechiefstrains.

UponthiscrudetypetheDorianarchitectscontinuallyimproveduntiltheyhadevolvedanorderofthe most subtle refinement. In the earlier examples the diminution upward of the shaft is morepronouncedthanintheParthenon,wherethediameteratthebottomis6feet3inchesandatthetop4

feet9 inches,whichgivesadiminutionofslightlyoveronequarterof the lowerdiameter.Theshaft,exceptinoneortwotemplesthatwerenotcompleted,wasalwaysfluted.Theflutesusuallynumberedtwenty,andwereellipticinsection,meetinginasharpedgeorarris,thusdifferingfromtheflat-edgedfillet that separated the flutings of the Ionic and Corinthian. In order to correct the optical illusion,suggested in adiminishing shaft, that the contours are concave, theyweremade slightly convex, theswellofthisentasis,astheconvexiscalled,beinggreatestataboutone-thirdofthedistancefromthebottom.

Astheshaftnearsthecapital,itisencircledbyanarrowgrooveorannula.Atthetopoftheshaftisaseriesofannulæ,someofwhicharecutintheshaftandothersinthelowermemberofthecapital,theechinus,sothattheshaftappearstoprojectinanecking,intowhichthecapitalisset.Theechinusisacircularcushionwithaneccentriccurve;acurve,thatistosay,thatisnotpartofacircle.(Comparebycontrastthesemi-circularcurveofthetorus.)Upontheechinussetsfirmlytheabacus,asquareblockwithasidemeasurementthesameasthediameteroftheechinus.

Theheightofthecolumnvariedinitsproportiontothelowerdiameter.IntheTempleofPoseidon,atPæstum,theheightisfourtimesthediameter;inthelaterexampleoftheParthenonnearlyfiveandahalftimes,whileintheTempleofJupiterNemæusitissixandahalftimes.

Theintercolumniation,orspacebetweenthecolumns,alsovaries.Intheoldertemplesitwasaboutonediameterofthecolumn,thespacebetweentheanglecolumnsbeingalwaysless;whileinthecaseoftheParthenonthedistancevariesfromonediameterto1.24;thisbeinganinstanceofdeviationfromgeometricalregularitytobereferredtolater.

Itremainstomentiontheantæ.Thesewereflat,right-angledcolumns,projectingslightlyfromthewall of thepronaos at the corners, facing the endcolumns.While they correspond to the latter, theydiffer in three respects. The shaft did not taper and was set on a small base, while the capital wasdistinguishedbydifferentmouldings.Forthemouldingssuitabletoafree-standingcolumn,supportingactualweightwerefelttobeunsuitedforamemberattachedtoawall,whosefunctionsweredecorative.

DoricEntablature.—The principalmembers of the entablature are thearchitrave or supportingmember,thefriezeordecorativemember,andthecorniceorprotectingmember.

Thearchitrave,asitsnameimplies,“thechiefbeam”oftheentablature,restsimmediatelyupontheabacus;itsedgecorrespondingneitherwiththatoftheabacusnorwiththetopedgeoftheshaft,butsoadjusted to both as to ensure a feeling of complete stability. The architravewas usually plain[1] andcrownedwith aprojecting fillet, called the tænia,whichbeneath the triglyphs, is supplementedby alowerfillet,knownastheregula.Ontheundersideofthelatterweresixstuds,whichrecallperhapsthewoodenpegswithwhichtheendsofthebeamsinprimitiveconstructionwerefastened.

The frieze is avertical surface, composedalternatelyof triglyphs andmetopes.The triglyphs, socalled because they are divided into three vertical channels, represent the ends of the primitivelongitudinalsillsofthecellaroof;andarecollectionofthewoodworker’scraftwasstillpreservedinthechamfer or hollow of their outer edges. The function of the triglyphs was to support the cornice.Generallytheyweresetaboveandbetweenthecolumns,butateachendoftheentablatureoneadjoinsthecorner,therebyincreasingtheeffectofstability.

Thespacebetweenthetriglyphs,calledthemetope,wasoriginallyleftopen,exceptforawoodenshutter tokeepoutbirds.But in themostelaborateexamplesof laterdate themetopewasdecoratedwith sculpture in high relief. Those of the Parthenon contained groups, representing fights withCentaurs,Amazons,andTrojans.

Above thefriezewas thecornice,which,asaprotectionfromthedripof theroof,projected toadistance,aboutone-thirdofthediameterofacolumn.Itschiefmemberswereaverticalband,knownas

thecorona, and anunder-part, the soffit. The latter sloped downunder the corona at about the sameangle as the slope of the roof, andwas decorated above each triglyph andmetopewith amutule orsquareblock,studdedwitheighteenguttae,ordrops,adevicethatrecallsthemethodofmakingfasttheendsoftherafterswithwoodenpegs.

The cornice was carried up the two sloping edges of the roof, but here distinguished by anadditionalfeature,thecymatiumorgutter.Thetriangleorgablethusformedbythethreecorniceswascalledthepediment. Itwasembellishedat the topandendswithsmallpedestals,acroteria,onwhichstoodfiguresorconventionalornaments.

In aDoric temple the corona, on the sidesof thebuildingwaswithout a cymatium,but studdedinsteadwithante-fixae,ornamentsofterra-cottaormarble,placedoppositetheendofeachtile-ridgeofthe roof. The latter, as we have already noted, was covered with tiles of marble or terra-cotta, andfinishedatthetopwithridge-tiles.

Themerereadingofthesedetailsisdryenough.Theyshouldbereadwithaneyeontheexamplesillustratedbutalsowithamindconstantlyalert to thinkout the functionandappropriatenessofeachfeature. For the principle of Hellenic construction was that everymember should perform a specialfunction.The architect’s logicwouldnotpermit him, aswe say, to send aboyon aman’s errandorwasteamanbyemployinghimatboy’swork, still less toconfuse the responsibility for the functionbetweentwoormoremembers.Accordingly,thestudentwhoisreadingintelligentlywillassurehimselfateachstepas towhatparticular responsibilitywas laiduponeachmemberandhowappropriately itwasfittedtoitsfunction.

IonicOrder.—FromthegrandiosesimplicityoftheDoricorderwepasstotheslendererandmoregracefulanddecoratedorderoftheIonic.Itisalmostlikepassingfromamasculinetoafemininetype:fromareflectionoftheseveredisciplineoftheoldDorian,asperpetuatedbytheSpartans,tothemorepleasure-lovingandelegantlifeofthewealthyIonians;fromthegraveinfluenceoftheOlympianZeus,chiefgodoftheDorians,tothegraceoftheyouthfulApolloandArtemis,belovedoftheIonians.

FortheIonicorder,as thenameimplies,wasdevelopedbytheAsiaticHelleneswhosemigrationfromArmeniahasbeenalreadynoted.FromthemtheGreeksofEuropeborrowedit.AmongtheearliestknownexamplesareaTempleofApolloatNaucratis,inEgypt,andthearchaicTempleofArtemis,atEphesus,bothbelongingtoabout560B.C.Theremainsof thelatterare in theBritishMuseum.Theyinclude two capitals, inscribed with the name of Crœsus, who is known to have contributed to thetemple.

AsintheDoricorder,theIonictemplerestedonastylobateofthreesteps,butthecolumnisalsoprovidedwithabase.Thelatterwasusuallycomposedoftwotori,ofsemi-circularprofile,separatedbya concavemoulding or scotia. Sometimes, as in theErechtheion at Athens, the base stood upon asquare, flatbase-block,orplinth.Frequently the toriwereembellishedwithhorizontal flutingsor theinterlacingwave-lines,calledguilloche.

TheIonicshaftwasproportionatelyhigherthantheDoric,beingfrom8to10diametersinheightascomparedwiththe4⅓to7oftheDoric.Consequently,theentasiswasless.Theintercolumniationwassometimesasmuchastwodiameters.Theshaftwasincisedwithtwenty-fournarrowflutings,separatedbyflat-edgedfillets.

The capital usually commencedwith a narrow convexmoulding, called theastragal, whichwasoftenenrichedwiththealternatebeadandspoolornament.Abovethiswastheechinus,decoratedwiththeegg-and-dartpattern.Buttheechinusisonlypartlyvisible,sinceitisencroacheduponbythemainfeature of the capital, a fillet that passes across the face and at the sides winds inward upon itself,forming a volute, which projects beyond the echinus. Above this was a low abacus, enriched with

ornament,onwhichsetthearchitrave.In some instances,as in theErechtheion, the fillet formsa loopingcurve, thevolute isenriched

withintermediatefilletsandtheneckingisdecoratedwiththeanthemionornament.The Ionic capital presented awkward features which the ingenuity of the architects never quite

succeededindisguising.Inthefirstplacetheabacusprojectedbeyondthefaceofthearchitravewhichfromthesideviewofferedanunsightlyappearance.Secondlyarosetheproblemoftreatingthevolutesofthecornercolumns,sothattheeffectmightbesymmetricalonbothsidesofthebuilding.Thiswassolved by converting the side end of the capital into another face, the adjacent volutes at the cornerbeingbroughtoutatanangleofforty-fivedegrees.Thisresultsinanawkwardarrangementatthebackwheretwohalf-volutesintersecteachotheratrightangles.

TheIonicarchitraveconsistsoftwoormorefasciæ,orverticalfaces,projectingoneovertheother.This recalls the original wooden construction and suggests that the Ionians used planks, while theDoriansusedasinglebeam.Itwascrownedwithsmallmouldings,frequentlyenrichedwithornament.

Above thiswas thefrieze,sometimes leftplain,atother timesenrichedwithsculpturedreliefs. Itwasjoinedbyamouldingtothecornice.

The latter, in the simpler form adopted by theAthenians, consisted of a plain corona, a fillet ofbead-and-spool ornament, a row of egg-and-dart moulding, and the cymatium or gutter, whichwasoftenembellishedwithlionheads.

InAsiatic-Ionic examples, however, the cornicewasmore elaborate: a row of narrow blocks ordentils, crownedwitha carved fillet,being insertedbeneath thecorona,while, further, thecymatiumwas embellished with a repeat of the anthemion decoration. This style is distinguished by the termOrnamentedIonic.

TheoriginofthedentilmayprobablybetracedtotheLycianTombs,wheretheyarerepresentedbytheendsofthebeamsoftherooforgable.Thevoluteappearsasadecorativefeatureonthefaçadeoftheso-calledTombofMidasinPhrygia. Italsooccursasadecorativefeature inAssyrianartandisfound in the capitalsof the small columnsof apavilion represented in the reliefs atKhorsabad.Themotive of the spiral is also found in Mycenæan jewelry. Professor William H. Goodyear in his“Grammarof theLotus,”suggests that thevolutemayhaveoriginated insuccessivevariationsof theEgyptianlotuspatterns.

TheDoricandIonicordersweresometimescombinedinthesamebuilding,asinthePropylæa.CorinthianOrder.—TheCorinthianorder representsa still furtheradvance inornateness,which

howeverbytheHellenicarchitectswasconfinedtothecapitalofthecolumn.ForthebaseandshaftofthecolumnsandtheentablaturefollowedtheIonicorder.Theembellishmentof thecapitalmayhavebeenderivedfromtheoldcustomofattachingmetalornamentsoractualfoliagetoaltarsandpedestals;and it may be possible to trace the growth of the Corinthian style from the Ionic in the repeat ofpalmettes thatoccursbelowthevolutes in thecapitalsof theeastporticoof theErechtheion.On theotherhand,thegeneralbell-formofthecapitalmayhavebeenderivedfromEgyptianlotuscapitals.

TheCorinthianorderwasusedbytheAtheniansonlyintheirsmallerstructures[2]andreacheditsmostrefinedformintheChoragicMonumentofLysicratesinAthens.Heretheflutingsoftheshaftterminateat the top in leaves thatcurveoutward.Above themisaband thatmayhavebeencoveredwithabronzecollar,fromwhichspringarowofsmalllotusleaves.Thencomeeightbeautifulacanthusleaves, between each of which is an eight-petalled rosette, suggesting a lotus-flower. They aresurmountedatthecornersbystalksoftheacanthus,partlysheathedwithleaves,thatturnoverwithaspiralandformscrollstosupporttheabacus.ThelatterintheCorinthianorderhasconcavesides.

The details vary so much in Hellenic examples of Corinthian capitals that, as we have already

noted,thetypehadnotyetbeendevelopedintoanindependentorder.ItsfinaldevelopmentwasworkedoutbytheRomans,towhomitsmagnificenceespeciallyappealed.

Ornament.—Theacanthus plant belongs to Southern Europe and thewarmer parts ofAsia andAfrica.Thecommonspeciesfoundthroughout theMediterranean,has large,deeplycut,hairy leaves.AsadecorativemotivetheGreeksfirstreproduceditinmetalandthencarveditinstone,usingitwithparticularlyfineeffectontheuprightformoftombstoneknownasstela.While theyconventionalisedtheleaves,theypreservedthecharacterofvigorousandatthesametimegracefulgrowth.TheygaveasharpnesstothetipsoftheleavesthatdistinguishestheiruseofitfromtheRoman.

The anthemion ornament is often called the “honeysuckle pattern” from its resemblance to thatflower.Butitissupposedtobeaconventionalisationofthefloweroftheacanthus,whilerelatedasadecorativemotivewiththeformsoftheEgyptianlotusandthePersianpalmette.

The egg-and-dart border presents a repeat in which the form of an egg, set in a concave oval,alternateswithaverticalbarthatmayormaynotterminatebelowinamoreorlesspronouncedarrow-tip.Itpermitsthemostsubtletreatmentoftheplanesoftheegg,andofthecontrastbetweenthesmoothsurfacesandthesharpnessoftheotherdetails.

Thebead-and-spoolrepeatexplainsitself.Itshowsavariation,accordingastheconventionalisationwasderivedfromaspoolthatiswoundorthatisunwound.

Theheart-leaf, also sometimescalled the lily-leaf, is a remarkable instanceof theclosenesswithwhich theGreek artist studied nature and of the imagination he displayed in simplifying the naturalformintoaconvention,whileatthesametimepreservingtheprinciplesofitsconstruction.

Projections.—Unlike Egyptian architecture, the Hellenic is distinguished by the number andimportanceofitsprojections;whichmaybecomparedtothelines,angles,andcurveswhichconstitutethefeaturesofahumanfaceandgiveitexpression.Theyarethemeansbywhichthearchitectengravesuponhisbuildings expressivedesignsof light and shade.Wehave already spokenof theprojectionsinvolved in the column and entablature, but may now specifically enumerate the various types ofmoulding that these involve; noting at the same time the particular ornament thatwas employed oneach, if itweredecorated.Forsuchwas the logicandrefinementof theHellenic taste that itadoptedmotivesofornamentthatcorrespondedtotheplanesofthesurfacesofthemoulding.

Thus,whenthemouldingtooktheformofthecymarecta—acurveoutwardgrowingintoacurveinward—Hogarth’s “line of beauty”—the decorative feature applied to it was the anthemion, whosecurveshaveacorrespondingdirection.Ontheotherhand,forthereversedformofmoulding,knownasthecymareversawhere the inward precedes the outward curve, they used the heart-leaf.Again, themouldingknownasovolo,inwhichthecontourofaneggisfollowed,isenrichedwiththeegg-and-dart.

Thefillet,asmallbandusedtoseparatetheothermouldings,wasusuallyleftplain;asalsowerethesimplehollow,calledcavetto,andthedeephollowwhichseparatedthetwotoriinthebaseofcolumns.Whenthetoruswasembellished,themotivesusedonthesemicircularsurfaceweretheinterweaveorplait,knownasguilloche,orrowsofleaves,tiedwithbands,sothatthemouldingresembledawreath.Another small, separatingmouldingwas thebead, which in contour approaches a circle, and, whendecorated,receivedthebead-and-spoolenrichment.

ThedistinctionoftheHellenicuseofallthesemouldingsandenrichmentswastheextremedelicacyofthecutting,whichthehardnessofthemarblepermittedandtheclearsunshinehelpedtoreveal;sothatithasbeensaidthat“whiletheHellenesbuiltlikeTitans,theyfinishedlikejewellers.”Butthisdidnot involve a finicking precision, for itwas but an instance of the feeling for proportion and choicerelationofpartstooneanotherthatembracedthewholebuilding.

OrganicRelations.—Theheightof thebuildingwas thoughtfullyproportioned to the lengthandwidth;theheightoftheshaftofthecolumnwasconsideredinrelationtothediameter.Similarcarewasexpended on the proportions of the several members of the capitals and entablature, and theintercolumniationborerelationtothelowerdiameteroftheshafts.Ineveryparticular,greatorlittle,theeffortwastocreateaunifiedimpressionoforganicharmonyandrhythmicalrelations.

Now the term organic is primarily used of the living bodies of animals and plants, the parts ofwhicharenotonlyconnectedbutperformcertainfunctionsinrelationtothewell-beingofthewhole.AnditisanextensionofthisideathattheHellenesappliedtothegeometricalharmonyonwhichtheirarchitecturewasbased.Theyconsideredthefunctionsofeachpart—theamountofsupport itgaveorstrain it had to sustain and so forth; and havingmade provision for this as constructors, they wereconsistent to theprinciplealso in theiræstheticconsiderationasartists.Theymodified the sculpturaldecorationaccordingtothefunctionof theparts;givingleast to thosewhosefunctionofsupportwasmost important and increasing the quantity and the boldness of the curving as the structural straindiminished.

Thustheshaftofthecolumnwasfreeofanycarvingexceptthefluting,which,however,servedthepurposeofchannelstocarrytherainwaterandhelpedtopreservethemassfromdecay.Thecapitalin

theDoricstylewasnotenrichedwithornament,andsimilarlyplain,withveryfewexceptions,wasthearchitrave. Meanwhile, sculptured figures in high relief were introduced into the metopes whichoriginallyhadbeenopenings,while the tympanumor flat surfaceof thepediment receivedgroupsoffigures in the round.This increasedboldnessof relief,accompaniedby foreshorteningof the figures,wasadoptedtooffset thediminishingeffect that theirgreaterdistancefromthespectator’seyewouldotherwisehavesuggested.Moreover,inthesculptures,asinthecarvingofthemouldings,thevaryingquantities of light were considered. Themouldings on the outside of a temple in full sunlight weredifferently planned from those in the interior; and the shadow cast by the cornices was taken intoaccountingraduatingthereliefofthesculpturesinthemetopesandpediments.

Norwastheactualworkdonebyartists,butundertheirsupervisionbypupilsandmasons.Fromtherecordsofpaymentsmade to the sculptorswhoworkedon theErechtheion it appears that theywereordinarymasons,someofthemnotevencitizens,whowerepaidforeachfigurethesumof60drachms,or12dollars!

Finally,thedecorationofaGreekTemplecomprisednotonlysculpture,butalsopainting.AlargepartofeveryDorictemplewascoveredwithstrong,brightcolours,whilecertainprominentdetailsweretreatedwith elaborate patterns.The figures of the sculpture alsowere painted and relieved against abackgroundofcontrastedcolour.

It has been discovered that the triglyphs were painted blue and the metopes red and that themouldingsweredecoratedwithornamentinred,blue,green,andgold.Thewallsandthecolumnswereprobablystainedyelloworbuff,perhapsbytheuseofwaxmeltedonthesurface(encaustic).

Asymmetries or Refinements.—It might seem that, in the various particulars we have noted,Hellenic intellect and feeling had exhausted the possibilities of refinement. But there is yet anotherinstance, which was first revealed by the detailed measurements of Hellenic temples madeindependentlybytwoEnglishmen,FrancisCranmerPenroseandJohnPennethorne,andbyaGermanarchitect,JosephHoffer.Theresultswerepublishedin1838andin1851,andhavebeencorroboratedbyotherstudents.Theyareknownasarchitectural“refinements”or“asymmetries.”

It had been assumed that, since the formof the temple typewas apparently symmetrical, it alsoinvolvedabsolutesymmetryofdetails;thatgeometricalregularityandmathematicalaccuracywerethenecessary and natural conditions of the architectural design. By those investigators, however, it wasdiscoveredthatthoughtheprinciplesofgeometryandmathematicswerethefoundationoftheplanninganddesigning,regularityandaccuracywerepurposelyavoided;andthatsofarfromthedetailsbeingsymmetricaltheyexhibitintentionalasymmetries.

One of these irregularities is the substitution of curved for straight lines. We have alreadymentioned theentasisor swell in theverticalcontourof thecolumn—afactnotobservedbymodernarchitects until 1810; but curvature is also found in the horizontal lines of the stylobate and thearchitrave,frieze,andcornice,andinthegablelinesofthepediments.Andsincethesewerediscoveredothervariationsofequalimportanceandsignificancehavebeenfound.

“In the Parthenon, for instance,” (the quotation is from the writings of Professor William H.Goodyear)“surfacesormemberswhicharesettruetoperpendiculararemostexceptional.Perhapstheendwallsaretheonlyexception.Allthecolumnsleaninwardaboutthreeinchesinthirtyfeettowardthecentreof thebuilding.Thesidewalls lean inward.Theantæ,or flatpilastersat theanglesof theendsofthewalls,leanforwardoneunitineighty-twounits.Thefacesofthearchitraveandfriezeleanbackward,whereastheacroteria,thefaceofthecorniceandthefaceofthefilletbetweenarchitraveandfriezeleanforward.Furthermore,thecolumnsandcapitalsoftheParthenonareofunequalsize,andthewidthsofthemetopesandtheintercolumnarspacingsarealsounequal.”

Thediscoveryofthesevariationswaspooh-poohedbyarchitectswhohadbeentrainedtobelievethat “correct” architecture depended upon geometrical regularity and mathematical accuracy. Theydismissed them lightly as “mason’s errors.” But this will not hold for three reasons. Firstly, theseasymmetries only occur in the finest examples, where the design and the details are of superiorrefinementandtheskillofthemasonsmostunmistakable.Secondly,thenumberofvariationsincreasesproratawiththesuperiorityofthedesign,reachingtheirmaximumintheParthenon.And,thirdly,incases which are unquestionably due to mason’s errors the amount of the variation is practicallynegligible.Isitlikely,forexample,thatthemasonswhobroughtthetwoendsoftheParthenonwithinone quarter of an inch of being exactly equal in width, would have been so careless as to let thepresumably horizontal lines curve up four inches on the sides of the buildings and two inches at itsends?Or,again,wouldtheyhavecommittedsoflagrantanerrorasgivingthestylobateaconvexcurveupward, since it necessitated a corresponding curve to thebaseof each column, amost difficult anddelicateoperationofcutting?Theperfectadjustmentofthesetwocurves,bytheway,isoneofmanyargumentsagainstthetheorythatthesevariationswerecausedbysettlementsinthefoundationsor,inthecaseoftheParthenon,bytheexplosionwhichwreckedit in1687,whenitwasbeingusedbytheTurksasapowdermagazine.

The fact having been established that these variations were intentional, how are they to beexplained?Agenerallyacceptedexplanationof thecurvatures inplaceof straight lineshasbeen thattheywereintendedtocorrectanopticaleffectofcurvatureintheoppositedirection.Thus,ifthecontourof a column shaft were a straight line, it would appear to the eye to curve inward; similarly, thehorizontal lines of the stylobate and entablature would appear to sag downward. Accordingly, the“refinements” were designed as optical corrections of optical effects of irregularity; in other words,geometricaleffectissupposedtohavebeensoughtbydeparturesfromgeometricfact.

This, however, would not explain the other variations that have been noted. Moreover, it iscontradictedeveninthecaseofcurvaturesbyadiscoveryofProfessorGiovannoniofRome,that thefaçade of theTemple atUri has a curvature inplan.[3] The columns, that is to say, are not set to astraight line but to a curve which is concave to the exterior; consequently the entablature iscorrespondinglycurved,theeffectofwhichtotheeyeasitlooksupistheveryonethatitwasexplainedthearchitectsstrovetoavoid—asagdownwardfromtheends.Inthiscasetheydeliberatelydesignedthefaçadetoproducetheeffect.

This explanation of optical corrections, then, as well as others, have been proved erroneous byProfessor William H. Goodyear, who has made a life-long study of the subject and carried hisinvestigations also into Gothic architecture, in which, as we shall see, he has discovered numerousinstances of refinements and asymmetries. His explanation, supported by a wealth of conclusiveevidence which is set forth in his “Greek Refinements,” is that the motive was æsthetic. Therefinementsweremodulationsdesignedtopleasetheeyebyavoidingtheinartisticeffectsproducedbyformal monotony. They were planned to do away with the monotony and rigidity that result fromgeometrical regularity and mathematical accuracy and to introduce a suggestion of elasticity. Theyimpartedtothestructuresomethingoftheirregularitythatcharacterisesorganicgrowth.Itisbecause,with rare exceptions, they are not found in modern classical buildings, that the latter appear bycomparisonsostiffandformal.

Theseasymmetries,infact,wereintendedtooffsettheliabilityofthebeauty’sbecoming“faultilyfaultless,icilyregular,splendidlynull,deadperfection,nomore.”

WithfewexceptionstheHellenictemplewasoriented;itsfoursidesfacingexactlythefourpoints

of the compass, the principal entrance being on the east. It opened into the cellawhichwas usually

dividedintowhatmaybecalledanaveandsideaislesbytworowsofcolumnswhichcarriedsmallercolumnsthatsupportedthepitchoftheroof.Wherethecellawasnarrow,asintheTempleofApolloEpicurios (“The Helper”) at Bassæ, near Phigaleia, the rows of columns were replaced by half-columns, attached to projections from sidewalls. The cellawas occupied by the statue of the deity,which in the caseof theParthenonwas theAtheneParthenos, theMaidenAthene, oneof themostrenownedworks of Phidias.The draped figure of the goddesswas represented standing, armedwithhelmet,spearandshield,supportinginonehandaWingèdVictory.Thestatuewasaboutfortyfeethighandof thekindknownas “chryselephantine,” thedraperies and accessories beingof goldplates, thefleshpartsivory,withpreciousstonesinsertedintheeyes.

Behind this statue was the entrance to a small room, situated between the cella and theopisthodomos, an exceptional feature from which the name of the temple was derived. It was theParthenonproper,orVirgin’sChamber,which seems tohavebeenusedasa treasury. Its ceilingwassupportedbyfourIoniccolumns.

TheIonicorderinconjunctionwiththeDoricwasalsoemployedinthePropylæaormonumentalgatewayoftheAcropolis.ThismasterpieceofMnesiclespresentsanirregularityofplan,exhibitingtheHellenicarchitect’sreadiness toadapthisdesignto thepeculiaritiesof thesite.WhileDoriccolumnsmarktheexterior,Ionicwereusedintheinteriortodignifythecentralpassageway.Asimilaruseofthisorder for interior embellishmentwas adopted by Ictinus, the chief architect of the Parthenon, in hisotherwiseDoricdesignoftheTempleofApolloEpicurios.

Ontheotherhand,theIonicorderwasemployedontheexterioroftheErechtheion,anotherworkofMnesiclesalsoirregularinplan.ItoccupiesaslopingsiteontheAcropolis,whereanoldertemple,burntbythePersians,hadstood.SpoilsofthePersianconquestwerepreservedinitwithotherrelics,held in special veneration. The nucleus of the design is a cella without colonnades (apteral), thesanctuaryofAthenaPolias (theCity’sGuardian)andofErechtheus (amythicheroof theAthenians)and theOcean-god,Poseidon.The exterior is distinguishedby two Ionicporticoes, andby a third, asmallerone, inwhich thecolumnsarereplacedbycaryatides,sixdrapedfemalefigureswhoseheadssupportthearchitrave.Allthesefiguresfacesouth,thethreetothewestrestingtheirweightontherightlegs;thethreeeasternontheleft—ineachcasetheouterlegs—thusgivingtotheoutercontouroftheirbodiestheeffectofentasis.

Another Ionic exampleon theAcropolis is theTemple ofAtheneNike (Victory), knownas theTempleofNikeApteros;theterm“Wingless,”however,notdescribingthestatueofthegoddessbut,asusedabove,thestyleofthedesign—withoutcolonnades.

Theatres.—Onlysecond in importance to theHellenic templeswere the theatres.Bothservedasmemorialsoftheancienttraditionsoftheraceandasanincentivetohighercitizenship.Forthedrama,whichhaditsorigininreligiousobservances,wasacivicinstitution,maintainedbythestateandfreetoallcitizens.

The origin of theGreek drama is to be found in the primitiveworship ofDionysos, the god ofproductiveness,andtothelasttheGreekstageandauditoriumperpetuatedintheirformsometraceoftheirreligiousorigin.ThenucleuswasanaltarconsecratedtoDionysos.Inearliest timeseachfamilymay have erected its own altar, presided over by the father of the family as priest. Later eachcommunitywouldhave itsofficial priest, andon thegod’s feast-dayall thevillagerswouldmove inprocessiontothecommonaltar,headedbythepriestandachoirofsingers,trainedbyhim.Thealtarreached,thepriestwouldmountthepedestal,surroundedbythechoir,whilethebodyofworshippersdisposedthemselvesaroundthespot.Thepriestwouldrecitethegreatnessofthegodandatintervalsthechoirofvoiceswouldchantthedithyrambicsong,movingaroundthealtarandaccompanyingthe

songwithrhythmicmovementofbodyandlimbs.Fromthisrootofareligiousdramaintimegrewsuccessivestems.Theprowessofsomeherowould

beadoptedasatheme.Atfirstthepriest,oritmaybesomewanderingpoet,wouldnarratethestory;laterhewouldtreatitinthefirstperson,impersonatingthehero,sometimesengagingindialoguewiththechorus.Stilllater,otherpersonagesinthestorywouldbeseparatelyimpersonated,andsothescopeofthedramaticrepresentationdeveloped.

Meanwhiletheaffairstillmaintainedasemi-religiouscharacter;theplaceofpresentationwasstillaroundthealtarofDionysosandthechoruswasretained,takingitspartintheactionwithexplanationandcomment,stilldelivered,however,indithyrambicmeasureandwithaccompanimentsofrhythmicgesture.Theplatformofthealtarbeinglimitedinspace,thedialoguewasusuallyconfinedtotwoactorsatatime,thoughathirdwassometimesallowed.Iftherewereothercharactersinvolved,theseactorswouldoften“double”theparts;disguisingthemselvesbychangeofcostume,especiallybytheuseofmasks.Thisdemandedsomekindofascreenbehindwhichtheactorscouldchangetheircostumesandalsowaituntiltheirpresencewasrequired.Skinshunguponpoleswouldatfirstservethepurpose,oraskene or tent, from which we derive our word scene, might be used. Whichever it were, it wouldinterferewiththeviewoftheactionfromthebackandsodrawtheaudiencetothe“front.”

ThemostimportantremainsofHellenictheatresaretheTheatreofDionysos,[4]cutoutoftheside

oftheAcropolis,andthetheatreatEpidauros,inArgolis,Greece.TheplanofthetheatreofDionysosisthatofasemi-circle,theendsofwhichareprolongedforashortdistanceinadirectionatrightanglestothefrontoftheskene.Withinthehorseshoewasthecircularorchestra,stillwholeatEpidauros, inwhich themain actionwas carried onby actors and chorus.Adifferent plan is givenby theRomanarchitect,Vitruvius.Itistobenoted,however,thatVitruviuslivedinthereignofAugustus,bywhichtimewhatwaspureHellenichadbecomemodifiedbyforeigninfluencesintoHellenistic.Herelates,forexample,thatinhistimetheheightofthelogeionorspeakingplatform—thestageofto-day—wasfrom10to12feet.Inearliertimes,includingprobablytheperiodoftheClassicdrama,thelogeionwastheplatformaroundthealtar,supplementedpossiblybyaplatformtwoorthreefeethighextendingacrossthefrontoftheskene,fromwhich,atcertainpointsintheplay,some,atleast,oftheactorsspoke.Thisplatform,beinginfrontofthesceneandenclosedatthesidesbyprojectionsofthelatter,wascalledtheproskenion,fromwhichisderivedourwordprosceniumwithitsdifferentmeaning.

BythetimethattheHellenictheatrehadevolvedintoapermanentstructure,theskene,originallyatemporaryscreen,tooktheformofanarchitecturalbackground,sometenfeethigh,withacentraldoorfor theentrancesof theactors.But the ideaof theoriginalscreenwasperhapsretained in therowofcolumnswhich stood a little in front of the skene, and could be used, if needed, for the hanging ofcurtainsorevenofpaintedcloths.Meanwhile,theroofoftheportico,whichextendedfromthecolumnstotheskene,couldbeutilisedbytheactorsatcertainstagesofthedrama.[5]

TheinterestofthediscussionraisedbyVitruvius’descriptionconsistsinthequestionhowfartheactorsmingledwith orwere separated from the chorus,which continued to occupy theorchestra orcircle on the floor of the auditorium, corresponding to the place of the orchestra stalls in amoderntheatre.TheorchestraofaGreektheatrewasoriginally thesole“stage,”butgradually,as thedramasinvolvedmorecomplexityofscenes,theactorswouldvarytheirpositionbetweentheorchestraandtheproscenium;and later, inHellenistic times,as thereligiousoriginof thedramawasforgottenand theuseofachorusbegantofallintoabeyance,theuseoftheprosceniumwouldincrease.

Finally,when theRomansbegan to imitate theGreekdrama, theydropped thechorus; theactingwasconfinedtotheproscenium,andtheorchestranolongerneededfortheplay,becameapartoftheauditorium,reservedfordistinguishedspectators.TheRomantheatre,infact,likeourown,represented

thecompleteseparationoftheaudienceandthestage.Odeion.—SupplementingthetheatrewastheOdeionorconcerthall,whichwasconstructedonthe

samegenerallinesbutdistinguishedbytheadditionofaroofforacousticpurposes.TheoldestknownistheSkias atSparta, socalled from its roof resembling the topofaparasol.TheOdeionofPericles,whichservedasamodelforsubsequenthalls,wasbuiltonthesoutheasternslopeoftheAcropolis,itsroof beingmade in imitation of the tent of Xerxes and constructed of themasts of Persian vessels,capturedatthebattleofSalamis.Themostmagnificentexample,however,waserectedA.D.162onthesouthwest slope,byawealthycitizen,HerodesAtticus, inmemoryofhiswife. Its ceiling is said tohave been composed of beams of cedar, carved with ornament, while decorations in the form ofpaintingsandotherworksofartembellishedtheinterior,whichhadaccommodationforeightthousandpersons.

CHAPTERIII

ROMANCIVILISATION

SUCHempireasHellasachievedwassucceededbytheRomanEmpire.Theearlier,aswehaveseen,wasan empire loosely founded on kinship of race, ideals, and character, and on common interests ofcommerce.Itwasanempireofindividualism;preservingtheindividualityofcitiesandtheirindividualstates, producing a few men of rare individuality and, as it spread throughout the Mediterranean,plantingcolonieswhichmaintainedtheir independencebothagainst theMotherlandofHellasandthepeople in their immediate surroundings. It was, from the first, an empire of the spirit and, as such,survived its physical dissolution and hasmaintained its dominion over the humanmind even to thepresenttime.

On the contrary, the Roman Empire, in so far as it succeeded, was an empire of constructiveorganisation. It grew, cell by cell, each added cell becoming gradually impregnated with the life-principleoftheearliestone,sothateverypartoftheunwieldybodywasanorganicpartofthewhole.Thus,intime,eachindependentcityanditsadjoiningcommunity,alienracesandhugeslicesofforeignterritory,becamegraduallyabsorbed into thepractical systemofgovernment thatoriginatedwith thelittlesettlementofLatinswhichfirstoccupiedthePalatineHillandthenextendeditsauthorityoverthesevenhillsofRome.PartafterpartbecameabsorbedintothesystemoftheLexRomanaandenjoyedthebenefitsofthePaxRomana.TheRomancitizenship,judiciouslyextendedoverthewholeempire,carriedwithitsubstantialrightsandequallysubstantialduties.Theprovincesoftheempirecontributedmen of learning, generals, and statesmen to the central government. In time some of the provinces,notablythoseofSpainandSouthernFrance,becamemorecharacteristicallyRomanthanRomeherself.They had absorbed her system and her culture, and, far removed from the petty intrigues whichconvulsedthecapital,reachedadegreeofcivilisationthatrepresentedthefinestproductoftheRomanideal;anidealthatincludedindividualuprightness,asenseofserviceandself-sacrificeforthecommonweal,andahighregardfororder.Itwasapracticalideal,littleconcernedwithabstractions,notdevotedtoexcessive refinement,butcentredon theeffectualaccomplishmentof the individualandcollectiverequirementsofeverydaylife.

Itistruethatthisidealwasneverfullyachieved.Thisisonlytosaythattheidealwastrulyhumanandthereforeatthemercyofhumanchancesandweaknesses.Moreover,thatitwasreallyanideal;aprincipleoflife,thatistosay,whichbyreasonofitsbignesswasonlypossibleofpartialachievement.AndiftheRomansfailedinachievingtheirs,theyfailednobly,andwithsufficientsuccesstohaveleftbehindthemalegacyoflawandorderandconstructiveprinciplesofgovernmentthat,likethecultural

idealsoftheHellenes,survivetothepresenttime.AndtheRomanEmpireplayedapartintheprogressoftheworld,moreimmediatelynecessarythan

thatofHellas.Thelatter’sEmpireofSpiritwasinadvanceofitsage.TheworldoutsideofthescatteredoutpostsofHellaswastoorude,toobackwardintheverynecessariesoflife,toacceptitsmessageofbeauty.Recognisingthis,theHellenescalledallotherracesandnationsbarbariansandheldalooffromthem.TheRomans,onthecontrary,absorbedthealiens,instilledintothemtherudimentsoftheirowncivilisation,whiletakingadvantageofanygoodtraitinthepeoplethemselves,sothattheyhelpedthemtoriseoutofthemselvestoahigherplaneofliving.Inalawlessworldtheybecamethegreatexponentsoforder,theupbuildersandengineersofasystemoforganisedsociety,andsofirmlydidtheylaythefoundationsandsostronglydidtheybuildthat,althoughsubsequenthordesofbarbariansoverthrewthedominionoftheempireofRomeandlaidwastemanyofthevisiblesignsofherbuilding,thedestroyersweregraduallyabsorbedintohersystemandbecameitscontinuers.

Therefore,whenweconsider theRomansspecifically in relation toarchitecture,we lookback tothem as tireless and prodigious builders, constructors, and engineers, whose sense of beauty inarchitecture, as well as their aspirations in all branches of higher culture, were derived from theHellenes.Their respect for the latterwas such that so long aspossible they tried to treat themas anindependent power, with whom they could pursue the mutual advantages of commerce. Gradually,however,thetangleofpoliticsmadeabsorptionnecessary,andafteraseriesofinvasionsHellasherselfbecameaprovinceoftheRomanEmpire.

War, in those days, as for centuries after, involved the barbarous practice of looting, and theRomans,with their shrewd instinct for acquiringwhat theymost needed for their owndevelopment,bore back home in increasing quantity the treasures of architectural and sculptural art. Later, as thepowerofHellasdwindled,RomebecamethecentretowhichHellenicartistsandscholarsflocked.

TheconquestofHellasandgradualabsorptionofapartofhercultureoccupiedthesecondcenturybefore the Christian era and the earlier years of the first. By this time, however, Rome herself hadbecomeapreytotherivalriesofpoliticalfactions,beginningwiththeconspiracyofSullaandendingwith the civil war that followed upon the assassination of Julius Cæsar. The latter’s great-nephew,Octavianus,inconjunctionwithMarcAntony,conqueredBrutusandCassiusatPhilippiinMacedoniaandOctavianusassumedauthorityovertheWest,whileAntonyestablishedhimselfasrulerintheEast.ButhisinfatuationforCleopatraraisedthesuspicioninRomethatheintendedtomarryherandmakehimselfdespotofanOrientalempirewithAlexandriaasitscapital.WarwasdeclaredagainsthimasanationalenemyandhewasdefeatedatActium,B.C.31.TheauthorityofOctavianuswasnowsupreme.Republicanism,asapracticalformofgovernment,wasdead.Conditionsdemandedone-manruleandOctavianus, in B.C. 27, resigned his office as Triumvir and received from the Senate the title ofAugustus,whichhithertohadbeenreservedforthegods.

During this period of struggle theHellenic influence had been rapidly growing.The sons of therulingclasshadGreektutors;manystudiedintheschoolsofAthensandRhodes,andRomanwritersbegantoemulatetheGreekauthors.CæsarpublishedhisCommentariesontheGallicWarandontheCivilWar; Sallustwrote on theConspiracy ofCatiline and the JugurthineWar andCorneliusNeposcompiledbiographiesofeminentmen.Ciceropublishedunder thenameof“Philippics” thespeecheswhichhemadeagainstAntonyintheSenate,aswellas“Letters”tovariousfriendsonthetopicsofthetimes,whileLucretius composed inverse a treatiseon the “Natureof theWorld” andVarrowas theauthorofanencyclopædicworkrelatingtothehistory,geography,agriculture,law,literature,philology,philosophy,andreligionoftheRomans.ToVarroalsohadbeenassignedbyJuliusCæsarthecollectionofapublicLibraryofGreekandRomanwriters.

TheenthusiasmforliteraturewasencouragedbyAugustusandhisminister,Mycæenas,whosawin

it ameansof allaying thebitternessofparty strife.To this, the“Augustan”or “GoldenAge,” as thewriterscalleditinflatteryoftheirpatron,belongHorace,Livy,andVirgil.

Inaneffortalsotoleadthepeoplebacktothehonourablesimplicityoftheirforefathers,Augustusrevivedtheancientreligiousceremoniesandrestoredthetemples.Hebecamechiefpontiffand,beingregardedasthesonofthedeifiedJulius—inreality,hisgreat-nephew—wastreatedalmostasadivinityinRomeanddeifiedbytheprovincialswhobuilttemplesinhishonour.

ItwasintheAugustanAgethatRomanarchitecturevirtuallycommencedanditsdevelopmentsareassociatedwith Imperial rule.Of the period immediately preceding the new eraMommsenwrites asfollows:“TherewasintheworldasCæsarfounditmuchofthenobleheritageofpastcenturiesandaninfiniteabundanceofpompandglory,butlittlespirit,stilllesstasteandleastofalltruedelightinlife.Itwas indeed, an old world; and even the richly gifted patriotism of Cæsar could not make it youngagain.”

Rome, the heart of the Empire, was corrupt. The ruling class coveted pensions from the publicexchequer to be spent on luxurious living;while themass of the populace clamoured for “panem etcircenses”—feedingand shows at thepublic charge.To satisfy their hungerboth classeswouldhavetaxedtheprovinces.Butamongthechiefdutiesoftheemperorswerethedevelopmentoftheresourcesoftheprovincesandtheprotectionofthefrontiers;and,whilethebestoftheemperorsperformedthesefunctions from high motives, even the worst found it politic to court the growing power of theprovinces. Thus, the main vitality of the empire was in its extremities, and, although the emperorsbeautifiedRome,theyalsoencouragedpublicworksofutilityandbeautyintheprovinces.Tothisendalawwaspassed,permittingmunicipalitiestoreceivebequestsandgiftsfromprivateindividuals.Intheliberalitywithwhichwealthyprovincialsenrichedtheircommunities,Dr.Ferrero,thelatesthistorianofRome,hasseenaparalleltothemunificentpublicgiftsofAmericanmillionaires.

Accordingly,thisgreateraofRomanbuildingleftitsimpressnotonlyuponItaly,butinGreeceandnorthwardasfarastheDanube,inAsiaMinor,Syria,Palestine,Egypt,alongthewholeNortherncoastofAfrica,andinSpain,France,andGreatBritainasfarastheFirthofForth.Itwasdistinguishednotonlybythemagnitudeoftheoperationsbutalsobytheircharacter.

WhereasinEgyptthearchitecturalworkshadconsistedoftemplesandtombs;andinHellasthesehadbeensupplementedbytheatresandodeia;whileAssyriaandPersialefttheirmemorialsinpalaces,those of the Roman Empire embraced all of these types and many more. The Romans appliedarchitecturetothepracticalneedsofeverydaylife,andreinforceditwithengineering.TheyoverlaidtheEmpirewithfinetrunk-roads,manyofwhichsurviveto-day;constructedsewers;spannedriverswithbridges; conveyed water in countless miles of aqueducts; erected fora andmarket-places, triumphalarches, temples, palaces, villas, baths, basilicas, theatres, and hippodromes; providing alike for thenecessitiesoflife,theneedsofgovernment,andtheamusementsandluxuriesofliving.

To accomplish so prodigious an amount of building the Romans systematised the methods ofconstructioninregardtoboththelabourandthematerial.Thelabourwasmainlyofanunskilledkind,including soldiers of the legions, slaves, and subjects liable through debt or other causes to statutelabour.This employment of unskilled labourwasmade possible by theRomanhabit of carrying theprincipleofrepetitionofmotivestoitsutmostlimit,andalsobythemethodsofconstructionwhichtheyinvented.

Thiswas theextendeduseofconcrete.During theRepublic theRomanshad followed theGreekmethodofbuildingwithlargeblocksofstone,unconnectedwithmortar.Theirpracticalspirit,however,urgedthemtomakeamoreeconomicaluseofmaterialsandinsteadofcomposingthewallsentirelyofblocksofstoneormarble,theyusedtheseorbricksasafacing,fillinginthethicknessofthewallwithsmallfragmentsofstonemixedwithlimeormortar.

Theyhadbeenledtothispracticebytheexistenceofpozzolana,avolcanicproductofclean,sandyearth, foundinRomeand ingreaterquantitiesatPozzuolion theBayofNaples,which,whenmixedwithlime,formedaconcreteofexceptionalhardness,strength,anddurability.Material,approximatingthepropertiesofpozzolanaandlime,wasprocurableinallpartsoftheEmpire.AccordinglytheuseofthismethodofconstructiongaveasimilaritytoRomanbuildingeverywhere.

Whilethechief,andalmostsolebuildingmaterialinGreecewasmarble,thegeologicalformationofItalysuppliedstoneaswellasmarbleandplentifulsuppliesofclay,whichwasconvertedintoterra-cottaorbricks.Thebrickswereoftwoshapes:eithersquare,from1to2feetinsizeand2inchesthickortriangularinplanandofabout1½inchesinthickness.Thelatterwereespeciallyusedforthefacingofthewalls,theirpointedendsbeingdrivenintotheconcretetoformthesmoothsurfaces,whileatthecorners thepointsprojected. InRome itself the followingmaterialswereavailable: travertine,ahardlimestonefromTivoli;tufa,avolcanicsubstanceofwhichthehillsofRomearemainlycomposed;andpeperino,astoneofvolcanicoriginfromMountAlbano.

WhileRomanarchitecturewasdevelopedunder thestimulusofGreekartandculture itprobably

owesitsorigintotheexampleoftheEtruscans.Theoriginofthisraceisuncertain,butitsowntraditionsascribeittoLydiainAsiaMinor,whence

itmayhavepassedduringthatgeneralmigrationfromHellasintoItalyaboutB.C.1000.ItwasforlongthedominantpowerinItaly,extendingatvarioustimesoveraterritorythatreachedfromtheTibertotheApennines,andsouthwardintoCampania.ThisgavetheEtruscanscommandoftheTyrrhenianSeaandmade themcommercial rivalsof theCarthagenians.Theirenmity toward the risingcityofRomewould be natural and some authorities believe that the reign of the Tarquin kings was a period ofEtruscandomination.ThentheRomansexpelledthetyrants,establishedarepublicoftheirown,andbydegreesworedownthepoweroftheEtruscans,whohadbecomeenervatedthroughincreaseofluxury.TheircivilisationlongantedatedthatoftheRomans.Theearliestremainsofart,foundinEtruria,arenowbelieved tohavebeen imported fromHellas;but the tombshave revealedaquantityof laterartobjectswhichprove thispeople tohavebeenskilful in themodellingandcolouringof terra-cotta, inmuralpaintings,jewellery,andhouseholdadornments.

“Thehousesoftheearliestperiod,tojudgebytheburialurns,knownfromtheirshapeas‘hut-urns,’weresmallsingleroomconstructionsofrectangularplan,similartocertaintypesofthecapanneusedbytheshepherdsto-day.Probablythewallswerewattledandtheroofswerecertainlythatched,fortheurnsshowplainly the longbeamsfastenedtogetherat the topandhangingfromtheridgedowneachside.” (EncyclopædiaBritannica,“Etruria.”)Tombserectedeven later than the fifthcenturyB.C.werecutinimitationofamostsimpleformofpostandbeamconstruction.Theelementsofthedecoration,suchascapitals,mouldings,rosettes,patterns,etc.,wereborrowedfromGreece,Egypt,andelsewhere.

Thearchitecturalremainscomprisetombs,citywalls,gateways,bridges,andaqueducts,thewallsofwhichare remarkable for theircyclopeanmasonry,while thegeneralcharacterof theconstructionresemblestheearlyworkofTirynsandMycenæ.

Noexample remainsofEtruscan temples,butVitruviushasdescribed them.Theplanwasnearlysquareandthecellawasdividedintothreechambers,sinceitwasingroupsofthreethattheEtruscansworshippedtheirdeities.ThecolumnsrepresentedinrudeformtheDoricorder,setsofarapartthatitisconcluded they were surmounted by beams of timber. A further distinction of the Etruscan temple,adoptedbytheRomans,wasthereplacingofthestylobatebyapodium.Thiswasacontinuouspedestalorlowwallonwhichthecolumnswerecarried.Itwasapproachedinfrontbyaflightofsteps,enclosedbetweentheprolongationoftheside-wallsofthepodium.ThemostfamousexamplewastheTempleofJupiteron theCapitolineHill, dedicatedB.C. 509,which contained three chambers, for the statuesof

Jupiter,Minerva,andJuno.ItwasdestroyedbyfireB.C.83,andrebuiltbySulla,whobroughtoverforthepurposesomeoftheCorinthiancolumnsfromthetempleofZeusOlympiusinAthens.(Seep.122.)

Untilrecentlythegreatsewer,or“CloacaMaxima,”ofRome,constructedaboutB.C.578,hasbeenattributed to the Etruscans and considered a proof that they introduced the use of the arch to theRomans. But in 1903, when excavating the Forum, Commendatore Boni proved that the drain wasoriginallyuncoveredandthatthearch,whichconsistsofthreeringsofvoussoirs,each2feet6incheshigh,wasaddedat theendof theRepublic.“Thus thehonour,notofdiscoveringthearch,for itwasknownintheEast,aswenoted,butofpopularisingitsuse,doesnotbelongtotheEtrurians,thoughtheydid use it at a comparatively late time for city gates, as at Volterra.” (Encyclopædia Britannica,“Etruria.”)

FollowingAugustus,theemperorsunderwhomRomanarchitecturechieflyflourishedwere:Nero

(A.D. 54-69), Vespasian (69-79), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (137-138), Septimus Severus (193-211),Caracalla (211-217), and Diocletian (284-305). By Constantine (306-337) were inaugurated twochangesofpolicy,whichaffectedthedestiniesoftheworld.ForbygrantingtolerationtoallreligionsheraisedChristianitytoequalfootingwithpaganismandthuspavedthewayforthepoweroftheChurch;andinestablishinghiscapitalatByzantiumtookthefirststepinthepartitionoftheEmpireintoEastandWest.Aidedbyhisvigorousefforts,architecture,whichhaddeclined,enjoyedameasureofrevival,inwhich,asweshallseelater,theChurchbegantoplayaconspicuouspart.

Withthecommencementofthefifthcentury,A.D.,begantheirruptionofBarbarians.Attila’sHunsswept like a scourge over Europe, while the German tribes conquered the provinces in turn andoccupiedthem.In455RomewassackedbytheVandals.In476OdoacerwasproclaimedbyhistroopsKingofItaly,andthustheWesternpartoftheEmpirewasfinallyseparatedfromtheEastern.Thisisthedateselectedtomarkthe“Fall”oftheRomanEmpire.MeanwhilethesteadydeclineofthepoweroftheemperorshadbeenlonginprocessandwasaccompaniedbyacorrespondingincreaseinthepowerofthePopes.Henceforth, during the “DarkAges”of civil confusion, the influence andauthorityof theChurchwerethechiefsourcesofsocialaswellasreligiousorganisation.

The Roman ideal of civilisation received its most characteristic architectural expression in the

severalfora,beginningwiththeoldest—theForumRomanum.Fromancienttimesitwastheheartofthecity; thecentreofcivilactivity; thesceneofsomeof themoststirring incidents in thegrowthofRome;inlatertimesthenucleusofthepompandprideoftheEmpire.Hereatsometimewaserectedacylindrical monument in three tiers, the Umbilicus or Navel of Rome, and hard by it stood theMilliarium, amarble column, sheathed in bronze and inscribedwith the names and distances of thechiefcitiesonthegreattrunk-roadsthatradiatedthroughouttheEmpirefromthethirty-sevengatesofRome.

Betweenthesetwomonumentsextendedaplatform,decoratedwiththebronzebeaksofconqueredvessels and hence called the Rostra, from which any citizen could speak who had aught to sayconcerningthecommonweal.ForitfacedtheComitiumoropenspace,whichfromearliesttimeshadbeenthemeetingplaceoftheGeneralAssemblyofthepeople.ItistruethatthevoiceofthepeoplewastoooftendominatedbythePatricianclasswhoseCuriaorSenateHouseoverlookedtheComitium;buttheComitiumcontinuedtorepresent,atleast,thetheoryofRomanGovernmentandtobetheveritablenucleusoftheRomanForum.

Since the Forum embodied the ideals and the progress of Rome, its architectural aspects werecontinuallychangingthroughoutthemorethanonethousandyearsofRome’svicissitudes.Butwithout

attemptingtofollowthesechanges—manyofwhichareshroudedinobscurity—letustrytopicturetheForuminitsgeneralaspectsandparticularlyastheembodimentoftheRomanideal.

The ancient citadelwas theCapitolineHill onwhich in early timeshadbeen erected the templealreadymentionedtothethreedivinitiesofMaleandFemalePowerandofWisdom—Jupiter,Juno,andMinerva.ItcorrespondedtotheAcropolisofAthensandherParthenon.ButwhereastheParthenonwasthe nucleus of the Hellenic ideal, as embodied in architectural glory—the embodiment of an ideal,detached and lifted up above the common life—the formal grandeur of Rome descended from theCapitolineHillandoccupiedthelowgroundthatseparateditfromthePalatine,sothatitmightidentifyitselfwiththepractical,everydayidealsofthecity.

And,first,forthepurelypractical.ThesouthernsideoftheForumwasinearlytimesborderedwiththetabernæorwoodenboothsofthebutchersandotherproducemerchants,whileonthenorthweretheshopsofthegold-andsilversmiths,andmoneychangers.TheForum,infact,wasthecentralmarketofRomeandcametobeitsfinancialcentre,and,asanecessaryresult,thecentrealsooflegalandjudicialprocedure.Inlatertimes,asthevolumeandintricaciesofbusinessincreased,thetabernæwerereplacedbybasilicas,which includedhallsof justiceandofexchange formerchants.Meanwhile, letus try topicturetheForumastheembodimentofRomanideals.

ItwasboundedonbothsidesbytheViaSacra,orSacredWay;thetwoforksunitingnearthefootofthe Palatine Hill, around which the SacredWay continued to its junction with the AppianWay. Itsstones were sacred because they had been trod by the countless hosts of Rome’s victorious armies,returningintriumphalprocessiontopaytheirhomagetothedeitiesofMaleandFemalePowerandofWisdomupontheCapitol.

AsthesoldierssweptoutoftheAppianWay,theywouldskirtthespot,whereinlatertimesarosetheColosseum,andtheroadwaywasspannedbytheArchofConstantine,andalittlefartheronbytheArchofTitus.Fromthistheroadadvancedinaneasterlydirectionandthenturnednorth.

Thenfromearliesttimestwoobjectswouldgreetthevictors’eyes.Upontherightstoodthearchoftwo-headedJanus,godofgatesanddoors.Itwasallbutacertaintythatitstwodoorswouldbestandingopen;for,althoughthisarmywasreturningvictorious,therewereothersalmostcontinuouslyengagedon the frontiersof theempire.So thesoldiers,gluttedwith fightingandhungry for thesightof theirlovedones,wouldturnmoreeagerlytotheleft,whererosethecirculartempleofVesta,guardianofthehomeandhearth.Itwasthesymboloftheidealofsaneandsimplehomelife,onwhichthegreatnessofRomewasfounded,andastheVestalVirginsthrongedthestepsoftheirconventoratrium,hardbythetemple, theeagleswouldbe loweredandeverybronzedwarriorwould salute themaidenpriestesses,who,intheirabsence,hadkeptperpetuallyalivethesacredfire.

Justbeyond this spot in later timesCæsarAugustuserectedaTriumphalArch.Meanwhile, fromRome’s early days the victorious hosts would next defile past the Temple of Castor and Pollux,memorialofthevictorygainedatLakeRegilluswiththehelpofthesetwingods.ClosebyitcametobeerectedtheTempleofCæsar,infrontofwhichthegreatJuliuscausedarostrumtobeplaced,fromthestepsofwhichtheorationoverhisdeadbodywasspokenbyMarcAntony.

AtthisspottheveteranswouldentertheForumproper,welcomedbythecheersofthemerchants;inoldtimes,fromthefrontsoftheirboothsandlaterfromtheporticoesoftheBasilicaÆmiliaontherightandtheBasilicaJuliaontheleft.Then,bothearlyandlateinRome’shistory,wouldbereachedtheancientTempleofSaturn,godofseedgrowingand thebountiesof thesoil,agodofmeaning to thesoldiers, formany a veteran had been left behind in distant lands, planted upon farms that were toconsolidatethepowerandprosperityoftheEmpire.Moreover,insomeofthechambersoftheTemple,whichformedtheofficialTreasuryofRome,apartoftheirspoilsofwarwouldbedeposited.

The procession by this time is filing past the Comitium, filled with enthusiastic crowds, whileoratorswelcomeitfromtherostraandtheSenatorsarerangedinranksuponthestepsoftheCuria.TheroarofwelcomeisstillintheearsofthehostasitbeginstheascentoftheCapitol,passingundertheArchofSeptimusSeverus,ifthedatebeafterA.D.203.Midwayoftheascent,itpassestheTempleofConcord,memorialoftheterminationoftheinternecinestrugglebetweenthePatriciansandthePlebs;skirts the Tabularium, wherein the archives of the Empire were preserved, and finally reaches thesummitoftheCapitol.

Letustakeoneglancebackbeforethepicturefades.Thesceneissuperbbutnotwithoutconfusion.TheRomanspaidnoattentiontoorientation;consequentlythereislittleuniformityintheplacingoftheseveralstructures.Theyvarynotonlyinsizeanddesign,butalsointhedirectionwhichtheyface.Inthe contracted space the various edifices seem crowded. Indeed, the conjectured restoration of theRomanForumandvicinitysuggestsratheramedleyofmagnificence.

But even in this respect the character of this heart of Rome, lying between the Capitoline andPalatinehills,symbolisedthemagnificentvarietyofelementsthatcomposedtheEmpire.Onemayfindsome parallel to Rome’s confusion of appearances in the variety and, for the most part, lack of anorganiclay-outinthemodernLondon,thepresentmother-cityofanEmpire,founded,liketheRoman,uponcommerce,andlikeitinhavinggrown,cellbycell,transcendingit,however,notonlyinsizebutingrandeur.ForthepolicyoftheBritishEmpirehasgraduallyevolvedbeyondtheRoman,substitutingfortheprocessofabsorptiontheprincipleoffree,self-governingdominions.

CourtesyA.S.Barnes&Co.from“AHistoryofArt,”byWilliamH.GoodyearCONJECTUREDRESTORATIONOFTHEFORUMROMANUM

LOOKINGN.E.TOTHECAPITOL.ONLEFT,TEMPLEOFCASTORANDPOLLUXANDTHEBASILICAJULIA.RIGHT,THECURIA.ATTHEEND,TEMPLE

OFVESPASIAN

MAISONCARRÉE:NÎMESENGAGEDCOLUMNSONCELLAWALL(PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL)COLUMNSSURMOUNTTHEPODIUM.P.169

ARCHOFCONSTANTINEENTABLATURE,BROKENROUNDCOLUMNS.NOTEDECORATIVEUSEOFLETTERING.P.178

PANTHEON,ROMEP.171

SECTIONOFPANTHEON

COLOSSEUM,ROMEP.174

SECTIONOFCOLOSSEUMSHOWINGTHESYSTEMOFVAULTINGANDPIERS

BASILICAOFCONSTANTINESHOWINGTHEBARREL-VAULTEDCEILINGS.P.178

ROMANVAULTINGFROMBATHSOFDIOCLETIAN.NOTEABSENCEOFTRANSVERSERIBAND

DOMING.P.166

GOTHICVAULTINGFROMSALISBURYCATHEDRAL.NOTECURVEINRIDGEBETWEEN

GROINS.P.272

THEATREOFORANGE,FRANCE

CONJECTUREDRESTORATION.NOTERAISEDSTAGE,ARCHITECTURALSCENEANDCEILINGROOF,ORCHESTRARESERVEDFORMAGISTRATESANDNOTABLES

PLANOFTHEATREOFORANGECONJECTUREDRESTORATION.P.176

PORTAAUREAGOLDENGATE,PALACEOFDIOCLETIAN,SPALATO,DALMATIA.P.180

PONT-DU-GARD;AQUEDUCTNEARNÎMESP.183

PERISTYLEANDCOURTOFTHEHOUSEOFTHEVETTIIWITHGARDENANDSCULPTUREDOBJECTSRESTOREDTOTHEIRORIGINALARRANGEMENT.P.181

WALLPAINTINGSINTHEHOUSEOFTHEVETTII

CHAPTERIV

ROMANARCHITECTURE

THERomansenlargedthescopeofarchitectureinthedirectionoftheartoftheengineer.WhileHellenicarchitecturehadbeenanexpressionofthefacultiesofreasoningandoftaste,co-operatinginasingularharmony, Roman architecture was the product of reasoning stimulated by a practical sense and anextraordinary energy and audacity. In place of excessive refinement and sense of proportion, it isdistinguishedbyvariety,vastnessof scaleandexuberanceofdecorativedetail.WhileeverypartofaGreektemplewasconstructional,havingitsdistinctfunctionincontributingtothestabilityaswellasadornmentofthewholestructure,theRomans,aswehavenoted,hadauniformsystemofbuildinginwhichtheyappliedthestructuraldetailsoftheGreeks,verylargelyinthewayofaddedembellishment.

Theiraptitudeforborrowingandadaptingisapparentintheirordersofcolumnsandentablatures.RomanOrders.—Inthefirstplace,theyborrowedfromtheEtruscanstheso-calledTuscanorder.

ThishadarudimentaryDoricform;thecolumnbeingsevendiametersinheight;theshaftunflutedandtaperingtowardthecapital,whiletheentablaturewassimpler,havingnotriglyphs,mutules,orguttæ.

InborrowingfromtheHellenes,theRomansmadelittleuseoftheDoricorder.Whenitisused,asintheformofengagedcolumnsintheTheatreofMarcellus,theheightofthecolumnswasincreasedinproportiontotheirdiameters;theshaftswereeithersmoothorchannelledwithsemicircular,insteadof the subtler, elliptic flutings, separatedbynarrow fillets; abasewasaddedandmodificationsweremade in the details of the capital. The architrave did not overhang the face of the column andwas

reducedinheight;thetriglyphswereusedinthefriezeonlyoverthecentreofthecolumns,evenattheangles,whilethecornicewaslighter,withdentilssometimestakingtheplaceofmutules.TheDoric,infact,didnotappealtotheRomantasteforrichdecoration,and,insofarasitwasused,wasdegradedinstyle.

The same is true of the Roman adaptation of the Ionic order. Simpler and more commonplacecurvesreplace theextremerefinementof thevolutesand thefilletof the latterwascarried invariablyacrossthetopoftheechinusorcushion,whiletheornamentationoftheentablaturewasmoreprofuse.Thebestuseof thisorder is foundin theupperstoryof theTheatreofMarcellus; theworst,on theeightremainingcolumnsoftheTempleofSaturnintheForumRomanum.

TheCorinthianorder,ofwhichnotypesufficientlydefinitetoconstituteanorderhadbeenevolvedbytheGreeks,wasfullyworkedoutbytheRomans,withtheassistanceofGreekartists,andbecamethefavouriteexpressionoftheirtasteforrichness.Theshaftwaseithersmooth,asintheearlyexampleofthePantheon(B.C.27),orflutedasinthegreattempleofCastorandPollux;theheightsinthesetwocasesbeingrespectively9¾and10diameters.Aspecialbasewasdesigned,consistingof tori,scotia,andfillets,restingonasquareplinth.

The inverted bell of the capital was surrounded by an upper and lower row of acanthus leaves,whichdifferfromtheHellenicformsinbeingblunteratthetips.Abovetherowsofleavesprojectedthestalks,or“caulicolæ,”whichterminatedinspirals,bothinthecentreofeachfaceandattheanglesoftheabacus.The four sidesof the latterareconcaveanddecorated in thecentrewitha rosette. In themoresumptuousexamplesfurtherenrichmentofornamentwasaddedtothecapital,whilethecapitalsoftheTempleofCastorandPolluxpresentauniqueinstanceofthecentralspiralsbeinginterlaced.

TheCorinthianarchitraveinHellenicusageconsisted,itwillberemembered,ofthreebands,asinthe Ionicorder.TheRomans frequently embellished themiddleonewith aversionof the anthemionmotive.They also added enrichments to the bedmould beneath the frieze.The latterwas frequentlycarved with acanthus scrolls, grotesque figures, and ox-skulls, and garlands. The cornice was alsoenrichedwith carved ornament, ofwhich themost characteristicweremodillions or brackets,whichappeartosupportthecornice.

TheCompositeorderwasaninventionoftheRomansandpossiblysuggestedbythecapitalsoftheErechtheion in Athens, where the Ionic spirals appear above a necking carved with anthemionornament.ThecapitaloftheCompositeorderconsistedintheupperpartofIonicspirals,oftenrichlydecoratedwith foliage, and in the lower of two rows of acanthus leaves, as in theCorinthian order,whichwasfollowedalsointheotherdetailsofthecolumnandentablature.

The mouldings in Hellenic architecture are distinguished by the refinement of the contours, inRomanbytherichnessofcarvedornament.

Theanta,whichappears inGreek templesat thecornersof thecellawallswasdevelopedby theRomansintothepilaster.Thiswasasquarepier,projectingaboutone-sixthofitswidthfromthewall;usedeithertodivideupanddecoratethewallsurfaces,ortoserveasa“respond”toacolumn.Itwasfrequentlyflutedandcorrespondedwiththecolumninitsdetails.

Arch-Vaulting.—TheRomansdidnotinventthearch,butgeneraliseditsuseandelaborateditintovaulting, thus introducing into architecture an element of construction capable of endless applicationandlendingitselfnotonlytoutilitybutalsotovarietyandmagnificence.Indoingsotheywereassistedby their discovery of the use of concrete. By means of supports and sheathings of rough timber,temporarilyerected,theywereabletocasttheirarchesorvaultingsinanyformandpracticallyofanysize.Theconcrete“set”quicklyandthearchorvaultingthusbecameasolidmass,whichexertedbutlittlethrustandcoveredthespacewiththerigidityofalidorcup.

Suchmethodofconstructionlessenedthetendencyofthearchorvaultingtoexertalateralstrainorthrustwhichoccurswhenthearch iscomposedofvoussoirsor,similarly,separateblocksofstoneorbrickareusedinthevault.Ittendedtoconcentratethestrainontheverticalsupports.YettheRomans,thoughconcentrationofstrainswasachiefprincipleoftheirbuilding,tooknochancesinthematterofstability and also distributed the strains. For example, the nave vaulting of a basilica would bereinforcedbyaislevaulting,whichwascarriedonwallsthatwereeitheratrightanglesorparalleltothenave. But owing to the method of concrete construction and to the facility with which it could beemployed, theRomanswere able to erect vaults over buildingsof complexplan and spaces of greatsize.

Thevaultingswereofthreekinds:1.Thesemicylindricalvault,calledalsothewagon-headedvaultorbarrelvault.2.Thecrossorgroinedvault.3.Thedomeorsemidome.The semicylindrical vault was a continuous arch spanning an oblong space, a corridor, and

sometimesacurvedpassageway.Thecrossorgroinedvaultwasusedoversquarespaces,itsweightbeingcarriedatthefourangles.

Itwas formedby the intersectionat right-anglesof twosemicylindricalvaults.Whenemployedoverlongapartmentsorcorridors,theceilingwasdividedintoaseriesofsquarecompartmentsorbays,eachcoveredbyacross-vault.Since thevaulting ineachcasewascarriedupon thecorner supports, thesebecamepiers,andthewallspacesinbetweenthem,beingthusrelievedofthepressureofthevaulting,couldbeutilisedfortheopeningsofdoorsandwindows.Moreover,asquarespacecouldbesubdividedintobays,renderingitpossibletovaultalargeareawithnointerruptiontothefloor-spaceexceptthatofthepiers.

Thedomewasusedforcoveringcircularspaces,andwhenthespaceissmallthecoveringiscalledacupolaorlittlecup.Semidomeswereemployedoverrecesses.

ThefinestexistingexampleofaRomandomeisthatofthePantheon,which,however,affordsanexception to theusualmethodofconstruction.Forhere, insteadofbeingcomposedofconcrete, thusformingasolidshell, thedome,sofaras ithasbeenexamined, is foundtobebuiltofbricks, laid inalmosthorizontalcourses.

Itistobenotedthattheso-called“pendentive”dome,supportedbyarchesoveraspace,squareinplan,isnotfoundinstrictlyRomanbuildingsandwasadevelopmentoftheByzantinearchitects.

TheRomansalsoemployedflat roofsandceilings. Incertainof thebathssomuchironhasbeenfoundamidthedebris,thatitissupposedtheroofswereconstructedwithaframeworkofthismaterial,fittedtogetherwithTjoints.Otherwisetheceilingsweremadeofcrossedbeams,dividingthespaceintocoffers.Theexterioroftheroofswascoveredwithasheathingofterra-cottatilesor,asintheoriginalroofofthePantheon,ofbronzegildedplates,whichnowarereplacedbylead.

VaultandWallDecoration.—Sheathingwasalsoappliedtotheexteriorandinteriorofthewholestructure,forming,as itwere,agarmentofdecoration.Inthecaseofvaulting, theinteriordecorationwas composed of stucco coffering; square, hexagonal, or octagonal panels, inclosed within raisedframework that was arranged in a geometrical pattern. Sometimes the coffering was replaced bymosaics;whichwereoftwokinds.

1.Opus tessellatum formedof tesseræorcubesofmarbleorglass,arranged inpatterneddesignsthatoftenincludedfigures.

2.Opus sectile, in which the tesseræ were cut into various shapes, to form the pattern, as in

marquetrie.Arichkind,madeofredandgreenporphyry,wasdistinguishedasOpusAlexandrinum.At other times the vaulting andwallswere coveredwith hard plaster,wrought to a fine surface,

whichwaspolishedandfrequentlyembellishedwithmuralpainting.Thewallswerealsooverlaidwithslabsofcolouredmarble,intheselectionandtreatmentofwhich

theRomanstookanotablepride.Further,both theexteriorandthe interiorwallswererelievedwithcarveddecoration,which took

the formof pilasters, arches,mouldings, and panels, encrustedwith arabesques.These and the otherembellishmentscouldbesoeasilyappliedtotheconcreteshell,thatRomandecorationhadatendencytobecomeprofuseandover-elaborated.WhereasinHellenicarchitectureeverydecorativedetailwasanintrinsic part of the structure, Roman decoration was something added after the structure wascompleted. Itwas, in effect, like clothing, fitted to the form of the body, and varying in design andsumptuousness according to the taste and purse of the wearer. Since architecture generally was anexpressionofpomp,pride,andpower,itwasinevitablethattherichnessofdecorationshouldfrequentlyruntoextravagance.

Tothelay-student,atleast,theactualformsofRomanarchitectureareoflessinterestthantheusestowhich theywereput.For theRomangeniuswasdisplayed inpracticalness; in the resourcefulnesswithwhich itextended thescopeofarchitecture toserve thenecessitiesand idealsof life.Hence thetemple-form has ceased to occupy the chief attention; the truly monumental character of Romanarchitectureisdistributedoveravarietyofachievementsofmagnificenceandutility.

Temple Plans.—The plan of theRoman templewas circular, polygonal, or rectangular; the lastbeingthemostusualtype.Thebestpreservedexampleistheso-called“MaisonCarrée”atNîmes inProvence,whichwas erected during the reignofHadrian (A.D. 117-138). Its form is of the favouritekind:pseudo-peripteral,thatistosay,thecolumnswhichsurroundthesidesandendarenotdetachedfrombutbuiltintothewallsofthecella.Theporticohasadeepprojection,supportedbytendetachedcolumns.AsusualinaRomantemplethestylobateisreplacedbyapodium,inthiscaseabouttwelvefeethigh,whichprojectsinfront,enclosingtheentrancesteps.ThecolumnsareoftheCorinthianorder,32feetinheight,supportinganentablaturewhichmeasures8feettotheloweranglesofthepediment.Thefriezeisboredwithholes,inwhichitissupposedthelettersofaninscriptionwerefixed,andthecorniceisrichlydecorated.

AnotherveryinterestingexampleatNîmesistheso-calledTempleofDiana,whichprobablywasanymphæum,orstructureforflowers,statuary,andfountains,attachedtosomethermæ.Theplanshowsacentralchamber,flankedbytwopassages;theexteriorwallsbeingdevoidofcolumns.Meanwhile,theinteriorwallsofthecentralchamberhaveaseriesofdetachedcolumns,supportinganentablaturefromwhichspring thecurvesof thebarrel-vaultedceiling.Theoutward thrustof the latter isoffsetby thecontinuousvaultingoftheside-passages.Itisprobable,asweshallsee,thatthisarrangementfurnishedatypeformanyoftheRomanesquechurchesofSouthernFrance.

OfthecirculartemplesthebestknownexamplesaretheTempleofMaterMatuta inRome, theTempleofVestaatTivoli,andthePantheon.Nothingbuta fewfragments remainof theTempleofVesta in the Forum Romanum. The first named, situated in the Forum Boarium, is peripteral,consistingofacylindricalcella,28feetindiametersurroundedbyacircularcolonnadeof20Corinthiancolumns,34feet7incheshigh;thewholestandingonapodiumraised6feetfromtheground.Inthecaseof theTempleofVestaatTivoli theCorinthiancolumns,18 innumber, are11 feet lower. “Thereason for this difference,” writes Professor Banister-Fletcher, “is instructive. The Temple of MaterMatuta,placedinalow,flatsituation,hascolumnsofslenderproportioninordertogiveittherequiredheight;whereastheTivoliexample,placedontheedgeofarockyprominenceandthusprovidedwithalofty basement, has columns of sturdier proportions.” A further difference is found in the foliage

decorationof thecapitalsof the two temples; thoseof theTempleofMaterMatuta havingpointedleavesoftheHellenictypeofacanthus,whileintheTempleofTivolitheRomantypeisadheredto.

Themostfamouscircularexample,aswellasthemostimpressiveofRomantemplestothemodernmind,isthePantheon.InvestigationhasprovedthatthecircularpartorRotundaoccupiesthesiteofanearlier nymphæum, on the south side ofwhich, in the reign ofAugustus,B.C. 27,Agrippa erected atemple, consecrated to the Divinities of the Julian house under the name of Pantheum (“all-holy”).Hencetheinscriptiononthefriezeof thepresentportico:“M.AgrippaL.F.Cos. tertiumfecit.”Thistemple,which,fromPliny’saccountseemstohavehadadome,wasdestroyedinthegreatfireinA.D.80.

ThepresentedificewasbuiltbyHadrian,A.D.120-124.TheRotundaoccupies,aswehavesaid,thesiteof an ancientnymphæum, the floorofwhich,however,was raised8 feet.Agrippa’sporticowasremovedfromthesouthtothenorthsideandsetupwithafrontof8columnsinsteadof10.Thereare16 inall.Theportico issupportedby16Corinthiancolumns,eachagranitemonolith42½feethigh,withmarbleCorinthiancapitals.Thetympanumwasoriginallyfilledwithbronzereliefs,representingagigantomachia,orbattleofthegodsandgiants.

Thewallsoftherotunda,whichareofsolidtufaconcrete,facedwiththinbricks,arenearlytwentyfeetthick.Thismasswaspartlytosupportthedomeandpartlytoadmitofeightrecesses,openingfromtheinterior.Oneformstheentrance,whilethreeoftheothersaresemicircularinplanandtheremainingfour rectangular. The exterior walls, carried far above the spring of the dome, was veneered withporphyry andmarble and enrichedwithCorinthianpilasters and sculpturedornament, a considerablepartofwhichstillexists.

Meanwhile,itistheinteriorofthebuildingthatpresentsthechiefimpressiveness.Herethewalls,which originally were facedwith precious Orientalmarbles, extend to a height of only two stories,crownedbythevastdome,whichintheinteriorhasaheightequaltoitsdiameter—onehundredforty-twoandone-halffeet.Itisembellishedwithcoffers,whichinordertoassisttheperspectiveeffectareforeshortened, diminishing inwidth as they ascend.Thus the gaze is carried upwith a sweep to thecentralapertureatthesummit,anopencircletwenty-sevenfeetindiameter,thesolesourceoflighttotheinterior.“OnegreateyeopeninguponHeaven—byfarthenoblestconceptionforlightingabuildingtobe found inEurope.” It isas if thesoaring imaginationof thearchitectcouldbrookno limit to itsvisionandmustincorporatewithhisvaultthefirmamentitself.InthismagnificentaudacitymenhaveseenasymbolicreferencetotheancientworshipofJupiter,thegodofgods,beneaththeopenvaultofheaven.Meanwhile, the architectmay have derived the idea from the old nymphæumwith its courtopentothesky.Andofthetwo,somewillprefertobelievethelatter,seeinginitabeautifulillustrationofhowtheartistcanandsometimeswillusetherequirementsofpracticalconditionsasaninspirationtothecreativenessofhisownimagination.

Fromstructurescircularinplan,wemaypasstothoseinwhichtheplanhadtheformofanellipse,

orcomprisedasitschieffeatureportionsofacircle.Inthefirstclassbelongtheamphitheatresandtothelatterthevariouscircusesandtheatres.

TheprototypeofallthesewastheHellenicTheatre,intheconstructionofwhichthearchitecttookadvantageofaslopingsite.

TheRomans,ontheotherhand,with theirgeneraluseofarchandvaulting,were independentofnaturalassistanceandusuallybuilttheircircusesandamphitheatresandtheatresintheopen.

Circus.—TheRomancircuswasanadaptationoftheHellenicStadium,which,however,wasusedchieflyforathleticgames,whiletheCircuswasemployedforhorseandchariotraces.Theoldestwas

theCircusMaximus,situatedbetweenthePalatineandAventine;but theoneofwhichmostremainshavebeenpreservedistheCircusMaxentius,nearthetombofCæciliaMetellaontheAppianWay.Itsplan presents a long rectangle terminating at one end in a semicircle. Surrounding thiswere tiers ofmarble seats, supported by raking vaults and an external wall of concrete. At the square end weresituated theCarceresor stablesanddown thecentreof the rectangle ranaspinaorbarricade,withametaorpostateachendtomarktheturningpoints.“Tograzethemeta”wasaRomansayingforthetaking of great chances. The course was seven times round and on the top of the spina were ovalobjects,oneofwhichwasremovedonthecompletionofeachlapoftherace.

Amphitheatre.—The most magnificent of the amphitheatres was the Flavian, known since theeighthcenturyastheColosseum,probablyfromthecolossalstatueofNerowhichonceadornedit.Itsplan is elliptical, themainaxisbeingabout615 feet and the shorter about510 feet;while thearena,whichisoval,is281feetlongby177feetwide.Thenumberofspectatorsthatitcouldaccommodatehas usually been stated as 87,000; but the calculation is now said to have been based on amisapprehensionoftherecordsandhasbeencorrectedto45,000seatsandstandingroomfor5000.

The exterior comprises four stories. The three lower are composed of arches supported byintermediate piers which are ornamented with columns, respectively, of the Tuscan, Ionic, andCorinthianorders.Thefourthstory,which,whentheamphitheatrewascompletedinA.D.82,appearstohavebeenofwood,presentsawalladornedwithCorinthianpilasters.Betweenthese,projectingfromthecornice,werecorbels,piercedtoholdthepolesthatsustainedthevelariumorawning.Theimposingcharacteroftheexteriorisduenotonlytothestructure’simmensesize,buttothedifferenceinunitysecured by the application of the three orders, and to the magnificently sweeping lines of theentablatures.

Theinteriorshowsthearenasurroundedbyasmoothwall,abovewhichtheseatsriseinconcentrictierstotheheightoftwostories.Heretheyareboundedbyawall,throughwhichareentrancestotheseatswhileitalsoactedasaparapettotheuppergallery.Thefourthstoryformedacontinuousperistyle.Thewholeareaforspectatorswascalledthecavea.

The place of honour was the circle nearest to the arena, called the podium, in which sat theEmperor,senators,principalmagistrates,VestalVirgins,andtheprovideror“Editor”oftheshow.IntheamphitheatreatNîmesseatsinthepodiumwerealsoassignedtothevariousguilds,whosenamesarestillinscribedupontheseatswiththenumberofplacesreservedforeach.

Theprincipleofconstructionadopted in theColosseum,asmaybeseenfromtheplan, is thatofwedge-shapedpiers,radiatingfromthearenatotheexterior.Thesewereconnectedbyvaultswhichrandownwardtowardthecentreandalsoinconcentricrings,formingpassagewaystoallpartsofthecavea.Thesystemisoneofconcretevaultingrestingonpiersofthesamematerial,thelatterbeingreinforcedbytufawherethepressurewasgreaterandin thepartsofgreateststrainbyblocksof travertine,fourfeetthick,sheathedwithbrickwork.“Thesupportshavebeencalculatedatone-sixthofthewholeareaofthebuilding.”

Theatre.—The form of the Roman theatre grew directly out of that of the Hellenic, but wasmodified to suit thechangewhichhadcomeover thecharacterofdrama.The religiousoriginof theHellenic drama had been completely left behind. There was no longer any pretence of a chorus;accordingly thecircularspaceof theorchestra,whichhadbeenusedbyit,wasnowfilledwithseats,reserved for persons of distinction. It became, in fact, that part of the auditorium which we stilldistinguishastheorchestraseats.

Already, in later Hellenic drama, the action of the principal players, which originally had beenconfined to theorchestra,hadextendedmoreandmore to the slightly raisedplatform in frontof theproskenion. Itwas thereforebut another step to limit the action to theplatform,which,now that the

orchestrawasfilledwithspectators,wasraisedhigherfromthefloor,and,toaccommodatetheplayers,wasmadebroader.Theseparationoftheactorsfromtheaudiencewascomplete.

The proscenium now became a background, built up to represent a façade of several stories,embellishedwithpilastersandengagedarchesandwithnichesholdingstatues.Theremainsofsuchapermanent“scene”arefoundintheTheatreofOrange,inSouthernFrance,wherewhatwenowcallthestageis203feetwideand45feetdeep,framedinattheendsbyreturnwallsatrightanglestotheproscenium.Nearthetopofthewallsaretwotiersofcorbelstones,piercedtoreceiveflag-staffsthatsupportedthevelarium.

Baths.—Public baths, thermæ,were as necessary a feature ofRoman cities as the amphitheatre.Rich citizens, likeMæcenas andAgrippa, set the fashion of building them, and it was followed byemperorsseekingtoingratiatethemselveswiththepopulace.Forthechargeforadmissionwasonlyaquarterofanas—aboutonequarterofacentorhalfa farthing;andeven thiswaswaivedbycertainemperors.

The principalThermæ in Rome were those ofAgrippa,Nero,Titus,Domitian,Commodus,Caracalla,Diocletian,andConstantine.Manyofthemassumedimmenseproportions;thegroundplanof theBaths of Caracalla, for example, occupying a square quarter of a mile. Besides the actualbathing conveniences, which included hot water baths, vapor baths, cooling chambers and plunges,therewere rooms for ball-playing, gymnasiums, colonnades, libraries, theatres, and open courtswithshadetrees.

FromtwoofthesidesoftheBathsofCaracallaprojectedlongexhedras,orsemi-circularrecesses,furnished with benches, which are supposed to have been the meeting places for the discussion ofphilosophyandpoetry.Infact,thegreatthermæweretheclubsoftheperiod;theresortofallclasses,offeringcleanliness to thepoor, luxury to therich,andhealthfulexerciseandopportunityofculturedintercoursebetweenthosewhodesiredit.Andthehighestskillwasrepresentedinmakingthewallsofthevariouschambersandreservoirsimpervioustomoisture,inconductingandheatingthewater,andinprovidingfluesforhotair.

Basilica.—EquallycharacteristicofRomanlifeweretheBasilicas.Thesestructuresseemtohavebeenintendedatfirsttorelievethecongestionofbusinessinthevariousforaandtoaffordquietaswellasprotection from theweather, for the transactionofbusiness.Theearliest inRomewaserectedB.C.184byPorciusCato; hence called theBasilicaPorcia. Then followed theBasilica Fulvia,BasilicaÆmilia, andBasilica Julia, the last being the largest of the five which existed during the reign ofAugustus.InA.D.112,TrajanbuiltthegreatBasilicaUlpiainconnectionwithhisforum,andsometwohundredyearslaterwaserectedthevaultedBasilicaofMaxentiusorConstantineontheViaSacra.InalltherecametobesometwentybasilicasinRomealone.

OnegreatinterestofthebasilicahallsconsistsinthefactthatfromthemwerederivedtheplanandformoftheearlyChristianchurches.IthasbeenconjecturedthattheplanofabasilicawasderivedfromthatofaGreektemple,thecellawallsbeingreplacedbyrangesofcolumns,openingintotheperistylewhereinturnthecolumnswerereplacedbysidewalls.Thecolonnadesthusbecameaislestothecentralnave;thevestibulebeingretainedatoneendandlatertobecalledanarthex,whileattheoppositeendanapseprojected.HereintheRomanbasilicaweretheseatsofthequæstorandhisassessors,occupiedinearlyChristianbasilicachurchesbythebishopandpresbyters.

TheinteriorsoftheRomanbasilicaspresenttwotypesoftreatment.IntheBasilicaofConstantine,forexample,thenavecolumnswereattachedtogreatpierswhichsupportedgroinedvaults,thethrustofwhichwassustainedbywallsatrightanglestothepiers.Thesewallsdividedeachaisleintothreebays,correspondingtothethreebaysofthenave,andovereachaisle-baywasabarrel-vault,which,beingatright angles to the nave, served as extra support to the nave-vaults. Light was admitted through

windowsinthesidewallsoftheaislesandalsothroughwindowsintheupperpartofthenave,abovetheaislevaults.

On the other hand, in the interior of the Basilica Ulpia a range of columns, supporting anentablature,tooktheplaceofthepiersoneachsideofthenave.Ontheentablaturerestedanotherrangeofcolumns,surmountedbyanotherentablature,abovewhichwalls,piercedwithwindows,werecarriedup to carry the flat, coffered ceiling. Both tiers of nave columns opened into the aisle, whichcorrespondinglyhadtwostories,theuppercrownedwithaflatceiling.

Arches,ColumnsofVictory.—ThemagnificenceofRomeandothercitieswasfurtherdisplayedintheTriumphalArchesandColumnsofVictoryerectedinhonourofemperorsandconquerors.Thearchwasoftwotypes:thesinglearchandthethree-arched.AfamousexampleoftheformeristheArchofTitus,whichcommemoratedthecaptureofJerusalem,A.D.70.Examplesofthethree-archedtypearethoseofSeptimusSeverus,andofConstantineinRome,andtheArchatOrange.ThefaçadeswereadornedwithcolumnsoftheCorinthianorCompositeorders,partiallyorwhollydetached,supportingabrokenentablature—one,inwhichtheuniformityofprojectionisinterruptedbyaprojectionovereachcapital.Above it isa top-story,knownas theattic.Thesoffitof thearchwasrichlycofferedand thewallspacesembellishedwithlow-reliefs,representingincidentsoftriumph,whiletheatticboreuponitsfaceaninscriptionandwassurmountedbystatuesorafour-horsetriumphalchariot(quadriga).

Themostfamousofall thepillarsofvictory isTrajan’sColumn,erected inconnectionwithhisBasilica. It isacolumnof theRomanDoricorder,mountedupona loftypedestal, theheightoverallbeing147feet.Theshaft,12feetindiameteratthebase,enclosesaspiralstaircaseofmarble,whileitsexterior is decorated with a spiral band, 800 feet long and 3½ feet wide, carved with reliefs,representingincidentsinTrajan’svictoriouscampaignsagainsttheDacians.ItstoodoriginallyinacourtoftheBasilicaUlpia,fromtheseveralgalleriesofwhichthesculpturecouldbeviewed.ThestatueofTrajanwhichoriginally adorned the summitof thepillarhasbeen replacedbyabronze statueofSt.Peter.

Aspecialpillarof imperial timeswas theRostralColumn,erected incommemorationofanavalvictoryanddecoratedwiththebronzebeaksorprowstakenfromtheenemy’sships.

Palaces.—Augustus set the example of building himself a palace, choosing the PalatineHill, towhich successive emperors, particularly Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Domitian, and Septimus Severus,made additions of increasing splendour. Nothing remains but ruins, which, however, show that theprincipal apartments were as follows: the Tablinum or throne-room; Basilica, or hall of justice;Peristylium or rectangular garden-court, enclosed with colonnades; Triclinium, or Banquet Hall;LarariumordomestictempleforthehouseholdgodsandtheNymphæum.

AremarkableexampleisthePalaceofDiocletianatSpalato,Dalmatia,builtA.D.300.Theplan,rectangularinshapeandcoveringanareaof4½acres,aboutthesame,infact,asthatoftheEscoriálinSpain,seemstohavebeenlaidoutonthelinesofaRomancamp.Asquaretoweroccupieseachofthecorners,whilethreeofthesideswerepiercedwithentrances,flankedbyoctagonaltowers,whichweredistinguishedasthe“golden,”the“iron,”andthe“bronze”gateways.Fromtheseextendedcolonnadedroadswhichmetinthecentre,thusdividingtheareaintotwonorthernsections,probablyusedbytheprincipalofficersofthehouseholdandtheguests,andalargesouthernportionreservedfortheimperialpalace, and two temples. One of these was dedicated toÆsculapius; the other, circular in plan, toJupiter.

The architecture was of a somewhat debased character, but offers certain interesting features oftransition to the later style of the Romanesque. Thus, in the northern gateway an entablature is notemployed,andthearchesrestdirectlyonthecapitalsofthecolumns.

Domestic Buildings.—The domestic architecture comprised three forms: the domus, or cityresidence of thewell-to-do; the insula, or city tenement house, and the richman’s country house orvilla.

The last term comprises the house and its accompaniments of beautifully laid-out grounds andgardens.On a colossal scale ofmagnificencewas theVillaofHadrian erected atTivoli, where thewhole area amounted to seven square miles. It included, besides the usual palace apartments, agymnasium, thermæand theatre,disposedamid terracedgardens,peristyles,ornamentalwater-basins,andfountains.

SomeideainminiatureoftheluxuriousvillaoftheRomansistobegainedfromthevariousvillasexcavated in thesummerresortofPompeii, suchas theHouseofPansaand theHouseofVetius. Itcomprisedarectangleboundedonthreesidesbynarrowstreetsandonthefourthbythegarden.Thelower story contained shops, opening on to the streets, as in the case of many modern hotels. Theprincipalentrance to thehouse itselfwasaportico throughwhich thevisitorpassed intoanoecus orreceptionroom.Ontherightofthiswerethequartersofthekitchenandontheleftwasthetricliniumordining-roomforuseincoldweather.Thereception-roomledintoaperistylecourtopentothesky,withcoveredcolonnadesthataffordedprotectionfromthesun,whiletherainwascaughtinanimpluviumorcentralcistern.Ononesideofthecourtextendedarowofcubiculaorsleepingapartments,anotherrowofwhichlinedonesideoftheatrium.Thisalsowasanopencourt,furnishedwithanimpluvium,andprotectedfromtheweatheronitssidesbytheextendedeavesoftheadjacentroofs.Theatriumwasthepublicreceptionplaceinwhichtheownerofthehouseinterviewedhisclientsandtransactedbusiness.Accordinglyithadaseparateentrancefromthestreet.

The walls of the principal apartments were decorated with paintings, many of which involvedarchitecturalfeatures;thefloorswerelaidwithmosaicsandthetimberceilingswereprobablypaintedandgilded,theirroofsbeingconstructedofterra-cotta.Theblocksofdwellings,calledinsulæ,seemtohaveanticipatedourmodernapartmentand tenementhouses, for theywerecarriedup throughmanystories and housed numerous families. It is probable that they involved few conveniences, as weunderstandthemto-day;theimportantnecessityofwater,forinstance,beingmetbypublicfountains,whichsupplieddrinkingwater,andbythepublicbathsthatmadeprovisionforcleanlinessandhealth.

Bridges, Aqueducts.—Among the great public works achieved by the Romans were roads,aqueducts,andbridges;and,althoughthesewere,strictlyspeaking,engineeringmasterpieces,theuseofthearchin the last twobrings themwithin thescopeofarchitecturalgrandeur.Thevisiblesigns,andindeedthesymbolofRomancivilisation,weretheroadswhichpushedtheirwayforwardtothelimitsof the Empire, as far as possiblewith a directness that swerved aside from no obstacle, andwith asolidity of foundation that inmany parts of theworld survives to-day.And a corresponding solidityalliedwiththedignityofsimplicityofdesigncharacterisedthebridges.ThebestpreservedinItalyisthe five-archedBridgeofRimini,while impressive examples are found in the favoured province ofSpain;atCordova,forinstance,andToledo.

The Romans were lavish users of water, for purposes of luxury as well as necessity. Theyunderstoodthesimplehydrauliclawthatwaterwillriseinpipestoitsownoriginallevelandappliedthesystem in theirbuildings.But sincepipesof leadandbronzewerecostlyandnone toodurable, theydispensed as far as possible with their use, conveying the water in lofty aqueducts, with a fall, asVitruvius recommended,of6 inches in100feet, so that thewaterwasdeliveredfromaheightat thespot itwas needed. The channel, constructed of concrete, linedwith cement,was conducted upon aseries of concrete arches, faced with brick; the arches being of immense height and sometimes inseveraltiers.TheAnioNovus,constructedA.D.38,wassixty-twomilesinlengthandenteredRomeonarchescarriedovertheAquaClaudia,whichwaserectedatthesametimeandisstilloneofthewater

suppliesofRome.Thefinestexistingexample,however, is theso-calledPont-du-Gard,nearNîmes,whichformspartofanaqueducttwenty-fivemileslong.Foradistanceofabout900feetitiscomposedofthreetiersofarches,crossingthevalley180feetabovetheRiverGard.

In conclusion, the genius of theRoman architect consisted in his faculty of organisation,which

enabled him to take the principles of Hellenic architecture and apply them to a great variety ofrequirements. What his architecture lost in refinement, it more than gained in flexibility andresourcefulness,whilecreatingforitselfadistinctionofstructuralgrandeur.ItrefertilisedtheHellenicwhichhadthreatenedtobecomeabarrenstyleandproducedastylethatnotonlywasrichlycompetenttoservetheneedsofitsowntime,buthasprovedcapableofbeingfurtherdevelopedtonewneeds.Itinvolvedprinciples thathad their influenceonRomanesqueandconsequentlyonGothicarchitecture,becamethesourcefromwhichRenaissancearchitecturewasevolved,and,eveninourownday,arestillcapableofnewandactiveservice.

BOOKIV

POST-CLASSICPERIOD

CHAPTERI

EARLYCHRISTIANCIVILISATION

ASthepowerofRomewanedandtheEmpirebecamedisintegrated,theforceofChristianityincreasedandspreadandtheorganisationoftheChurchbecameconsolidated.TheimmediatefollowersofChristlooked for their Lord’s reappearance as a JewishMessiah. Paul, however, taught that there was nodistinction in the sight of Christ between Jew and Gentile and treated Christianity as a philosophicsystem of ethics, applicable to all races and conditions of rich and poor. His view prevailed andChristianitybecameagreatproselytisingforce.

Itsideaofauniversalbrotherhoodappealedespeciallytothemultitude,whilemenandwomenofthe highest classeswere attracted by its ideals of better and purer living. For the periodwas one ofsocialunrestandofhavocofoldfaithsandstandardsofconduct.Profligacywassappingthevitalsofthestateandofsociety,andtheneedofnewmoralidealswasinsistent.“NoonethingaboutChristianitycommendedittoall,andtonoonethingdiditoweitsvictory,buttothefactthatitmetagreatervarietyofneedsandmetthemmoresatisfactorilythananyothermovementoftheAge.”

Itsgrowthwasfurtherfacilitatedbytheproselytisingzealofitsadherents.Christianityspreadnotonly throughout theRomanEmpire inEurope,but also fasteneduponAsiaMinor andNorthAfrica,taking firm root especially inEgypt, the intellectual centreof theEmpire, and extendingeven to theGermanictribeswhichweretobecometheconquerorsofRome.

Itspower,moreover,wasstrengthenedbyitsorganisation.Inthebeginningeachcongregationhadbeenindependent.Ithaditsofficers,deacons,whocaredforitspoor;eldersorpresbyters,who,asthecouncilofthechurch,lookedafteritsinterests;anditsoverseer,episcopus,orbishop,thechiefofthepresbyters.Incourseoftime,asthechurchofagivencitysentoutbranchestoneighbouringtownsandrural districts, the bishop of the parent community came to have authority over a group ofcongregations. In time thebishopsofaprovince learned to lookforguidance to thehighest religiousofficeroftheprovincialcapital,whoacquiredthehighimportanceofa“Metropolitan.”Andabovehimindignitywere the“Patriarchs”ofsuchcitiesasAntiochandAlexandria,while theBishopofRomewas acquiring the greatest influence. “In brief, the government of the Church was becoming amonarchy.”(Botsford.)

Constantine,recognisingtheadvantageofallyinghimselfwithsuchanorganisation,issuedin313the Edict of Milan, which placed all religions on an equal footing. Furthermore, to set at rest thedissensionswhichwerethreateningtodisrupttheorganisationoftheChurch,hesummonedacouncilofthe representativesof all thegreatbranchesof theChurch tomeet inNicæa, todecideupona creedwhichshouldbeacceptabletoall.

For with the growth of the Church, Christianity had become encumbered with doctrines thathardenedintodogmas,andbythistimeacontroversywasragingovertherivaldogmasupheldbytwoofficersoftheChurchinEgypt,AthanasiusandArius.BothheldthatJesusChristwastheSonofGod,

butAriusmaintained thatHe had proceeded from the Father andwas therefore second to the latter,whileAthanasius proclaimed the absolute equality of theFather and theSon.TheCouncil ofNicæapronounced the latterdoctrine tobeorthodoxandbranded theArianasheresy.TheNiceneCreed, inwhich the orthodox was embodied, was accepted in the West, but in the East, the Arian dogmacontinuedtobeheld.

Apart,however,fromitsbearingonthisquestion,theCouncilofNicæawasaneventofprofoundimportance.ThisfirstŒcumenicalCouncil,orCouncilrepresentativeofthewholeChristianworld,notonlywasanobjectlessonofthewidespreadpoweroftheChurch,butalsoexaltedtheclergytoahighpositionofspiritualauthorityamidthetemporaldistractionsofthetime.

Constantine, upon his deathbed, accepted the Christian faith. Some fifty years later TheodosiusmadeChristianitythesolereligionofthestateandthepagantempleswereclosed.

BydegreesthespiritualpoweroftheChurchwasreinforcedbythetemporal.ThebeginningofthischangeissometimesdatedfromtheactoftheFrankishking,Pepin,towhomthePopeappealedtostemtheattackoftheLombards,thenpushingsouthfromtheirpossessionsinNorthernItalyandthreateningRome.PepindrovethembackandhandedoveraconsiderablesliceofterritorytothePope,toswelltheso-called“PatrimonyofSt.Peter.”Thelatter,fromthistimeon,becameasourceofincreasingwealth,whichenabledthePopestomaintainarmiesandplaythepartofprincesintheworldofpolitics.

Meanwhile,thetemporalpoweroftheWesternChurch,centredinthePapacy,hadbeenhelpedbyConstantine’sremovalofthecapitaloftheEmpiretoConstantinople.Twocircumstancescontributedtothe change.By this time theSenate had lost even the semblanceof authority, and the real sourceofgovernmentwasintheconsentofthearmies.Secondly,thefrontierschieflythreatenedweretheeasternones. Constantine accordingly selected as the site of a Nova Roma, the ancient Greek city ofByzantium.It,too,haditssevenhills,occupyingapromontorybetweentheGoldenHornandtheSeaofMarmora, a spot defended, as well as beautified, by nature and already an important gateway ofcommerce,bothby sea and land,betweenEuropeand theEast.Constantineplanned thenewcityofConstantinopleonextensivelinesandsetanexampleofmagnificentbuildingthatwascontinuedbyhissuccessors; so that Constantinople continued for a thousand years to be the Eastern bulwark ofEuropeancivilisation,untilitwasconqueredbytheMoslemsin1453.

Amongtheresultsofthischangeofthecapitalwas,firstly,thattheEmpiregraduallyseparatedintoEast andWest; secondly, that Constantinople became the centre of culture, and, as darkness settleddownupontheWest,thealmostsolerefugeoflearningandthearts.InthebeginningRomanarchitectsdirected the character of thenewcity, but even then the artisanswho executed theworkwere eitherByzantines or Greeks, attracted to the new city from various parts of Hellas and Asia Minor. Inconsequencearchitectureandtheotherartsgraduallybecameimpressedwithanewcharacter,which,forconvenience’sake,isstyledByzantine.Itrepresents,inthecaseofarchitecture,amixtureofRoman,Greek, andOriental; and involved, aswe shall see, the treatmentofoldprinciples in anewspirit ofinvention.

ThechangewasencouragedbythecontactofByzantiumwithEasternandAfricancivilisation.ForastheWesternEmpiredeclinedinpower,theEasterngrew;extendingitsswayinAsia,whereitcameintoconflictwiththeParthiansandPersians,andalongthenorthernlittoralofAfrica.TheMetropolitanBishopofByzantiumbecameto theEasternChurcheswhat theMetropolitanBishopofRomewastothe Western; and exercised a spiritual headship over the Coptic Church in Alexandria, the SyrianChurch inAntioch, theNestorianChurch inCtesiphon, and theArmenian inAsia.Over thiswidelyspread area religious art flourished, coloured in each locality by racial influences, all of whichinfluencesinameasurereacteduponthecapitalcityofByzantium.

Meanwhile, in theWest, theChurchwas labouring toreorganiseasettledconditionofsocietyby

assistingtheconsolidationofauthority.AcaseinpointistheweldingoftheFrankishtribesintosomesemblanceofanation.By486theyhadfoundagreatleaderinClovis,wholedthemacrosstheRhine,conquered theRomans at Soissons, and proceeded to extend his swayoverGaul.To consolidate hispowerhemarriedClotilda,aprincessoftheBurgundianGoths,andacceptedherfaithofChristianity.Itchanced that sheprofessed theorthodoxbelief,unlike themajorityof theBurgundians and theotherGermantribesatthistimeinGaul,whowereArians.ConsequentlytheRomanChurchthrewtheweightofitsinfluenceonthesideofClovisandhelpedhimtofoundamonarchyinFrancethatenduredunderthetitleofMerovingian,socalledfromMerovech,thegrandfatherofClovis.

In time thevigourof theMerovingiankingsdeclined,until theactualpowerwaswieldedby thestewardoftheroyalhousehold,theMayorofthePalace.GraduallythisofficebecamehereditaryinadynastyofrulersknownasCarolingianorCharlesDynasty.ThefirstgreatCharleswasMayorCharles,surnamedMartelortheHammer;thelast,Charlemagne,orCharlestheGreat.Theformerderivedhisnamefromthecrushingblowsheinflicteduponhisenemies,particularlytheSaracens,thefollowersofMohammed, who by this time (732) had replaced the Vandals along the north coast of Africa,conqueredtheVisigothsinSpain,andwerethreateningFrance.CharlesmetthematPoictiersorTours,andinacompletevictorysavedChristianitytoEurope.

CharlesremainedsimplyMayor;butthetitleofKingwasassumedbyhisson,Pepin,whowasfirstelectedbytheFranksandthenanointedbytheChurch,thusascendingthethronewiththeconsentofthePope.Wehavealreadynotedhowherepaidthedebt.HewassucceededbyhissonCharlemagne,whosedreamwastofoundanempireupontheruinsoftheRoman.ItwasfulfilledtothepointthatheextendedFrankishswayoverGermany,asfarastheElbe,andintoItaly.InthelastnamedcountryheconqueredtheLombardsandsignalisedthecompletenessoftheconquestbyassumingtheironcrownofLombardy.OnChristmasDay,A.D. 800, as he was kneeling at prayer in the Church of St. Peter inRome,PopeLeoIIIcrownedhimEmperoroftheRomans.

It was the aim of Charlemagne to establish his government on Roman lines, to which end hereintroducedRoman laws andmethods of civilisation and ordained that Latin should be the officiallanguage.ThecityselectedashiscapitalwasAachen—Aix-la-Chapelle.

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CHAPTERII

EARLYCHRISTIANANDBYZANTINEARCHITECTURE

WHEN the “Peace of the Church” had been proclaimed by Constantine and Christians were able toworshipopenly,theageofchurch-buildingcommenced,theEmperorhimselfsettingalead.AftertheedictofTheodosius,makingChristianitytheStatereligion,manyofthepagantempleswereadaptedtothepurposesoftheChristianritual,ortheircolumnsanddecorativefeatureswereappropriatedforthebuilding of new churches. The former practice accounts for the preservation of the Parthenon,Erechtheion,and theTempleofTheseusatAthens.An instanceof themethodofconversion is tobetracedintheCathedralofSyracuse,Sicily,whichoccupiesthesiteofanancienttemple.Wallswerebuilt between theDoric columns of the peristyle,while thewalls of the cellawere pierced so as tocommunicatewith the peristyle,which thus served as aisles.Another instance is that of a temple inAphrodisias,inCaria,AsiaMinor,wherethewallsofthecellawereentirelyremoved,andwallswerebuilt outside the peristyle to form aisles,while to increase the length of the nave the front and rearporticocolumnsweresetinlinewiththeothers.

BasilicanPlan.—Thesechangescoincidedwiththegeneraladoptionofthebasilicaplaninthecaseof new buildings. For the earlyChristian churches show very little regard for the appearance of theexterior.Attentionwasconcentratedontheinterior,infittingitforritualworshipandinbeautifyingit,andtoboththeseobjectsthebasilicaplanmostreadilycontributed.

TheearliestexampleinRomeofachurchsoplannedisthatofSt.JohnLateran,which,however,hasbeencompletelyremodelledbysubsequentadditions.ThenextinpointoftimewastheCathedralChurchofSt.Peter,erectednearthespotinwhichthesaintwasmartyredinthecircusofNero.Itwastorndownin1506tomakeroomforthepresentcathedralcommencedbyJuliusII;buttheappearanceofitsprincipalfaçadeisknownfromRaphael’smuralpainting“IncendiodelBorgo,”inthestanzeoftheVatican,andthereisarecordofitsplan.Thelattershowsthatthebasilicabuildingwasapproachedbyanatrium,surroundedbyeithercolonnadesorarcades,enclosingarectangularspace,opentotheskyandhavingafountaininthecentre.Withthewatertheworshipperssprinkledthemselves,asymbolofpurification still preserved in the “holy-water” vessel, placed inside the entrance ofRomanCatholicchurches.

Theendarcade,abuttingonthechurchproper,wasusedbypenitentsandcalledthenarthex.Thebodyof the churchwas divided, as in the basilica halls, into central nave and side aisles—the lattersometimesdouble.Across the endof thenave extended thebema or sanctuary, corresponding to the

spaceraisedandenclosedforlitigantsandlawyersinthebasilica.Itsendsprojectedbeyondthelineofthemainbuilding,formingrudimentarytransepts,whichmayhavebeenusedassacristiesfortherobingoftheclergyandthepreservationofthesacredvesselsandotherritualobjects.Thecentralpartofthebema was elevated and occupied by the altar which was surmounted by a baldachino or canopy,supported on four columns. Behind the altar was the apse, lined with seats; those of the Romanassessorsbeingnowoccupiedbythepresbyters,whilethecentreoneofthequæsterorpraetorbecamethebishop’sthrone.Forthetransferenceofthelattertothesideofthechoirwasoflaterdate.

Theofficiating priest stoodbehind the altar, facing the congregation and the east. For as yet themainfaçadewasnotthewestern,afactofinterestwhenwerecallthatwhiletheHellenicarchitectsbuiltfacing the four points of the compass and made the chief entrance on the east, the Romans wereindifferenttothematteroforientation.

Incertain instancesas thatofS.Clemente, inRome, the accommodation for thechoirprojectedfrom the bema into the nave. It was enclosed with low screen walls calledCancelli (whence wasderivedthewordchancel);thesidewallsprojectingtoaffordspacefortworeadingdesks,orambones;respectively,theGospelamboandtheEpistleambo.

Treatment of Columns.—There were two ways of treating the columns. In the earlier type ofchurches,theaisleswerespannedbyarches,whilethoseofthenavesupportedanentablature.Butthisnecessitated a narrow intercolumniation, considerably obstructing the view.Accordingly, the practiceensuedofplacingthecolumnsfurtherapartandsurmountingthemwitharches.Thefirstexampleofthisuseofarcades in a nave is believed to occur in the northern gallery of thePalace ofDiocletian inSpalato,Dalmatia.Bothmethodscontinuedtobeemployedandweresometimescombinedinthesamebuilding.Overtheentablatureorarches,asthecasemightbe,wasahighstretchofwall,risingabovetheleveloftheaisleroof,piercedwitharowofclerestorywindows.Thenaveandaislesterminatedinarches,thatoftheformer,theprincipalentrancetothesanctuary,beingcalledtheArchofTriumph.Theroofswereoftimber;thatofthenaverisingtoaridgeandfinishingateachendinagable,whileaslopefrom below the clerestory covered the side aisles. The construction work of the roofs was usuallyhiddenintheinteriorbyflatceilings,beamedandcoffered.

Thedecorationoftheinteriorincludedtheuseofantiquecolumns,whichweresometimesadaptedto their new place by cutting down or removing the bases. The walls above the nave arcading orentablaturewereadornedwithmosaics,whichalsoembellishedthespaceabovetheArchofTriumphandthesemi-domeoftheapse.Thefloorswerecoveredwithgeometricpatternsofmarbleslicedfromcolumnsandotherantiquefragments.

The principal examples of basilican churches, still existing inRome, are St. Paul-without-the-walls,S.ClementeandS.MariaMaggiore.Thefirstnamedisofmodernconstruction,completedin1854,butpreservestheplananddimensionsoftheolderchurchwhichwasdestroyedbyfirein1823.Ithadbeenbegunin380byTheodosius,onaplancloselyfollowingthatoftheoldSt.Peter’s,exceptthatthe transepts of the bema project less and the atrium was abandoned, leaving only the narthex. Itsconstructionandembellishmentwerecontinuedbyotheremperorsandbymanypopes,themunificenceofthelatterbeingcommemoratedinaseriesofportraitmedallionsofthepopeswhichextendsinabandabove the arcade-arches on each side of the nave.Thewall space above them is veneeredwith raremarbles,enclosingpanelsfilledwithpaintingsrepresentingincidents inthelifeofSt.Paul.Amidthesomewhatextremesumptuousnessoftheinteriorafeelingoftheoldercharacterofabasilicanchurchispreservedinthemosaicsofthefifthcenturywhichadornthearchoftriumph,andinthoseoftheapsewhichdatefromtheearlypartofthethirteenthcentury.

S.MariaMaggiore presents an original basilican plan of nave and single aisles, from each ofwhichduringtheRenaissancewasbuiltoutasquaresidechapel,surmountedbydomes,givingtheplan

theformofacross.ButtheinteriorofthenavedatesfromthetimeofSixtusIIIinthefourthcenturyandshowsoneachsideaseriesofIoniccolumns,supportinganentablature.Abovethis,asalsooverthearchoftriumph,aremosaicsofthefifthcentury.

TheChurchofS.Clementeisnotablefortheretentionoftheatriumandalsofortheterminationoftheaislesinapses,afeaturewhichsuggestsByzantineinfluence.

CircularandPolygonalPlans.—Inaddition to thebasilicanbuildingsof thisperiodwere somewhichinvolvedacircularorpolygonalplan,suggestedprobablybythecirculartemplesandtombsoftheRomans. Theywere applied in the earlyChristian era both to tombs,which in some caseswereafterwardconvertedintochurches,andtobaptistries.Thelatterwereindependentbuildings,socalledfromtheiruseatfirstsolelyforthesacramentofbaptism.Inlatertimes,however,itbecamethecustomtoplacethefontinsidethechurch;yetaslateastheeleventhcenturywaserectedthefamousBaptistryofFlorence,inwhicheventothisdayeverychildbornwithinthecityisbaptised.

TheexamplesinRomeofcircularorpolygonalbuildingsaretheBaptistrywhichformspartofthegroupofbuildingsofS.JohnLateran,theTombofS.Constanza,thedaughterofConstantine,whichwasconvertedintoachurchin1256,andthechurchofS.StefanoRotondo.

ThegeneralcharacteroftheRomantombwasacircularmass,superimposedonasquarepodium.The cylindrical mass was sometimes decorated with pilasters, supporting an entablature, andoccasionallywassurroundedbyaperistyle,whileitsroofwasapttobeconical.

In early Christian architecture this principle of construction was developed. The peristyle wasenclosed by outer walls, and the lower part of the walls of the cylindrical mass was replaced bycolumns.Thus,intheBaptistryofS.John,whichhasbeencalledtheBaptistryofConstantine, theconicalroofissupportedbyacircleofeightcolumns,intwostories.

TheTombofS.Constanza has a domewhich is supported on twelve pairs of granite columns,whilethewallofthecircularaisleisinsetwithsixteenrecesses,alternatelyapsidalandrectangularinshape,oneofthelatterbeingopenedthroughtoformtheentrance.Thesarcophagusofthesaintwhichformerly occupied one of the niches, is now in theVaticanMuseum. Its sides are carvedwith geniigathering grapes—amotive which is also represented in the mosaics that adorn the vaulting of thechurch’scircularaisle.

S. Stefano Rotondo, though much reduced from its original size, is said to be still the largestcircular church in existence. The wall of the cylinder, surmounted by a wooden conical roof, issupported on a circular entablature, carried by antique columns. It was surrounded, when built bySimplicius in the fifth century, by double circular aisles, covered by a sloping roof. The latter wassupportedbycolumnsandarches,whiletheexternalwallwasdecoratedwithpilasters.Tracesoftheseare still apparent; otherwise the outer aisle has disappeared and the present exterior represents thewallingupofthespacesbetweenthecolumns.ThiswasdonebyNicholasVinthefifteenthcentury,bywhichtimetheedifice,oncerichlydecoratedwithmarbleveneersandmosaics,hadfallenintodecay.Itslateralwallsarenowcoveredwithhorriblynaturalisticscenesofmartyrdom,executedattheendoftheseventeenthcentury.

SyrianExamples.—Syriahasdisclosedtoexplorers—ofwhomthelateMarquisofVogüéandDr.H. C. Butler of the American Archæological Expedition have been the foremost—a number ofinterestingmonuments,bothcivicandreligious,erectedbetweenthethirdandeighthcenturies.Whiledetails of moulding and ornament appear to have been copied from those of Roman remains, themethodsofconstructionwereworkedoutbythebuildersthemselves.TheyseemtohaveretainedthePhœnicianpreferenceforusingthelargeststonesthatcouldbequarried,transported,andputinplace.Thus, archeswere frequently carvedoutof a single stone, andwhenvoussoirswereused, theywere

either few in number or, if numerous, of great height and depth. Large slabs of stone were alsoemployedforroofing,especiallyinhouses.Inimitatingantiquedetailsthearchitectsappeartohavehadlittleifanyfeelingfortheirconstructionaloriginormeaning;thecapitalandhalftheshaftofacolumn,forexample,beingcarvedoutofonepieceofstone,whiletheremainderoftheshaftandthebasewerecut out of another. On the other hand, they developed for themselves certain fine features ofconstruction, as for instance, in the arcading of their basilican churches, inwhich the columnsweresometimes replaced by large rectangular piers, carrying arches of great width. An example of thisimpressivemethodisfoundintheinterioroftheChurchofKalb-Lauzeh.ThiscorrespondswiththelargerChurchofTurmanin,thewesternfaçadeofwhichshowsaveryindependentspiritofdesign.Ithas abroad arched entrance, flankedby two square towers, connectedover thedoorwayby anopengallery,constructedwithcolumns.

Acorrespondinginventivenessmarkedtheiruseof thebasilicanplan.Afineexampleis thelargeChurchofS.SimeonStylitesatKalat-Seman.Thenucleusoftheplanisanoctagonalcourt,opentothesky,inthecentreofwhichstoodthepillaronwhichthesaintspentthirtyyearsofhislife.Thiscourtformstheintersectionorcrossingoffourrectangularwings,arrangedinshapeofacross,eachoneofwhichhasabasilicanform,thenaveandaislesoftheeasternoneterminatinginapses.

AnotherveryinterestingplanoccursintheCathedralatBorah.Itpresentsacircleinscribedinasquare,intheanglesofwhichareapsidalrecessesprojectingfromthecircle.Moreover,fromtheeastsideofthesquareprojectthreeshortrectangles,terminatinginapses,whichsuggesttheprolongationofthenaveandaislesthathavebeeninterruptedbythecircle.Nothingbutthefoundationsofthischurchremain.Meanwhile,theChurchofS.GeorgeatEsrah showsasimilarplanand issurmountedbyahigh elliptical dome. It is conjectured that these two churches were the prototypes of S. Sergius,Constantinople,andS.VitaleatRavenna,whichwillbediscussedlater,andofmanycorrespondingchurchesofByzantinearchitecture.

Ravenna.—InthedevelopmentofearlyChristianarchitectureaveryinterestingpartwasplayedbyRavenna.For thiscity,situatedon theAdriatic (though theseahassincereceded toadistanceofsixmiles),wasthechiefportbywhichthetradeofConstantinopleorByzantiumenteredItaly.AccordinglysomeofthetombsandchurchespresentafusionofByzantineandSyrianinfluenceswithRoman.Thechangefromthebasilicantypeisespeciallymarkedinthecharacteroftheplanandbytheadoptionofdomes.

ThustheBaptistryofRavenna isanoctagonalstructure,surmountedbyadomeofhollowtiles.TheTombofGallaPlacidiaiscruciforminplanwithalanternraisedoverthecrossingorintersectionof the arms of the cross. The lantern is pierced with four windows and surmounted by a dome,supportedonpendentives—amethodofconstruction,peculiarlyByzantine,whichwillbeconsideredpresently.

WhenTheodorictheGreat,KingoftheOstro-GothsandrulerofNorthernItaly,selectedRavennaas his capital, he built theChurch of S.ApollinareNuovo, importing twenty-fourmarble columnsfromConstantinople and employingByzantine artists and artisans. The plan is basilican, though theatriumandapsehavebeenremovedbysubsequentalterations,buttheinteriorisrichlyembellishedwithByzantinemosaics.The latter also adorn the largerbasilicanChurch of S.Apollinare-in-Classe, socalled from its being situated near the port. Its columns also are distinguished by the peculiarlyByzantinefeatureoftheimpostblock,tobedescribedlater.

AfterthedeathofTheodoricin536theEmperorJustinian,havingthroughhisgeneral,Belisarius,routedtheGothsfromthecountry,madeRavennathepoliticalcapitalofItaly,undertheauthorityofanexarch. Thenwas built, probably as Court Church, the famous example of Byzantine influence, theChurchofS.Vitale.WewillreturntothisafteraconsiderationofwhatisinvolvedintheByzantine

style.Byzantine.—The term Byzantine is applied to the style of architecture gradually developed in

ByzantiumafterConstantine, inA.D.324, transferred thecapitalof theRomanEmpire to thatcity. Itsdistinctivefeaturesaretheuseofbrickandstoneinplaceofconcrete;theuseofimpostsinconnectionwithcolumnsandarches;thecharacterofthecarvedornamentappliedtosurfacesand,mostimportantofall,asystemofcoveringrectangularspaceswithdomes.ItreacheditshighestpointofdevelopmentundertheEmperorJustinian,betweentheyears527and565.

The stylewas the result of evolution; a product of the combination of principles of constructionderivedfromRoman,EarlyChristianandSyrianarchitecture,andfromthetraditionalmethodsoftheIranbuildersofAssyria;affectedinmattersofdecorationbytheluxurioustasteoftheOrient.

The favourite material of Byzantine builders was brickwork; the bricks being one and one-halfinchesinthickness,liketheRoman,andlaidbetweenlayersofmortarofsimilarthickness.Inthecaseofcornicesthebricksweremouldedtotherequiredcontoursandwhenusedfortheshaftsofcolumnswerecircularinoutline.Themortarwascomposedofsand,lime,andcrushedpottery,tiles,orbricks.Except in the caseofmarble columnswhichwere cut andput in placebymasons, thewholeof thepreliminaryworkwasdonebybricklayerswhoconstructedtheentire“carcass”ofthebuilding.Whenthis

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INTERIOROFS.SOPHIASHOWINGPENDENTIVESANDTHREEOFTHEDOMEARCHES(TWOOFWHICHARECLOSEDANDPIERCEDWITHLIGHTS).NOTEALSORINGOF

LIGHTSROUNDNECKOFDOME.PP.202,205,207

PLANOFS.SOPHIAP.208

PLANOFS.MARK’S,VENICEP.209

EXTERIOROFS.MARK’S,VENICESHOWINGGOTHICDETAILSIMPOSEDONBYZANTINEDESIGN.P.209

had dried and settled, the masons and the decorators completed the work, by overlaying the walls,domes,andpedimentsoftheinteriorwithmarbleormosaics.

Thefloorswerepavedwithrichlycolouredmarbles,inopussectileoropusAlexandrinum.Marble,also,cutinthinveneersandarrangedsothattheirveiningproducedsymmetricaldesigns,wasappliedto thewalls.Marble, again, but incisedwith carved ornament, covered the soffits of the arches, thearchivolts, and spandrels,while the vaultingwas resplendentwithmosaics, composedof figures andornaments,executedinenamelledglassuponabackgroundofgoldorblueor,morerarely,palegreen.

Colourwaspre-eminently themotiveof the interior decoration and to this end carvedworkwassubordinated.Theornamentwasinverylowrelief,spreadingoverthesurfaceinintricatepatterns,thatsuggestthedelicateenrichmentoflace.Mouldingswerereplacedbybandsofmosaicormarble,carvedor smooth. The chief motive of the carved ornamentation was the mingling of the acanthus andanthemion.ThetreatmentofbothwasratherHellenicthanRoman;thefoliagehavingpointedends;butitwasdeeplychannelledanddrilledwithdeepholesatthespringingoftheleaves.Infact,theuseofthedrillaswellasthechiselwascharacteristicofByzantinecarvingandemphasisesthesuggestionoftheornament being raised rather than, as in Roman decoration, applied. Corresponding to the generalflatnessoftheornamentistheconstraintofthecontoursofthemouldings,suggestiveofAsiaticlanguorandinmarkedcontrast to thevigorousprofilesofclassicarchitecture.The impression, indeed,of thewhole scheme of decoration is rather one of soft richness, as carving melts into colour and colourdeepensandglowsandfinallypassesintothegoldordepthsofazureofthevaulting.

WhenthesupplyofantiquecolumnswasexhaustedtheByzantinearchitectsbegantoimitatethem,butsoondepartedfromtheclassictype.IncertaincasesthecapitalretainedsomethingofitsderivationfromtheIonicorCorinthianstyles;butgraduallyanewtypewasevolved,whichwasdistinguishedbybeingconvex to theoutside rather thanconcave.Themotiveappears tohavebeen togiveadditionalsupporttothearch,forwhichpurposeanimpostwas,asthenameimplies,“placedupon”thecapital.Itconsistsofablock,whichprojectsbeyondtheedgesofthecapitaltofittheextrathicknessofthewalland may represent, as has been suggested, the survival of a part of the architrave of the discardedentablature.Inthedecorationofthecapitalsthefoliagewassometimesenclosedinframesofinterlace,orthelattertooktheformofabasket,onwhichbirdsareperching.

Pendentive Dome.—We have now to consider the most characteristic feature of Byzantinearchitecture—theDome.Briefly,inthe200yearsthatdividedJustinianfromConstantinetheByzantinearchitects perfected a principle of dome construction bywhich they crowned a square planwith thecircleofadome.

TheRomansconfinedtheirdomestocircularorpolygonalbuildings.Meanwhiletheyhadworkedouttheconstructionofgroinedvaultinguponfoursupports.TheByzantineachievementwastomakefour supports carry a dome. It was accomplished by developing the element of construction—thependentive.

Wehavealreadynotedthebas-relieffoundatKoyunjik,whichshowsthattheAssyriansunderstoodthecrowningofsmallsquarebuildingswithdomes.Whileactualexampleshaveperished,thetraditionofthisconstructionseemstohavesurvivedintheEast.ForinthethirdcenturyA.D.,whenthePersiansestablishedtheSassanianEmpireundertheimpulseofamovementthatsoughttorestoretheidealsandhabitsoftheoldnationallife,thebuilderserecteddomesinthepalacesofSerbistanandFiruzabad.

Themethodtheyadoptedwastobridgeeachangleofthesquare,atsomedistancebelowthetop,withasmallarch.Onthesetheyerectedtwosmallarchesthatprojectedbeyondthefaceoftheoriginalarchandaccordinglyextendedthewidthof thebridge.Theycontinuedthisprocessofsuperimposingtierupontierofarches,until thebridgewaslevelwiththetopofthesquare,bywhichtimethelatterwas transformedintoanoctagon.Then,by insertingacorbelorbracket ineachangleof theoctagonandtakingadvantageofthethicknessofthemasonry,theywereabletoadjustadometothestructure.Thissystemofdome-support,weshallfind,wasadoptedinGothicarchitecture,wherethearchesarecalledsquinches.

Anothermethodofdome-support,foundintheMosqueofDamascusandfrequentlyemployedinthechurchesofAsiaMinor,wastobridgetheanglewithasemi-circularniche.

Meanwhile what the Byzantine architects developed was a geometrically exact system ofconvertingthesquareintoacirclebymeansofconcavetriangularmembersthatarespecificallycalledpendentives.

Thecharacterandfunctionofapendentivemaybereadilygraspedbyapracticalexperiment.Cutanorangeintotwohemispheres.Laytheflatofoneonfourreels,placedatthefouranglesofasquare,inscribed within the circle. These reels represent the piers on which the pendentives are to beconstructed.Nowbyfourperpendicular incisionsof theknifecutoff thesegmentsof thehemispherethatprojectbeyondthesquare.Thelateralspacesbetweenthepierswillnowbespannedbyfourarches.Finally, a trifle above the top of the arches, make a horizontal cut, removing the upper part of thehemisphere. The rind which remains represents the four pendentives. The flesh inside of it may belikenedtothetimbercenteringusedintheconstructionofthependentivesand,nowthatthelatterarecompleted,mayberemoved.Removealsothefleshfrominsidetheupperpartofthehemisphere.Itwillthenbeahollowcap,whichyoucanreplaceonthetopofthependentives.Younowhaveaninstanceofadomeandpendentives included inasinglehemisphere.Moreusually,however, thearchitectmakesthecurveofthedomedifferentfromthatofthependentives.Frequently,too,togivethedomesuperiordistinction,heconstructsacylindricalwallonthecircleofthependentives,andonthisdrum,asit iscalled,elevateshisdome.

Scientifically stated: “If a hemisphere be cut by five planes, four perpendicular to its base andboundingasquareinscribedtherein,andthefifthparallel to thebaseandtangent to thesemi-circularintersectionmadebythefirstfour,therewillremainoftheoriginalsurfaceonlyfourtriangularspacesboundedbyarcsofcircles.Thesearecalledpendentives.”(ProfessorHamlin.)

The first church built by Justinian was SS. Sergius and Bacchus inConstantinople. The part

dedicatedtothelattersaint—asmallbasilica—wasdestroyedbytheTurks.Theremainderpresentstheplanofarectangleenclosinganoctagononwhichrestsadomeofacurious,fluted,melonshape.

AfewyearslaterwaserectedthechurchofS.VitaleinRavenna,probablyastheCourtChurch.Its

planisanoctagonwithinanoctagon;theinneronebeingsurmountedbyadome.The domical arrangement of both these churches may have been originally derived from the

Pantheon,modifiedbytheexampleinRome,ofwhatiscalledtheTempleofMinervaMedica,thoughitwasprobablyanymphæum.Thisbuildingisdecagonalwithnichesprojectingfromnineofthesides,while the tenthprovides the entrance.Thedome,of concrete ribbedwith tiles, is built over an innerdecagon of ten piers carrying ten arches. These in turn support a decagonal drum, pierced withwindows, the angles at the top being filled in with rudimentary pendentives. The same principle ofconstructionreappearsinbothS.SergiusandS.Vitale;thedomeofthelatterbeingcomposed,forthesake of lightness, of earthenware, amphora-shaped pots, the bottom of one being fixed in the lip ofanother.Itissheathedontheoutsidewithawoodenroof.

ThisChurchofS.Vitalebecame themodelonwhichCharlemagnebasedhisdomicalchurchatAix-la-Chapelle, which was built as a royal tomb, A.D. 796-814, and was afterward used as thecrowning-placeoftheEmperorsoftheWest.

S. Sophia.—Finally, the pendentive system was fully developed in Justinian’s church inConstantinoplededicatedtotheHolyWisdom—HagiaSophia,called,thougherroneously,S.Sophia.ItmarksthehighestdevelopmentoftheByzantinegeniusfordomicalconstruction.

ThearchitectswereAnthemiusofTrallesandIsidorusofMiletus,whobegantheworkin532andfinisheditin537.Theplanshowsfourmightypiers,25feetsquare,setattheanglesofasquareof107feet. These support four arches and intermediate pendentives of noble height, the apex of the domebeing175feetfromthepavement.Fortheoriginaldome,havingcollapsedin555,wasreplacedbyahigherone,lightedbytheintroductionoffortycircular-headedwindowsaroundthespringofthecurve;anarrangementnotonlyexcellentinadmittinglighttotheinterior,butalsoaswonderfullyimpressiveinitswayasthesingleeyeofthePantheon.Rowsofsmallcircularheadedwindowsarealsopiercedinthescreenswhichfillinthenorthandsoutharches.

Abutting on the east and west arches of this central mass are semi-domes, supported upon thecentralpiersandtwoothers.Andfromtheseproject,asinS.SergiusandS.Vitale,smallsemicirculardomes,sustainedbyanupperandlowerstoryofarcades.Thuswascreatedavastoval-endedhall,267feetlongby107,fromeverypartofwhichthesummitofthedomeisvisible.

Outsidethiscentralfeaturearetwoside-aisles,eachhavingtwostories,separatedfromthenavebyarcading and formed of a series of columns and vaulting. As in all Early Christian and Byzantinechurcheswhichhaveupperandlowergalleries,theformerwereoccupiedbywomenworshippers.Theouterwallsonthenorthandsouthsides,astheplanshows,arereinforcedbyimmensebuttresses,25feetwideand75long,whichappearontheoutsideofthebuildingslikehugepylons.Ontheinsidetheyare pierced with arches on each story. These buttresses withstand the thrust of the dome which isreinforcedontheeastandwestbythesemi-domes.

The edifice,whichoccupiespractically a square, is approachedon thewest sideby anarthexofmagnificentproportions,200feet longby30wide,which isdivided like theaisles intoanupperandlowerstory.Sofar“theplanresemblesthatofS.Sergius,ifthelatterwerecutinhalfandadomeonpendentivesinsertedovertheinterveningsquareandthewholedoubledinsize.”Infrontofthenarthex,however,extendsasecondone,opening,asinsomeofthebasilicanchurches,intoanatrium.

Theexteriorwallsarefacedwithalternatecoursesofbrickandstoneandthedomes,allofwhicharevisible,arecoveredwithasheathingoflead.

S.Mark’s,Venice.—S.Sophiaisamarvelnotonlyofconstructionbutalsoofunityofdesign.Itisinthisrespect,amongothers,thatitissuperiortoS.Mark’sinVenice,whichwaserectedbyByzantinebuilders at the end of the eleventh century. Venice, like Ravenna, was in close touch with

Constantinopleandwhenshedeterminedtobuildacathedral toherpatronsaint, toreplaceanearlierbasilicanchurchdestroyedbyfire,itwasnaturalthatsheshouldlooktothatcityforthecharacterofthedesignaswellasforartistsandartisans toexecute it.Theactualmodelwas theChurchoftheHolyApostles,inConstantinople,foundedbyConstantine,rebuiltbyJustinian,anddestroyedbytheTurksin1463tomakeroomforthemosqueofSultanMahometII.

The plan is aGreek cross, that is to say, a crosswith the four parts of practically equal length,grouped around a central square. Each of the five divisions is crowned by a dome, supported onpendentives and reinforced by transverse barrel vaults. The transept and choir domes are slightlysmallerthantheonesoverthecrossingandthenave,becauseoftherestrictionsofspacecausedbythechapelofS.Isadoreinthenorthtransept,theDucalPalaceonthesouth,andtheretentionoftheapseoftheancientbasilica.Originallyallthedomesweresheathedexternallywithlead,butatalaterdatewerecovered with the lead-sheathed wooden lanterns now existing. With their high-pitched curves andornamentalterminalstheyrepresentaseriousdeviationfromthetrueByzantinestyle.

A similar departure from the latter is exhibited in the west façade. This was completed in thefifteenthcenturyandinvolvesacuriousmixtureofOrientalismandfancifulGothicwithfeatures,suchas theclustersofcolumns in two tiers, flanking thefiveentrances,whichservenostructuralpurposeandhavenoarchitecturaljustification.Theyarepurelypicturesque.ButS.Mark’swasthecity’sshrine,towhicheachsucceedingcenturyaddedsomeembellishmentandoftenwithmorezealthandiscretion.

Itistheinteriorratherthatcommandsouradmiration.Fornotwithstandingcertaindistractions,evenhere,oflaterdebasedstylesofmosaic,enoughofthetenthandeleventhcenturyembellishmentsremaintodignifythedecoration.Andinnootherbuildingintheworldistheresomarvellousanensembleofcolouredmarbles,alabaster,andglassmosaics;orsuchsubtleties,delicacies,andcomplexitiesoflightandshadow.

GreeceandRussia.—InGreeceandRussiatheByzantinehascontinuedtobetheofficialstyleoftheGreekChurch.InRussia,however,manyfantasticelementshavebeenintroduced,particularlythebulbousformofthedomes.

As an example of domesticByzantine architecturemay bementioned theMonastery ofMountAthosonapromontoryofSaloniki,overlookingtheÆgeanSea.

“In Armenia are also interesting examples of late Armeno-Byzantine architecture, showingapplicationstoexteriorcarveddetailofelaborateinterlacedornament,lookinglikeare-echoofCelticM.SS.illumination,itself,nodoubt,originatinginByzantinetraditions.”(Hamlin.)

CHAPTERIII

MUHAMMEDAN,ALSOCALLEDSARACENICCIVILISATION

THE introduction at this point of Muhammedan or Saracenic architecture unfortunately breaks thecontinuity of the evolution of Early Christian and Byzantine architecture into the Romanesque andthence into the Gothic. Accordingly, some writers reserve this chapter until the end of their book,treatingitasanindependentinterlude.

Thatmethod,ontheotherhand,hasthedisadvantageofnotgivingthesubjectitsproperplaceinthesequenceofhistory;andsinceanimportantmotiveofthepresentvolumeistorepresentthegrowthofarchitectureastheproductofchangingconditionsofcivilisation,itseemsmoreinaccordancewiththisaimtolettheconditionsgoverntheorderinwhichthearchitecturalphasesarepresented.So,intheinevitablechoicebetweentwoevilsofarrangementwewillselectthatwhich,fromourpointofview,

seemstobetheleast.ForitistruethatMuhammedanorSaraceniccivilisationrepresentsbutaninterludeintheprogress

ofChristiancivilisation.What,however,wouldhavebeentheoutcome,ifCharlesMartel,in732,hadnotcrushedtheadvanceoftheMuhammedansintoFrance?TheymighthavefasteneduponthelatterastheyhaduponSpain,thenorthofAfrica,Egypt,Syria.FromFrancetheymighthavedescendeduponItaly,andgraduallydrawntighter thecircleof theirconquestuntil theWesternaswellas theEasternEmpirewasentirelyintheirgrasp.ItneedsbutalittleeffortofimaginationtorealisethatontheissueofthebattleofPoictiershungthefortunesofEurope; thesurvivalofEuropeancivilisationandpossiblythecontinuanceofChristianity.

Infact,whatwastremblinginthebalancewastheextensionofanewandvigorouspoweroverasocialorderthat,exceptintheFrankishkingdom,hadgrownmoreandmoredisintegratedandfeeble.ForinthedeclineofRomeevenherconquerorshadbeeninvolved;thevariousotherGothicnationsinadaptingthedecayofhersystemhadbeencorruptedbyit.Theonlyunifyingandupliftingforcethatglimmered amid the general prostrationwas that of theChurch,whichmight have been engulfed inIslamismiftheFrankshadnotprevailedatPoictiers.

ForinthepresentdayweassociateIslamismwiththeunprogressivenations,whereasintheeighthcentury it was the symbol of progressiveness. Its spiritual ideal was, at least, as high as that ofChristianity;whileitsintellectualandmaterialidealsweresuperiortothoseofEurope.

ShallwespeakofSaraceniccivilisationorSaracenicarchitectureassomedo,orfollowtheexampleofotherswhosubstitutethetermMuhammedan?TheformerwordwasprobablyderivedfromtheLatinSaraceni,whichwas employed by theRomans to designate theBedouinswho roamed a part of theSyro-Arabian desert, and committed depredations on the frontier of theEmpire. In theMiddleAgesSaracencametobeusedasageneraltermforMoslems,especiallythosewhohadpenetratedintoSpain.Thislatteruseistoonarrow,whilethegeneraluseconveysnomeaning.

Muhammedan,on theotherhand, implies a followerofMuhammedorMahomet, and itwas theoneness of faith that first united theArab tribesmen and in time gave a uniformity of ideal to theirspreadofconquestfromthePillarsofHerculestoNorthernIndia.Whilethecharacterofthecivilisationvariedthroughoutthisvastempire,beingcolouredbylocalandracialcharacteristicsthatreactedonthestylesofarchitecture, itwaseverywhere impregnatedwithonebelief.There isnogodbutAllahandMuhammedishisprophet.

Muhammed was born about 570 in Mecca, in the Arabian peninsula; a place hitherto of littleimportance,whichhadacube-shapedsanctuary,theKaaba,enshriningaBlackStone.Itwasthetokenor fetishof somegodof nature; for somekindof natureworship, including theworshipof theSun,Moon, and Earth seems to have been the traditional religion of Arabia. Meanwhile, Judaism hadpenetratedintothecountryandChristianityhadfollowed.EachfiguredinMuhammed’simaginationasaworldreligion.BothprofessedoneGod.Onehaditsprophets;theother,itsMessiah,andbothitsbookofinspiredrevelation.

Accordingly,whenthevisionofMuhammedembracedtheideaoffoundingatonceanewnationandanewreligion,heborrowedfrombothJudaismandChristianityandproclaimedhimself thenewprophetorMessiahoftheoneGodandmadeknowntheNewRevelation,whichwasembodiedintheKoran. The faith of Islam, as preached byMuhammed and practised by him and his followers,wasessentiallyoneofproselytisingby force. “The sword,”he taught, “is thekeyofHeavenandHell.AdropofbloodshedinthecauseofGod,anightspentinarms,availsmorethantwomonthsoffastingandprayer.Whoso falls in battle his sins are forgiven.At theDayof Judgment hiswounds shall beresplendentwithvermilionandodoriferousasmusk,andthelossoflimbsshallbesuppliedbyangels’wings.”

Muhammed’sself-imposedtaskofsubjugatingandunitingArabiafortheArabianswasbegunafterhisflightfromMeccatoMedina,thecelebratedHejira(Arabhijra)whichoccurredontheJewishDayofAtonement,Sept.30,A.D.622.ThefurtherworkofconqueringthecountriesonwhichtheArabtribeshadbeendependent,Syria,Abyssinia,Persia,wascontinuedbyhisfollowers.

OfgreatimportanceinthehistoryofarchitecturewastheconquestofPersia(632-651),forheretheMuhammedaninfluencedevelopedastylethatwasdistinguishedbyfinestructuralaswellasaestheticqualitiesandgenerallydevelopedabeautifulrevivalofthevariousartsofdecorativedesign.AnditwasPersianMuhammedanthatstronglyinfluencedthearchitectureofIndia,whereMuhammedanconquestwasestablishedaboutA.D.1000.

Meanwhile,theArabicMuhammedanshadfoundedadynastyundertheOmmayadswithitscapitalinDamascusandalateroneundertheAbassids,whosemostcelebratedcaliphwasHaroun-el-Raschidof Bagdad, made famous by the “Thousand and One Nights.” Conquest was extended westward,graduallycomprisingEgypt,thenorthofAfrica,Sicily,andSpain.

In1453theCrescentdisplacedtheCrossinConstantinople.Yet, notwithstanding the divisions of the Muhammedans and the immense distances separating

them, a unity not only religious but also intellectual was maintained. The Muhammedans learnedrapidlyfromthepeoplestheyconqueredandestablishedforthediffusionoflearningasortofuniversitysystem of travelling scholarships. Aided by Arabic as the universal language of learning, studentsjourneyedfromteachertoteacher,fromtheAtlantictoSamarcand,gatheringhundredsofcertificates.The education was designed to turn out theologians and lawyers; but theology included studies inmetaphysics and logic, and the canon law required a knowledge of arithmetic, mensuration, andpracticalastronomy.

Technicaleducationwasmaintainedbygildswhoperpetuatedthe“mysteries”ofthecraftthroughasystemofapprenticeships.Andit is tobenotedthat therewasnodistinctionmadebetweenso-calledartsandso-calledcrafts.Thegild-systemcoveredallkindsofconstructiveworkfromengineeringtothemakingofaneedle,andiftheworkpermittedelementsofbeautyanddecorationthesewere,asamatterofcourse,included.HencetheproficiencyandinventivenessandexquisiteperfectionofworkmanshipdisplayedbytheMuhammedancraftsmen.

ButtheirKoranenjoinedaliteralobediencetotheMosaiclawagainst“themakingofanygravenimage,orthelikenessofanythingthatisinHeavenaboveorintheearthbeneathorinthewatersundertheearth.”Accordingly,therewerenosculptorsorpaintersinthefullsenseoftheterm;onlydecoratorsofmoulded,engraved,orcolouredornament,themotivesofwhichwereconfinedtoconventionalisedflowerandleafformsandtogeometricdesignsofpracticallyendlessvariationsofthestraightlineandcurve, inmeander, interlace,andfret, intowhich theyoftenwove texts fromtheKoranor thesacrednameofAllah.It istothesedesignsbyArabartists, influencedtosomeextentbyByzantine,thatthetermarabesquewasfirstapplied.

Meanwhile itwas the practice ofMuhammedanism to absorb as far as possible the traditions ofeachnationitconquered.Gradually,therefore,thestrictnessofitsorthodoxywasmodified.InPersia,forexample,therepresentationofanimalswaspermittedintheartsofdesign,andtherepresentationofhumanbeingsfollowed.

Similarly, the architectural style of each locality was affected by the previously existingarchitecture.Theexampleswhichremainarechieflyofmosques,tombs,houses,andpalaces.

Thewordmosquecomes tous through theFrenchmosquée; theSpanishequivalent ismesquita,whiletheArabscallthe“placeofprostration”—masjid.Thenucleusofeveryoneisthemihrabornicheinawall,indicatingthekiblehordirectionoftheGreatMosqueatMecca,withitsshrine,theKaaba.

Besidethemihrabwasapulpit,mimbar,forpreaching,andsometimesinfrontofit,forthereadingoftheKoran,stoodadikkaorplatformraiseduponcolumns.Shelterfortheworshipperswasprovidedbyarcades, which in the immediate vicinity of themihrab were often enclosed with lattice work, thusformingaprayer-chamber—maksura.Thesizeofthemosquewasindefinitelyenlargedbytheadditionofmorearcades,surroundingusuallyanopencourt,inthecentreofwhich,asintheatriumoftheEarlyChristianbasilicas,wasafountainforritualablution.

The tombwasusually distinguishedby a domeandduring the lifetimeof its founder served thepurposeofapleasure-house;correspondingsomewhattotheRomannymphæum,and,asinthecaseoftheTajMahal,setinthemidstofabeautifulsystemofgardens,water-basins,andterraces.

In his house also the Muhammedan jealously guarded his domestic privacy. He followed theRomansinleavingtheexteriorofhishouseplain,whilecenteringallitsluxuryandcomfortaroundanopeninteriorcourt.SpecialquarterswereprovidedforthewomenandtheseclusionoftheirliveswithintheharemledtotwofeatureswhicharecharacteristicofOrientalhouses, thebalconyandthescreen.Thattheoccupantsmighttaketheair,balconieswerebuiltoutfromthewallsbothofthecourtandtheexterior;andscreenedwithlatticework,onthedesignsofwhichgreatskillandbeautywereexpended.

The palaces represented the extension of the house-plan by the addition of halls of ceremony.Sometimes,asinthecaseoftheAlhambra,theycombinedthecharacterofacitadel,andwerealwaysgenerously supplied with water, as well for the ablutions enjoined in the Koran, as for purposes ofbeauty.TheArabs, in fact, readily learned theRomanmethodsof engineering andhydraulics and intheirhousesandcitiesandintheirrigationoflandcarriedthesystemtoahighdegreeofperfection.

The system by which learning and culture circulated throughout the Muhammedan world wasillustratedinthespreadoftheartsofdesign.Persia,forexample,wasacentreoftheceramicart,andwherever theMuhammedan civilisation spread, the art of potterywas revived and took on new anddistinctivesplendour.Enamelcoloursofthepuresttonesandfinesttranslucenceweredevelopedandtheglazesweredistinguishedbyextraordinarylustre.Theywerelavishednotonlyonvesselsofpracticalservicebutalsoontilesforthedecorationofwalls.

WithequaloriginalitytheMuhammedanartistsdevelopedthemetalcraftsbothinthedirectionoftemperingthemetalandinitsdecoration;introducingandcarryingtoawonderfulpitchofperfectionthe engraving, encrusting and inlaying of the surfaceswith ornamental designs; a process known asdamascening,sinceDamascuswastheearliestimportantcentreofthecraft.

Further,inweavingtheydevelopedacorrespondingskillandfeelingfordesign.Rugsandcarpets,laidonthefloororspreadoverdoorways,werethechieffurnishingofaMuhammedanhome,whileasmallrugwascarriedbytheworshipperorhisservanttotheMosquetoprotecthisbarefeetwhileheprayed.These“prayerrugs”werefrequentlyembellishedwitharepresentationofamihrab,enclosedinborders bearing Koran texts, and were of silk of finest weave; that is to say, with an extraordinarynumberofknotstothesquareinch.ThereisafragmentofsilkweaveintheAltmancollectionat theMetropolitanMuseum,ofIndiancraftsmanship,eachsquareinchofwhichembraces2500knots.

Inaway,however,theveryexquisitenessofMuhammedancraftsmanshippreparedthewayforitsdecay.Itoriginatedinthelimitationofmotivespermittedtothedecorator,whoinconsequencehadtosatisfyhisloveofperfectionbyresorttodelicaciesandintricaciesofdesignbeyondwhichtherewasnofurtherpossibilityofcreativeinvention.

CHAPTERIV

MUHAMMEDANARCHITECTURE

THEKoranprescribedthateverybelieverwhenprayingshouldfacetowardMecca.Thiscouldbedoneasreadilyintheopendesertasinabuilding,sotheearlymosqueswereprobablyoflittleimportance.ItwasonlyastheArabtribesmenextendedtheirconqueststotheneighbouringcivilisationsandcameintouchwiththetemplesofantiquityandthechurchesofthepresent,thattheybegantoraisehandsomeplacesofworshipfortheirownreligion.

AsMuhammedanismspreadeastwardthroughSyriatoPersiaandlatertoIndiaandwestwardintoEgypt,alongthenorthernshoreofAfricaintoSpainandfinallyoccupiedConstantinopleandTurkey,itabsorbed much of the civilisation of each country and employed the constructive methods, theworkmen,andthematerialswhichitfoundreadytohand.Consequently,thearchitecturalexpressionofMuhammedanism,while retainingeverywherecertainessentialcharacteristics,varies locally. ItoffersnotabledistinctionsaccordingasitisfoundinSyria,Persia,India,Egypt,Spain,andTurkey.

MosqueofMecca.—TheGreatMosqueofMecca, called byMoslems theHaramElMasjid elHaram, or Baisullahi el Haram, the “House of God, the Prohibited,” represents a succession ofadditions,extendingfromearlyMuhammedantimestothemiddleofthesixteenthcentury.Itcomprisesanenclosure,300yardssquare,thewallsofwhicharepiercedwithnineteengatewaysand

MOSQUEOFELAZHAR,CAIROSHOWINGEGYPTIANTYPESOFMINARETS

SULIEMANIYEHORMOSQUEOFSULIEMANFOLLOWSSTYLEOFS.SOPHIA.NOTETHESURROUNDINGCLOISTERSANDTYPEOFMINARETS.P.228

ARCADESOFTHEMOSQUE,NOWCATHEDRAL,OFCORDOVA,SPAINNOTEEXTENSIONSOFCOLUMNSTOSUPPORTUPPERARCHES.PP.221,224

COURTOFTHELIONS,ALHAMBRA

CONJECTUREDRESTORATIONOFTHEPAVILIONOFMIRRORS,ANDGARDENSOFTHEPALACEOFISPAHAN

RESTORATIONOFCOLLEGEOFSHAHHUSSEIN:ISPAHANSHOWINGARCADEDFRONTANDLOFTYCENTRALGATEWAY;ALSOBULBOUSFORMOFDOME.P.229

MOSQUEOFAKBUR,FUTTEHPORE-SIKRINOTEGATEWAY,ARCADESANDSERIESOFLITTLEDOMES.P.230

TAJMAHAL,AGRAERECTEDBYSHAHJEHANASATOMBFORHISWIFE.INDISTANCETHE“PEARLMOSQUE”,ANOTHEROFHISMONUMENTS.P.230

embellishedwithminarets.ThechiefsanctuaryistheKaaba,socalledfromitsresemblancetoacube,ofabout40feetmeasurement,totheoutsideofwhich,onitssoutheastangle,isaffixedthesacredBlackStone,thechiefobjectofveneration.Theshrineissurroundedtoadepthof20yardsbysuccessionsofcolonnadeswithpointedarches.

Arcades.—These arcades, affording protection to the worshippers, are a feature common to allmosques;thedirectionofthearcadesbeingusuallyatrightangles,thoughoccasionallyparallelto,thewall of the mihrab—the niche which points toward Mecca. For columns the early Muhammedanbuilders relieduponwhat they found in thebuildingswhich they replacedor remodelled;mixing thestyles Egyptian, Roman, and Byzantine, and bringing their different sizes to conformity by settingblocks upon the capitals. To resist the thrust of the arches, wooden tie-beams were built into themasonryatthespringofthearches,andutilisedforthehangingoflampsandlanterns.Asthesebecamearecognisedfeatureofmosques,thebeamswereretainedevenaftertheskillofthebuildershadmadethemunnecessaryasties.

Domes.—Theroofsareflat,constructedoftimber,andontheinsidecolouredandgilded.Adomefrequentlycrownsthemaksuraorprayerchamber,andthetombofthesaint,whenthelatterisincludedinthesacredprecincts.Almostalwaysthedomesurmountsasquareplanandtoaccommodatethelatterto the circle theMuhammedan architects invented amethod of construction that corresponds to theByzantine pendentive. In principle it goes back to the ancient method of bridging over a space bysettingthestonesoneachsideofitinlayersthatprojectoveroneanotheruntilthetwosidesmeetatthetop.TheMuhammedanbuildersfilledinthecornersof thesquarewithtiersofprojectingbracketsor

corbelswithnichesbetweenthem.Atfirsttheyplacedcorbelabovecorbelandnicheaboveniche,butintimealternatedthem,sothatthenichesinonetierwereastrideofthecorbelsinthetierbelowthem.Thismethodoffillingintheanglesofthesquare,soastobringthelattertoacircle,cametobeknownas“stalactite”workand frombeingusedasaconstructiveexpedientwasdeveloped intoasystemofdecorationthatwasfrequentlyextendedoverthewholeceilingofthevault.

Theexteriorofthedomewasseldomspherical,asinByzantinearchitecture,buttooktheformofthepointed,ortheogee,orthehorseshoearch.Itwasbuilt,eitherofbrickworkinhorizontalcourses,coveredinsideandoutwithplaster;or,inlatermosques,ofhorizontallayersofstone,engravedontheexteriorwithhorizontalpatterns.Windowswere frequently ranged round the lowerpart. Insomeoldtombsof the thirteenthcentury,as thatofSheikOmar, inside theEastGateofBagdad, thedome ispineappleshaped.

Thewallswerebuiltoflocalmaterialsanddecoratedeitherwithstoneorbrickinalternatecourses,orwithplaster,insetwithpreciousstonesorveneeredwithglazedtiles.

Minarets.—Adistinctivefeatureofthemosquewastheminaret,aloftytoweroflighthouseform,from thebalconyofwhich themuezzin summoned the faithful toprayer.While theminarets showageneralsimilarityofcharacter, thedetailsvary indifferentcountries.Thus, inPersia theyrisefromacircularbaseandarecrownedbyaroundcap;inConstantinoplethebaseisround,octagonal,orsquareand the top is finishedwith a cone; while in Cairo the top is flat. The shafts vary from circular topolygonal, and are usually divided into three tiers of balconies—though the Persian is generallydistinguished by one—carried round the shaft and supported by corbels,which in some instance areembellishedwithstalactiteornament.

During the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries themosques became an aggregation ofbuildings, including the tomb of the founder, residences for priests, schools and hospitals. Theycorrespond,infact,tomediævalmonasteries,andtheevolutionoftheirstylespresentsacertainparalleltothecontemporaryevolutionofGothicarchitecture.

Syria.—Among the existingmosques inSyria are those ofEl-Aksah on theTemple platform atJerusalemandofEl-WalidinDamascus,bothofwhichareplannedlikeabasilica.AlsoontheTempleplatformistheDomeoftheRock,misnamedtheMosqueofOmar, thecentralfeatureofwhichisacircularspace,crownedbyadome,whichwasrebuiltbySaladinin1189.

Egypt.—InEgyptoneof theoldest is theMosqueofAmru inCairo, inwhich the squareopencourtissurroundedbyarcades,setatrightanglestothemihrabandsupportedbycolumnstakenfromByzantineandRomanbuildings.SomewhatsimilarinplanistheMosqueofTulun,where,however,the arcades run parallel to themihrabwall and thewide pointed arches are supported uponmassivepiers.

Then follow, during the period that corresponds to the development of Gothic architecture, theMosqueofKalaoom; that ofSultanHassan, which is cruciform in plan; that ofSultanBarbouk,celebratedforitsminaretsandthebeautyofthedomeoverthefounder’stomb;andthesmallbutrichlydecoratedMosqueofKait-Bey.Intheprayer-chamber(maksura)ofthelast-namedappears,besidesthestalactiteembellishmentofthemihrab,adistinctivedecorationofthearches.Inonecasethearchesarecomposedofvoussoirsalternatingincolour; in theother thealternationisstill furtheremphasisedbytheinterlockingshapesintowhichthevoussoirsarecut,sothattheyfittogetherwiththevarietyandtheexactnessofaChinesepuzzle.

Spain.—SpainoffersaveryfavourableopportunityforthestudyofMuhammedanarchitecture.The

Mosque of Cordova, begun by the Caliph Abd-el-Rahman in 786, was enlarged by successiveadditions, until it presents the appearanceof a forest of columns and arches, apparentlyof unlimitedextent.Therearesaidtobe860.Thearcadesareintwotiers,theupperarchesbeingsupportedonpostswhichareplacedon thecapitalsof the loweronesandat thesametimeformabutments to the lowerarches.Inmostcasesthearchesareofhorseshoeform;butelsewhere,asinthevestibuletothemihrabchambertheupperhorseshoearchessurmountatierofcinquefoilorfive-scallopedones,andthepostsonwhichtheyabutarefacedwithattachedcolumns.Aremarkableadditionalfeatureistheinterlacingbetween the upper and lower arches of portions ofmultifoil arches; so arranged that they appear tobridge over the space between the alternate lower column and at the same time to spring over thecapitalsoftheintermediateuppercolumn.ThearrangementisastrikinginstanceoftheArabinventionintheuseofrepetitionofmotive,ause,inthiscase,governedbyconstructivereasonablenessaswellasimposedbythedesireforsubtletyofelaboration.

TheMosqueofCordova is second in size to theGreatMosque ofMecca. Though the superbadornmentsofmosaicsandredandgoldceilingshavesufferedfromdecayandrestorationanditsvistaof arcades is blocked in parts by the coro (choir), erected when the edifice was converted into acathedral,it isstillamarvellousmemorialofCordova’ssupremacyasthemostlearned,cultured,andprosperouscaliphateinIslam.

InToledo there is nothing approaching themagnificenceof theMosqueofCordova.Among theremains are the churches of S. Cristo de la Luz and SantaMaria la Bianca, which are mosquesconvertedtotheCatholicritual.

AtSevillebesidethemuchrenownedAlcazarorCastle,isthecelebratedtower,Giralda,sonamedfrom theweathervane (giradillo), a figureofFaithwithabanner, some305 feet from theground. ItsurmountstheRenaissancetopofthreestories,addedin1568totheoldtower,which,asanaltarpieceinthecathedralshows,originallyterminatedinbattlements.Thesesuggestthatthebuildingwaserectedasawatchtoweror,maybe,asasymbolofpower.Itsplanisasquareof45feet,thewallsbeingabout8 feet thick,builtofmaterial fromRomanandprobablyVisigothic remains. Its surface ispiercedbytwentywindows,manyofwhicharesubdividedbycolumnettes,andembellishedwithsunkenpanels,enrichedwitharabesques.TheGiraldaisunderthespecialprotectionofSS.JustaandRufina—afactcommemorated in the above-mentioned picture and in another by Murillo, now in the ProvincialMuseum.ItwasusedasamodelforthedesignofthetoweroftheMadisonSquareGarden,NewYork.

TheAlhambra,Granada,representsthebestpreservedaswellasthemostperfectexampleoftheMoorish-Arabic genius. Itwas a fortress-palace,much of it built on the brink of the rock, the steepslopesofwhichwereusedtoconstructthelowerstoriesofbaths,offices,andguardrooms.Theexteriorhas no impressiveness, though the original grouping of walls and roofs must have been highlypicturesque.Itshalls,chambers,andremainsofamosqueareclusteredabouttworectangularcourtsorpatios,whicharejoinedlikethetwopartsofan“L”—the“CourtoftheAlberca”andthe“CourtoftheLions.”Fromoneof theendsof theAlbercaCourtprojects the“Hallof theAmbassadors”; fromtheotherthe“HalloftheTribunal,”whilethelongsidesoftheCourtofLionsopenrespectivelyintothe“HalloftheAbencerrages”andthe“HalloftheTwoSisters.”

The “Court of the Lions” is so called from the fountain in its centre, an immensemarble basinsupported upon twelve lions, which form a remarkable exception to theMuhammedan rule againstrepresentingtheimageofanylivingthing.BoththeseCourtsarearcaded,thecolumns,setsinglyorinpairs,orgroups,exhibiting,asdoallthecolumnsintheAlhambra,distinctivefeaturesintheircapitals,whichareseparatedbyahighneckingfromtheshaft.

It is,however, in the interiorof thehalls that thedecoration reaches its finestpitchandnowheremorethaninthe“HalloftheTwoSisters,”whichformedtheculminatingfeatureoftheharemquarters.

Thename is supposed tohavebeenderived from twoslabsofmarble in thepavementbutmaywellhavebeensuggestedbythewindow,whichoccupiesabayandisdividedbyasmallcolumnandtwoarchesintotwolights.Thewalls,aboveahighwainscotoflustredtiles,areencrustedwithflatmouldedarabesques, representingadelicate lacelike traceryof leafyvinesand tendrils, still tincturedwith thered,blue,andgoldthatformerlyenrichedthem.Thearabesquesmeltintothestalactiteembellishmentswhichcompletelycoverthehollowofthedome;created,asitseems,bygiantbees,whosecellshangdown like grape-clusters in an endless profusion of exquisite intricacy. Time was when thisunsurpassable delicacy of magnificence glowed with gold touched into a thousandfold diversity oftones,bythelightofhanginglamps.

As an expression of the Arabic genius in the direction of subtlety this represents finality. Itembodies the culture of a race that in its learning as in its art had been devoted to the exaltation ofdetails; and embodies also the latent instinct of a desert-wandering race whose eye had been littlehabituatedtovarietiesofform,butsaturatedwithcolourandinthewatchesofthenighthadbeenlongfamiliarwiththemysteryofvaultedsky,sownwithstar-clustersandhungwiththejewelledlampsofplanets. Itwas characteristic alsoof theOriental fondnessof abstraction that revels in subtleties andlovestomergeitselfinthecontemplationoftheinfinite.Itisthekindofdecorationthatbeingdeniedthereinforcementofnaturewasboundtoevolvesterility.

Turkish.—When the Seljuk Turks, after occupyingmany parts of theByzantine Empire, finallytookConstantinople, they convertedS.Sophia into amosque, andmore or less closely followed itsstyleinthemosquestheythemselveserected.

ThustheSuleimaniyehorMosqueofSuleimantheMagnificent,repeatsthecentraldomeandthetwoapsesoftheChristianbuilding,preservingalsotheflatnessofthedome-form.Itisapproachedbyafore-court, surrounded on all its sides by cloisters, roofed with a succession of smaller domes, andembellished at the angles with minarets. These have circular shafts terminating in sharply pointedcones. In the garden of themosque are the octagonal, dome-crowned tombs of the founder and hisfavouritewife,Roxelana.

TheAhmedizeh, orMosqueofAhmed is square in plan,with a central dome, flanked by fourapses,theanglesbeingfilledinwithfoursmallerdomes.Theinteriorislinedwithcolouredtiles,whilethatoftheSuleimaniyehisveneeredwithmarble.

The public fountains are distinctive features of the city. In one near S. Sophia, for example, thewater-basin, octagonal in shape and covered with a dome-like grille of ironwork, is enclosed in anoctagonofarchesthatsupportaslopingroofwhichextendsinwideeavesandissurmountedbyadome.

Persia.—InpointoftimePersiaentersearlyintotheMuhammedanconquest,butwehavereservedtheconsiderationofituntillater,becauseshedidnotreachtheheightofherrenewedsplendourintheartsuntilthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,andthencontributedtotheMuhammedanartofIndia.

WhenMuhammedanismextendedtoPersia, itcamein touchwith thedecayingSassanianempirethatfromA.D.226to641hadwithstoodthepowerofRomeandextendeditsswaynearlytothegatesofIndia.TheremainsofitsarchitectureconsistchieflyofpalacessuchasthoseatSerbistan,Firuzabad,andCtesiphon.Inthese,withaninventivenessoftheirownandonagreatscale,thebuilderscombinedelements of Assyrian and Roman architecture—square, domed chambers, barrel-vaulted halls, andportalsformedofhugearches,ellipticalorhorseshoeinshape.

ThedirectevidenceofthisstyleontheearliestMuhammedanbuildingshasdisappearedowingtothedevastationoftheMongolinvasionunderGenghisKhan;buttheSassanianinfluenceisconjecturedfrom the later architecture which grew up after A.D. 1200. Important examples are to be found in

Bagdad,Teheran,andIspahan.Among thememorials in the lastnamedcity is theGreatMosque,whichhasanopencourt,surroundedbytwo-storiedarcades.Itsspecialfeaturesincludeportal-arches,risingabovethehighestoftheadjoiningwalls;vaultedaisles,bulbous-shapeddomes,andminaretsofpeculiarelegance.Thewallsaredecoratedwithenamelledtiles.

India.—Persian-Muhammedan architecture, probably because of the Sassanian influence, wassuperiortotheArabian-Muhammedaninconstructiveelementsandrepresentsmorefullyadevelopedstyle.Manyof itselements reappear in Indian-Muhammedanarchitecture,whichby thebeginningofthe fifteenthcenturywasdevelopingastyledistinguishedalikeby thegrandeurof thewholeand thestructuralmeaningofthedetails.ThefinestexampleofthisearlyperiodistheJamaMusjil(PrincipalMosque), at Ahmedabad, which Shah Ahmed reconstructed out of a Hindu temple. The Hinduinfluenceisstillapparentinthemassivedetachedpillarsthatbuttressthechiefentrance.

The style reached its full development of structural logic, dignity, and beauty under theMoguldynasty (1526-1761). By this time the Muhammedan architects had developed a method of domesupport, differentboth from theByzantine and theArabicpendentive,whichcombinedcorbels, ribs,vaultingsurfaces,andcornersquinches.The lastnamedarearchesplaceddiagonallyat theangles tobringthesquaretoanoctagonal,whichwasthefavouriteformofplanadoptedfortombs.OfthesethemostimposingistheTombofMahmudatBijapur.

A noble example of the earlier Mogul style is the Mosque of Akbar at Futtehpore-Sikri.Especiallynoteworthyarethesouthernandwesterngateways.Theytowerupwithemphaticassertionandyetwithafinelyproportionedrelationtotheflankingarcades.Thisisdueinagreatmeasuretothearchesofthearcadesbeingrepeatedwithmoreelaboratedetailintherecessofthegateway,wherealsoanupper tierofarchesbalances thearchitraveof thearcades.These tiersofarches, leadingupto thesemi-domeoftheceilinggiveacontrastofgracetothesternerlinesoftheexteriorarch,andintroducegradationsofrefinementintoitsmonumentalscale.

Thelaterexample,TajMahal,Agra,erectedbyShahJehan(1627-1658)isdistinguishedbylessforceandagreaterdelicacyand refinement.Though it is said tohavebeendesignedbyaFrenchorItalianarchitect,itisregardedasthelastwordofbeautyinIndian-Muhammedanarchitectureandoneofthemostbeautifularchitecturalmonumentsintheworld.

This royal tomb, used as a ceremonial hall during its founder’s lifetime, stands upon a marbleplatform,18feethighand313feetsquare,atthecornersofwhichspireupminaretsofcircular,thatistosay,ofPersiandesign.Thebuildingoccupiesasquareplanof181feet,fromwhichthecornershavebeenremoved;thefaçadesbeingcomposedoftwotiersofdeeplyrecessedarches,interruptedbyfourmonumental portals, which correspond, thoughwith greater refinements of proportion and detail, tothoseof theMosqueofFuttehpore-Sikri.Thecentraldomeofbulb-formrisesupona loftydrumtoaheightof80feetwith58feetdiameter,andisbalancedbyfoursmalldomes,supportedoncolumns.Thematerial of the whole is whitemarble, enrichedwith carvings and inlays of jasper, bloodstone, andagate.TheTajMahal, as exquisite as it is imposing, is set like an immense jewel in an enchantingschemeofgarden-planningthatincludesterraces,lakes,fountains,andfoliage.

CHAPTERV

EARLYMEDIÆVALCIVILISATION

THEperiodofarchitecturetowhichthischapterformsanintroductionisfromA.D.1000to1200.It isusually known as the Romanesque period because the architecture in certain structural particulars

representedareturntoRomanmethods.ButtheapplicationoftheprinciplesvariedindifferentpartsofwhathadbeentheRomanEmpireundertheinfluenceoflocalconditions;accordingasthelocalitywasNorthernItaly,orNorthernorSouthernFrance,orEngland,ortheRhineProvincesofGermany.

On the other hand, when we come to consider the social and political conditions, the wordRomanesqueistoonarrow.Itwas,itistrue,aperiodofgradualreconstructionoforderupontheruinsoftheRomanEmpireandoneoftheforcesthatmadefororderwasthepartialrevivalbyCharlemagneofRomanLaw.Thelatterbecameamodelbywhichtheslowprocessoforganisingsocietyanewcouldshapeitself.Sofar,atleast,thesocialtendencyoftheperiodwasRomanesque.Butafterall,thiswasonlyadetailoftheneworder,andbynomeansthemostsignificant.

Indeed the attempt to revive an empirewas in itself reactionary and opposed to the spirit of thetime.For the latterwasgropingtowardtheorganisingof independentnationalities.ThemillionswhohadoverwhelmedtheRomanEmpirepossessedacertainkinshipofraceandlanguage;buttheyweredivided into tribal units which clung to their separate identities, the more so as the difference oflocalitiesinwhichtheysettledincreasedtheirseparateness.Thusthemovementofthetimewasaslowchangefromtribaltonationalunity,andthegradualconstructionofasocialandpoliticalorder,suitedtotheir racial instinct of independent freedom. The advance was much more rapid in social than inpoliticalorder.Forcenturiestheindependentandadventurousspiritofthevariouspeopleswastokeepthem embroiled in constant warfare, postponing the settlement of national landmarks. Back of thispolitical chaos, however, was a steady and sure growth in social order, which, indeed, was largelyassistedbythenecessityofself-preservation.

While popes, emperors, kings, dukes, and countswere fighting in colossal or petty rivalries, the“honestman,”asthesayingis,“cameintohisown.”Themerchantsgrewinimportance,thecraft-gildsconsolidated their strength, and the cities became oases of comparative order. It was an agedistinguishedby thegrowthof“communes”; that is tosay,ofburgs,boroughs,andcities,possessingcertainrightsofself-governmentandimmunityfromindiscriminatetaxation.Notthattheseprivilegesescaped infringement. The fight for them had to be perpetually maintained and the fortunes of thecommunevaried from time to time.Yet the seedof self-governmentwas sown, to stay in the soilofeveryTeutonicnation.

TheriseofthecommunewaspartlyduetotheFeudalsystem,whichhaditsorigininthe“fee”ortenureinland.Asthesystemcametobeworkedout,thetenantheldinfieffromanoverlord,whointurnheldfromsomemorepowerfuloverlordandsoonuptotheKing.Whenthelatterwenttowar,thewordwaspasseddownandeachoverlordhadtobringhisquotaofmen,whichhemadeupfromtheleviesoftheoverlordsbelowhim.Itthusbecameanautomaticmethodofraisinganarmy,ofwhichthelowestknightwithhisfewfollowerswastheunit.Ontheotherhand,theeasewithwhichthemethodcouldbeputinoperationandtheneedofconstantpreparationforit,maintainedaconditionofwarlikefeeling,thatintheabsenceofagreatwarbrokeoutinjealousyandstrifeamongtheseveralconstituentpartsofthesystem.

It was to guard against the inevitable miseries of this constant turmoil that the merchants andartisansbuilt theirhomesandshopsaroundsomeburgorcastle, to the lordofwhichtheylookedforprotection, walls of defence being gradually built around the city, until it became fortified with thecastle as a citadel.The benefitsweremutual.Commerce and trade could be pursued in comparativepeace,while the lord in return forhisprotectionwould receiveaportionof theprofits to financehisvariousexpeditionsor intrigues.Toconsolidate their influence themerchants formed themselves intomerchantgilds,whilethecitizensestablishedcraft-gildsinthevarioustrades.

Thus gradually both commerce and trade spun a network of peaceful activity and comparativestability over the otherwise troubled world, knitting together its remotest parts. For while the

agriculturalpopulationwastiedtothesoil,andpassedwithitstransferfromoneownertoanother,theconditionofcommerceandtosomeextentoftradewasfluent.Merchantstravelledandhadtheiragentsindistantcountries;andeventheartisanmightmovefromplacetoplaceandenrollhimselfforthetimebeinginthelocalgildofhiscraft.Andthemerchantsbecamealsothebankersoftheirtime:thoseofLombardy,forexample,loaningmoneytokingsaswellastoothermerchants;thememoryofwhichispreservedin“LombardStreet,”inLondon’sfinancialcentre.

Thesemerchantshadbecomewealthyby trading in themerchandise fromtheEastand increasedtheirwealth by distributing themerchandise throughout theWest.Milan, therefore, speedily grew inimportancebecause she commanded the roads leadingover the passes of theAlps.Thence the chiefstreamofcommerceledatfirstthroughProvence.Later,GermancitieslikeAugsburgandNuremburg,becamepowerfulandprosperousontheroadtosuchnorthernportsasLübeckandHamburg,whiletheRhinebecamethehighwayofcommercetoBruges,Ghent,andBrussels.

Thegildsperpetuatedwhatcametobecalledthe“mystery”oftheircraftsbyorganisationswhichcombinedasystemofapprenticeshipwithwhatweknowto-dayasatrade-union.OneofthesewasthegildofmasonsfromwhichFreemasonryderived.Itincludedvariousgradesfromtheordinaryworkerof stone and marble, through the men skilled in carved work, up to the few who were capable ofdesigningandsupervisingtheconstruction.Andalthoughthetraditionthatthesemason-gildstravelledfrom place to place has been discredited, it is still allowed that some of these master-masons orarchitects,aswecallthemto-day,musthaveacquiredafamewhichcausedthemtobeengagedbyothercitiesthantheirown.

Meanwhile,therewasanothergreatinfluenceoperatingintheinterestsofsocialorder—thatoftheChurch.Manybishopsoccupiedpositionscorrespondingtothatofafeudallordandsomeevenwenttowarattheheadoftheirtroops.Thecathedrals,likethecastles,becamethenucleiofcities.Moreover,theReligiousOrderswere increasing innumbersand in influence,bothspiritualand temporal.Therehadbeenawidelyheldexpectationthattheendoftheworldwastocomein1000B.C.Afterthefatefuldatehadpassed,peoplebreathedmorefreelywithafreshzestoflifeandthankfulnesstoHeaven;andtheChurchgenerallyand, inparticular, theReligiousOrders,put themselvesat theheadof thisgreatrevival.Theybecametheleadersofagreatpopularreligiousandcivicenthusiasmthatfoundexpressionespeciallyinchurchandcathedralbuilding.

The earliest Order, the Benedictine, had been founded by S. Benedict in the sixth century andspread through the west of Europe, obtaining firm hold in England. The Cluniac Order, with itsheadquartersintheAbbeyofClunyintheDepartmentofSaoneetLoire,France,wasestablishedin909andin1080S.BrunofoundedtheCarthusianOrder,whosechiefmonasteryinFrancewastheGrandeChartreuse, nearGrenoble.A little later came theCistercians, and theAugustinianOrders,while thetwelfthcenturysawthefoundingoftheDominicanOrderofPreachingFriarsandthefollowingcenturytheestablishmentofthemendicantorderofFranciscans.Nordoesthissummarycompletethelist.Theordersrivalledoneanother in thenumberandefficiencyof theirmonasteries,whichwere thecentresnotonlyofreligionbutalsooflearning,art,andeconomiclife,affordingguest-housesfortravellersandservingashospitals,schools,andcolleges.

Themonastery was usually erected around a square enclosure still called in England a “close,”surroundedbycloisters.OnonesideofitadjoinedtheChurchorMinsterwhich,ifitwerecruciform,extendeditstranseptalongonesideofthecloister,whilethenaveoccupiedanother.Alongtheoppositesideof theenclosurerantherefectory,orcommonfeeding-roomof thebrotherhood,while thefourthsidewasoccupiedwithdormitories.Groupedaround thisplanwere theabbot’s lodging,guestrooms,school,anddispensary, thebake-houseandgranaries, fishponds,gardens,andorchards.And insomequiet room where the light was favourable, certain of the brothers plied the task of scribes and

illuminators.Happythemonasterythatcouldboastamaster-miniaturistoronewhowasofsurpassingmerit as amaster-mason. Down to the thirteenth century “Architecturewas practised largely by theclergyandregardedasasacredscience.”

Theinfluenceofmonkisharchitectsmayhavehadmuchtodowiththechangeofthecathedralorchurchplanfrombasilicatocruciform,whichischaracteristicofthisperiod.Theclergycontinuedtobeseparatedfromthelaityandtheextraaccommodationneededforthemonksofalargemonasterycausedtheapsetobereplacedbyachancel,whichwasraisedbyseveralstepsfromthelevelof thenave.Itcontained thestalls for themonksandwasdividedfromthenavebyascreen(cancellus),whichwassurmountedbyagalleryorloft,inwhichtherood(cross)stood.

This rood-loft could be utilised for sacred tableaux which were given for the edification of thepeopleatcertainfestivals.AtChristmas,forexample,thechoirboys,playingthepartofangels,wouldsingfromitthechantofPeaceandGoodWill,whilearepresentationoftheMangerandtheKneelingShepherdswasdisplayedupon the topof the chancel steps.For theChurch recognised thepowerofdramatoaffecttheimagination,andintimethetableauxdevelopedinto“PassionPlays”and“MysteryPlays.”Infactthenaveofthechurchorcathedralwastreatedasthemeetingplaceforthelaityandwasusedforavarietyofsecularpurposes inconnectionwith the lifeof thecommunity,while the towerscouldbeused,ifnecessary,forwatchtowersandforthesafestoringoftreasure.

Furtheramongthecircumstancesthatmadeamoreorderedandmorehumanconditionofsocietywasthecodeofchivalry,demandingofallknightsor“fullyarmouredandmountedmen,”ahighsenseofhonour,gallantryinbattleandpeace,andcourtesytowomen.Charlemagnehadgatheredroundhimtwelve“paladins”orparagonsofknightlyvirtue,andthefameof theirexampleinspiredtodeedsnotonlyofvalourbutofcourtlygrace.Thus, inProvence,Spain,andNorthernItaly there flourished thegraceful art of the Troubadour, which was paralleled in the Danube provinces by that of theMinnesingers.Thetroubadours,originallyofnoblebirth,includingprincesintheirranksandoneking,Richard theLion-Hearted, invented and sang songs tomusic of their own composing, thus setting amodel for thewandering troubadours andminstrelswho later travelled professionally from castle tocastle,notoverlooking,wemaybesure,audiencesofpeoplethatmightbegatheredinthechurches.

ChivalrywasturnedtoshrewdaccountbytheChurch.Itcouldnotcurbtheinstinctoffightingbutcoulddirect it anddid soby enjoininguponknightlypenitents apilgrimage to theHolyLand.Suchexpeditionsgrewinnumberandsize, travellingarmedforprotectionon the journey,andoutof themcame theCrusades for the recoveryof theHolySpots inPalestine from theMoslem.Thesewere farfrombeingunmixedblessingstothepeople,butatleasttheydivertedforatimetheturbulenceandleftthecitiesfreeropportunityofgrowth.Andmanyanobleonreturninghome,wouldbuildthechurchorchapelthathehadvowed,determined,perhaps,thatitshouldrivalinbeautysomeexamplehehadseenuponhiswanderings.

Inviewevenofthefewparticularssummarisedabove,howisitpossibletorelegatethisperiodto“TheDarkAges” or even to dismiss it as negligible, summing it all up as part of theMiddleAges,between the fall ofRomeand the revival of aknowledgeofClassic learning and art in the fifteenthcentury?ItistotheItaliansoftheRenaissancethatweowethisdistortionofhistory.ProperlyspeakingtherewasnoRenaissanceorRebirth;butatleastfromthetimeofCharlemagneonwardasteadygrowthin civilisation, and how vigorous it was, notwithstanding the many setbacks, due to the continuingconfusion,maybegatheredfromthearchitectureoftheperiod.

It iswell to bear inmind that after the death ofCharlemagne his empire gradually fell apart.AGermanempireextendedfromtheRhinetotheDanubeandwasinconstantconflictwiththePopestoexert its sway over Northern Italy; the growth of the communes or free cities being perpetuallydisturbedbysidingwithoneorotherof thecontestants—theImperialorGhibellineand thePapalor

Guelph.France,meanwhile,wasnotyetaunitednation.ThekingsoftheHouseofCapetheldonlytheso-

calledIledeFranceorRoyalDemesne,extendingfromParis toOrleans,andweresurroundedonallsidesbyindependentDuchiesandCountships,withwhichtheywereconstantlyatwar.TheDuchyofNormandyhadbeenestablishedtothenorthbyRolloandin1066hisdescendant,William,conqueredEngland.

Thesedistinctionsof territoryhelp toexplain thevariationsof theRomanesquearchitecture,as itgrew up, respectively, in Northern Italy, the Rhine Provinces, Ile de France, Southern France,Normandy,andNormanEngland.

PISACATHEDRAL,CAMPANILEANDBAPTISTRYPP.244,247

INTERIOROFPISACATHEDRALSHOWINGAGLIMPSEOFTHENECKOFTHEDOMESUPPORTEDONCORNERARCHES,THATTAKETHEPLACEOFPENDENTIVES.P.246

S.AMBROGIO,MILANEARLYEXAMPLEOFRIB-VAULTING.P.240

S.MICHELE,PAVIASHOWINGRUDIMENTARYDIVISIONOFWESTFRONTANDUSEOFARCADING.P.251

THECERTOSA,ORCHURCHOFTHECARTHUSIANORDER,PAVIAROMANESQUEWITHRENAISSANCELANTERNANDWESTFAÇADE.P.313

CHURCHOFVÉZELAY,FRANCEEARLYEXAMPLEOFGROIN-VAULTINGREPLACINGBARREL-VAULTING.P.253

CHURCHOFABBAYE-AUX-DAMES,CAENEARLYEXAMPLEOFCLERESTORYANDOFSEXPARTITEVAULTING.P.254

REMAINSOFTHECHURCHOFCLUNYABBEYWHICHINTHETWELFTHCENTURYWASTHEINTELLECTUALCENTEROFEUROPE.PP.236,253

DOORWAYOFSALAMANCACATHEDRALSHOWINGPARTOFTHEBEAUTIFULDOMEOVERTHECROSSING.P.260

CHURCHOFTHEAPOSTLES,COLOGNENOTETHEARCADINGEMBELLISHMENTSANDGROUPINGOFTHETOWERS.P.259

ANGLO-SAXONTOWEREARL’SBARTON,NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.P.255

IFFLEYCHURCH,NEAROXFORDP.257

ST.JOHN’SCHAPEL,TOWEROFLONDONP.255

NAVEOFDURHAMCATHEDRALNOTETHEGIRTHOFPIERSANDCHEVRONORNAMENT.VAULTING,EARLIESTEXAMPLEINENGLAND,COMPLETED1133.P.256

PETERBOROUGHCATHEDRALP.256

ENGLISHROMANESQUEDETAIL

CHAPTERVI

EARLYMEDIÆVALORROMANESQUEARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUEisthetermappliedtothearchitecturalstyleoftheearlyMiddleAgeswhichprevailedfrom1000 to1200. Itmanifests considerablevariety, according to locality, but at the same timeadistinctcharacter common to all branches, in that it embodied a return to certain Roman principles ofconstruction,modifiedmoreorlessbyearlyChristianandByzantinemethods.ItrepresentsastageintheevolutionofGothicarchitecture.

In such localities as theNorth of Italy and Provence, where Roman remainswere plentiful, theRomanesquearchitecturemadefreeuseofantiquecolumnsanddetails.ButintheRhineProvinces,theNorth of France, and England, the lack of such materials and of skilful workmen encouraged thesubstitutionof thepierfor thecolumnandcausedthelatter tobeofsimplerandinmanycasesruderdesign.Necessity,infact,compelledtheadoptionofnewforms.Moreover,thedesireoftheChurchtobuildpermanentlyledtotheuseofstoneinplaceofinflammabletimber,especiallyinthebuildingoftheroofs.Accordingly,theuseofvaultingwasrevived.

Itwas out of the application of these necessities of construction that theRomanesque stylewasevolved.

Chevêt.—Thebasilicaplanbecamegraduallymodified.Thenaveandaisleswereretained,butthechancel,withorwithoutanapse,wascarriedfartherbackandthelengthofthetranseptsprolonged,sothat in time the cruciform plan prevailed and acquired a symbolic significance. A special feature,graduallyintroduced,wasthechevêtwhichformedanambulatoryaroundthesidesofthechoirandthesemi-circleoftheapse,andcouldbedividedupintochapelsdedicatedtoindividualsaints.

Vaulting.—In the earlier examples thenavewascoveredwith abarrel-vault, the thrustofwhich

wassustainedinthefirstplacebystrengtheningthenavewallsbytheomissionofclerestorywindowsand,secondly,bytheweightofbarrel-vaultsoverthesideaisles,theirthrust,inturn,beingsustainedbythickening the outerwalls and keeping thewindows small. As a further reinforcement of thewalls,projecting piers of masonry were built into them, which in time became features of the externaldecoration.

Gradually thebarrel-vaultwassupersededbygroinvaults;at first in theaislesand laterover thenaveaswell.Thegroinvaultingovertheaislesrepresented,asinRomantimes,theintersectionoftwosemicircularvaults.Butsincethenavewasusuallytwicethewidthoftheaisles,eachofthenavebayswouldbeoblonginplan.Accordinglytwoofthesewereincludedinonesquarebay,whichtookintwoofthenavearchesandcorrespondedtotwoaislebays.

In some instances a shaft was carried up from the intervening pier on each side of the nave,supportingan intermediate transversearch,so that thevaultingbecamesexpartite,ordivided intosixcompartments.Whether the baywere six part or four part, the curve of all the groins—longitudinal,transverse, anddiagonal—were semicircular.Accordingly, since thediagonals had a longerdiameter,theircurvesroseabovetheothers.Thisvariationwasmetbygivingaconcaveordomelikesurfacetoeachofthecompartments,sothattheworkmenwereabletoadjustthestonestothedifferencesofthecurves.

Rib-vaulting.—Whilethiswaspossibleintheactualoperationofplacingthestones,itwouldhaveneededexceedinglydelicatecalculationtobuildtimbercenteringadjustedinadvancetothesedomelikesurfaces.Moreover,theponderousnessofthedomenavevaultinghadmadetheuseoftimbercenteringextremelycostly,evenwheretimberwasplentiful;whileindistrictssparselysuppliedthecosthadbeenprohibitive.Consequently, the ingenuityof thebuildersdevisedasystemofconstructionthatreducedthe need of timber centering to a minimum. This was the system known as rib-vaulting. Briefly, itconsistedinspanningthespace—longitudinally,transversely,anddiagonally—withpreliminaryarchesofmasonry, thus forming a skeleton framecomposedofwhat areknownas ribs.Eachof these ribs,beingcomparativelylight,couldbeconstructedonasinglemoveableandexpansiblepieceofcentering,called a cerce.When the ribs had set, they offered sufficient support to hold up the doming of thecompartmentswhileitwasbeinglaid.

To some extent thismethod of construction had been anticipated by theRomanswho in certaininstancesbuiltpreliminarytransverseribstoactaspermanentcenteringsofthevault,inthemasonryofwhichtheribswereburiedfromsight.Thereintroductionofthisdeviceanditsfurtherdevelopment,asabove described, originatedwith theLombard architects.This has been definitely determined by theEnglisharchitect,ArthurKingsleyPorter,whohasprovedthattheadoptionofthesystemwaspromptedbythescarcityofwoodinthislocality.FromItalyitspreadtoFrance,whereitmadeitsappearanceintheIledeFranceabout1100orsome60yearsafteritsadoptioninLombardy.Itwasatfirstemployedpurelyasanecessaryconstructiveexpedient.Lateritsæstheticpossibilitiescametoberecognised,andtheribwasdevelopedbytheGothicarchitectsintoanelementofgreatbeauty,oneofthecharacteristicfeaturesoftheGothicstyle.

Meanwhile,theuseofvaultingbytheRomanesquearchitectsaffectedthecharacteroftheexterior.Mentionhasalreadybeenmadeofthemasonrypiersandthemassiveoutsidewalls,piercedwithsmallwindows. For the further support of the vaulting-thrust towers were freely used.While in Italy thecampanile was frequently detached from the main edifice, the towers in western and northernRomanesquechurchesbecameelementsofprominenceinthedesign.Apairfrequentlyflankedtheapseor four rose in the angles of the transepts and choir, while another pair, sometimes connected by agallery, flanked the west end. A tower or dome might also surmount the crossing of the nave andtransepts.Thetowersweresquare,polygonal,orcircular,dividedintostorieswhichwerepiercedwith

windowsorembellishedwitharcades.Theywerecrowned, like thenaveandaisles,withanexteriorslopingroof.

Arcading.—The arcading,which nowbecame a favouritemethod of embellishingwalls,was oftwokinds;eitherbeingopenandpermittingapassagewayatthebackofthem,orwithcolumnsandarchmouldings attached to the wall, in the manner known as blind arcading. Another feature forstrengtheningaswellasembellishingthewallwastheuseofmasonrypiers,which,restingonaplinth,projectedfromthewallonlyasfarasthewidthofthecornice.

Theexteriors,infact,werenolonger,asinearlyChristianchurches,plainandalmostbarn-like,butassumedavariedpicturesquenessthat,however,wasdistinguishedbyafinestructuralunity.

Thearch,whetherusedininteriororexteriorarcadingorforthetopsofdoorsandwindows,wasround; usually semicircular but occasionally stilted, the ends of the semicircle, that is to say, beingraisedonperpendicular lines.The later introductionof thepointed arch, itmaybe added,marks thetransitionfromRomanesquetoGothic.

AcharacteristicdevelopmentoftheRomanesquestyleisthetreatmentofthedoorsandwindows.The jambs or sides were carried back in a series of angular recesses, which were filled with smallcolumns,whoseabacifrequentlyunitedinacontinuousmoulding.Inmanycasestheangularrecessesofthejambswereprolongedaroundthearch.

Theshaftsofcolumnsweredecoratedwithfluting,whichmightbeperpendicular,spiral,orbarredliketrellis-work.Thecapitals,exceptwhenantiqueCorinthianorIoniccolumnswereutilised,displayavarietyofembellishments,sometimesinfluencedbyByzantineexamples,atothertimesrepresentinganoriginalworkingoutof foliagemotives,often rude in treatment,but,especially in theGermanwork,vigorouslydecorative.

In the nave arcading, that is to say the series of arches on each side of the nave, the supportsconsistedofsquarepiers, to thefacesofwhichcolumnswereattached.Fromtwoof themsprangthearches;athirdsupportedthevaultingoftheaisles,whileafourthwasrunuptoahigherleveltocarrythevaultingofthenave.

Italian Romanesque.—Since the Romanesque style was coloured by the locality in which itappeared, it is necessary to study examples of it as they are found respectively in Italy, France, theRhineProvinces,Spain,andEngland.

The Italian examples are conveniently subdivided into those ofNorthern, Central, and SouthernItaly,or,morespecifically,intotheexamplesfoundinthedistrictsnorthoftheRiverPo,betweenthePoand the Tiber, and south of the latter. Of these the northern, to be considered later, are the mostimportant,sincetheyshow,aswehavenoted,amoreadventurousspiritinthematterofconstruction.

CENTRAL ITALY.—On the other hand, the builders ofCentral andSouthern Italy still followed thesimple basilican plan and retained thewooden roofs and, in consequence, clerestorywindows.Theyraised, however, inmany cases the level of the choir and placed a crypt chamber beneath it;whichsometimes,asinS.Miniato,Florence,isopentothenave.Buttheirinventivenesswasdisplayedratherinthedetailsofdecoration.CentralItalybeingrichinmarbles,theuseofthismaterialforembellishingthe exterior and the interior with bands and geometric designs was carried to such a perfection asvirtually toconstituteastyle.Themostbeautifulexample is thatofS.Miniato,where, too, theopenwoodworkoftheroofhasbeenrestoredtoitsoriginalcolouringofgold,green,blue,andred.

AnothernotableexampleofthisdevelopedstyleofdecorationispresentedatPisa,inthegroupofbuildingscomprising theCathedral,Campanile,andBaptistry.Here the façades are embellished—onemight almost say composed, for the embellishment is applied so constructionally—with tiers of

blind arcades or of open arcades of red and white marble. Those of the Baptistry received in thefifteenth century additions of Gothic canopies and traceries, but the front of the Cathedral and thecircularCampanileretaintheiroriginalcharacter.TheBaptistry,alsocircularinplan,iscrownedbyanouterhemisphericaldome,throughwhichpenetratesaconicaldome,whichintheinteriorissupportedon fourpiers andeight columns.The influenceofByzantineworkmen is seenhere aswell as in thedomewhichcrownsthecrossingoftheCathedral.Thetranseptsofthelatterareprolongedbeyondthebasilicaplanandterminateinapses.

The Campanile, which comprises eight stories embellished with arcading, is known as “TheLeaningTower,”sinceitinclinesfromtheperpendicularabout13feetinaheightof179,thegreatestinclinationbeinginthegroundstory,afterwhichthereisaslightrecoverytowardtheperpendicular.Itwasbegunin1174andcompletedin1350.Vasari,thehistorianofItalianartists,writingsome200yearslater, ascribes this lean to a settlement of the foundations. His explanation, though occasionallydisputed, had been generally accepted, until the investigations of ProfessorWilliamH.Goodyear, in1910, established the fact that the inclinationwas intentional and provided for from the start of thework.

Thetowerisconstructedofanexteriorandaninteriorcylinderofmasonry,thespacebetweenthembeingoccupiedbya spiral staircase.The stepsof the latterwere individuallymeasuredbyProfessorGoodyear,whohassetforththeresultsinaBulletinoftheBrooklynInstituteofArtsandSciences(Jan.21,1911).Briefly,theyshowthatthetreadsofthestepsvaryinheightandthattheyinclinesometimestowardtheinnerwall,sometimestowardtheouter.Inthiswaytheytendtocreateabalanceofstrainsonthewhole structure,which is further securedby increasing the strengthof the innerwalls,where theinclinationisinward.Thatthecarefulcalculationinvolvedinthiswasnotduetoanafterthoughtorthenecessityofremedyingtheeffectsofasettlementisprovedbythefactthattheinclinationbeginsattheloweststep.

Why thenwas this design adopted? ProfessorGoodyear furnishes the answer in two subsequentBulletins. Reduced to briefest terms it is this: The Pisan Baptistry also has an inclination from thenormal, both perpendicular and horizontal. Thus, in the south façade there is an inclination in thehorizontallinesof2feet2inchestowardthechoir.Meanwhile,theverticallinesofthewestfaçadeareperpendiculartothisslopeand,consequently,thefrontinclinesinwardtowardthenave.Andtheseareonlyinstancesofanumberofasymmetriesthatoccurthroughoutthecathedral,allofwhichareprovedtohavebeenintentionalintheoriginaldesign.

Further,theasymmetriesatPisabearacloseanalogytothenumberlessasymmetriesthatappearinS.Mark’s,Venice.ThelatterwasbuiltbyByzantineworkmen,whothereinfollowedtheOrientalandtheHellenicdislikeofformalmathematicalregularity;anditistheByzantinetraditionagainwhichinthisrespect,asinotherdetailsofdecoration,domesandsoforth,influencedtheRomanesquegroupofbuildingsatPisa.Theorderinwhichtheywereerectedis,theCathedral,Baptistry,andCampanile;sothatintheLeaningTowerthearchitectsmerelycarriedtheprincipleofasymmetrytoanextremepitch.

The influenceofPisa is found inS.MicheleandS.Martino inLucca, and in theCathedralofPistoia.

South Italy.—The most important SOUTHERN examples are found in Sicily, which in the tenthcentury was overrun by the Saracens, who in the following century were routed by the Normans.Consequently, theSaracenic influence ismingledwith theByzantine in theCathedralofMonreale,nearPalermo.Theplanisbasilican,withapsesattheeasternendsofthenaveandaisles.Thechoirisraised. The arches of the nave are pointed but not recessed, and are supported on columns, withByzantinecapitals.Theaislewallshaveadadoofwhitemarble,twelvefeethigh,inlaidwithborders,

composed of porphyry,while the arches and clerestory of the nave are embellishedwithmosaics ofbiblical subjects, framed in arabesque borders. Of a sombre richness of colour, they display theByzantinecharacteristicofseverityofdesign,andimparttotheinteriorasolemngrandeur.

NorthItaly.—ItisinNORTHERNItaly,particularlyintheLombardchurches,thattheconstructionaldevelopmentismostmarked.For,whiletheplanremainedbasilican,onlyoccasionallyshowingwell-definedtransepts,thearchitectsdevotedtheirenergiestotheproblemofvaulting.AnotableinstanceisSanAmbrogio,Milan,whichisanearlyexampleoftheuseofribsinvaulting.Theoriginalchurch,erected in theninth century, hadwooden roofs; but in the rebuilding the navewas divided into foursquare bays, and immense pierswere constructed to carry the diagonal, transverse, and longitudinalribs.[6] Of corresponding massiveness are the transverse ribs, while to support the strain on thelongitudinal ribs intermediatepierswere introducedwithanupperanda lower tierofdoublearches.Theseopenintothetwostoriesofthegroin-vaultedaisles,whicharegiventhistreatmentinordertoactasbuttressestothethrustofthenavevaults.Thiscompelledtheomissionofclerestorywindows,thusaddingtothesombrenessofeffect.Indeedthewholesuggestionisoneofponderousness.Itistheworkof men experimenting with a new method of construction and intent for the present on achievingstability.ThecombinationofthelatterwithdignityofheightandthegraceoflightnesswasyettobedevelopedintheGothictreatmentoftheribs.

Thewestendisapproachedbyanarthex,openingintoanarcadedatrium.Intheexternaldecorationofthetripleapseoftheeastendappearstherudimentaryprincipleofthe

openarcade.Thewallsabovethesemi-domeandbeneaththewoodenexteriorroofarecrownedwithacornice,composedofarchessupporteduponcorbels, thespacebetweeneachbeingpenetratedwithaniche.This produces a series of deep shadows, in contrastwithwhich the actual construction of thecorbelsassumesalightnessofeffect.Itwasthepreliminarysteptothesubstitutionofsmalldetachedcolumnsforthecorbelsandthedevelopmentofexternalarcading.

TheopenarcadinginitsfulldevelopmentappearsinthewestfaçadeofS.Michele,Pavia,whereitservesitscharacteristicpurposeofconstructivelylighteningtheeffectofthecorniceoftheroof.Inthisinstance,as inmanyof theLombardfaçades, thenaveandaislesare includedinasinglegable, theirinterior separation beingmarked upon the exterior bymasonry piers. Into this façade also, as in theolderpartoftheexteriorofSanAmbrogio,aresetpiecesofearliersculpturedornament.Theseexhibita strange mingling of grotesque animals with Scandinavian interlaces and Byzantine features—anotable fact, since they correspond with the sculptured ornament found on some of the Rhenishchurches.ThissuggeststhatLombardworkmenwereemployedinGermanyandthattheybroughtbackwiththemsomeoftheGermantasteforsymbolisminornament.

InthewestfrontoftheCathedralatPiacenza,wefindthesameuseofsinglegableandmasonrypiers, but the cornice arcade is supplemented by two horizontal bands, thatmark the division of theaislesintotwostories.Moreover,eachofthethreeentrancesisembellishedwithatwostoriedporch,supported on columns that rest on recumbent lions.Over the nave porch thewall is penetrated by acharacteristicallyRomanesquefeature—aroseorwheelwindow.Acomparisonofthisfaçadewiththeelaborate ones of Central Italy illustrates the preference of the Lombard architects for organicdispositionofdecorationratherthandecorationforthesakeofdecoration.

An important feature of North Italy is the Campanile. Intended, it is supposed, as a symbol ofpower,it isusuallydetachedfromthechurch,andsquareinplan.Thewallsaresimplytreated,beingreinforcedoftenwithmasonrypiers,butinterruptedwithasfewwindowsaspossible,whilethetopismarkedbyoneortwostoriesofarcadedwindowsandiscrownedwithapyramidalorconicalroof.

FRENCHROMANESQUE

ThemapofFranceat theendof the tenthcenturyshows theRoyalDomain, theIledeFrance,adenseforestwithOrleans,thecityoflearning,atoneend,andattheother,Paris,thecityofthefuture—hemmed in on all sides by counties andduchies overwhich theCapetianKingheld littlemore thannominalsuzerainty.Forthepurposeofarchitecturalstudytheseterritoriesmaybedividedintonorthandsouth, on a line with the River Loire. Thus, to the north belong the Ile de France, Normandy, andBrittany;tothesouth,Provence,Aquitaine,Anjou,andBurgundy.

Everywherethebuilderswereintentupontheproblemofvaulting;butwereinfluencedinthesouthby localconditions. InProvence, forexample, theseatofRomancivilisation,notonlydoesclassicalinfluenceappearinthedetails,butthevaultingisoftheoldRomankind.NotreDame,Avignon, isawell-known instance. And the barrel-vaulting was continued throughout the neighbouring Duchy ofAquitaine. Here, however, another influence intervened. The district had close commercial relationswith Venice, Ravenna, and Byzantium, and it is reflected in the domical vaulting of many of thechurches.

S.Front,Perigeux,forexample,resemblesS.Mark’s,Venice,inhavingtheplanofaGreekcross,surmounted by five pendentives. The arches, however, are pointed; of great depth, resting on piers,pierced with passages. In the cathedral of the neighbouring city, Angoulême, a Latin cross issubstitutedfortheGreekinplan.Theaislelessnaveissurmountedbythreestonedomes,roofedontheexterior. Over the crossing rises another dome, visible outside, which is raised upon a drum that ispiercedwithpointedwindows,disposedinpairs.Thesoutherntranseptisstillcrownedwithatower,itsfellowtothenorthhavingbeendestroyedin1568.

ThisbuildingservedasamodelfortheAbbeyofFontevraultinAnjou.In Burgundy themost renowned of the numerousmonastic establishments was theBenedictine

AbbeyofCluny.UntilthebuildingofthepresentS.Peter’s,itsabbeychurchwasthelargestandmostmagnificent inChristendom.Theplanwasabasilicawithdoubleaisles, theeastendterminatinginachevêt(shě-vay´);thatistosay,anapsesurroundedbyacircularaisle,dividedintochapels;inthiscasefive innumber.Thenavewas arcadedwithpointedarches and spannedbyan immensebarrelvault.Groinedvaulting,ontheotherhand,issupposedtohavecoveredtheaisles.

Groinedvaultingtakestheplaceofbarrel-vaultinginthenaveoftheChurchofVézelay,andwasalsousedin theante-chapel,erectedsomethirtyyears later.Butby this timethebuilders, inorder toreduce the thrust, adopted a pointed section for the ribs—the first instance in France of the pointedgroinedvault,whichwassuccessfullydevelopedlaterbytheGothicarchitects.

It is to be noted that the early vaulting, erected by the Clunisian architects, compelled theabandonmentoftheclerestorywindows.Thethrustofthegreatbarrelvaultofthenavewassustainedeitherbyhighsideaisleswitheithertransverseorgroinedvaultsoverthebays,orbybarrelvaultsovertheaisles,whichinturnweresupportedbythemassiveouterwalls.Fortheuseoftheflyingbuttresshadnotyetbeenadopted.

Meanwhile, the northern climate demanded the additional light providedby a clerestory, and thearchitects of Normandy applied themselves to the problem. It was to be solved later in Gothicarchitecturebytheuseofpointedgroinvaulting,but,pendingthisdiscovery,amethodofvaultingwasemployed which is known as sexpartite. For the square bay was crossed in the centre by anothertransverse arch,which,when cut by the twodiagonals, produced a plan of six parts.This, however,necessitated twonarrow skewvaults,meeting in the centre,whichwas awkward in appearance.ThemethodisillustratedinS.Etienne,thegreatchurchoftheAbbaye-aux-hommesandLaTrinitéoftheAbbaye-aux-Dames,bothinCaen.TheseandotherchurchesofNormandysuchastheAbbeychurch

ofMont-St.Michel, arecharacterisedbyanadventurousspiritaswellas logicofdesign,markingadistinctprogresstowardtheGothic.

ENGLISHROMANESQUEORNORMAN

The audacity and resourcefulness of the Norman builders found extensive opportunity after theconquestofEngland.ButfewremainssurviveofAnglo-Saxonarchitecture,andtheysuggest that thebuildingswereofarudekind.Theywereconstructedofrubblework,reinforcedwithengagedpiersandashlarmasonryatthecorners,arrangedinwhatiscalled“longandshort”courses.Thecolumnswereshort, stumpy cylinders crowned with one or two square blocks, and the details of doorways andwindows were roughly hewn with an axe, though in the case of certain belfry windows, jambs ofbaluster shape, seem to have been turned upon a lathe. The openings were either round-topped,suggesting a clumsy copy of theRoman style or else triangular, as if perpetuating a form of timberconstruction.Theplanofthechurchappearstohavebeenofthesimplest,representinganoblongnave,separatedbyanarchfromthesmalleroblongofthechancel;thelatterbeinglowerthanthenaveand,ontheinside,approachedbytwoorthreedescendingsteps.ThearrangementseemstohavebeenderivedfromtheexampleoftheCelticchurches,asalsowasthehabitoferectingtowers,which,however,arenotcircularasinIreland,butsquarewithoutbuttresses.OneexampleofsuchatowerexistsatEarl’sBarton,Northamptonshire,inwhichoccurbalusteredwindows.

The Normans, therefore, had a free field for their architectural enterprise and, while theyimmediatelycommencedtheerectionofcastlestooverawethecountry, theyalsoerectedmonasteriesandcathedrals,designedtosurpassinsizeandmagnificencetheonesinNormandy.Whilefollowingthelatterinageneralway,theEnglishexampleswerecharacterised,ontheonehand,byamoremassiveandpicturesquetreatment,and,ontheother,owingprobablytothescarcityofskilledlabour,bysimplerandlessrefineddetails.

Thecapitalsofcolumns,forinstance,wereusuallyofthecubic-cushionform,asmaybeseeninS.John’sChapel in theTower of London. The piers were often round and frequently clustered withcolumns,theroundarchesbeingrecessedandframedwithroundmouldings.Thelatter,inthecaseofdoorwaysandwindows,wereenrichedwithornamentcarvedinzig-zag,chevrons,billets,andbeakedheads. The plan was apt to be longer than that of the French churches, and the elevations wereproportionatelylower.Vaultingwas,forthepresent,confinedtosmallerchurchesandthesideaislesofthe larger;but thenavewallsof thecathedralswerebuiltsufficientlymassive tosupport thevaultingwhichinsomecaseswassubsequentlyadded.Theclerestorywindowsweresettowardtheouterpartofthewall, the remaining space being occupied by a passageway,which, in front of thewindowswasscreenedfromthenavebythreearches.

WhiletheNormanstyle,astheEnglish-RomanesqueisusuallycalledinEngland,appearsinmanycathedrals,thecharacterofithasbeengreatlymodifiedbylateradditions.Butthefinestexamplestillexisting is thatofDurham;next towhichcomePeterborough andportionsofNorwich.The towerabove thecrossing,whichbecameadistinctionofEnglishcathedralsand is so imposinga featureofDurham, was added much later. But the original nave (1096) is a remarkable example of massiveNormanconstruction,theroundpiershavingadiameternearlyequaltothespanofthearchesandbeingchannelledwithflutingsandspirals.Thevaultingwascompletedin1133andissaidtobetheearliestexampleofNormanvaultinginEngland.AnothernotablefeatureofDurhamCathedralistheso-calledGalileechapel,which,inimitationoftheante-chapelinCaen,takestheplaceofaporchatthewestend.Itwasusedbypenitents.

AtPeterborough thenave,onlysecondtoDurhamasanexampleofNormanat itsfinest, isstill

coveredwiththeoriginalwoodenceiling,dividedintolozengeshapesandpainted.Itisbelievedtobethe oldestwooden roof in England. TheNorman parts ofNorwichCathedral are the long, narrow,aislelessnave,thetransepts,andthechoirwithitschevêtofchapels.Ely,again,hasNormannaveandtransepts; Bristol, a Norman chapter house; Oxford, nave and choir; Southwell, Norman nave,transepts, and towers; Winchester, transepts and towers; while Worcester has a Norman crypt,transepts,andcircularchapterhouse.ThelastnamedistheonlyoneofthisdesigninEngland.OriginalNormanworkisalsotobefoundinthetranseptsatCanterbury,whilethenarrownessofitschoirisduetothepreservationoftwoNormanchapels.

InEnglandtheinteriorwallspacesandvaultingweredecoratedwithpaintings,forinthisbranchofdecorativeworktheNormansfoundnoscarcityofskill,sincetheAnglo-Saxonschoolofminiaturists,originallystartedbyCelticmissionaries,hadattainedahighdegreeofproficiency,andnowdevelopedtheprinciplesofmissal-paintingintothelargerandfreerscopeofmuraldecoration.

AgoodexampleofthesmallNormanchurchisthatofIffley,nearOxford.Especiallyinterestingisthewestfront.Inthelargerexamplesthisfeatureunderwentchangewiththeintroductionofthepointedarch;buthere isadistributionof thegabledend into threewelldefinedandexcellentlyproportionedstories,pierced,respectively,withadoorway,circularwindow,andanarcadeofthreewindows.Allaredeeply recessed and enrichedwith characteristicmoulding, and the effect, while a trifle barbaric, isvigorouslydecorative.

RHENISHROMANESQUE

IntheRhenishProvincesisfoundthemostfullydevelopedRomanesquestyle,characterisedbythefewest local differences.When, during the years 768-814,Charlemagne built his royal tomb-church,whichwithsubsequentGothicadditionsisnowtheCathedralofAix-le-Chapelle,headoptedtheplanofS.VitaleinRavennaandimportedclassiccolumns.Moreover,theRhineProvincespossessedmanyremainsofRomanarchitecture.LatertheybecamecloselyalliedbycommercewithNorthernItalyandseemtohaveemployedtheservicesofLombardarchitects.

AllthesecircumstancestendedtomakeRhenishRomanesqueresemblethatofNorthernItaly.Ontheotherhand,itdevelopedastylemoreconstructivelyadventurous,vigorous,andpicturesque;whileatthesametimeitwasonthewholemoresystematicallyorganisedthantheFrench.Itwas,however,aboutfiftyyearsbehindthelatterinitsdevelopmentwhichbeganlateandcontinuedlonger.

AtypicalexampleoftheearlierperiodofRhenishRomanesqueistheCathedralatWorms(1110-1200). Itsdesignshowsfeatures thatarecharacteristicallyRhenish:anapseatboth thewestandeastend, flanked ineachcaseby two towers; theuseof transeptsat thewestendaswellas theeast (theeasternonesbeinghereomitted),theerectionofoctagonallanternsoverbothcrossings,andentrancesonthenorthandsouthsidesinsteadofthewest.

Theexteriorexhibitsawell-definedorderlinessandpicturesqueness.Thewallsarereinforcedwithprojectingpiersandpiercedwithdeeplyrecessed,round-archwindows.Noticeablealsoistheeffectiveuseofcorbelarcadesbeneaththegableendsoftheroofsandinvariousstringcourses,whilethericheremphasisofopenarcadesisappliedwithequaldiscretionandeffectiveness.Anothernoteworthyfeaturein the towers is the use of dormers to embellish the conical or octagonal roof, which in effect arerudimentaryspires.

Otherearlyrepresentativecathedralsare thoseofSpires,Treves,andMayencewhile to the laterperiodbelongstheChurchoftheApostles,Cologne(1220-1250).Itoffersavariedapplicationofthesame features in a singularly perfect design.The transepts and choir present a cluster of three apsesrounda low,octagonal lantern.Thenave is short, twice thewidthof the sideaisles andhaswesterntransepts and a square western tower. Especially fine are the exterior embellishments of the apses,consisting of two stories of blind arcading, surmounted by open arcades beneath the roof, while acorrespondingsenseofproportionaldignitycharacterisesthegroupingoftheeasterntowersandlanternandthesolitarydistinctionofthewesterntower.Here,asinthreeotherexamplesoftriapsalchurchesinCologne—S.Maria-in-Capitol,S.Martin, andS.Cunibert—the domical vaulting is supported bysquinchesorpendentives.

TheearliestexampleofnavevaultingisfoundintheCathedralofMayence,closelyfollowedintheCathedralsofSpiresandWormsandtheabbeychurchatLaach.

SPANISHROMANESQUE

InSpaingreatimpetuswasgiventocathedralbuildingbytherecaptureofToledofromtheMoorsin1085.Inarchitecture,asinpainting,theSpaniardsseemtohavesoughttheirartisticimpulsesfromabroad,sincethemostimportantexampleoftheirearlyRomanesquestyle—theCathedralofSantiagodeCompostello—isamodifiedcopyofS.Sernin,atToulouse,Aquitaine.Theplan isaLatincrosswithaislesnotonlyflankingthenavebutalsocarriedroundthetranseptsandchoirapseinthemannerof theFrenchchevêt.Theaislesaregroin-vaulted,while a loftybarrelvault covers thenave, andanoctagonallanterncrownsthecrossing.

AspecialfeatureofSpanishRomanesque,alsoderivedapparentlyfromAquitaine,isthebeautyofthedome,whichcoversthecrossing,asintheoldCathedralofSalamanca,theCollegiateChurchatToroandtheCathedralofZamora.Theyarecircularintheinteriorandoctagonalontheoutsidewithlarge turrets in the anglesof theoctagon.The interior dome is carrieduponpointed arches, betweenwhichandthespringofthevault,inthecaseofSalamanca,aretwotiersofarcadedwindows.Fortheadmissionoflightthearrangementisexcellent,whilethegeneralcharacterofthesedomes,coveredontheoutsidewithalow,steeple-likeroofofstone,isadmirablymonumental.

Another characteristic Spanish feature, met with in some churches, as for example, that ofSanMillan,Sagovia,isanopencloister,ontheoutsideoftheaisle,fromwhichdoorsopenintoit.

Carvedornamentwas rather sparinglyapplied, andexcept inminutedetails suggestsnoMoorishinfluence.

BOOKV

GOTHICPERIOD

CHAPTERI

LATEMEDIÆVALCIVILISATION

THEchangeinarchitecturalstyle,knownastheGothic,whichbeganinthetwelfthcenturyandreachedits full development in the thirteenth, represents sowonderful anexpressionnotonlyof constructivegeniusbutalsoofspiritualaspirationthatonewouldfainpeerthroughthemistofthepasttodiscoverthe kind of civilisation that produced it. The general conditions that shaped the civilisationwe havealready noticed in the chapter on Early Mediæval Civilisation. There we recognised the threefoldinfluencesof thepowerof theChurch, theextensionandgrowing importanceofCommerce,and theresultsofthevariousCrusades.Andthesestillcontinuedtobethemotiveforcesofthelaterandfullercivilisation.

ProminentamongthecausesoftheconfusedconditionsinWesternEuropewasthemultiplicityofrival authorities; which it had been Charlemagne’s dream to subordinate to a centralised authority,emulating thatof theRomanEmpire.But,whilehis attemptat temporaldomination failed, themorespiritual dominion exercised by the Church proved to be a unifying agency. Through the influencewhichsheexertedoverconscienceandconsequentlyovertheactionsofmenthroughtheSacramentsofConfession and Penitence, she was able in considerable measure to curb the license of feudalism.Furthermore,byallyingherselfwiththegrowingpoweroftheburgherclassesincitiesandstandingasthechampionof thedefencelessness of the lower classes in cities and country, shebecame thegreatadjusterofthefearfulsocialinequalitiesoftheperiod.

Herpolicywasoneofchecksandcounter-checks.Shecouldnotsubdue theforces thatmadefordisorder;butcouldanddidrestrainthem.Thushersupportoftheburghersbuiltupanewforceinthecommunity that, through trade and commerce,made for stability and set up the constructive arts ofpeace as a make-weight against the destructive conditions that the internecine strife of the nobilityengendered.And these last she further checked by utilising the enthusiasm forCrusades,which hadbeen first stirred by the missionary zeal of Peter the Hermit in 1096. This first expedition, underGodfreydeBouillon, resulted in thecaptureof Jerusalem from theArabsand theestablishmentof aChristian Kingdom in Palestine. The six other Crusades, terminating with the second expedition ofLouisIX(St.Louis)ofFrancein1270,failedtorecoverJerusalemwhichhadbeenrecapturedbytheArabs.ButinthecourseofthemaLatinkingdomhadbeenestablishedinConstantinopleunderCountBaldwinofFlanders andakingdomalsohadbeen formed inCyprus. It isunnecessary toattempt tofollowthesevariousexpeditionsindetail,themoresothattheyrepresentedonlyincidentsinwhathadbecomeaperpetualprogressionofmovementtowardtheEast.Itistheeffectofthisthatreallyconcernsushere.

The effectmay be studied in relation to the spirit thatwas stimulated, and to the economic andeducational influence involved. The Church originally favoured the Crusades as a means both ofdivertingthesavageryofthefightingclassfrominternecinestrifetodistantwarfareandofintensifying

religious faith and feeling. While it was not strong enough to crush the fighting spirit, it couldconsecrate it to some kind of an ideal, and thereby succeeded in tempering the stupid savagery offeudalismwiththefinerspiritofchivalry.Anidealismofknighthoodwasencouragedthatreverencedwomen,protectedtheweak,redressedthewrongsoftheoppressed,andweddedtothecourtesiesoflifeafervourofreligiousfaith.Amidsttheuglinessofthetimestherespranguptheblueflowerofanidealofbeautythataffectedinsomemeasureboththespiritualandthesociallife.Howrealandintensewasthe spirituality of the timesmay be gathered from its excesses, as evidenced in the cruelties of theCrusade against the Albigenses for their heresies, and in the pathetic tragedies of the Children’sCrusades.In1212aFrenchshepherdboy,namedStephen,inducedthousandsofboystofollowhimtoMarseilles,promisingtoleadthemdry-shodthroughtheseatoPalestine,andaboyofCologne,namedNicolas,ledanarmyoftwentythousandchildrentowardItaly.SuchoftheFrenchchildrenasreachedMarseilles were kidnapped and sold to slavery in Egypt, while the German host perished fromprivations,leavingonlyamemorythatispreservedinthelegendofthePiedPiperofHamelin.

InthewakeofmilitaryexpeditionstotheEasttherefollowedtheadventurersofcommerce.Traderouteswere openedup, the earliest ofwhich and for a long time themost importantwas bywayofVenice, over the Brunner Pass and up the Rhine to Bruges. And commercial relations meant thecontinual passing backward and forward of persons in the pursuits of peace and, in consequence, agrowingintercoursebetweenthemembersofdifferentnationalities.Theoldisolationofthewesternandnorthern nations was gradually removed, and the individual’s narrow horizon became broadened bytravel,hisrestrictedideasoflifeenlargedandenlightenedbycontactwiththealienandsuperiorcultureof theEast.For itwas inConstantinople andamong theArabs inAsiaMinor,Syria, andEgypt thatsecularlearningatthisperiodflourished.

Accordingly,asaresultoftheCrusades,WesternEuropeindulgedatasteforforeigntravel,whichstimulatedaprodigiousadventurousnessthatoperatedinthethingsofthespiritandtheintellectaswellas in the material conduct of life. Geography, for example, began to arouse a practical interest. Itchangedtheattitudeofmen’smindstotheoutsideworld,openingupnewpathsoftravelbylandandsea and, equally, new conceptions of the possibilities of the world and of life. The interest also inCrusades aroused the desire to record them and an impetuswas given to historicalwritings,which,partakinglargelyofromance,ledtoarenewedinterestinsucholdromancesasthoseoftheKnightsoftheRoundTableoftheArthurianLegendandofCharlemagne’sPaladins.

AmostsignificanttestimonytothecharacterofthecivilisationofthethirteenthcenturyisaffordedbythevoluminouswritingsofVincentofBeauvais,whoheldthepostof“reader”inthemonasteryofRoyaumont,on theOisenearParis,whichwas foundedbyLouis IX.Hiswork,written inLatinandentitledthe“SpeculumUniversale”or“UniversalMirror,”isanencyclopædiaoftheknowledgeoftheMiddleAges;amirror,infact,ofthemindoftheageofgreatcathedralbuilding.Itisdividedintothreeparts: theSpeculum, respectively,Naturale,Doctrinale, andHistoriale; towhich aSpeculumMoralewasaddedbyanotherhand,beingmainlyacompilationfromtheworksofThomasAquinasandothercontemporarywriters.

The “Speculum Naturale” has been described as a gigantic commentary on the first chapter ofGenesis.ItopenswithanaccountoftheTrinity,andoftheattributesandordersofangels;proceedstodiscuss our own world, light, colour, the four elements, and Lucifer and his fallen angels. Then itproceedstothephenomenaoftime,themotionsoftheheavenlybodies,andthewondersoftheskyinthunder,dew, rain,andso forth.Thence it treatsofdry land,seas,andrivers,agriculturaloperations,preciousstones,plants,fruits,notomittingtheiruseinmedicine.Otherchaptersdiscussbirds,fishes;anotherdomesticatedandwildanimals,serpents,bees,andinsects,theseasons,andthecalendar.Thenman is dealt with, his anatomy, his organs, and five senses, and the phenomena of sleep, dreams,

ecstasy,memory,reason,andsoforth.The“SpeculumDoctrinale,” intendedas apracticalmanualofknowledge, covers the subjectsof

grammar,logic,rhetoric,includingaLatinvocabularyofsomesixthousandwords;discussesthevirtuesandgives,undertheheadof“economicart,”directionsforbuilding,gardening,andagriculture,whileunder the head of “mechanical art,” it describes thework ofweavers, smiths, armourers,merchants,hunters,sailors,andgenerals.Then,afterprescribingrulesforthepreservationofhealth,itproceedstomathematics,underwhichitincludesmusic,geometry,astronomy,astrology,andweightsandmeasures.AndhereitisnoteworthythattheauthordisplaysanacquaintancewiththeArabicnumerals.

The“SpeculumHistoriale”beginswiththecreationoftheworldandcontinuesasacredandsecularnarrativedowntotheconversionofConstantinetoChristianity.The“origines”ofBritainarediscussedandthestorycarriedontoMahometandCharlemagne,afterwhichcomesahistoryoftheFirstCrusade,a dissertation on the Tartars, and, finally, a short narrative of the earlier Crusade of St. Louis. Onechapterisdevotedtomiracles.Thehistoryislargelycomposedofquotationsfromavarietyofavailablesources, sacred and secular,which includeGreek,Hebrew, andArabicwriters—known to the authorthroughpopularLatinversions—Eusebius,Seneca,Cicero,Ovid,JuliusCæsar,theEarlyFathersoftheChurch, and the Mediæval writers, Sigebert de Gembloux, a Belgian Chronicler (1030-1112), andWilliamofMalmesbury(1095-1142).Thelastnamed,anEnglishmonkoftheAbbeyofMalmesbury,wrote “DeGestibusRegumAnglorum,” a history of the EnglishKings, and a continuation, entitled“HistoriaNovella,”bringingthestorydownto1142—workswhichhaveformedthebasisofsubsequenthistoriesofEngland.

MirroredinthiscompendiumisthemindoftheMiddleAges,thatrealiseditsdreamsandneedsinthemostimaginative,daring,andgrandlyconstructivetypeofbuildingthattheworldhadeverseen—thatofGothicArchitecture.Itwasamindatoncepracticalandtranscendental;grapplingalikewiththeactualitiesoflifeandwiththemysteriesoftheuniverse;hungryforknowledge,uncriticalinappetite,acceptingthemiraculousassimplyasitacceptedthewonderoftheworldthatwasopeningouttoitseagervisionwithanimmensityofpromise.Itwasthemindofagiantyouth,stillexultingintheglowofgrowth;audaciousincourage,ofvaultingimagination,withthewsandsinewsthatachieveprodigiously.Inthepursuitofabstractknowledgetheagewaspronetoexpenditselfonsubtleties,toentangleitselfinsophistries,toloseitselfinmerestspeculation.Butwhenitgrappledwiththeproblemsofbuilding,thisweakness was transformed into strength. Then it displayed a faculty of reasoning, apt, direct, andoriginal,anda readiness in thepracticalapplicationofmathematicalprinciples.Of these,however, itwas not bent on giving a scientific demonstration; itwas satisfied to employ them in the pursuit ofbeauty.Anditsfeelingforbeauty,asweshallseelater,wasofextraordinarysubtlety,expendeduponrelievingthestructureofformalityandimpartingtoitthevarietyandelasticityofalivinggrowth.

Nor was it only in this indirect way that the “Speculum Universale” was reflected in Gothicarchitecture. Its chapters were represented in sculptured illustrations upon the exteriors of thecathedrals,particularlyaroundtheportals,inorderthatallwhocameandwentmightseeandlearn.Thestatues and reliefs at Chartres comprise some two thousand figures, while Amiens presents anothermemorableexample.

ThustheGothicCathedralwasnotonlytheHouseofGod;itwasalsotheHouseofMan—theciviccentreofhisreligious,social,moral,andintellectuallife.

CHAPTERII

GOTHICARCHITECTURE

I

THE term Gothic, with the suggestion of “barbarian,” was applied by men of the Renaissance toMediævalArt.UnlikethetermRomanesque,itisnotanamethatdefines.Henceanattempthasbeenmadetosubstitutetheword,ogival,fromtheFrenchogive,whichisappliedtothecurveofthepointedarch—adistinguishingfeatureoftheGothicstyle.Butinourownlanguage,atleast,Gothichasbecomesoembeddedthatitismoreconvenienttopreserveit.

WeunderstandbyitthatstylewhichwasdevelopedoutofRomanesqueabout1150andcontinuedtoflourishuntilthedevelopmentandspreadoftheRenaissancestyle.

Thechangewhich is represented inGothic isdue to several causes: (a)developmentofvaultingribs;(b)thegeneraluseofthepointedarch;(c)reapplicationoftheRomanprincipleofconcentrationofvaultingstrainsuponfourpoints;(d)thedevelopmentofabuttresssystemtoreinforcethemainpartsofthestrain,and(e)thedevelopmentofwindowopeningsbothastotheirsizeandornamentation.

PeriodsofGothic.—TheperiodofGothiccoversthethirteenth,fourteenth,andfifteenthcenturies.Thevariationswhichitpresentedintheseseveralcenturiesareoftencharacterisedbythechangesinthetreatmentofthewindows.Thus,inFrance,theyhavebeendivided

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into:Primary,orThirteenthCenturystyle;Secondary,orFourteenthCentury,oftencalledRayonnantfromthewheeltraceryoftherosewindows;Tertiary,orFifteenthCentury,calledFlamboyantfromtheflame-likeshapesof thewindowspaces.On theotherhand, inEngland, thedivisionsare:ThirteenthcenturyorEarlyEnglish;FourteenthcenturyorDecorated,becauseoftheincreasedelaborationbothofwindow tracery and ribvaultings;Fifteenth centuryorPerpendicular, owing to the predominance ofverticalmembersinthetraceryofthewindows.

Thechieffountain-sourceoftheearlyGothicdevelopmentwastheIledeFrance,whencethenewideaswerecarried,largelybymonasticactivityandespeciallythatoftheCistercianorder,toEngland,Germany,Italy,andSpain.IneachofthesecountriestheirapplicationwascolouredbylocalconditionsandEnglandinparticularproducedaseriesofbuildings,characterisedbyoriginalityoftreatmentandgrandeurofdesign.Nevertheless, it is recognised thatFrenchGothic ispre-eminent,notonly for thelogicandskillwithwhichstructuralproblemsweresolvedbutalsoforsublimityofdesign,especiallyinthe interiors, and for the sense of proportion that distinguishes the best examples. English Gothic,however,isanoblesecond.

Before enumerating some of the famous examples of French Gothic, we may summarise theprinciplesanddevicesmoreorlesscommontoallGothic.

Romanesquehadsubstitutedequilibriuminplaceof the inert stabilityof theRomanarchitecture.Thethirteenthcenturyarchitectsaddedtoequilibriumelasticity.

They achieved this by a development of the concentration of strains, which the Romans hadinventedorappliedinthesupportofgroin-vaultingonfourpiers,andtheRomanesquearchitectshadfurtherdevelopedbythesystemofrib-vaulting.

PointedArch.—TheGothicwasstructurallyevolvedoutoftheribvaultingandthepointedarch.In the first place, while the Romanesque architects used the rib system solely as a convenience ofbuilding,thearchitectsoftheIledeFrance,adoptingitforthesamepurpose,becameconsciousofitsfurtherpossibilitiesinthedirectionbothofconstructionandofbeauty.Therib,nolongeracrudearchofmasonry,wasconstructedofmouldingsthatmadeitafeatureofbeauty,enhancedbytheincreasedheightandthefinersweepoflinethattheskillandtasteoftheFrencharchitectsachieved.

Inthistheywerehelpedbythesubstitutionofthepointedforthesemi-circulararch.Notonlyare

thecurvesofthepointedarchmorebeautiful,buttheylentthemselvesalsotoamoredaringmethodofbuilding.Bymeansofthemthetopsofthelongitudinalandtransversearchescouldbeliftedtothelevelof thediagonalones,sothat thefillinginof themassivesorspacesbetweentheribs,wassimplified.Moreover,thestrainofthepointedarchwasmoredirectlydownward,whichbroughtthemainpressuredownuponthepiers.Advantagewastakenofthisbyclusteringsmallcolumnsaroundthepiers,sothateachcolumncarrieditsownrib,bringingtheribsandcolumnsintoastructuralharmonyandcreatingacontinuous effect of soaringgrowth from the floor up to the summit of the vaulting.And this effectcouldbeenhancedbytheopportunitywhichtheribconstructionallowedofliftingthevaultinghigher,andsoaffordingspaceforampleclerestories.

Buttresses.—Meanwhile the lateral strain or thrust of the pointed arch, though less than thevertical,hadtobesustained,and thiswasdonebydeveloping thebuttress.Thesewereof twokinds:abutting,asthenameimplies,eitheronthenavewallorontheouterwallsoftheaislesandchevêt.Inboth cases they were a development of the masonry piers with which the Romanesque architectsreinforcedthewalls.Whenthebuttresseswereattachedtotheouterwallsoftheaislesandchevêt,theywere connected with the nave wall by arches which sprang across the intervening space, and inconsequenceareknownasflyingbuttresses.

Sometimes these buttresseswere practically vertical, at other times they descended in offsets orsteps, increasinginwidthtowardtheground.Furthertoincreasetheirresistancetheywerefrequentlysurmounted by finials or pinnacles. The buttress, in fact,was not only a structuralmember of greatimportance,butoneofthecharacteristicelementsofbeautyinthedesign.

Concentration of Counter-thrusts.—By the time these two principles—the concentration ofthrustsandthecounter-thrusts—hadbeenthoroughlyworkedout,astheywereinthethirteenthcentury,theGothicarchitectshadextendedtothewholeedificewhatthelaterRomanesquearchitectshaddonefor the vaulting. As the latter had been constructed on a framework of ribs, so now the essentialstructureof thewholeedificebecamea frameorskeleton,self-supporting,with itsstrainsdistributedthroughout, as in the muscular system of the human body, and in the “steel cage” construction ofmodernbuildings.

ThisenabledtheGothicarchitectstoerectloftierandlargerbuildingsandatthesametimelighterin appearance, comparedwithwhich the Romanesque seem squat and heavy. The French showed apreferenceforloftyinteriors;theEnglishforlengthofvista,theproportionatelossofheightbeingoffsetontheexteriorbytheextraheightofthetowersandspires.

Anotherresultoftheframeworksystemofstructurewasthattheinterveningwall-spaces,relievedofstrain,couldbefullyutilisedforopenings,especiallyforwindows,soimportantinthedullerclimateofthenorth.TheclerestorybecameanimportantfeatureoftheGothiccathedral;soalsothetriforium,or gallery round the nave, which, pierced in the thickness of the wall, separated the clerestory andarcadearches.Further,thewindowsinalltheouterwallstookonanewimportance.

Windows.—Thewindows, in fact,becameanotherof thedistinguishingcharacteristicsofGothicarchitectureand thevariety in their treatmentmarks theseveralcenturiesof itsdevelopment.At firsttherewastheplainlancet(spear-headed)window,thetopofwhichwascomposedoftwosegmentsofacirclemeetingatonepoint.Thesegmentswereinscribedaboutatriangle,whichwaseitherequilateralorisosceles.Inthecaseoftheequilateraltriangle,whosebasewasequaltothesides,thedistanceofthepointofthearchfromthespringofthecurveswasequaltothewidthofthewindow.Ontheotherhand,inthecaseoftheisoscelestriangle,ifthebasewerelongerthanthesides,thepointofthearchdroppedlower,while,ifthebasewereshorter,thearchwashigherthanitswidth—thetruelancet.

Suchplainopenings,or lights,wereusedeithersinglyorinpairs;andintimetwowereincludedwithinonelancetopening,thespaceabovetheheadsofthelightsbeingfilledwitharoundorquatrefoil

light. In thiscase theupperpartor traceryhad theappearanceofhavingbeencutoutofoneslaborplateofstone,andthepatterninconsequencewascalledplate-tracery.Later,whenthenumberoflightsin a windowwas increased, the tracery above themwas elaborated into various geometric designs,technicallyknownasbar-tracery.Stilllater,whenthearchitectshadcompletelysolvedallthestructuralproblems and the only advance could bemade in further elaboration of details, the geometric formswereabandonedformoreflowingdesigns,whicharecalledinFrenchGothicFlamboyant;inEnglish,Decorated.

It is to be noted that the change in the treatment of the windows was reflected in the carvedornamental details of other parts of the edifice; especially in the canopies over niches and theembellishment of gables, doors, choir-screens, wall-panelling, finials, and spires. These in theFlamboyantperiod(fifteenthcentury)reachedadegreeoflace-likeelaborateness,that,whilebeautifulinitself, tendstoobscuretheactualstructuralelements; therebymarkingthedecadenceoftheGothicstyle.

ThisphasewasrepresentedinEnglishGothicbyagradualstiffeningofthetraceryintorigidformsandbarrenrepetitions.BecauseoftheinsistenceonrectangularmotivesitisknownasPerpendicular.

The windowswere decorated with stained glass, themost beautiful remains of which are to befoundintheCathedralofChartres.Theyshowaprevalenceofblueandviolettonesandarecomposedofsmallpiecesofglass,joinedbyleading.ThisFrenchmethodwasalsoimitatedinEngland,asintheearlywindowsofCanterbury;butbydegreesanEnglishstylewasadopted,inwhichthepiecesofglassweremuchlarger,andthesubjectconsistedoflargefiguresbeneathtraceriedcanopies,inimitationofthecarvedworkofthesculptors.

In thedecorationofcolumns the French long preserved theCorinthian type, but in place of theacanthus, used foliage forms studied directly from nature. The forms at first were freelyconventionalised;butbydegrees,astheskillofthecarverincreased,becamemoreandmorenaturalisticand thereby less finely decorative. The corresponding progress in England is from conventionalisednaturetofranklynaturalisticimitationandthencetoasomewhatdryandbarrenconventionalism.

Sculpture.—Aconspicuous featureofGothicdecoration is the figuresculpture. Itwasusedwithprofusion,especiallyinFrance,wherethemonumentaltreatmentofthewestfrontsgavefreestscopeforthemultiplicationofniches,filledwithstatues.Thedeeplyrecessedportals,forexample,wereflankedwith tiersof figures,whichwerealsoprolonged into therecessedplanesof thearched top,while thelunette,orhalf-moonspacebetweenthearchandthehorizontaltopofthedoor,wasfilledwithreliefsoftheSaviourorMadonna.Meanwhile,figuresbeneathcanopiesstretchedinabandacrosstheupperpartofthefaçade,orstoodsinglyinnichesthatpenetratedthesurfaceofbuttresses;until,intime,everyvantagepoint,whetherwithinorwithouttheedifice,wasenrichedwithstatues.Thenoblestperiodofthis efflorescence was the thirteenth century, when the French “imagers,” particularly, attained aremarkablebalancebetweentruthtonatureanddecorativeconvention.Thestatuesseemtohavegrowninto human shape out of the very material of the edifice and retain its character. With increasingcleverness,thismagnificentconventionalisationpassedintonaturalisticimitationandthestatuesseemtobesomethingaddedforelaboration’ssake.

Contrast to Classic.—Gothic architecture, though it developed through Romanesque and EarlyChristianout ofRoman, presents an almost complete contrast toClassic style. It is an expressionofmany individualities rather thanofconformity.Plansaremoreor lessuniform;generallybasilican inFrance, cruciform in England. But the superstructure, while embodying certain common features,exhibits the freedomof individual treatment, as each city ormonasteryviedwithothers in amightyefforttoexcel.

Acathedralembodiessuchmiraclesofaudacityandaspiration,thatonescarcelylooksinitforthat

complete harmonyof proportionwhichdistinguishes aClassic temple.The latterwas theproduct ofmen who had ceased to believe in the deities they professed to honour and had made a religion,accordingastheywereHellenesorRomans,ofabstractperfectionorofsystematisedorder.

Gothiccathedrals,ontheotherhand,werethematerialandspiritualexpressionofintensereligiousdevotionandofcivicprideandfreedom.Theywerethememorials,notofoldnationsinthedeclineoftheir political and social ideals, but of young races, struggling towardnationalismand firedwith thesplendour of dawning aspirations.No level line of entablature, resting upon columns ever so stately,could embody such elevated enthusiasm. Itmustmount into the sky,with soaring lines andvaultingarches, spires andpinnacles, ever strainingupward; givingvoice to thegrandeur of concerteduplift.Someof thecathedralsgrewupfromgroundtoridgeroofandtowersunder theguidingmindofonearchitect;morerepresent thecontinuousgrowthof thecommunity;but ineithercaseembodyin theirvarietyandorganisedcomplexitytheSouloftheCrowd.

Foronemustnotthinkofthemonlyastemplesofworship.Theyembracedalsothefunctionsnowdistributedinschoolsandlibraries.Theyweretheshrinesofthecultureoftheirday,inwhichthetruthsof religion, legends of saints, and themysteries of beliefwere unfolded in sculpture, paintings, andstainedglass.

Asymmetries or Refinements.—In order to ensure their monopoly the gilds of masons of theMiddleAgesjealouslypreservedthesecretsof theirart.Accordingly, therearenowrittentreatisesofthe period.Moreover, with the advent of the Renaissance the Gothic was held in contempt and theindifference to it continued until about the middle of the nineteenth century. Then, in the renewedenthusiasmforMediævalarchitecture,buildingswerestudied,measurementstaken,andplansoftheoldchurchesandcathedralsweredrafted.Butthesurveyors,havingmeasuredthedistancebetweenonepairofpiersonoppositesidesof thenaveandbetween twopiersononeside,plotted theplanas if thesemeasurementswereuniformthroughoutthewholenave.Inthisandinothermatterstheyassumedthatthedesignwassymmetrical.Thecontrary,however, inthecaseofmanychurchesandcathedrals,hasbeenprovedbytherecentresearchesofProfessorWilliamH.Goodyear,whoseworkinconnectionwithHellenic,Byzantine,andRomanesquerefinementsorasymmetrieshasbeennotedalready.

Hisresearches,whichhavecoveredmostoftheGothicedificesofItaly,manyofthemostimportantchurchesandcathedrals inFrance,andsome inEngland,prove that the“mysteries”of theMediævalgildsincludedasymmetricalrefinements.Themostimportantdeviationsfrommechanicalformalityareasfollows:

1.Widening of the Nave in a vertical direction.Where this occurs, each side of the nave leansoutward;threemethodsbeingemployed,thoughnotmorethanoneappearsinagivenchurch.Inonecase,thereisacontinuousandabsolutelystraightoutwardinclinationfromfloortovaulting.Inanother,theoutwardinclinationsrecedefromfloortovaultingindelicateverticalcurves.Inthethird,thepiersare perpendicular up to the arcade capitals,where the inclination begins and is continued in straightlines through the triforium and clerestories. In this last case, the angle, formed by the two lines,producesinthelargescaleofthebuildingtheeffectofacurve.

Thewideninginallcasestendstooffsettheperspectiveillusionofverticallinesconvergingtowardthevaulting;butalsoappearstohavebeenpreferredforotheraestheticreasons.

Instancesofcontinuouswidening instraight linesare found in theCathedralandChurchofSt.Ouen,inRouen.ContinuouswideningcombinedwithverticalcurvatureoccursatCanterbury;whilethe perpendicular pier, combinedwith inclined vaulting-shafts, triforium and clerestories is found inAmiensandRheims.

2.HorizontalCurvatureinPlan.Wherethisoccurs,oneoffivemethodsisadopted.

Inthefirst,thepiersaresetonparallelcurves,whichconsequentlyareconvextothenaveononesideandconcaveto thenaveontheother. In thesecond,bothcurvesareconcave to thenave,whichthuswidensslightlyfrombothendstowardthecentre.Inthethird,bothcurvesareconvextothecentre.Inthefourth,thecurvesareparallel,butreversetheirdirectionatornearthechoir, intheformofanattenuatedS,or“Hogarth’slineofbeauty.”Inalltheaboveinstancesthecurvesstartatthebasesofthepiersandcontinueinthetriforium,clerestoryandroofparapets;incertaincasesbeingalsorepeatedintheouteraislewalls.

ThefifthsystemisconnectedwithaspecialphaseoftheWidening.For,inthiscase,thepiersaresetonastraightlineandwiththetriforiumandclerestoryareperpendicularfromfloortoceiling.Thatis to say, at thewest end and the crossing;but, inbetween, fromboth ends, thepiersgradually leanoutwardwithanincreasinginclinationtowardthecentreofthenave.Thusresultcurves,concavetotheinterior, which, however, since the bases of the piers are on straight lines, are found only in thetriforium,clerestoryandparapetwalls.LichfieldCathedralpresentsanexample;Rheimsanother,butwithadifference.ForwhilethewideninginLichfieldbeginsatthepavement,thatofRheimsstartsatthearcadecapitals.

3.So-called Perspective illusions. Thesewere intended to emphasise the effect of the choir andgenerallytoincreasethesuggestionofsizeanddistance.Thiswasaccomplishedinthreeways.a.Bymakingthenavearcadeandtheoutsidewallsconvergetowardthechoir.b.Byloweringtheheightofthearchesastheyapproachthechoir.c.Byreducingthewidthofthearchesastheyapproachthechoir.

Theresultofall theseasymmetries is tocreatean impressionofelasticity inplaceof rigidity;animpression,infact,oflife;oftheflexible,variedmovementoforganicgrowth.

PLANOFAMIENS PLANOFNOTREDAME

ThePerfectPlanofFrenchGothic

BOTHPLANSAREBASILICANANDHAVEDOUBLEAISLESANDCHEVÊTS.BUTINAMIENSNOTETHESERIESOFAPSESANDTHEIRCOMPLICATED

VAULTING.THENAVEVAULTINGOFNOTREDAMEHASSIXDIVISIONSINEACHDOUBLEBAY;THATOFAMIENSISTREATEDINASINGLEBAY

WITHFOURDIVISIONSBYMEANSOFGROINRIBSANDPOINTEDARCHES.P.281

NOTREDAME,PARISEARLYTYPE

AMIENSCATHEDRALTRANSITIONTORAYONNANT

RHEIMSCATHEDRALUPPERPARTMARKSTRANSITIONTOFLAMBOYANT

ROUENCATHEDRALFLAMBOYANT

INTERIOROFNOTREDAMENOTETHECLASSICCAPITALS.P.281,ETSEQ.

INTERIOROFAMIENSCATHEDRALNOTETHEINCREASEDSENSEOFELASTICITY,GRACEANDSOARING.P.281,ETSEQ.

HOTELDEBOURGTHEROULDE,ROUENLATEFIFTEENTHCENTURY.NOTEHEXAGONALTOWER

INTERIOROFRHEIMSCATHEDRAL

HOUSEOFJACQUESCŒURNOWTHEPALAISDEJUSTICE,BOURGES.P.286

SAINTECHAPELLE,PARIS

OWINGTOTHESIZEOFTHEWINDOWS,THEWALLSPACESAREVIRTUALLYPIERS,SUPPORTINGTHEVAULTING.P.285

CHAPTERIII

GOTHICARCHITECTUREINFRANCE

THEEarlyFrenchGothic dates fromabout 1150 to1275. It is theperiod inwhichmost of thegreatcathedralswerecreatedandinmostinstanceswithmoneycontributedbythelaity.RoughlyspeakingitbeginswithNotreDame,inParis,andendswiththeCathedralofAmiens.

Notre Dame, Paris, and Amiens.—The plan of Amiens is regarded as the typical example ofFrench cathedrals. Comparing it with that of Notre Dame one observes that, while both are of thebasilicantype,thelatterisdistinguishedbyhavingdoublesideaislesenclosingtheentirenave,choir,andchevêt.TheonlyotherexampleofthisistheCathedralofBourges.InNotreDamethetranseptsdonotprojectbeyond theaisles.Further, in thevaultingof thenave thesystemisstilloneofsquarebays,embracingtwoaislebays,havingsixdivisionsinthevaulting.InAmiens,however,thegroinribandpointedarchhavetakentheplaceofthesexpartiteplanandthebaysareoblong.Theelasticityofthis latersystemsimplifiedthevaultingof thecurvedaisleof thechevêt,whereasinNotreDametheawkwardness of the rhomboidal spaces was ingeniously evaded by dividing each into nearly equaltriangles,whichcouldeasilybevaulted.Noteinbothplansthedispositionofthebuttressesintheouterwalls.ItisinterestingtoknowthattheareaofNotreDameisaboutequaltothatoftheHypostyleHallatKarnak,whilethatofAmiensissmaller,buttheheightofitsnaveis140feetascomparedwith80atKarnak.

WestFronts.—InallFrench cathedrals a special featureof the exterior is theWestFront, and acomparison of that ofNotreDamemaywell bemadewith the façade ofAmiens, whichmarks thetransitiontothesecondstyle,theRayonnant,andwiththatofRheims,theupperpartofwhichmarksthe transition to the third style, Flamboyant. The design of all three is constructively the same—adevelopmentoftheRomanesquetwintowers,connectedbyanarcade,whilearoseorwheelwindowisplaced above the central recessed door. The spires, whichwere intended to crown the towers, wereneverbuilt.HowtheywouldhaveaffectedtheappearancemaybegatheredfromacomparisonoftheWest Front ofCologne Cathedral—a cathedral that is “completely French in plan, uniting in onedesigntheleadingcharacteristicsofthemostnotableFrenchChurches.”(Hamlin.)

It is in theWestFrontofNotreDame that thestructuralpurportof thedesign ismostdefinitelypronounced.Whenwestudytheverticalelementsofthedesign,wenotethedivisionofthefaçadeintothreeverticalmassescorrespondingwiththeinteriordivisionsofnaveanddoubleaisles.Thedivisionismadebythebuttresseswhichsustainthelongitudinalstrainoftheinteriorarcadesandtheouterwallsandinsurethestabilityofthetowers.Andthisstabilityisalsoassociatedwithasuggestionofupwardgrowth, due to the three setbacks in the profile of the buttresses; which setbacks, it is to be noted,correspondtothethreemainhorizontaldivisionsofthefaçade.

The lowest is distinguished by massive simplicity; an effect of solid masonry, the thickness ofwhichisemphasisedbythedeeplyrecesseddoorarches,whileitssimplicityisfinelycontrastedwiththe ordered distribution of the sculptured enrichments. Greater diversity characterises the secondhorizontal division. The openings present a varied patterning of light and shade, while the arcadinglendsalightnessofeffect,echoingalsotheorderedrepetitionofthebandoffiguresbelow,andatthesametimeinvolvingvarietyaccordingasthearcadeisseenagainsttheskyorisfeltasabreastworkofthetowers.Lastly,thereisareassertionoftheverticaldirectioninthemassesandcoupledopeningsofthetowers.

And if the contrast of these several divisions delights us, what is to be said of the balance thatcorrelatestheseverticalandhorizontalfeatures,thesevariousvaluesofform,ofplainandornamentalwork,oflightandshade,intoaharmoniousunity?Itistheproductofstructurallogicandgrandeuroffeeling;andcomparedwiththereserveofitsnobilitythewestfrontofAmiens,eventhestillfineroneof Rheims, may seem less impressive. In these, it will be noted, the depth of the door recesses isincreasedbyapronouncedoffsetinthelowerstoryofthebuttress,intowhichthesculpturedjambsofthedoorwaysmerge,while theprojection thuscontrived iscrownedwithacanopy in thenatureofaporch.HowdoesthedivisionatAmiensofthesecondstoryintotwocomparewiththesimpleunityofthe one in Notre Dame? Or how does the latter’s arcade compare with the corresponding band atRheimsoffiguresinarcadedniches,surmountedbyornatecanopies?

Theanswerwilldependonone’sindividualtemperament;perhapsalsoonone’smood.ItmayseemtosomethatinNotreDamethevarietyinunityisworkedoutwithmoreconsciousnessoftheprinciplesto be applied, whereas in the other two façades there is a suggestion of freer and more individualtreatment.

Somuchfortheexteriorsofthesecathedrals.Itis,however,whenwecomparetheinteriorofNotreDamewiththatofAmiens,thatweseeinwhatdirectionFrenchGothicwastravelling.InthecaseofAmiens,itisasifsomepowerhadpulledtheolderformupwardintoaslenderer,moreelasticfabric;lessmassive,possiblylessstately,butalsolessinert,infinitelyaliveinitsinspiringgrowth,withgraceof movement as well as dignity. Notre Dame is still, as it were, anchored to the comparativeponderousnessof theRomanesquestyle.Theroundcolumnswithcapitalsof theCorinthian typestillfollow the model, though not the proportions, of the Roman. Their effect of dumpiness is furtherincreasedby theprojectinghalf-roundpilastercolumnthatsupports themainmemberof thevaultingshaft.Ontheotherhand,theclusteredpiersatAmiensareslender,loftierinproportiontowidth;whileasimplelogicofstructuralpurposeisapparentinthethree-quarterattachedshaftswhichcarrythearchesandaisle-vaults,andthemainshaftofthenavevaultingrisesuninterruptedlyfromtheground.Thepier,in fact,operatesasanabuttingsupport to themembers,whichactuallysustain thearchandvaulting,and their relation to the pier is asserted by the continuousabacuswhich binds all lightly but firmlytogether.Acorrespondinglogicalsimplicitydistinguishesthefour-partnavevaultingatAmiens,wherethepressureisconcentratedequallyonallthecolumnsinsuccessionwithouttheneedofintermediateonestocarrytheaddedtransverserib.

Other great examples of the thirteenth century are the cathedrals of Laon,Chartres, Rouen,Beauvais,Auxerre,Bourges,andLeMans—the last especially celebrated for its superbchevêt andflyingbuttresses—andtheCollegiateChurchofS.Quentin.

SainteChapelle.—Theproblemof concentration of strainswasmost triumphantly solved in theSainteChapelle(1242-1247)orRoyalChapel,inParis,inwhichtheGothicsystemofconstructionmaybesaidtohavereachedcompletematurity.Herethevaultingiscarriedonbuttress-piers,andthespacesbetweenthelatterareentirelyfilledwithwindows,15feetwideand50high.Thestructurebelowthevaulting is literally a framework, a lantern for the display of the stained glass; “a great translucenttabernaclemerelyribbedandbracedwithstone.”

TheinfluenceofSainteChapelleaffectedFrenchconstructionforhalfacenturyandwasdevelopedtoitsfurthestpossiblepointinS.UrbanatTroyes,begunin1260.

SecondPeriod.—ThiscathedralrepresentsthetransitionintothesecondperiodofFrenchGothic,whichmayberoughlyplacedat1275to1375.Theprinciplesofconstructioncouldbecarriednofurtherand the style began to turn in on itself, the designers expending their invention on elaboration ofornament.ThisperiodiscalledinFrancetheRayonnant,fromtherayliketraceriesthatwereintroducedintotherose-windowsandfromtheprevalenceofcircularformsinwindowsgenerally.Thefaçadeof

Amiensisoneofthebestexamplesofthestyle.Third Period.—By degrees the Rayonnant style passed into the so-called Flamboyant, which

lasteduntiltheintroductionoftheRenaissancestyleearlyinthesixteenthcentury.Inittheprinciplesofdesignweregradually sacrificed to themultiplication of decorative details.Constructive imaginationdisappearedinamazeofskilfulelaboration.ThetransitionfromRayonnanttoFlamboyantisshownintheupperpartofthewestfrontofRheims.Someofthefinestmemorialsofthisperiod’smaturityaretobefoundinRouen:namelythenaveandcentraltoweroftheChurchofS.Ouen;thewestportalsofS.MaclouandthefaçadeoftheCathedral,thelastbeingalateexampleinwhichtheverymaterialofthestone seems to have dissolved into lace.Other instances are the church ofS.Jacques atDieppe,S.WulfrandatAbbevilleandthefaçadeoftheCathedralofTours.

SecularGothic.—Gothic architecturewas not confined to cathedrals and churches.Monasteries,hospitals,civicbuildings,houses,andcastleswereerectedinprofusion,especiallyduringthefifteenthcentury,thoughfewsurvivetothepresentday.ButastrikinglypicturesquemonumentisthemonasteryofMont-St.-Michel,ofthirteenthcenturydesign,whichclustersaroundthebaseoftheAbbeyChurch,whichwasbuiltintheeleventhcenturyandremodelledinthesixteenth.AmongthehospitalsisthatofChartres.Rouenpossessesafifteenthcenturyexampleofcivicarchitecture in thePalaisdeJustice.ThehomeofagreatmerchantprinceofthesamecenturyispreservedintheHouseofJacquesCœuratBourges, while the east wing of the Château de Blois represents military architecture at thecommencementofthesixteenthcentury.

SALISBURYCATHEDRALNOTETHEFOUR-PARTRIB-VAULTINGOFTHENAVE,ANDTHELIERNESINTHEVAULTATTHECROSSING.P.294

NAVEOFNORWICHCATHEDRALROMANESQUEUPTOTHEVAULTING:THELATTERANEXAMPLEOFFAN-VAULTING.P.295

YORKMINSTER.WESTFAÇADETHEFINESTINENGLAND.LOWERPARTEARLYDECORATED;UPPERLATEDECORATED;TOWERS,PERPENDICULAR.P.298

LINCOLNCATHEDRALNOTESCREENEFFECTOFWESTFAÇADE.WESTERNTOWERSAREROMANESQUEUPTORIDGEOFROOF;PERPENDICULARABOVE.P.298

WESTFAÇADEOFWELLSCATHEDRALP.298

WINCHESTERCATHEDRALBEAUTIFULLYSITUATEDINITSCLOSE.P.288

HENRYVII’SCHAPEL,WESTMINSTEREXAMPLEOFSTELLARANDPENDANTVAULTING.PP.294,295

TIMBERROOF,WESTMINSTERHALLPP.296,297

CHAPTERIV

GOTHICARCHITECTUREINENGLANDANDWALES

THEthreeperiodsoftheGothicstyleinGreatBritain,correspondingbroadlytothePrimary,Rayonnant,andFlamboyant,ofFrancearetheEarlyEnglish,Decorated,andPerpendicular.

Whilethetwolaterphasesaredistinguished,asinFrance,bythecharacterofthedecorativedetails,they also involved in England a certain development of constructive principles, particularly in thematterofvaulting,and,asaresultofthis,intheshapeofarchedopenings.

Periods.—The Early English style, also known as Lancet, First Pointed, Early Plantagenet, orThirteenthCentury, lasted approximately from1189 to 1272, covering the reigns ofRichard I, John,HenryIII,andEdwardI.

TheDecorated, alsoknownasGeometrical orCurvilinear,MiddlePointed,LaterPlantagenet, orFourteenthCentury,comprisesthereignsofEdwardII,EdwardIII,1307-1377.

ThePerpendicular,alsocalledRectangular,LatePointed,orFifteenthCentury,extendsfrom1377to 1558, including the reigns of Richard III, Henry VII, and Henry VIII, Edward VI, andMary. Itcontinued,thatistosay,throughtheperiodoftheReformationandDissolutionofMonasteries,untilitgraduallybecamemixedwithelementsborrowedfromtheRenaissancestyle.ThestylewhichprevailedfromHenryVIItoMaryissometimesspeciallydesignatedTudor.

Unlike the French cathedrals, which were mostly erected for the secular, that is to say non-monastic,clergywithfundsprovidedbythelaity,theEnglishwerefrequentlyattachedtoaBenedictineorAugustinemonastery.Inconsequencetheyretainsomeofthefeaturesofamonasticestablishment,especially the cloisters and chapter-house, or room for the transactionof businessby thebishop’sorabbot’schapter(council).

According to the circumstances of their founding, the English cathedrals are divided into threeclasses.

ThreeClassesofCathedrals.—I.Thirteencathedralsof theOldFoundation,whichbeingservedbysecularcanons,underwentnochangeofcontrolattheReformation.Thoughnotattachedtomonasticbuildingstheyhavechapter-housesandinsomecasescloisters.Theyinclude:inEngland,Chichester,Exeter,Hereford,Lichfield, Lincoln, S. Paul, London, Salisbury,Wells, York; and, in Wales,Bangor,Llandaff,St.Asaph’s,andSt.David’s.

II.CathedralsofmonasticorNewFoundation;socalledbecause theywereoriginallyattached tomonasteriesandatthedissolutionofthelatterbyHenryVIIIwerere-establishedunderchaptersofdean

and canons. They include seven, originally attached toBenedictineHouses—Canterbury,Durham,Ely,Norwich,Rochester,Winchester,Worcester,andoneAugustinefoundation—Carlisle.Further,they comprise the following churches, converted into cathedrals by Henry VIII—(Benedictine):Chester,Gloucester,Peterborough;(Augustine):BristolandOxford.

III.CathedralsofModernFoundation,convertedChurches,Birmingham,Liverpool,Manchester,Newcastle,Ripon,St.Albans,Southwark,Southwell,Truro,Wakefield.

Comparison with French.—The study of English cathedrals is more complicated than that ofFrench,owingtothelongperiodoverwhichtheirconstructionextended.Additionsweremadeasfundspermittedand tomeet thegrowingneedsof thecommunity,or restorations replacedearlierbuildingsthathadcollapsed,assomedid,orhadbeendestroyedbyfire.Accordingly,eachexampleismoreorlessanepitomeofallthephasesoftheGothicstyle;oftencombinedwithNorman(Romanesque)andalsowith fragments ofAnglo-Saxon architecture.They are in a very full sense an expression of thenation’sgrowth.

EnglishcathedralsdifferfromtheFrenchinbeinglower,longer,andnarrower.Theextremelengthof the plan is in France seldom more than four times the width, whereas in England it sometimesreachessixtimes.Thesquareeastendischaracteristic; thetranseptsprojectfurther; theseareseldomdoubleaisledandhavefewsidechapels;theplanisinclinedtocruciform,andaprominentfeatureisacentraltoweroverthecrossing,sometimessurmountedbyaspire.Thechoirisproportionatelylongerandoccasionallyprojectsintothecrossingorevenalittlewayintothenave.Attheeastendofitisthepresbyteryorsanctuary;beyondwhichisaretrochoir,containinganambulatoryorprocessionpassage,oneormorechapelstosaintsandaLadyChapel,dedicatedtotheBlessedVirgin.ThearcadingismorecloselyspacedthaninFrenchCathedralsandgenerallytherelationofthepartsislesslargeincharacter.The triforium inmany cases is highly elaborated; in some it is noticeably reduced and occasionallyomitted.

The doorways are often placed on the north and south sides and provided with porches. Thewindows,intheEarlyEnglishPeriod,areeitherofsimplelancetform,usedsinglyorgroupedinpairsor threes,unitedover the topby tracery;or the lights terminateat the top in trefoilsorcinquefoils,aheadingrareinFranceknownascusps.PlatetraceryiscomparativelyrareinEngland,andthetraceryof the Decorated Period is of a geometric character. Gradually the tracery becomes more flowing,includinglinesofdoublecurvature,whichsomewhatresemblestheFrenchFlamboyant.FinallyinthePerpendicularPeriod,thepointedarchofthewindowbecomesflatteneduntilitreachestheslightcurveof theso-calledfour-centrearch.Thewindowisdividedupintomanylights(nine inKing’sCollegeChapel,Cambridge)byverticalmullions,which in the largerexamplesare reinforcedbyhorizontaltransoms,thusproducingparallelrowsofcuspedlights,surmountedintheheadingbysmallreplicasofthelatterinseveraltiers—anarrangementsomewhatrigidandmonotonous.

ThemouldingsaregenerallyricherandmorevariedthaninFrenchcathedrals,and,owingtotheirbeingnearertotheeye,arewroughttoagreaterrefinementoffinish.

Ornament.—ThecharacteristicornamentoftheEarlyperiodisthe“dog-tooth”usedprofuselyinhollowmouldings.Thefoliageisconventionalised,crisplycarvedinboldcurvingandcurlingmasses,knownas“stiff-leaffoliage,”whichinthecaseofcapitalssometimesprojectsbeyondtheabacus.Theflatsurfacesofthewallsareoftendiapered.

In theDecoratedPeriodthecharacteristicornamentofhollowmouldingsis the“ball-flower”;butthe“four-leafflower”isfrequentlyused.Bydegreesothermotivesofornamentweredrawnfromivy,oak,andvineleaves;andthetreatmentgrewmoreandmorenaturalistic.

In theTudor period the special ornament is theTudor rose, two concentric layers of five petals,

symbolisingtheunionof theHousesofYorkandLancaster.Otherfrequentmotivesaretheportcullisand,inreferencetothecontinuedclaimoftheEnglishkingstothethroneofFrance,thefleur-de-lys.Thetraceriesofthewindowswererepeatedinthepanellingofthewallsandintheelaboratechoirandchancelscreens,whichwereaspecialfeatureoftheperiod.

StainedGlass.—Stainedglassplayedaveryimportantpartintheembellishmentofcathedralsandchurches.YorkMinsterpresentsanopportunityofstudyingtheprogressof theart throughsomefourcenturies,asitwaspractised,notonlyinEngland,butthroughoutEurope.

Theearlyexamplesshowtheinfluenceof theByzantineenamellers.Thewindowsarefilledwithjewel-likepatternscomposedofsmallpiecesofglass,enclosedwith lead-lines, like the“cloisons” incloisonné enamels.Gradually the figure subject becomesmore pronounced; at first in comparativelysmallmedallionssetinaframeoftracery,thenincreasinginsizeuntiltheybecometheleadingmotive.Theyaresurmountedbycanopies,enrichedwithornament,asinthesculpturedworkoftheperiod,andthecharacteroftheornamentreflectsthatofthecarving.

It is interesting to note that until the sixteenth century no use was made of painted glass. Thematerialwaswhatisknownas“pot-metal”;thatistosay,glassdyedwithcolourwhileinaconditionofflux.Thequalityof thesepiecesofglasswas translucent,permitting thepassageof light, thoughnottransparent.However,thedeepredofrubywassodensethatthepracticewasadoptedoffusingalayerofrubyonalayerofcolourlessglassandthenofgrindingawayportionsoftheruby,soastobrightenthemassbythecontrastofwhite.Intimethismethodof“flashing,”asitwascalled,wasextendedtoothercolours.Further,aboutthebeginningofthefourteenthcenturyitwasdiscoveredthatasolutionofsilverapplied toglasswouldunder theactionof the firing impart to it a “yellowstain.”Thus itwaspossibletoinfuseayellowintothewholeorpartsofthecolourlessglass,andtointroduceyellowintothe“flashed”partsofblueandruby,whilethestainappliedtogreyishblueproduceddelicatetonesofgreen.

Another process was developed; namely, the use of enamel paint. A pigment composed ofpowderedcolouredglass,mixedwithsomesuchbinderasglue,wasappliedwithabrush,afterwhichtheglasswassubjectedtoacomparativelylowdegreeofheat,sufficienttofluxthepigmentandfuseitintothebodyofthematerial.Atfirsttheonlycolouremployedwasbrown,whichbeingopaqueinthefiringwas used for the line of the drawing. Itwas even used for shading, the paint being spread ingradationsofthicknessand,whendry,scrapedoffinpartsorreducedtoastippleoftinydots,bytheactionofastiffbrush.Thisprocesswasalsoappliedupontheyellowstainandcomparativelycolourlessglass(grisaille)toproducediapersofpatternandotherornament.

Finally,aboutthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury,enamelpaintsofothercolourswereemployed,andpaintingupon glassmarks the last stage in the European technique ofwindow glass.While thecolours,unliketheopaquebrown,weretranslucent,theylackedthebrillianceandpurityaswellastherichnessanddepthofpotmetal.Butby this time,as inotherkindsofdecoration, thedesignerswereabsorbedwithdetails.Afavouritetaskenforceduponthemwastheinsertionofheraldicinsigniainthewindows, and brushwork was the only method that could reproduce the complicated devices of“quartering”thecoatsofarms.Windowdecoration,infact,hadceasedtobeanartofglassworkandbecomeconfusedwiththeartofpainting.Theendofglassdecorationwascompletedwhenthewindowwas filled with rectangular panes of white glass, on which the painter depicted figures of saints orsymbolicalnymphs,asSirJoshuaReynolds,forexample,didinthewindowsoftheante-chapelofNewCollege,Oxford.Thismasterpieceofthetrivialispopular,butrepresentsadebasedtaste,foundeduponacompleteignoranceoftheglass-technique,forSirJoshuacalledintohisassistanceachinapainter!

Vaulting.—The treatmentof the roofingdisplaysmorevariety inEnglishGothic than inFrench.

Wooden ceilings, which we will return to presently, often replaced the vaulting and the latter alsobecamedistinguishedbyelementsthatwereonlysparingly,ifatall,employedinFrance.TheFrench,aswe have noted, constructed the diagonal aswell as the longitudinal and transverse ribswith pointedprofiles,sothattheirvaultsweredomical.TheEnglish,onthecontrary,frequentlyusedthehalf-circleforthediagonalribs.Thusthevaultshaveleveltopsorridges,thelatterbeingmarkedbyridgeribs.

Tiercerons.—In England, during the thirteenth century, as in France, the plain four-part ribbedvaultwasused,asinthenavesofSalisburyandGloucester,andtheaislesofPeterborough.Towardthe end of the century, however, came in the use of subordinate ribs, called tiercerons. These wereintroduced between the transverse and diagonal ribs, as may be seen in the nave vaulting ofWestminsterAbbey.Theirpurposewas todecrease thepressureon themainribs,andfor theirownfurthersecurityaridgeribwasemployedforthemtoabutonatthetop.

Liernes.—DuringtheDecoratedPeriodofthefourteenthcenturyanewsetofribswereintroduced,whichwereknownasLiernes—holdingorbindingribs.Thenamewasappliedtoanyrib,otherthantheridgerib,thatdidnotspringfromanabacus.Theywereornamentalratherthanconstructionalandwerefreelyemployed to formanetworkofgeometricpatternover thevaulting.Meanwhile,although theyincreasetheapparentcomplexityofthevaulting,theactualconstructiveplanofthelatterisnotaffectedandmaybesimplyfourpart.Suchmultiplicationofribsreducedthesizeoftheinterveningspacesorpanels,whencethiskindofvaultingissometimescalledribandpanel.Itisalsonamedstellarvaultingfrom the star-shaped patterns produced by the ribs. Examples are to be found in the choirs ofGloucester,Wells,Ely, thenaveofTewkesburyAbbey,andthevaultingofWinchesterCathedral,asrebuiltbyWilliamofWykeham(1390).

FanVaulting.—Thedevelopmentof thePerpendicularPeriodorFifteenthCenturyis thatofFanVaulting,examplesofwhichoccurinHenryVII’sChapel,Westminster;DivinitySchools,Oxford;King’sCollegeChapel,Cambridge;theretro-choir,Peterborough;GloucesterCathedral,andSt.George’sChapel,Windsor. In this typeofvaulting theribsareallofequalcurvature,andseparatedfromoneanotherbyequalangles,terminatingatthetopinacircularridge,whichleavesaseriesofflatlozenge-shapedspaces.

PendantVaulting.—Afurther development, oftenused in connectionwith “FanVaulting,” as inOxford Cathedral andHenryVII’s Chapel, is the device known asPendant vaulting. It was at firstadopted tosustain theflatspacesof thevaultingandconsistedofastonesupportsuspendedfromanarchconcealedabovethevaulting.Itwas,ineffect,aprolongedkeystone,anditslowestpartformedabase fromwhich tobuildup.Forby this time theoldmethodof constructing ribs and layingpanelsuponthemhadbeenabandoned,andthevaultingwasconstructedofparts,interlockinglikeaChinesepuzzle.

AbeautifulfeatureofEnglishvaultingoccursinthepolygonalChapterHouses, inwhichtheribsradiatefromacentralcolumntothesidesandanglesofthepolygon.“Ifthesevaultsarelessmajesticthan domes of the same diameter, they are far more decorative and picturesque, while the ChapterHousesthemselveswerethemoststrikingandoriginalproductsofEnglishGothic.EveryfeaturewasdesignedwithstrictregardforthestructuralsystemdeterminedbytheadmirablevaultingandtheSainteChapellewasnotmorelogicalinitsexemplificationofGothicprinciples.”(Hamlin.)AmongthefinestexamplesarethoseofWestminster,Wells,York,Lincoln,andSalisbury.

Open Wood Roofs.—The Saxon use of timber construction survived as a tradition and wasdevelopedbytheGothicbuilders,intheinteriorroofsthatsheathedthevaultingandwithspeciallyfineeffect in theceiling-roofsofchurchesandhalls.Thesimplestprincipleof it is theso-called tie-beamroof. In this, a succession of rafters slope up to each side of a ridge beam and are prevented fromspreadingbybeamsthattiethemtogetheratthefoot.Ifthepitchoftheroofwerehigh,theconstruction

wouldbestrengthenedbyapostsupportedonthecentreofthetie-beam,whichiscalledaKing-post.Instead of or in addition to this, two postsmight be erected between the centre and the ends of thebeams,knownasQueen-posts.Eachcompletesectionofthisarrangementiscalledatruss.Itmightbefurtherstiffenedbystruts,thatistosaycrosspieceswhich,insteadoftyingtheparts,keepthemfrombeingdrawntogether.

The next principle is the trussed-rafter or single-framed roof. Since the transverse beam mightinterferewiththevaulting,itwasreplacedbyoneormorecross-beamsneartheupperangleoftheroofknownascollars.Thesemightbefurtherstiffenedbybraces,fixeddiagonallyfromtheundersideofthe beam to the rafter. Further, short struts or upright posts might be added near the lower angles,connectingtherafterswithshort,horizontalpieces,attachedtotheendsoftheraftersandrestingonthewall.Thesewerecalledsole-piecesandrepresentwhatwouldbeleftiftheintermediatepartofthetie-beamweresawnaway.Sometimesanarchedprofilewassecuredbycurvingbracesfixedtotheraftersand collars. Or the collars were omitted and the curved braces were carried up to the ridge-beam,formingthevarietyofroofstyledarch-braced.Frequentlythisstyleofroofwassheathedonitsundersidewithboardsdecoratedwithribsandbosses.

Thefurtherdevelopmentwasthehammer-beamroof,whichcameintogeneraluseinthefifteenthcentury. The hammer-beam resulted from the lengthening and thickening of the sole-piece and wassupportedbyacurvedbrace,connecting itsundersidewithaverticalpiece,attached to thewallandhencecalledthewallpiece.Thecombinationofthisconstructionwithstruts,collars,andcurvedbracesproducedthemagnificenteffectstobeseenintheroofs,forexample,ofWestminsterHallandtheHalloftheMiddleTemple.

Exteriors.—UnliketheFrenchcathedral,whichisapttobecrowdeduponbyotherbuildings,theEnglish usually stands amid smooth lawns and shade trees—a secluded spot known as the “close,”aroundwhicharethehousesandgardensofthedeanandcanons.Cloistersalsofrequentlyaddtothespiritofquiet.Durhamissuperblysetuponasteepbluffabove theRiverWear. Inharmonywith thecharmofthesettinganoblepicturesquenesscharacterisestheEnglishcathedral.Flyingbuttresses,itistrue,arelittleinevidence,owingtothecomparativelownessofthestructureandtothefactthattheyareoftenconcealedintheaisles,butthefaçades,becauseoflengthoftranseptsandadditionsofRetrochoir,LadyChapel,ChapterHouse,Cloisters,Chantries,andsoforth,aremoreirregularthanintheFrench.Thereisgreatervarietyofpointsofview;frequentsurpriseofvistas,whilefromnearandfarthegreatcentraltowersarefeaturesofimpressivenessandgrandeur,andtheoccasionalspires,themostbeautifulofwhichisSalisbury’s,aresingularlysublime.

Ontheotherhand,thewestfrontshavenotthespecialsplendouroftheFrenchcathedrals.Yetthereareafewexceptions.ThatofYorkMinster,forexample,withitsimmensewindowandtwintowers,isinrespectofsize,decorativeness,andproportionamagnificentfaçade.Those,again,ofLichfieldandWells are grand and beautiful, while the west fronts of Lincoln and Peterborough are strikinglyimposingandpicturesque.

Both the latter are virtually screens piercedwith deeply recessed openings that includewindowsabove doors. The designs are arresting and boldly picturesque, but arbitrary in invention. For thefaçades,beingapplied to thebuildingandnotgrowingoutof its internalpurpose, lack thedignityoflogicalarrangementand,moreover,aredeficientinproportionofpartsandharmoniousunity.

Interiors.—Grand picturesqueness, also, rather than ordered grandeur, characterises the Englishinteriors.LowerandnarrowerthantheFrench,andlonger,theyhavenottheirstatelyunityandsublimesimplicity.Buttheirverylengthandthecloserintercolumniationofthepillarsandtheamplersizeofthetranseptspresentagreatervarietyofvistas.Andthepicturesquenessisalsoincreasedbythevarietyandsuperiorelaborationofthevaultingandtheprofusionofdecorativefeatures,thefrequentuseofblack

Purbeckmarble in theclustercolumns, thenumberof finemouldingson thearches, therichnessandvarietyofdesigninthetriforiumandclerestory,thewealthofcarvedornamentinthewoodenscreensand choir-stalls, and themarble enrichments of the numerous tombs. On the other hand, though anEnglish Cathedral is more decorative architecturally, it lacks the warmth and colour that theembellishmentsofaRomanCatholicritualimparttotheFrenchexamples.

SecularExamples.—TheinterestofEnglishGothicextendsbeyondcathedralstotheprofusionofedifices—chapels, churches, colleges, hospitals, and almshouses—that stud the country. Oxfordpresents a mine of study; Cambridge has its splendid examples; there are Royal Chapels ofmagnificence, such as St. George’s Chapel,Windsor; and town churches of extraordinary beauty,while scarce avillage, however tiny and remote, but has an architectural treasure in its little church,shelteringthegravesofitsquiet“God’sAcre.”

Thehomesofthenobles,duringtheNormanPeriod,hadbeenfranklyarmedcastles,includinganouter“bailey”orcourt,aninnerbailey,andadonjonorkeep,surroundedbyamoatandramparts.Inthefifteenthcenturytheideaofdomesticityincreased,otherbuildingsforvarioususesclusteredroundthemainonesandthehallbecamethecentreofthelifeoftheinmates.Atfirsttherewasacentralfireplace,where the logswerepiledondogs, thesmokeescaping througha flueoropening in theceiling.Theneed of protecting this led gradually to the erection on the roof of a lantern-like turret, technicallyknownasalouver,whichbecameacharacteristicfeatureoftheexteriorofahall,evenafterthecentralfireplacehadbeenmovedtooneofthewallsandconnectedwithachimney.Bythistimethefireplacehadgrowntobethedistinctivefeatureofthehall,embellishedwithamassivecarvedchimney-piece,aroundwhichthelordandhisladyandguestsgathered,whilethehouse-foollabouredathisquips,orsomewanderingminstrelregaledthefamilywithsongorstory,whiletheretainersoftheestablishmentsatintheouterringontherush-strewnfloor.Forthehallwasthecommondining-roomandrecreationcentreofthewholeestablishment,andonadaisatoneendstoodthehightableatwhichthefamilyandguestswereservedatmeals,theretainersoccupyingthebodyofthehall.Asalt-cellarwasconspicuousin frontof the lord, symbolofhospitality andalsoof classdistinction, since thepersonsof “inferiorquality”wereentertained“belowthesalt.”Inearliertimesthehallalsoservedasasleepingplacefortheretainers.

By degrees, however, as ideas of comfort and privacy increased, this habit was abandoned.Withdrawingroomsorbowersopenedfromthedaisofthehallfortheprivateuseofthelordandlady,andbedroomaccommodationwasimproved.Andtheprogresstowardgreaterdomesticitywasassistedby the discovery of gunpowder,which rendered the old system of fortification useless for defensivepurposes,sothattheideaofacastlewasgraduallysupersededbythatofamansion.

RATISBONCATHEDRALP.302

STRASBURGCATHEDRALP.302

TOWNHALLOFMUNSTERP.305

CATHEDRALOFS.GUDULE,BRUSSELSP.307

COLOGNECATHEDRALP.302

CLOTHHALLOFYPRESOLDESTOFTHEGUILDHALLS(1304).P.307

TOWNHALL,LOUVAINP.307

TOWNHALL,BRUSSELSTHEEARLIESTOFTHEFLEMISHGOTHICHALLS(1377).P.307

ANTWERPCATHEDRALP.308

MECHLINCATHEDRAL

TOLEDOCATHEDRALNOTETHECORO,OCCUPYINGTHETHREELASTBAYSOFTHENAVE,ANDOBSTRUCTINGVIEWOFTHESANCTUARYBEYONDTHECROSSING.PP.

308,309

BURGOSCATHEDRALOPEN-WORKSPIRESRECALLCOLOGNE.P.308

CHAPTERV

GOTHICARCHITECTUREINGERMANY,THENETHERLANDS,ANDSPAIN

INGermanytheRomanesquestylehadbeendevelopedonlinessomonumentalthatthearchitectswereslow to abandon it for the Gothic. Accordingly, while the French and English worked out theconstructive principles that produced a new style, the Germans were content to borrow its features,especially as represented in the French cathedrals. They were drawn to this imitation through thecommercialrelationswhichexistedbywayofBurgundybetweenthecitiesofGermanyandNorthernFrance.ForatthecommencementofthethirteenthcenturythecitiesplayedamostimportantrôleinthepoliticalaswellastheeconomiclifeofGermany.

Kingsandemperors,recognisingthevalueoftheirsupport,hadconferredspecialprivilegesuponthem, which in times of confusion they had themselves increased until they were practically self-governing.Theirpowerrivalledthatoftheduchies,countships,andothergovernmentswhichmadeupthefluctuatingaggregationofauthoritiescomprised in theempire.Moreover, thecitieshad increasedtheir power by combinations. Themost important of thesewere the Rhenish Confederation and theHanseaticLeagueofGermanmerchants,thelatterextendingitsactivitiestopointsoutsideofGermany,asfardistantasLondonandNovgorod.

Another phase of the prominence of cities lay in the fact that they were frequently the sees ofArchbishops,whowere fiefs of the empire and viedwith other feudal lords in political importance.Meanwhile, this periodwasmarkedby a revival of culture. “Itwas a periodof greatmen andgreatideas,ofdramaticcontrastsofcharacter;ontheonesideabroadhumanitarianismcombinedwithagayenjoymentof theworld andon theother an almost superhuman spirituality that sought its ideal in arejectionofalltheworldcouldgive.”ItwastheageoftheMinnesingerandoftheriseoftheFriars;anage, too, in which the voice of the laity was raised on behalf of purity of religion and religioustolerance.Thishigherspiritofthetimefoundexpressionbothinliteratureandarchitecture,and,thoughin the latter field some noble palaces and castleswere created, the chief glory is to be found in thecathedralsandtown-halls—theembodimentofthereligiousandciviclifeoftheburghers.

TheexamplesofGermanGothiccathedralsarefewascomparedwiththoseinFranceandEngland.Of the threefinest—Strasburg,Ratisbon,Cologne—the last is themostmagnificentand isalso the

largestofallMediævalcathedralsafterSevilleandMilan.ItsplanisderivedfromAmiens,whiletheedificeembracesthechieffeaturesofmanyFrenchcathedralsandis,infact,anepitomisedimitationofFrenchGothic.

Cologne.—Meanwhile,thereisaGermanlegendoftheoriginofthedesign,whichisinterestingforthe light it throwson theMediæval spirit.While thearchitect,biddenby thearchbishop tobuild thenoblestshrineinChristendom,satbesidetheriverpondering,anoldmanapproachedhimand,havingtracedinthesandaplan,immediatelyobliteratedit.Butthearchitecthadseenenoughtoknowthattheplanwastheonethatwasdawninginhismindyetstilleludedhim.Whentheoldmanconsentedtogiveit andmoreover promised the master-builder a life of fame and riches, demanding only his soul inrecompense,themaster-builder’seyeswereopenedandhecried“Gettheebehindme,Satan.”Thenhetold his confessor, who contrived a scheme whereby the devil might be circumvented. Satan hadpromised to return, bringing the plan. The master-builder kept the appointment and, snatching theprecious document with one hand, in the other brandished a fragment of the True Cross. “I amvanquished!”exclaimedSatan;“butyoushallreapnobenefit,throughyourtreachery.Yournamewillbeforgottenandyourworkwillneverbecompleted.”

Time,however,discountedtheDevil’scurse,forthecathedralwascompletedduringthenineteenthcentury.Ithadbeenbegunin1270andinalltheadditionssubsequentlymadetheoriginaldesignwasadhered to.HenceColognepresentsaveryremarkableexampleofstructuralunity;and,by thesametoken,aratherchillprecision,productofimitation,insteadofagrowthwhichreflectsthechangingstyleofsuccessivecenturies.

Theplan,asatAmiens,includesdoubleside-aislesandachevêtofsevenapsesandanambulatory,but its transepts are extended by an extra bay and one bay of the nave is included in the westernentrance. Here the German fondness for towers and spires, already noted in their Romanesquearchitecture,findsexpressionintwintowers,crownedwithspiresofopenworktracery.ThislastfeatureisacharacteristicofGermanGothic.Thetransitionfromthetowertothespireisadmirablyarrangedsoas to enforce the function and beauty of each; and the effect should be compared with that of S.Stephen,Vienna. In thelatter thetransitionismoregradual,sothat thespireseemstostartfromthegroundand,notwithstandingthesplendourofthewhole,“it lacksthevigourandaccent”thatabetterdefinitionoftowerandspireproduces.

S.Stephenisanexampleoftheso-called“HallChurch,”inwhichthenaveandaislesareofequalheight.ThistypicallyGermanfeature,seenalsoinS.Lambert,Hildesheim,S.Quentin,Mainz,andS.Elizabeth,Marburg,abolishestheclerestoryandtriforiumandthusdispenseswithflyingbuttresses.It reduces the importance of the nave and, while giving the interior an impression of superiorspaciousness,minimisesthevarietyandpicturesquenessofthevistas.Thenaveandaislesarecoveredontheexteriorbyasingleroofofhighpitch.

TheGerman buildersmade up for their lack of originality by extreme skill of handicraft,whichtended toover-elaborationandamerelymechanical excellence.Thiswasdisplayed in the increasingintricacy of the window traceries, which were more regarded than the proportions of the windowopenings.Thus,anexcessiveheightwasgiventotheclerestorywindowsandinmanycasestheopeningistoonarrowforitsheight.Acharacteristicwhichoftenappearsisthedoubletracery;thatistosay,theemploymentoftraceryonboththeouterandtheinnerwallsurfaces.

Piersusuallytaketheplaceofcolumnsandaretreatedasloftypostsforthesupportofthevaulting,their surfaces being frequently indented with niches bearing statues. The vaultings are quite oftendistinguishedbycomplicatedribs,which,however,arenotemployedsoconstructivelyasinEngland,but rather as decorative details. Themouldings show a steady growth away from simplicity towardincreased complexity, until in the fifteenth century occurs the characteristic feature of “inter-

penetration.” In this two separate sets of moulding are interwoven, alternately appearing anddisappearing inandoutof thesamestone.Where foliage is thususedwith intertwiningbranches theforms are treated naturalistically; and this aptitude for exact imitation led also to the occasionalabandonmentofthemoreformaltraceryofwindowsinfavourof“branchtracery”ortherepresentationof branches of trees—another instance of preoccupation with technical execution rather than withdesign.

Whilethestainedglassisgood,theiron-workisaspecialcharacteristicofGermanornamentation.Another typical feature is theTabernacle for enshrining theHost. It is a structure of stone orwood,standingindependentofthealtar,risingtoaconsiderableheightintheformofatowerandspire,richlydecorated.

Inthenorth,asatLübeckandneighbouringcitiesinthevalleyoftheElbe,thelackofstoneledtotheuseofbrick,andthesubstitutionofmouldedandcolouredbrickworkforsculpturedornament.

SecularBuildings.—Themost famousof theGothiccastles isMarienburg inPrussia, includingthechapelandchapterhouseandtheGreatHalloftheOrderoftheGermanKnights.OtherexamplesareHeilsberg,inEastPrussiaandtheAlbrechtsburgatMeisseninSaxony.AmongthefinestoftheTownHallsarethoseofRatisbon,Brunswick,Halberstadt,Hildesheim,andMunster,andthebrickexamples ofBreslau andLübeck. In domestic architecture the roofs were carried to a remarkableheight,consistingofseveralstorieslightedbydormerwindows;thespacebeingutilisedforstorageandthedryingof linen in themonthlywash.Andapicturesquediversity isgiven to thecharacterof thestreetsaccordingastheseroofsrunparalleltoitoratrightangles.Inthelattercasethegablesmountupwithsteppedoutlines,andoftenaredecoratedwithfrescoedpaintings.

NETHERLANDISHGOTHICARCHITECTURE

TheGothicarchitectureoftheNetherlandsappearsatitsfinestinBelgium,whereitisdistinguishedbyaminglingofFrenchandGerman influence.The latter is tobeaccountedforchieflyby the traderelationswhichexistedbetweenthegreatcommercialcitiesofGermanybywayoftheRhine,withsuchcentresofcommerceasLouvain,Brussels,Ghent,Antwerp,Mechlin(Malines),Ypres,andBruges.Onthe other hand, the province of Flanders came under the French influence through the marriage ofMargaret of Flanders with the first Duke of the French royal house of Valois, whose successorsgraduallybroughtthewholeofBelgiumundertheirrule.Further,theAbbeyofNoyonearlyestablishedclose relations with that of Tournai, and in this way the religious architecture of France penetratedBelgium.Owingtotheirpre-eminenceinweavingtheNetherlandishcitiesbecamethemostprosperousoftheperiodandthisisreflectedinthefloriddecorationofthelaterecclesiasticalbuilding,aswellasinthe magnificent Town, Trade, and Guild Halls, which are the special distinction of Netherlandisharchitecture.

GuildHalls.—Theypresentageneralsimilarityofcharacter.Thefaçadesmountinseveralstories,whicharedefinedbybandsofornamentorstring-coursesandpiercedwithrowsofpointedwindows.Theseareframedwithrichtraceriesofcarvedworkandseparatedbycanopiedniches,designedforandoften filled with statues. The façades terminate at the spring of the roof in an adaptation of theRomanesquearcadedeaves,whichoccasionallyprojectlikeacontinuousbalcony,whilebalconieswithtraceriedparapetsoftendecorate thegabledfronts.Thecornersof thefaçadeareoccupiedbytowers,frequently carried above the line of the eaves, in pinnacle-like structures, the stories of which aremarkedbybalconies.Theroofshaveasteeppitchandareenrichedwithdormerwindowsanddecoratedchimneys.

The oldest of these beautiful edifices is the Cloth Hall ofYpres, erected in 1304, while othernotable examples are those of Louvain,Mechlin, Ghent. The earliest of the Town Halls is theimposingoneofBrussels (1377),distinguishedby itsgraceful towerand spire.The right to attachabelfry or beffroi to a town hall was a special privilege, granted by charter, and the bell-towers ofNetherlandishcitiesareamongtheirmostpicturesquefeatures.ThatofBruges,whichformsthethemeofoneofLongfellow’spoems, is famous in theannalsof thecity. Itsurmounts thecentralmassofafaçadeplainerthanthosedescribedabove,offeringmorewallspacesandrepresentinganothertypeofGothicfaçadepeculiartotheNetherlands.

EcclesiasticalBuildings.—TheearliestexampleofGothicworkinecclesiasticalbuildingsissaidtobethechoiroftheCathedralofS.GuduleinBrussels.TournaiCathedral,erectedbetween1146and1338,illustratesthreesuccessiveperiods.ThenaveisRomanesque;theapse-endedtranseptsmarkthetransitionstage,andthechoir,withitscompletechevêt,thefullydevelopedGothic.ButthelargestandmostmagnificentcathedraloftheNetherlandsisthatofAntwerp,distinguishedbythreeaislesofequalheightoneachsideoftheloftynaveandbynarrowaislelesstransepts.Thewestfront,flankedbytowers,oneofwhichhasbeencompletedbyaspireofextremerichnessandgrace,belongstothatlaterperiod (1422-1518) when the taste for decoration had become somewhat florid. Other notableCathedralsarethoseofGhent,Bruges,Ypres,Utrecht,andofHaarlemandDordrechtinHolland.[7]

SPANISHGOTHIC

ItwasinthenorthofSpain,followingthegradualdestructionoftheMoorishruleandthereplacingof the Crescent with the Cross, that Gothic art took root. The time is the thirteenth century, whenFerdinand(1217-1252),canonisedassaint,unitedthekingdomsofLeonandCastile,andJames,calledtheConqueror(1213-1276),carriedtheconquestthroughtotheeastsothatonlyGranadaremainedinthegripoftheInfidel.

While it is supposed thatMoorish workmenwere employed in the cathedrals, the designs werederived fromFrenchexamples,withcertainborrowings from theGerman.Thus theoriginalofLeonCathedralwasAmiens,fromwhich,however,itdiffersinthelargerareaofitswindowspaces;whileNotreDamewasthemodelfortheCathedralsofToledoandBarcelona;andthewestfrontofBurgos,withitsopenworkspires,recallsCologne.

Among the characteristic features of Spanish cathedrals are: the occasional use of cloisters; theexcess of width in proportion to the length; the use of a cimborio or lantern over the crossing; theplacingofthechoirorcorowestofthechancel,sothatitoccupiesthecentreoftheedificeandwithitshighenclosuresblocksthevistasinalldirections;anelaboratetreatmentofthevaulting,promptedbydecorative rather than structural considerations, and a general tendency, especially in the laterwork,towardexcessiveembellishment.

ThelargestcathedralinSpain,thelargest,indeed,ofallmediævalcathedrals,isSeville,whichwaserectedonthesiteofamosque.Ithasfoursideaisles,eachofwhichcorrespondsinheightandwidthtothenaveofWestminsterAbbey,yetthelengthofitsnaveislittlemorethanthatofthelatter’s.Toledo,again,hasfouraislesandanave,recallingtheplanofBourges,whichitfollowsinlength,thoughitiswiderbyfiftyfeet.

Retablos,Rejas.—AmongthedistinctivefeaturesoftheinteriordecorationsofaSpanishcathedralare the retablo and reja. The former, a reredos, erected behind the great altar, reaches immensedimensions,oftenoccupyingthefullwidthofthenaveandrisingashighasthevaulting,embellishedwithsculpture.Thisisapttobegrosslynaturalisticandviolentlydramaticorsensational,representingcolossalfigures,sprawlingamidmarblecloudsandsunraysofgildedmetal.Farmorebeautifularethe

rejasorloftygrill-screens,uponwhichtheskillofMoorishmetal-workersortheskillderivedfromtheirtraditions,islavishedwithextraordinaryfertilityofdesign;aspecialdevicebeingtheenrichmentoftheverticalbarsbytheinsertionofcanopiedfigures.

CHAPTERVI

GOTHICARCHITECTUREINITALY

WEhavealreadynotedthattherib-vault,whichmadepossiblethedevelopmentofGothicarchitectureintheIledeFrance,originatedinLombardy.ButtheItalianbuildersusedtheribsolelyasastructuralconvenience,notrecognisingeitheritsfurtherstructuraloritsæstheticpossibilities.Accordingly,whentheGothicstyleappearedinItaly,itwasimportedthitherbynorthern,usuallyGerman,architects.

GeneralCharacter.—Nordidthestyle,asemployedinItaly,preservethegrandeurorpurityofthenortherntype.ThesunnyclimatedidnotinvitethelargeopeningsthathadbecomeadistinctionofthetrueGothic.Thewindowsweresmall,with little tracery,while thewalls,being inconsequencemoresolid, did not need the same enforcement with buttresses. Structurally, therefore, the walls areuninteresting, and are regarded as surfaces to bemade attractive by applied decoration. Further, theItalian builderwas everywhere influenced by the classic tradition.He clung to the round arch, evenwhile he employed thepointed; frequently resorted to theRoman acanthus andCorinthian capital asdecorativefeatures;felthiscolumnsascolumnsratherthanaspierslogicallyconnectedbytheshaftingto thevaulting, and in thevaulting confinedhis design to themain ribs, insteadof enriching itwithminorones.Infact,heusedthestylewithoutthestructurallogicandadventurous

SIENACATHEDRALNOTEHALFCOLUMNSATTACHEDTOTHEPIERS.SEXAGOXALDOMEOVERTHECROSSING;PULPITBYTHEPISANI—MARBLEPAVEMENTWITH

GRAFFITODESIGNS.

MARBLEFAÇADEOFSANMINIATO,FLORENCEP.246

CATHEDRALOFFLORENCEANDCAMPANILEBEHINDTHELATTERSHOWSTHEBAPTISTRY.PP.311,312,342

DOGE’SPALACE,VENICEP.315

WESTFAÇADEORVIETOCATHEDRALMARBLEVENEER,MOSAICSANDSCULPTUREFORMSUPERBPOLYCHROMEDECORATION.P.311

SIENACATHEDRAL,CAMPANILEATTACHEDFAÇADERED,BLACKANDWHITEMARBLE,RICHLYSCULPTURED;MOSAICSMODERN.P.311

MILANCATHEDRALNOTEHOWTHEFAÇADESUGGESTSTHEGERMANUSEOFINCLUDINGNAVEANDAISLESUNDERASINGLEHIGH-PITCHEDROOF.P.313

INTERIOROFMILANCATHEDRALSHOWINGCANOPIEDFIGURESABOVETHECAPITALS.P.314

enthusiasmofthetrulyGothicarchitect.Hetreatedtheedificeasashelltobeenrichedwithdecoration.Intheinterior, thewallsandvaultingsofferedsurfacesforpainting.Whenthiswasaccomplished

as,forexample,inthefrescoesbyCimabue,Giotto,andothersintheChurchofS.FrancisinAssisi,by Giotto in the Arena Chapel, Padua, and the chapels of the Perozzi and Bardi in S. Croce,Florence,and inS.MariaNovella,possiblybyTaddeoGaddi,oratanyratebysomepainterof theschool of Giotto, the effect is incomparably resplendent. Where, however, as in theCathedral ofFlorence,frescoesaremissing,theappearanceiscoldandbarren;redeemedsomewhat,itistrue,inthiscasebythecolossaldimensionsandsenseofspaciousness.

Fortheexteriorsreliancewasplaceduponappliedembellishments.Thesidewalls,forexample,ofFlorence areveneeredwithmarble; thoseofSiena andOrvietowith horizontal stripes of black andwhite masonry. But this colour decoration is a poor substitute for the structural enrichments, thetraceriedwindows,flyingbuttresses,andmountingroofsofthetrueGothic.

TheItaliansconcentratedchiefornatenessonthewestfaçade;themostcelebratedexamplesbeingthoseofSiena(1243-1284)andOrvieto(1290).Theypresentelaboratecompositionsofvari-colouredmarble, charmingly diversified, nicely balanced, sumptuously elegant andgraceful.But compare, forexample,Sienawith,say,RheimsorAmiens,andhowitsinksintoinsignificance!

In theFrenchexamples thepointeddoor-archesstartanupwardmovementwhich iscontinued tothe top in theorganicrelationsof theparts tooneanotherandto the interiorarrangement.But in theSienafaçade, the roundarcheshold theeyedown; for their feeling isnot repeated in theupperpart,which,notwithstandingthegables,turrets,finials,andculminatinggable,hasnosuggestionofgrowth-up,but is ratherageometricdesignofcurvesand triangles,horizontalsandverticals, carriedup toaheight. It isnotorganicallystructural; it isabuilt-uppattern.Thedesignerwasasculptor—GiovanniPisano.

Campanile.—The campanile is usually attached to the building. In place of string courses andmouldings are alternate courses of black andwhitemasonry; the sole contrast being supplied by therectangularwindowopenings,which,possiblytooffsetthediminishingeffectofperspective,increaseinnumberupwards.ThelowspireistypicallyItalianRomanesque.

Fine examples of the period are to be found in Verona, Mantua, and Pistoia, while the mostbeautiful is thatofFlorence,designedandbegunbyGiottoandcompletedafterhisdeathbyAndreaPisano.Itisdistinguishedfromotherbell-towersoftheItalianGothicbytheprojectionswhichmarkitsfour stories and the bold cornice with machicolated ornament. The surface is further varied withgeometricdesigns,composedofcolouredmarbles;whilethewindowsareembellishedwithtraceryof

anelementarydesign,correspondingtothatoftheadjoiningCathedralwindows.Thesidesoftheloweststory, broken only by a small light, are enriched with statues and bas-reliefs, some of which weredesignedbyGiottoandexecutedpartlybyhimandpartlybyAndreaPisano,othersbeingaddedlaterbyLuca della Robbia. In character of subjects they correspond to the selections at Amiens from theEncyclopædiaofVincentofBeauvais.Ruskinsaysofthisbuildingthatitistheonlyoneintheworld,so far asheknows, inwhich thecharacteristicsofPowerandBeautyexist “in theirhighestpossiblerelativedegrees.”Butpowerisatermthatconnotesvariedqualitiestodifferentminds;andstillmoredifferent to various temperaments and experiences is the term beauty. Perhaps if he had said that itcombinedstrengthandgrace,orstabilityandtenderness,itwouldbeeasiertoappreciatehisjudgment.ForGiotto’sCampanilehasanexquisitenessalliedtodignitywhichischaracteristicofItalianGothicatitsbest,yettothetasteofmanywillillcomparewiththevigouroftheFrenchandEnglishstyles.

Suggestiveof thepersistenceof theRomanesquestyleduring theGothicperiod themostnotableinstanceistheCertosa,orChurchoftheCarthusianOrder,inPavia.ThefaçadeandlanternoverthecrossingareRenaissanceadditions;otherwisethissplendidedifice,constructedofbrickandterra-cotta,is,exceptfortheGothicrefinementoftherib-vaulting,purelyRomanesque.AgifttothemonasterybyDukeGianGaleazzoVisconti,itwasbegunin1396,nineyearsafterthispatronofartandlettershadbeguntobuildMilanCathedral,themostimportantexampleinItalyoftheGothicstyle.

YetMilaninvolvespeculiaritiesthatmaybeduetothedissensionsoftheItalianarchitectswiththeGermanandFrenchwhowerecalledinatvarioustimestocollaborateinthework.SostrongaGermaninfluence is perceptible in both the character anddetails, that themain designhas been attributed toHeinrichofGrund.Constructedentirelyofwhitemarble,theexteriorisdistinguishednotsomuchbystructural grandeur as by decorative richness. The windows, said to be the largest in any GothicCathedral,have intricateand lace-like tracery; thewallsarepanelledwithvertical stringcourses; thebuttressesembellishedwithcanopiedniches,holdingstatues; lace-likeagain is theenrichmentof theparapetsoftheroofs,whilefromthemrisesaforestofspiringfinials,surmountedbythemarblespirewhichwasdesignedin1440byBrunelleschi.

And in the interior, also, organic relation is sacrificed to imposing display and delight inembellishment.Thedominatingfeatureistheavenueofnavecolumns,nineoneachside.Theyare12feetindiameter,over100feethigh,andcrownedabovetheircapitalswithaclusterofcanopiedniches,containingstatues—aGermanfeature.Thecolumnsisolatethemselvesinthedesign;countonlyasanavenueof columns,while their immense sizedwarfs theheight of thevaulting, themore so that theheight of the side aisles made a triforium impossible, and reduced the clerestory to insignificantproportions,withmeansmallwindows.Andtheimpressionofsquatnessinthevaultingisincreasedbytherupturewhichthecanopiednichesmakebetweenthepiershaftsandvaultribs.Upwardgrowthisarrested;organic relationviolatedbyamerelydecorative intrusion.Torealise fully thediminutionofstructuralimpressivenesstherebyproduced,onemaycomparetheMilaninteriorwiththatofAmiensorSt.OueninRouen.

SecularGothic.—It was in their secular architecture that the Italians used the Gothic with thegreatestfreedom.Theofficialbuildingsofthisperiod,whenthegovernmentofthecitiesandcommunesstill preserved a popular form, comprised the city hall or podesta and the council hall, which wasvariouslyknownasthepalazzopublico,palazzocommunaleorpalazzodelconsiglio.

ThemostimportantexampleofapodestaisthePalazzoVecchioinFlorence,whichwasdesigned,1298,byArnolfodiCambio,thefirstarchitectoftheCathedral.WeshallstudyitlaterincomparisonwiththebeginningsoftheRenaissance(p.358).OppositetoitstandstheLoggiadeiLanzi,anexampleoftheopen-airtribuneserectedforpopularceremonies.Builtin1376bythearchitectsBencidiCioneandSimonediTalenti,itsdesignisratherRomanesquethanGothic.Itsnameisderivedfromthefact

that it was used as a guard house by the German spearmen of Cosimo I, after he had usurped thegovernmentofFlorenceandestablishedhisresidenceinthePalazzoVecchio.

The finest examples of Gothic domestic architecture are to be found in the northern cities,Florence,Pisa,Siena,Bologna,andparticularly inVenice,where the immunityfromsocialdisorderandoutsideattack,combinedwithcommercialprosperity,encouragedamoreluxuriousmodeofliving.Weshall refer to theCad’Oro as a typeof theGothicVenetianpalaceof amerchantprince, in thechapterontheEarlyRenaissance(p.360).HereletusstudytheDucalorDoge’sPalace,whichadjoinsSt.Mark’s,thetwobuildings,onecivilandtheotherreligious,representinginvisibleunion,themindandthesoulofVenice.

Doge’sPalace.—InsteadofpreservingthesuggestionofamediævalfortressasthePalazzoVecchiodoes,thecentreofVenetianauthorityisapalace,designedtorepresentthegrandeurofthecity’sdestinyandtoprovideasettingforsumptuouscivilfunctionsandtheceremonialentertainmentofambassadorsand other distinguished guests. The building, since it was founded in 800, thirty years before thefounding of St.Mark’s, has undergonemany vicissitudes; five times destroyed by fire and on eachoccasion rebuilt with greatermagnificence, so that the present design is a composite of Gothic andRenaissance.

TheGothic is chiefly represented in themagnificent loggia,which comprises two open arcades,rangingalongtwofronts,facing,respectively,thePiazzettaandtheLagune.Thelowerarcadeconsistsofpointedarches,restingoncircularcolumns, theshaftsofwhichareofstumpyproportionsandrisedirectly from the pavement without bases. The capitals, carved with foliage, figures, and animals,combine toanunusualdegree richnessofdesignwithdelicacyofexecution,while thatof thecornercolumn,whichissurmountedbyagroupofAdamandEve, isdescribedbyRuskin inhis“StonesofVenice” asbeing, in respectofworkmanship and thegroupingof the foliage, the finest heknows inEurope. The upper arcade is composed of twice the number of columns, which again have circularshaftswithout bases, but are proportionately taller andmore graceful. They support trefoiled arches,whoseogeecurvesslideupintoaseriesofcirclespiercedwithquatrefoils—acombinationof tracerycharacteristicallyVenetian;asindeed,isthemingledmassivenessandeleganceofthewholedesign.

Thisdoublearcademusthavepresentedastillfinereffectintheoriginaldesignwhenitstoodclearofthemainfaçade.Fortheadvancingoftheupperparttothearcadeline,whichdatesfromarestorationafter a fire in the fifteenth century, produces an effect of top-heaviness. Moreover, its directjuxtaposition with the elaborateness of the arcade accentuates the contrast, presented by the severesimplicity of the surface, patterned with red, white, and black marbles, and meagrely pierced withwindows.

BOOKVI

THERENAISSANCEPERIOD

CHAPTERI

RENAISSANCECIVILISATION

IN the earlyyearsof the fourteenth century anewspirit becamemanifest in art. It showed itself, forexample,inthesculpturethatembellishesAmiensandChartres,inthebronzedoorsoftheBaptistryofFlorencebyAndreaPisano,andinthepaintingandsculptureofGiotto.It issupremelymanifestedinthepoetryofDante.

AlloftheseworksbelongtotheGothicperiod.Thesoulinthemisstillcomposedofthefaithandknowledge of theMediævalmind and imagination; but the form inwhich the soul is enshrined hasbecome less generalised, abstract, and symbolical; it has become more individualised, concrete,naturalistic.Inaword,ithasbecomemorehumanised.

It represents a change of attitude toward life; a disposition to regard the world, no longerexclusivelyor chiefly in relation to a future existence, but as the sceneof human endeavour, humanaspirations, human emotions. It represents a renewed consciousness on the part ofMan of his ownHumanity.Inaword,thethoughtoftheworldwasgraduallyevolvingfromthescholasticattitudeoftheMiddleAgestotheHumanisticspirit,whichwasthebreathoflifeoftheRenaissance.

Atfirstthemovementgroped.Thethinkerandtheartist,whileintentuponthestudyoflife,wereignorantofexactmethodsofstudy.TheseweregraduallylearnedthroughtherediscoveryoftheGreekandRomanclassics.TheRebirth, infact,whichismetaphoricallysuggestedinthetermRenaissance,wastheresultofthespreadofthehumanisticspiritandthe“RevivalofLearning”;and,inrecognitionof this, Classic literature was called “LitteræHumaniores,” the students of the Classics were calledHumanists,andHumanismisthetermoftenappliedtothewholemovement.

Themovementwasonethataffectedthewholefabricofcivilisation,foritinvolvednolessthantheself-emancipationofthehumanintellectandwill.Thehumanwillbegantofreeitselffromtheshacklesofdogmatismand thedominationof absolute authority,whether exercisedby theChurchorby civilrulers.Thehumanintellectgraduallyfreeditselffromthesubtletiesandsophistriesofthe“Schoolmen,”ceased to speculateonabstractquestions, suchas the languagespokenby theangels, andhowmanyangelicbeingscouldbesupportedonthepointofapin,andbegantoapplyitselftotheexactstudyofwhatwasactuallywithinthereachofhumanexperienceorresearch.AndforthisexactnessofstudytheRevival of Learning laid the foundation, because the students of the Classics learned to collate thevariousmanuscripts, comparing them critically so as to discover the correct reading, and were alsoobliged to compile grammars and dictionaries—in fact, to construct from the ground up, a fabric ofreliableknowledgeandatthesametimeasystemofeducation.Itwasaprocessthatencouragedbothexactandcriticalresearch.

Meanwhile, before the Revival of Learning could make itself a force, there had been otherinfluenceswhichpreparedthewayforemancipationfromthedespotismofauthority.TheMiddleAgeshadbeendominatedby twoauthorities, theChurchand theHolyRomanEmpire.The former, aswe

have seen in a previous chapter, was the sole agency to introduce organisation into the chaos thatsucceeded thefallof theRomanEmpire. Itgraduallysubdued thebarbarianconquerorsnotonly toasemblanceofreligiousfellowshipbutalsotosomedegreeofsocialorder,andfurtherfosteredthelatterbythrowingtheweightofitsinfluenceonthesideofpopularrights.

On theotherhand, theattemptofCharlemagne to revive themagnificenceand theauthorityofaRomanEmperorhadbeendirectly to forceupon thevarious racialdivisionsofEurope theyokeofapoliticaldespotism,underthesanctionoftheChurch’sco-operation.TheHolyRomanEmpirewasanarbitraryandartificialunionofunmixableelementsanddidnotsurvive thedeathof its founder.Thecentral authority could not hold in check the ambition and power of local authorities. The FrankishgroupfellapartfromtheGermanicgroupsacrosstheRhine.Theauthorityofsucceedingemperorswasconfined to theeastof theRhineandhad tomeet thegrowingoppositionof theFeudal system.Theresultwasacontinualclashofauthorities,inwhichallpartiesintriguedfortheassistanceoftheChurch,so that the Papal authority also was drawn into the struggle for civil power, thereby weakening itsprestigeinreligiousandsocialdirections.

The outcome of the prolonged embroilment was the gradual consolidation of peoples intonationalities.France,England,andGermanyemergedasseparateunities,eachdrawnintoawholebyracialsimilaritiesandlocalself-interest.Thedreamofacentralisedandabsoluteauthority,whethercivilor religious, was slowly replaced by the practical policy of attempting to establish a balance ofEuropeanpowers.

And, while this gradual disintegration of the absoluteness of authority was in process, othercircumstances operated to undermine the old traditional order.Wehave spoken of one of them—thespreadofHumanism.Meanwhiletheuseinwarfareofgunpowderandgunshastenedtheoverthrowofthe Feudal system. The introduction of the mariner’s compass made possible the exploration ofcontinentsbeyondtheocean.ThesubstitutionoftheCopernicanforthePtolemaicsystemofastronomyrevolutionisedmen’s ideaof theuniverse.Further, thegrowth innationalitywasaccompaniedby thedevelopmentofseparatelanguages,andthediffusionofthese,aswellasofknowledgegenerally,wasincreasedbytheinventionofpaperandprinting.

Thus, from diverse directions light was breaking into the darkness of life, dispersing thesuperstitionsand terrors thathadshackled thehumanwill,and illuminatingpositivepathwaysfor thehumanintellecttotravel.Thoughtceasedtobeinvolvedinallegory;thestudyofnaturetobe“pervertedinto grotesque and pious parables,” while sorcery and magic no longer seemed to be the means ofcompassingcontrolovernatureandobtaining insight into themysteries surroundinghuman life.Theotherworld,with its imaginedheavenandhell, loosened itsgripon theconscience,and the joysandpossibilities of this world began to occupy men’s minds. The beauty of the visible world and thedelightsofsenseceasedtoberegardedassnaresofthedevil,andintheirgrowingindependenceandbeliefinthemselvesmenturnedtomasteringtheresourcesofthisworldandtomakingitbetterforthepurpose of life. No wonder, that as the consciousness of this new and fuller existence becameconfirmed,menspoketooneanotherofaRebirth!

How thismovement,whichwas in ferment throughoutWestern Europe, operated specifically indifferentcountries,isnowtobetraced.TheleadershipinitwastakenbytheRinascimento,tousetheItalianword,ofItaly.

ITALIANRENAISSANCE

EversinceCharlemagne’sconquestofLombardytheEmperorshadheldafootinItaly,contestingauthoritywith the Pope.Meanwhile, the successors of Roger, theNorman conqueror of Sicily, held

swayovertheKingdomofNaples,whichoccupiedthesouthernpartofthepeninsula,andatdifferenttimeswasjoinedtoorindependentoftheKingdomofSicily.Italy,infact,hadprovedherselfincapableof forming a united nation or of establishing a national state. Like Hellas of old, she was anagglomerationofcommunesandcities,capableofbeinginspiredbyacommonsentimentofrace,butunabletomergetheirindependenceandmutualjealousiesandrivalriesinasinglepoliticalorganisation.Even the individual communes and cities were split into factions: the Ghibellines, representing thearistocraticparty,favouringtheEmperor,andtheGuelphs,whocomprisedthepopularpartyandwereassistedbythePopes.

Theresultoftheseconditionswastoquickenthegrowthoflocalfeeling.Patriotismwasreplacedby intense civic pride, which centred in the city or commune and made it vie with others in self-development. And this self-centering resulted, firstly, in each nucleus of energy developing anindependenttypeofcommunityand,secondly,inbringingtothesurfacethepersonalforceofindividualcitizens.TheDukewhohadbeenelevatedtoorusurpedtheheadshipofthecommunity,wascompelledtomaintainhispositionbyforceofcharacterandbyactsthatwouldredoundtotheprideandpowerofthecommunity.Heneededtheassistanceofothermenofpartsandemployedtheirservices,nomatterfromwhatclassof thecommunity theyhadsprung.Therewasroomhigherupforeverycitizenwhocould contribute something to the community’s power and dignity.As one result of these conditionstheresprangintoexistenceaclassofprofessionalsoldiers,orcondottieri,whosoldtheirservicesandthoseoftheirtrainedbandstothehighestbidder,andwho,whenoccasionoffered,liftedthemselves,asinthecaseofColleoniandGattamelata,tohighmilitarycommands.Moreover,theperpetualintriguingthat the conditions of politics had developed between cities and rival authorities, encouraged theemploymentofalargebodyofsecretariesanddiplomaticgo-betweens,menofeducationandsuperiorsharpnessofwit.Infact,anyonewhobyhisbrainsorhishandiworkcouldfurnisheminentservicetothe community was eagerly sought after and promoted. Such men were held in high esteem andregardedasanhonourtothecommunity.

InanenvironmentsuchasthisitfollowedthattheItalianRinascimentowastheproductofmenofpowerful individuality and that the trend of it led to the exaltation of individualism. The first greatpersonalityassociatedwithitisthatofPetrarch.

SonofamanwhohadsharedDante’sexile,hehimselfemulatedthepoetofBeatriceincanzoniere,composedtohisidealmistress,Laura.Hetoohelpedtorefineandvivify,asBoccacciodidalittlelater,the Italian tongue; but hewas filledwith theprideof being a descendant of theRomanPeople, andlooked back to Latin literature as the worthiest object of his study. In his zeal for collecting andcollatingmanuscripts and through the richness of his imagination and critical judgment, joined to atirelessdevotion,hebecamethepioneerinthatItalianscholarshipwhichrestoredtoWesternEuropetheknowledgeoftheClassicsandlaidthefoundationofmodernthought.

Forhitherto,althoughanacquaintancewithLatinhadsurvived,itwaschieflyinthemonkishform,and theLatinauthorswereknownonlyby fragments,oftenmutilated in theprocessofcopying.Theknowledgeof theGreek tongue,whilepreserved inByzantium,hadallbutentirelydisappearedfromWesternEurope,andPetrarch,realisingtheneedofrecoveringit,urgedBoccacciotobeginthework.Accordinglythelattertooklessonsofanadventurer,namedLeonePilato,anativeofCalabriawhohadresided in Thessaly, and succeeded also in having him appointed professor of Greek language andliterature in theUniversity of Florence. Boccaccio, like his friend Petrarch,was indefatigable in thesearch formanuscripts among the libraries and, as often, the lumber-rooms of themonasteries.Andfrequentlyhehadtomourntheirmutilation,asononeoccasionwhenhefoundtheprecioussheetsofvellumhadbeenscrapedcleanoftheclassictextandinscribedwithpsalmsfortheuseofthechoirboys,whilethedecoratedmarginshadbeencutintobitsandsoldtowomenasamulets.

During the fifteenth century the pursuit of scholarship continued, receiving a great advancementwhen Constantinople, in 1451, was conquered by the Turks. Formany of theGreek scholars foundrefugeinItaly,wheretheywerereceivedwiththehighestenthusiasminuniversitiesandthepalacesofprinces.ThusforacenturythekeenestspiritsofwhatwasthenthemostintellectuallyadvancedpeopleofEurope,devotedthemselvestoclassicalerudition.Theworld’sdebttothemisincalculable,but theboontheyconferredonotherswasnotwithoutdetrimenttothemselves.Preoccupationwithscholarshipproducedacertainaffectationandpedantryofmind;ledtoanextravagantvaluationoftheantiqueovereverythingmodernandunderminedChristianitywithPaganism.NorwasittheStoicsideofPaganismthatwasemulated.Thepleasuresoflifewerepursuedasanideal,andwithnomoralcurbonconduct;freedom was confused with license and the desire of the senses ousted the restraint of law. TheorganisationalikeoftheChurchandofsocietyintimebecamehoneycombedwithcorruption.

In such an intellectual and moral atmosphere the ego in man was worshipped as divinity.Individualism, extolled to a fetish andunbridledby any considerationsof good andbad, engenderedfacultiesofgloriouscapabilitiesandalsoofmonstrousdepravity.Individualism,infact,ranitshotandheadycourseat theexpenseofeverything thathadoncecounted for strength incommunalandcivicspirit. By the beginning of the sixteenth century, the culmination of the Renaissance, a few giantssurvived,but the Italianpeople,while intellectually in theascendant,haddegeneratedphysicallyandmorallyandfellaneasypreytoforeignaggression.

The expeditionwhichCharlesVIIImade toNaples in 1494 brought the French into Italy. TheyweresoonfollowedbytheSpaniards,untilItalybecamethecockpitofEuropeanrivalries.Politicalaswell asmoral degradationwas reachedwhen, by theLeagueofCambrai, 1508,Pope Julius IImadealliancewithLouisXIIofFrance,theEmperorMaximilian,andFerdinand“TheCatholic”ofSpainforthe partition of the Venetian territories. Humiliation ensued sixteen years later, when German andSpanishmercenaries,ledbytherenegadeConstableBourbon,sackedRome.Italy,afterhavingledthevan in the emancipation of human intellect and will, had prostituted both. Even the Counter-Reformation, instituted by the Church to reform her own abuses as well as to resist the tide ofProtestantism,couldnotsave Italy to the Italians.Threehundredandfiftyyearshad toelapsebeforetheycouldrecovertheirnationalityandoncemoresetthemselvesupontheroadofprogress.

GERMANRENAISSANCE

TheinfluenceoftheItalianRenaissancewasfirstlyandmostdirectlyabsorbedbyFrance.Buttheconsiderationof thismayconvenientlybepostponeduntilaftera reviewof itsoperation inGermanyand Spain. For in both these countries theRenaissance influence bred antagonisms: inGermany theReformationandinSpaintheCounter-Reformation.

TheRenaissancewhichtheItalianshadinitiatedasathingofBeauty,begantooperateinGermanyas a thing of Power; the emancipation of the human intellect and will was supplemented by theemancipationofthehumanconscience.TheItalianindifferencetothelatterwasmorethanasourceofdecadencetothemselves;foritcleftintotwochannelswhatshouldhavebeenunitedinasinglestreamofhumanendeavour;itforgedbarriersbetweenwhatshouldbecomponentelementsinhumanideals.ItstartedthatantagonismbetweenBeautyandMorality,betweenÆstheticsandEthicsbywhicheventothisdaycivilisationisbeingretardedinitsrichestandmostbeneficentpossibilitiesofprogress.

GermanywasquicktoabsorbItalianerudition.Hebrew,Greek,andLatinscholars,rivallingthoseofItaly,becamenumerousinGermanuniversitiesandinthefreecitiesofNüremburg,Augsburg,Basel,andStrassburg.Butevenstudentswhoattendedtheuniversitiesof Italyescaped thePagan influence.Theyreturnedtoahomelandwhichwasnotstrewnwithclassicremains,andwhosetraditionswerestill

deeplyrootedinmediævalismandexpressedintheGothicspirit.Itwasthesamewiththeartists.Forexample, the art of Schongauer, Dürer, Holbein, and Cranach is untouched by that sense of beautywhichtheirItaliancontemporarieshadevolvedfromclassicinfluence.Moreover,theGermanmindwasmore penetrating, earnest, argumentative than the Italian, more occupied with substantial than withabstractproblems.TheGermantemperamentalsowasmorecombative;incapableoftheItaliancynicaltolerationandatoncedeeperandnarrowerinitscharacter.

ConsequentlytheGermaneruditionbegantoapplyitselftoconcreteproblems,suchastheologicalcriticismandtheabsoluteauthorityclaimedbytheChurch.TheBiblewasopeneduptotheGermansasa new book. As the Classics had served to emancipate the Italian intellect and will, so the BibleemancipatedtheGermanconscience.“ThetouchofthenewspiritwhichinItalyhadevolvedliterature,art,andculture,sufficed inGermanytorecreateChristianity.”Thesaleof IndulgencesbyLeoXandLuther’sprotestbutservedtosetthesparktotheexplosion,which,longinpreparation,splitTeutonicandLatinChristianity,andinvolvedWesternEuropefortwocenturiesinpolitico-religiousstrife.

For gradually it had become recognised that the new “heresy” threatened the authority alike ofmonarchical government and the Papacy.Orthodoxy and absolutismwere the two sides of the sameshield.TheChurchhadbegun to realise that therewas asmuchdanger to its authority in thePaganrevival of the Italian Renaissance as in Protestantism. Both papal and imperial authority werethreatened.Accordingly,PopeClementVIIandEmperorCharlesVenteredintoacompactatBolognain 1530, tomaintain in its integrity theCatholic Faith. Thus began theCounter-Reformation,whichreformedmanyof theabuses thathadcrept into theChurchand renewed the fervourof theCatholicreligion,butontheotherhand,arrayedtheforcesofconservatismagainstthemarchofprogress.

SPANISHRENAISSANCE

It was in Spain that the Counter-Reformation was most zealous. Although the influence of theItalianRenaissance had reached her, she had rejected its pagan aspects.On the one hand, her rulersjealously guarded their title of “Catholic Majesty.” On the other hand, the released energies of thecountryhadbeenlargelydirectedtothecommercialconquests,openedupbythediscoveryofAmerica,which encouraged that self-reliance and absorption in self that were characteristic of the Spanishtemperament.SpaniardshadupheldtheFaithintheir longcontestwiththeSaracenintrudersandstillconsideredthemselvestheChampionsofChristendom.Meanwhile,theintellectualactivityinspiredbytheRenaissancegave themrenewedbelief in themselvesandestablished them in their interest in theaffairsoftheirownlife.

TypicalalikeoftheSpanishraceandoftheeffectuponitoftheRenaissanceisthe“DonQuixote”of Cervantes, whom Symonds ranks with Ariosto, Rabelais, and Shakespeare as the four supremeliteraryexponentsoftheRenaissance.ForeachofthesecaughtthespiritoftheRenaissancewhenitwasatthefirstfreshnessofitsvigourintheirrespectivecountriesand,insteadofusingittoimitatethepast,captured its imagination into thevernacularofhisown language,making it amost flexible andvitalmedium for the expression of the spirit of his own time and country. In Cervantes’ case the racialhumourpuncturedwithridiculetheaffectationsintowhichtheoldorderofChivalryhaddegenerated.

That the new attitude toward life which it indirectly advocated, failed to be realised by theSpaniardsmaybeattributedtotwocauses.OneistheCounter-Reformationwhichralliedtheforcesofreactionismand theother, theeasilygottenwealth thatpoured into thecountryfromtheNewWorld.The one, associated with Monarchical absolutism, destroyed political progress, while the otherswampedinitiativeandthevigoroushandlingoflife,resultinginbothmoralandeconomicaldecadence.

YettheinherentracinessoftheSpanishpeoplecouldnotbeentirelysuppressed.Itdeclareditself

especiallyintheprolific,versatile,trulynationaldramaofLopedeVegaandCalderon,whichpicturedthe life of the people with a variety and richness that have been surpassed only by Shakespeare.Moreover,afteranapprenticeshipoftheSpanishpainterstotheworksofRaphaelandotherItalians,theseventeenth century produced the greatest of all naturalistic painters in the person of Velasquez.Nevertheless,despitecertainbrilliantexceptions,itwasthetragedyofSpainthatatthemoment,whenherRenaissancewasapproachingfulfilment,itwasstrangled.

FRENCHRENAISSANCE

VerydifferentwasthepartplayedbyFrance.Hernativegeniushadtosomeextentanticipatedthespirit of Humanism, so she embraced the learning and culture of the Renaissance eagerly but withdiscrimination. She utilised both, not in the way of imitation, but as enrichment to her own self-expression;and,finally,asItalydeclined,assumedtheleadershipofEuropeanculture.

Alreadyin the twelfthcenturyAbelardhadinitiated thespiritoffree inquiry in theology; later, itwas upon the love-songs of the trouveres or troubadours of Provence that Petrarch patterned hiscanzoniere,andfromthefabliaux,popularinFrance,thatBoccaccioderivedthecharacterandsomeofthethemesofhisDecameron.

WhileinthenorthFrancemaintainedcloserelationswithFlanders,shewasdrawnintocommercialrelationswithItaly,directly,inthesouth,andbywayoftheGermancitiesandBurgundyontheeast.Herpoliticalrelationsbegan,aswehavenoted,withtheexpeditionofCharlesVIItoNaples,andwerecontinuedby theeffortsofLouisXIIandFrancis I to secureandholdpossessions in Italy.Even thelatter’s disastrous defeat at Pavia did not discourage him from subsequent warlike enterprises, butmeanwhilehiszealforthingsItaliancausedhimtoinvitemanyItalianartiststoFontainebleau.HenriII’s queenwasCatherine deMedici and her children,Charles IX andHenri III,were brought up asItalianatedFrenchmen.

Thus,during the sixteenthcentury theCourt andnobilityofFrancebecame largely Italianised inmanners, although the survival of the Feudal system and the distinctly military character of thearistocracyrenderedFranceverydifferentfromItalyinmanyvitalparticulars.ForFrancewasengagedindevelopinghernationalityandthesedisintegratingandaggressiveelementshadtobesubduedtothecentralauthority—aprocessmademorecomplexbythespreadoftheReformationundertheleadershipof Calvin, so that the strugglewas one of conscience aswell as political power. But in the processFrancewasawakenedtoarealsenseofnationalism.TheGallicspiritbecameawareofitselfandintentupondevelopmentandconsolidation.

Consequently, the presence of such artists as Leonardo da Vinci, Del Sarto, Primaticcio, andBenvenuto Cellini could not stifle the native art. They left their impress on the decorations ofFontainebleau and served as models of superior knowledge and refinement to French painters andsculptors,yetdidnomore thanmodify theFrenchoriginalityof inspiration.Painters like theClouetsandtheunnamedpainterofthe“Diana”oftheLouvreandthesculptorsGoujonandPilon,despitesomedebt to Italian influence, preserved unmistakably their Gallic spirit, as we shall also find did thearchitectsoftheFrenchchâteaux.

ItwasthespiritthathadcreatedthemiraclesofGothicarchitecture;aspirithighlyadventurous,yetlogical,whichoverflowedwithenthusiasmforlife,butwascontrolledbyinstinctivetaste.

ItsufferedaclippingofitsfreedomwhenFrancewasfinallyconsolidatedasaStateandAbsolutismwasenthroned in thepersonofLouisXIV.Under theofficialdom thathe establishedFrenchartwascompelled to sit at the feet of the Italians. Yet, even so, the native genius shines through acquiredaffectations in the work of Poussin and Claude, while the eighteenth century witnessed the

reblossoming of theGallic spirit in the dainty fancies ofRococo decoration.On the other hand, thesterner issuesof theRenaissance,as theyaffectedpolitical liberty,culminatedafter longdelay in theRevolution.

ThattheGallicgeniushasbeenandstillremainsapowerfulfactorintheprogressofcivilisationisdue to its blend of the intellectual and the aesthetic faculties. It thinks clearly and feels subtly andadjuststhoughtandfeelingintoanadmirableaccordbyitstactoftaste.Itapproximatesmostcloselytothequalityof theoldGreekgenius.At its best, under the impulseof ahigh spiritual purpose, it hasexpresseditselfintermsofTruthandBeautythatnomodernnationhasrivalled.Evenwhenitsmotivehasbeentrivial,itsmannerofexpressionhasredeemeditfrominsignificance,thecraftsmanshipbeinginitselfsotrueandbeautiful.Moreover,theFrenchspiritissoagileandresponsive,thatithascaughtandreflectedbackthediversethoughtandfeelingofothercountries,and,further,hassomarkedastrainoforiginalitythatithaspreservedthefacultyofcreativeness.

NETHERLANDISHRENAISSANCE

The Netherlands, through their commercial intercourse with Italy, early came in touch with theRenaissance.Buttheself-relianceofthepeoplewassuchthattheearliestinfluenceonlyimprovedtheirownwayof expressing their racial consciousness.For example, the townhalls inwhich theprideoftheir cities was enshrined, owed nothing to Italy except some later refinements of decoration. ThepaintingoftheVanEyckswasnotonlydifferentfrombuttechnicallysuperiortothecontemporaryartofItalyandfurnishedthelatterwiththepracticalprocessesoftheoilmedium.IntimethemannerismsofItalianpaintingmadethemselvesfeltintheworkofVanOrleyandothers,butthegenuinereactionofthe Flemish genius to the ItalianRenaissance did not develop until the seventeenth century,when itproducedareinvigoratedexpressionofitselfinthegeniusofRubens.

Politicalandreligiouscauses,duetothegripoftheSpanishrule,hadretardedtheprogressoftheFlemishprovinces,while,ontheotherhand,itwasthebreakawayfromthisabsolutismthatstartedthenorthern provinces of Holland on their Renaissance. The Holland Renaissance of the seventeenthcentury, which moved step by step with their struggle for political and religious liberty and theirconsolidation intoaunitednation, representedamost remarkableblendofHumanismandRevivalofLearning. Itwasunique at its time andhas preserved its significance, becauseboth these engines ofactivity were devoted deliberately to national and individual betterment. The Dutch zest of lifestimulatedthemnotonlytoobtaintheirliberty,butalsotoimproveinamultitudeofpracticalwaystheconditions of living. It caused them to organise industry and commerce, to cultivate their landintensively and to extend their explorations and trade over the seven seas.Norwere the intellectualresourcesoverlooked.TheuniversityofLeydenbecameagreatcentreofhumancultureanditsscholarsandscientistssetthecourseofthoughtandresearchinthedirectionofmodernlife.

Holland’sprosperity,however,provedherundoing.Afterdefyingandwithstandingtheabsolutismof Spain, she fell a victim to that of Louis XIV. And less by direct conquest than by the insidioussappingofFrenchinfluences.Shebecameinflatedwiththeambitionofbeingaworld-power,whilehercitizens emulated the fashions of French society. Losing at the same time political liberty andintellectual and artistic initiative and independence, she followed the human sheep-trail that ledsouthwardovertheAlpsandformorethanacenturybecameaclumsyimitatorofthepastartofItaly.

ENGLISHRENAISSANCE

England’s insular position tended to delay her reception of the New Spirit. When at length it

reachedheritcamesimultaneouslyintheformofItalianinfluenceandoftheReformation.Yetbothhadbeenanticipatedacenturyearlier;theReformationintheteachingofWycliffe,theRenaissanceinthepoetryofChaucer.ButtheharvestofthenewspirithadbeendeferredbytheFrenchwars,theWarsoftheRoses,andthepersecutionoftheLollards,sothatitwasnotuntil1536,whentheKing,Lords,andCommonsbytheActofSupremacyestablishedtheReformedFaithastheStateReligion,thatEnglandentereddefinitely,saysSymonds,onacareerofintellectualactivityabreastwiththeforemostnationsoftheContinent.

Bythistimethelatterhadaccomplishedtheworkofcollatingandprintingtheclassicauthorsandhadproduced avariedmassof literature in themodern languages; all ofwhichbecame food for theomnivorousappetiteof theEnglish.Assimilation, at first,was slowand retardedby imitation.WyattandSurrey,forexample,graftedthegracesofItalianpoetryontothenativestock,introducingtheformsofthesonnetandblankverse;Sidneyexperimentedwiththeclassicmetres,whiletragediesinthestyleof Seneca, rivalled the similarly pedantic imitations of Italian and French dramatists. Gradually,however,thevigourofEnglishdigestionaccomplishedacompleteassimilation.

England, through her sympathy with Holland, had found herself involved in the conflict of theCounter-Reformation.ShebroketherivalpowerofSpainbythedestructionoftheArmada,andthroughthe buccaneering exploits of Raleigh, Drake, Frobisher, and Hawkins opened up the beginnings ofcolonial expansion. She leaped at a bound into consciousness of nationality and in the glow of herenthusiasmdiscoveredherowncapacityoforiginality.

ShakespeareisatoncethecrownandsymboloftheEnglishRenaissance.Hedrewthematerialofhisplotsfromavarietyofforeignsources,butcreativelyimpresseduponhisplayseitheranewandauniversalsignificanceorunmistakablytheEnglishspiritofhisday.Meanwhile,Spenser,whilederivinghisallegoryfromtheMiddleAgesanddecorativerichnessfromtheItalianRenaissance,addedtheretoasweetness, purity, and splendour of imagination peculiarly English. And by the side of Spenser andShakespeare, as representative of the creative imagination of the English Renaissance, must be setBacon,theexpositorofthemodernscientificmethod.

This flowering of the EnglishRenaissance, inwhich intellectual brilliancewalked hand in handwithbeauty,wasrudelyinterrupted,firstly,whenthespiritoftheCounter-ReformationwasrevivedbyJamesIandCharlesI;secondly,bytheresultantPuritanreaction,andtheequallyresultantlicenseoftheRestoration. A cleavage between morals and beauty was opened up that to this day has not beenbridged.Ontheotherhand,thespirit,letloosebytheRenaissanceandtheReformation,pushedforwardpersistentlyonthepathofpoliticalliberty,andEngland’smightiestcontributiontothecivilisationoftheworldhasbeen therealisation,however imperfect,of the idealofhumanfreedom.Meanwhile, in therealm of the arts, it is in the province of Literature, rather than in those of the Fine Arts, that herRenaissancehasreapeditsmostabundantharvest.

CHAPTERII

RENAISSANCEARCHITECTUREINITALY

THE foregoing summary of Renaissance culture anticipates three marked characteristics of thearchitecturewhichrespondedtoit.

Renaissancearchitecturewasdevelopedfromthestudyofclassicalantiquitiesand,tosomeextent,of classic literature. It was adapted to conditions of society which became increasingly elegant andluxurious.Itwascreated,nolongerbygildsofcraftsmen,butbyindividualdesigners,whosenamesarerecordedandidentifiedwiththeirrespectiveworks.

Weare also prepared to find that as the study of classic examples lost the freshness of its earlyinspiration,itledtoagrowingformalismintheuseoftheclassicdetails;andthat,asthetemperofthetimedeclinedintasteandgrewingrossness,thearchitecturalstylereflectedthedecadenceinincreasingpretentiousnessandextravaganceofforms.

TheRenaissanceproper,insofarasthetermNew-birthisjustified,occupiesthefifteenthcentury,the period called by the Italians the Quattrocento. To the first half of the sixteenth century, theCinquecento,belongsthemoreformallyclassicstyle,afterwhichappearedthedeclineofthelatterhalfof the century, known as the Baroque style, followed during the seventeenth century by the furtherdegenerationintotheRococo.

PAZZICHAPELBYBRUNELLESCHI:INS.CROCE,FLORENCE.P.343

SANTAMARIANOVELLA,FLORENCEBYALBERTI.EARLIESTEXAMPLEOFFLARINGCONSOLES.P.345

STROZZIPALACE,FLORENCEBYCRONACA.AFORTRESSTYPEOFCITYRESIDENCE.P.345

CAPRAROLAPALACEBYVIGNOLA.EXAMPLEOFCOUNTRYVILLA.P.348

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BASILICAVICENZABYPALLADIO.TWO-STORIEDCLASSICALARCADESSURROUNDINGTHEOLDGOTHICEDIFICE.P.351

DOGE’SPALACE,VENICERENAISSANCEPORTALADJOININGTHEGOTHICARCADES.BYGIOV.ANDBART.BUON.P.353

S.MARIADELLASALUTE,VENICEBYBALDASSARELONGHENA.P.356

ThedeclineoftastemayhavebeenhastenedbythefactthatRenaissancearchitectureinvolvednonewprinciplesofconstruction.Itwasessentiallyaproductofadaptation,andwithlessconsiderationforstructuralproblemsthanforexternalappearances.Therewasachangeinthestatusofthearchitect:heceasedtobepre-eminentlythemaster-builder;hebecameadesigner,specificallyinterestedinwhatonemayperhaps call, thepictorial aspects of his building.Hewasoccupiedwith the compositionofhisfaçade, as a painter iswith the composition of his picture.He designed it on paper, as an organisedarrangementof lines,masses,details,andpatterningof lightandshade.Thedaysofworkingout thestructural problems in the course of construction and of employing the co-operation of skilledcraftsmen, tocreate thedetailsofdecorationhadceasedwith thepassingof themason-gilds. In theirplacewereworkmen,whofollowedimplicitlythedrawingsofthedesigner.

Andthelatter,aswascharacteristicofthetime,hadbecomeanindividualist,stampinghisdesignwith the impress of his own personality. It was revealed not only in the larger elements of thecomposition but also in the exquisiteness of detailed decorations. Nor was the actual creativeness,involvedin this tirelesspursuitof therefinementsofbeauty,confinedto theexternalsofbuildings; it

wasexpendedwithprolificinventionontheinteriorfittings.Thus,churchesandpalacesalikebecamemuseums, enshrining endless objects of beautiful craftsmanship in metal-work, marble, terra-cotta,ivory,andtextiles,aswellasthemuraldecorationsofthepainter.

Museums, however, it is to be noted, which were not, as in our own day, huge storehouses ofobjects,separatedfromtheiroriginalenvironmentanduse,buttreasurehousesofbeautifulthingsthatformedpartofthehabituallifeofthepeople,palacesforthoseofhighdegree,churchesandtownhallsforallclassesofthecommunity.WecannotenterintothespiritoftheRenaissanceunlesswerealisethattoallclassesoftheItaliansoftheperiodbeautywasafamiliarandlivingelementintheirlives.

ClassicInfluences.—TheinfluenceoftheclassicremainsbegantobeapparentinthesculptureofNicolasPisano,whodiedin1278.Itcontinuedintheworkofhissonandbecamemoremarkedinthatofthelatter’spupil,AndreaPisano.TherearedistincttracesofitinGiotto’spainting,especiallyinthedetailsofthebuildings,whichareevidentlyrudeimitationsofRomanantiquities.Thattheyarerudeisfortunate, aproof that imitationof thepastwasnotGiotto’s chief concern. Indeed, thevital thing inGiotto,whichmadehim the leader of a new school of painting,was his effort to bring the arts intocloser touch with human nature. It was his pursuit of natural representation and expression whichcausedhimtobealeaderinanagethatwasrediscoveringanenthusiasmforhumannature;andinthisrespecthesetthemaincourseforthewholeofthefifteenthcentury.ThetrendofQuattrocentopaintingandsculpturewastorelearntheprinciplesofcorrectdrawingandperspectiveandtousethegrowingknowledgeandskillfortheexpressionofsubjectsthat,whiletheyweresuggestedbothbytheChristianreligion and the classicmythology,were informedwith the naïve freshness and independence of theexpandingItalianspirit.

A corresponding freedom from subservience to antique forms and a truly creative adaptivenesscharacterisedthearchitectureoftheperiod.ItwasduringtheQuattrocentothatwhatismostoriginalinRenaissance architecture was achieved, and the old methods of construction and old details ofdecorationweresuccessfullyappliedtothenewproblemsimposedbychangedconditionsoflivingandhabitsofthought.Itisbytheactualcreativenesswithwhichthereadjustmentwasaccomplished,aswellasbythediscretionandrefinementoftaste,exhibitedinthewholeandeverypartofthedesign,thatthearchitectureofthisperiodisdistinguished.

Thequalitieswhichitexhibitsareadirectreflectionoftheinfluenceoftheclassicliteraryrevival.Thelatterencouragedmentalqualitiesoflogicandorderlinessandanappreciationforbeautythatwascharacterisedbyprecisetasteandexactingrefinement.And,justasPetrarch,Boccaccio,andAriostoontheir foundationof classic learningbuilt thebeginningsof a literature in thenative tongue—the firstnaturalexpressionof theItaliangenius, liberatedbythestudyofantiquity tonewidealsof theirownmodernlife—soitwaswiththeartists.Havinggraduatedfromtheschoolofthepast,theyappliedwhattheyhadlearnedtomeetingtheneedsandconditionsoftheirownday.

Perfection of Detail.—Again, just as Petrarch and Boccaccio and their followers in literaturedevotedthemselvestoperfectionofexpression,sothearchitectsoftheRenaissanceweredistinguishedby theexquisitenessof thedetails they introduced into theirdesigns.Theywere, in thefirstanalysis,individualists,sothatthegreatones—andtheywerenumerous—createdindividualstyles.But,further,theybroughtthekeennessoftheirItalianintellectandtheconsummaterefinementoftheirtastetothedispositionandactualexecutionofthedetails.Ithasbeensaid—andonemaybelievethetruthofit—that“thelaymanisnotcapableofappreciatingtherefinementsandtheclearnessoftheirmouldings,andthevigourandstrengththeirvirilenaturesputintotheirsilhouettes.”

Individualism being the characteristic of the Italian architects of the Renaissance, we willenumeratethemostimportantpersonalities.

PRINCIPALARCHITECTSOFTHEFLORENTINESCHOOL

Brunelleschi.—Among the first of these deliberate students of antiquity was the architectBrunelleschi.HewasborninFlorencein1379anddisplayedearlyatalentformechanicalconstruction.Accordingly his father apprenticed him to the Gild of Goldsmiths. He quickly became a skilledworkmanandacquiredaknowledgeofsculpture,perspective,andgeometry.Duringavisitofsomefiveyears to Rome, the chief repository of classic remains, he made a profound study of architecturalconstruction,especiallyas illustratedinthedomeof thePantheon, thevaultedchambersof thebaths,andtheuseofsuccessiveordersofcolumnsintheexterioroftheColosseum.

ReturningtoFlorence,heenteredintodeliberationwiththecitycouncil toerecttheDomeoftheCathedral. It crowns, like his Milan cathedral dome, an octagonal plan. A design for it, which ispictured in a fresco in the SpanishChapel of theChurch of SantaMariaNovella, had already beenprepared by Arnolfo di Cambio, the first architect of the cathedral and the designer of the PalazzoVecchio. Brunelleschi deviated from it by raising the dome upon an octagonal drum, pierced withcircular windows, thereby securing the impressiveness of additional height, while preserving thelightnessofeffect.Heundertooktoerectthedomewithoutthegreatexpenseoftimbercenterings,andaccomplishedthefeat,itissaid,byplacingvoussoirsoneaboveanotherwithhorizontaljoints.

Thedomeiscomposedofaninnerandanoutershellofbrickwork,reinforcedbyeightmainandeightintermediateribs.Itis138feetwide,withaheightfromthespringofthedrumtotheeyeofthedomeof135feet.ThelanternwasaddedafterBrunelleschi’sdeath,fromthedesignhehadprepared.Thisdomeisnotonlyamonument to thegeniusof itscreator,butscarcelyrivalledinbeautybyanyotherworkoftheRenaissance.ThatofSt.Peter’smaybeaprouderandmoreimposingstructure,butitismore sophisticated in its use of classic details lacking the grand simplicity ofBrunelleschi’s—thenaturalnobility,ifonemaysayso,ofathingthathasgrowntolife.Itmaybelessstately,butismorecompanionable; less imposing, but more intimately inspiring. The contrast between the two domesrevealsinaremarkablewaythedifferencebetweenthedawnoftheRenaissanceanditshighnoon.

Brunelleschi’s churches inFlorence includeS. Lorenzo andS. Spirito, both ofwhich are on abasilicanplan,withelevationsthatinvolvemodificationsofRomanconstruction.TheformerisbarrelvaultedintheRomanmanner,butthenaveceilingofS.Spiritoisofwoodandflat.Thedomeofthelatter is erected upon pendentives which henceforth were employed on all Renaissance domes.Brunelleschi’schoicestecclesiasticaldesign,however,isthePazziChapelinS.Croce—adomeoverasquarecompartment,enteredthroughacolonnade.Heintroducedcolumnedarcadesintocloistersandpalacecourtsandused themalsoas featuresof thearcade in theLoggiaS.Paolo and theOspedaledegliInnocenteorFoundlingHospital.

ThetwolowerstoriesofthemainfrontofthePittiPalaceweredesignedbyBrunelleschi,whoalsocarvedthefinecrucifixintheSantaMariaNovella.Hediedin1446andwasburiedintheCathedralofFlorence.

Michelozzo.—Michelozzo,borninFlorencein1391,wasthesonofatailorandbecameapupilofDonatello.Heworked inmarble, bronze, and silver, one of the examples of his sculpture being theyoungS.Johnoverthedoorofthecathedral.AsanarchitectheenjoyedthefriendshipandpatronageofCosimode’Medici,forwhomhebuilttheRiccardiPalace,whichwastheearliestexampleofstatelydomestic architecture in Florence and proved a model for subsequent Tuscan palaces. During atemporaryexileofhispatronheaccompaniedhim toVenice,wherehedesigned theLibraryofSanGiorgio.Whenin1437CosimobestowedtheMonasteryofSanMarcoontheDominicanmonksofFiesole,Michelozzowasemployedtoremodelit,erecting,amongotherfeatures,thebeautifularcadedcloisters, which no doubt inspired the architectural details in Fra Angelico’s picture of “The

Annunciation.”Athisdeath,whichappearstohaveoccurredin1472,hewasburiedinSanMarco.

Alberti.—Even in a higher degree than the two already mentioned, Alberti represented theversatilityof theRenaissance, forbesidesbeinganarchitecthewasalsoapainter,poet,philosopher,andmusician.HewasborninVenicein1404andattheageoftwentywroteacomedyinLatinverse,whichinlateryearsthepublisher,AldusManutiusII,printedundertheimpressionthatitwasagenuineclassicwork.Albertiwasappointedtoacanonryin theCathedralofFlorenceandthereestablishedareputationforbeingthefinestorganistofhistime.Hewroteworksonsculptureandpaintingbutismostcelebrated for his treatise on architecture, “DeReÆdificatoria,”which has been translated from theLatin into Italian, French, Spanish, andEnglish.Hewas employed inRome by PopeNicholasV torestore the papal palace. AtRimini hewas commissioned by SigismondoMalatesta to remodel theChurchofS.Francisco.

Itsdesign,ofwhichonlythelowerpartofthefaçadewaserected,wasbasedontheRomanarchinRimini,andalongthesouthsideAlberticonstructedvaultstoreceivethebodiesofhispatron’sfriends.BoththeseelementsofdesignwereintroducedintohischurchofSant’AndreainMantua.Here theplaceof the sideaisles is takenby successivechapels, separatedbymassivepiers,which sustain thebarrelvaultofthenave.ThepiersarefacedbycoupledCorinthianpilasters,mounteduponpedestals.Theintersectionofnaveandtranseptsiscrownedbyadome,whichwasreplacedbythepresentoneintheeighteenthcentury.Thefaçadeofthischurchalsoisbaseduponthecharacterofatriumphalarch,andSant’Andreabecameatypethatwasfollowedinmanysubsequentchurches.InFlorenceAlbertidesignedthemarble-encrustedfaçadeofS.MariaNovella,inwhichheconnectedthesideaislestothenavebymeansofflaringconsoles,adevicethatwasunfortunatelyimitatedinlaterchurches.HediedinRomein1472.

Cronaca.—CronacaistobementionedasthearchitectoftheStrozziandGuardagniPalaces.

PRINCIPALARCHITECTSOFTHEROMANSCHOOL

TheRenaissanceoftheFineArtsinRomemaybedatedfromthepontficateofNicholasV(1447-1455), who vied with theMedici as a patron of scholars and artists. Alberti—we have noted—wasemployedbyhim,forasyettherewasnoRomanarchitectapproachingthetalentoftheFlorentine.Andthedearthcontinueduntil theaccessionof Julius II in1503,bywhich timeBramantehadarrived inRomeand therebegan thegoldenperiodofRomanarchitecture, identifiedparticularlywithhimandRaphaelandMichelangelo.

Bramante.—BramantewasborninUrbinoabout1444andasayoungmanstudiedpaintingaswellas architecture, the latter presumably under Alberti. He travelled through Umbria and Lombardy,studyingRomanantiquitiesandobtainingvariouscommissions,andpassedsomeyearsinMilan,wherehisworkincludedtheenlargementoftheabbeychurchofS.MariadellaGrazie,towhichheaddedachoir,transepts,anddome,inastylethatrepresentsthetransitionbetweentheGothicandClassic.Then,settling inRome,hewas commissionedbyPopeAlexanderVI to erect theCancellariaPalace, andshortlyafterwardsprepareddesigns for thePalazzoGiraud. Inbothof these theClassic tendency isdeveloped.ItisevenmorepronouncedinthebeautifullittlechurchofS.PietroinMontorio.FoundedonthedesignofasmallRomancirculartemple,itconsistsofacircletheinteriordiameterofwhichisonlyfifteenfeet,crownedbyadomeandsurroundedwithaperistyleofcolumnsoftheDoricorder.

BytheadviceofMichelangeloJuliusIIentrustedBramantewiththedesignofthenewS.Peter’s,whichthePopeintendedasamausoleumforhisowntomb.Thework,whichwillbediscussedlater,

wasinterruptedbyBramante’sdeath,whichoccurredin1514.Raphael.—ThecontinuationofS.Peter’swasofficiallyassignedtoBramante’snephewandpupil,

Raphael(1483-1520),who,however,underthepressureofotherengagements,didlittletoadvancethework.Raphael’sarchitecturaldesignsinRomeincludetheFaçadeofS.LorenzoinMiranda,theVillaMadamawithstuccodecorationsbyhispupilGiulioRomano,andthePandolfiniPalace,whichwaserectedtenyearsafterhisdeath.

Giulio Romano.—Giulio Romano (1492-1546) was the architect of buildings in Mantua, hismasterpiecebeingthePalazzodelTe’,atMantua.

Meanwhile, Bramante’s other pupils were Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536), and Antonio daSangallo(1485-1546).

Peruzzi.—PeruzzipassedhisearlylifeinSiena,butwhilequiteyoungmovedtoRomeandstudiedarchitectureandpainting.HisreputationwasestablishedwhenhebuiltfortheSienesebanker,AgostinoChigi,avillaonthebanksoftheTiber,whichisnowknownastheFarnesina,adesignremarkableforitsgraceandthedelicacyofitsdetails.Theinteriorisfamousforthefrescoes,representingthemythsofPsycheandGalatea,executedbyRaphaelandhispupils,whilePeruzzihimselfdecoratedaloggiawithfrescoesofthestoryofMedusa.

HewasappointedarchitectofS.Peter’s,thoughhisdesignforitscompletionwasnevercarriedout.DuringthesackofRomein1527bythetroopsoftheConstableBourbon,PeruzzifledtoSiena,wherehewaselectedcityarchitect,and,as thecitywaspreparing toresistattack,planned thefortificationswhichstillinpartexist.ReturningtoRome,hedesignedseveralvillas,ofwhichthemostimportantistheMassimiPalace.ItissignificantoftheesteeminwhichPeruzziwasheldbyhiscontemporariesthatathisdeathin1536hewasburiedbythesideofRaphaelinthePantheon.

Ant.daSangallo.—AntoniodaSangallotheYoungerwasoneofthefivemembersofaFlorentinefamily,distinguishedvariously inarchitecture,engineering, sculpture,andpainting.Coming toRomewhenveryyounghebecameapupilofBramante,whosestyleheclosely followed.Amonghismostnotableworksare thechurchofS.MariadiLoreto,nearTrajan’sColumn,andtheFarnesePalace.Thelatter,completedbyMichelangelobytheadditionofagrandcornice,isregardedbysomeexpertsasthefinestexampleofaRomanpalace.

Vignola.—Distinguished among the upholders of the purity of the Classic style was GiacomoBarocchioorBarozzi,betterknownasVignola,fromthenameof theplaceinwhichhewasborn, in1507.AfterpractisingforsometimeinBologna,Piacenza,Assisi,andPerugia,hewassummonedtoRomebyPopeJuliusIII,andbuiltthevillaPopeJulius,whichisnowtheEtruscanMuseum.ButtheprincipalexampleofhisstyleisthePalaceofCaprarola,erectedsomethirtymilesfromRomeforthePope’snephew,CardinalAlessandroFarnese.Ithasapentagonalplanenclosingacircularcourt.Abovethegroundstorythefaçadesconsistoftwostories,whichhaverusticatedquoinsattheanglesandarecomposedofanorderofIonic,superimposeduponDoric.Situatedonacraggyprojection,overlookingthe little town of Caprarola and commanding wide vistas that reach to the Volscian Hills and theApennines,withthedomeofSt.Peter’sinthemiddledistance,thispalaceisembellishedwithbeautifulgardens,thewholerepresentingoneofthemostmagnificentpalace-villasoftheRenaissance.

Vignola was one of the artists invited to Fontainebleau by Francis I. After the death ofMichelangelohewasappointedarchitectofS.Peter’sanderected thecupolas.Healsofurnished thedesignof IlGesu, the Jesuit church inRome,whichwas one ofmany erected along the lines of S.Peter’s.Hisfamefurtherrestsonhiswritings,whichinclude“TheFiveOrdersofArchitecture”anda

workonperspective.Hediedin1573.

Michelangelo.—At this date Michelangelo had been dead nine years, but it is convenient toconsiderhimasthelastgreatarchitectoftheRomanSchool,forheintroducednewelementsofdesign,whichinthehandsofsmallermencontributedtothedecadenceoftheRenaissancestyle.Architectureplayed a relatively small part in his titanic and tempestuous career, which through the politicalconfusionofthetimesandchangesofpopes,oscillatedbetweenFlorenceandRome.Intheformercityhedesigned,asadditionstoBrunelleschi’sMedicichurchofS.Lorenzo,theLaurentianLibraryandthe New Sacristy or Mausoleum which contains the tombs of Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, andLorenzo,DukeofUrbino.

InRome,asearlyas1505,JuliusIIhadentrustedMichelangelowiththecommissionoferectinghistomb.TheambitionofthepatronandtheimaginationoftheartistunitedinaprojectsocolossalthatS.Peter’swastoberebuilt toserveasamausoleumforit.UnfortunatelyforMichelangeloandperhapsforart,thedeathofJuliusinterferedwiththeproject.HisheirsdesiredalessexpensivemonumentandsucceedingpopeswereinterestedonlyintherebuildingofS.Peter’s.Afterfortyyearsallthathadbeenaccomplishedof the tombwere thestatuesofMosesand the“BoundCaptives.”“Myyouthhasbeenlost,”criedthesore-afflictedartist,“boundhandandfoottothistomb.”

Even in the lifetimeof Julius the planningofS.Peter’s had been taken fromMichelangelo andgiven to Bramante, and it was not until his seventy-second year thatMichelangelowas called in tosupervisethework.HeadheredtoBramante’splanandaddedthesupremefeatureofthedome,whichwas completed after his death.Meanwhile, he finished, as we have noted, theFarnese Palace andremodelledthePalacesoftheCapitol,thelatterbeinghismostcharacteristicworkinarchitecture.

Forinthenoveldesignoftheseheintroducedtheso-called“one-order”treatment,abandoningthehorizontal lines thatmark the stories andcarryingup through themacolossalorderofpilasters.Theeffectlendsgrandeurandunitytothedesign,butattheexpenseofaviolationoftheprincipleoffittingthecharacteroftheexteriortotheconstructivecharacteroftheinterior.Itwasasacrificeofpartstothewhole such asMichelangelo employed in sculpture and by his genius justified.When, however, hisexample was followed by others who had not his genius, it led to the degradation of style of theBaroquethatalikeinsculptureandarchitectureresultedinpretentiousnessandextravagance.

ThegradualdeclinefromthepurityoftheClassicstyletotheshowyandmeretriciousmagnificenceof the so-called “Baroque” period, was encouraged by the wealthy order of the Jesuits. It wascharacterisedby a growing lackof architectural propriety, an increasinguseof heavy and ill-appliedornament,andageneral tendency toprofusionofdetails for thesakeofdisplay—seen inbrokenanddistortedpediments,hugescrolls,shammarble,excessivegilding,andageneralriotofsculpture,oftenhysterical in its excess of emotional expression. The chief promoters of this decadence wereCarloMaderna(1556-1629),andBorromini(1599-1667),althoughthelatterwasanarchitect,capablealsooffinerachievement,asisprovedbyhiscolonnadeenclosingthePiazzaofS.Peter’s.

Palladio.—Insomedegreeacontributortothisdecadence, throughthemisuseofhisexamplebyothers,wasAndreaPalladio(1518-1580),anativeofVicenza,wherehismostcharacteristicworkistobe seen. In youth he studied the writings of the Roman author, Vitruvius, and of Alberti, andfamiliarised himself with the classic style by study in Rome. His own work, “The Four Books ofArchitecture,” which contains measured drawings of antique buildings many of which have sincedisappeared, had a wide and great influence upon architectural development throughout Europe. InEngland,forexample,itwastranslatedandfurnishedwithnotesbyInigoJones,whoseownstylewaslargelybasedonPalladio’s.

Thelatter’sworkischieflyassociatedwithVicenza,wherehismostimportantexample,consideredalsohisbest,isseeninthedouble-storiedarcades,addedtotheMediævalBasilica.InthelowerstoryheintroducedtheDoricorder; intheupper, theIonic;and, inbothinstances,supportedthearchesonsmall columns, while large engaged columns, acting as buttresses, occupy the centre of the spacesbetweenthearches.ThistreatmenthasbeenknownsinceasthePalladianmotive.Theseimposingandbeautifularcadeswereexecutedinfinestone,whereasthroughnofault,itisbelieved,ofthearchitect,hispalacesinVicenzaaremostlyofbrick,withstuccofrontthathassufferedfromdecay.TheyincludethePalazzoCapitaniaandthePalazzoBarbarano,andtheVillaRotondawhichwasfreelyimitatedbytheEnglishamateurarchitect,LordBurlington(1695-1753)inhisvillaatChiswickontheThames.Palladio’s design of the Villa Rotonda is a square building fronted on all four sides by a portico,surmountedbyapediment,theroofingofthesquareslopinguptoalowdomewhichcrownsthecentralrotunda.AttheendofhislifehedesignedtheTeatroOlympicoofVicenza,whichwascompletedafterhisdeathbyScamozzi. In thishe followed thedirectionsofVitruvius,but introduced featuresofhisown, among which is the interesting one of an architectural background to the stage, built inperspective. Palladio executed work also in Venice, the churches of Il Redentore and S. GiorgioMaggiorebeingfromhisdesign,thoughthefaçadeofthelatterwasbyScamozzi.

PRINCIPALARCHITECTSOFTHEVENETIANRENAISSANCE.

TheVenetianshaddevelopedabeautiful typeofGothic, touched, throughtheirrelationswith theEast, by Byzantine influence. It was admirably suited to the social requirements and taste of acommunity of merchant princes and wealthy middle-class, comparatively removed by geographicalposition from the confusionof the times.For thewars ofVenice, conductedon foreign soil, left herunscathed, and during the fifteenth century she reached the zenith of her commercial glory. But thedeclinesetin,whenhertradewiththeLevantwasblockedbytheTurkishoccupationofConstantinoplein1453, and itwas confirmedby thepassingof herEastern commerce to thePortuguese, followingVasco da Gama’s discovery of the Cape of Good Hope route to India (1497-1503). But during thesixteenthcentury,thoughmenacedbothbytheEmperorCharlesVandtheFrenchking,FrancisI,andengagedinalmostperpetualstrugglewiththeTurks,Venicemaintainedasplendidisolationandreachedtheheightofherartisticdevelopment.

Thegradualmodificationof theGothicstylewaseffectedbythe introductionofClassicfeatures,especially at first of adecorative character.Oneof the earliest examplesof this transition is the finePortaloftheDoge’sPalace,adjoiningS.Marco,whichwaserectedbyGiovanniandBartolommeoBuon,whosharewiththeLombardithechiefplaceintheearlyVenetianRenaissance.

TheLombardi.—This celebrated family of architects became known in the person of a certainMartinowhohadtwosons,MoroandPietro(1435-1515),andtwograndsonsbythelatter,AntonioandTullio.ToMartinobelongs thefaçadeofS.Zaccaria, thedesignofwhichwasdeveloped inPietro’streatmentofthebeautifullittlechurchofS.MariadeiMiracoli.Itsplanisanoblong,terminatinginasquarechancelwhichiselevatedconsiderablyabovethenaveandiscrownedbyadome.Thefaçadeisdecoratedwith two storiesof engagedcolumns, dividing the surface intopanelswhich are encrustedwithcolouredmarbles,whilethewholeissurmountedbyasemicircularpediment.Thecarveddetailsare of exquisite refinement. This choiceness of decorative treatment reappears in the façade of theScuolodeS.Marco,whichwasalsobyPietro,whofurtherprovedhimselftobethemostaccomplishedmemberoftheLombardibyhisfaçadeoftheVendraminiPalace.

Sansovino.—The full development of theRenaissance style inVenice is chiefly associatedwith

JacopoSansovino(1477-1570).Apupilof theFlorentinesculptor,AndreaSansovino, fromwhomhetook his name, hewas at first employed by Julius II to restore antique statues and also tomake thebronzereproductionoftheLaocoöngroup,whichisnowintheUffizi.AfterworkinginFlorenceandagaininRome,fromwhichcityhefledwhenitwassackedbytheGermans,SansovinoreachedVenicein 1527 and was welcomed by Titian and Pietro Aretino. Here from time to time he still producedindifferent sculpture, but became distinguished as an architect, his most important works being theLibraryofS.Marco,theZeccaorMint,theCornaroPalace,andtheChurchofS.GiorgiodelGreci—thelast-named,erectedbytheGreekresidents,beingaremarkableevidenceofthetolerantspiritoftheVenetians in thematterof religion. In1545 the roofofSansovino’s librarycollapsedandhewasfined,imprisoned,anddeprivedofhisofficeofchiefarchitectofS.Marco.Hewas,however,reinstatedthrough the intercessionofTitian,Aretino,andotherpowerful friendsand in thecourseofhisdutiesreinforcedthedomeswithbandsofiron.

ThefreeinventionwithwhichSansovinousedtheClassicordersandthevigourandrichnessofhisfaçadessetthefashionforasumptuousnessofstylethatinhishandshadanimposingmagnificence,butinhisfollowersdegeneratedintoexcess.

Sammichele.—SinceMicheleSammichele(1484-1559)designedtheGvimanePalace inVenice,consideredhismasterpiece,andwasalsoemployedbytheSignoriatoconstructthefortificationsoftheLido,hemaybementionedhere,buthischiefworkisassociatedwithVerona.Bornnearthelattercity,inthevillageofSanMichele,thesonofanarchitect,hewassentasayouthtoRometostudyClassicsculptureandarchitecture.AmonghisearliestworksistheuncompletedCathedralofMontefiascone.His fame as a military architect was established when he remodelled the fortifications of Verona,introducing the new system of corner bastions and giving grandeur to the gateways by the use ofrusticatedmasonry—afeaturewhichheusedeffectivelyinhispalacedesigns.ThefinestoftheseinhisnativecityaretheCanossa,Bevilacqua,andPompeiiPalaces.Hewroteaworkon“TheFiveOrdersofArchitecture.”

Scamozzi.—ScamozzihasalreadybeenmentionedasaddingthefaçadetoPalladio’sChurchofS.GiorgioMaggiore.ThathisnamedisappearsfromVenetianarchitectureisduetothefactthathewasoneoftheItalianartistswhocarriedtheRenaissanceintoBohemia,anddesignedpartsoftheHradschinpalaceinPrague.

Longhena.—Oneexception to the excessivemannerismof theBaroque,which characterised theVenetian style of the seventeenth century, is found in the designs of Baldassare Longhena. Theseinclude thepalacesPesaroandRezzonicoand thechurchofS.MariadellaSalute.Thepalaces areoverchargedwithornament,especiallywithsculpturedfigures,yetasawholetheyaredignified,withthe imposing character due to bold, rich contrasts of light and shade that recall the example ofSansovino.S.MariaisbuiltontheplanofaGreekcross,withacentraldome,risingaboveanoctagonaldrumthatissupportedbycurvingbuttresses.Asecondarydomesurmountsthechancel,whileadjoiningitisacampanile.SituatedattheentrancetotheGrandCanal,thewholemass,especiallywhenviewedfrom a distance that reduces the disturbance of the statue-ornaments, presents a mingling ofpicturesquenessandstatelinessthatmakesitoneofthemostbeautifulfeaturesofthecity.

Tothelatterpartofthesixteenthcenturybelonganumberofimposingpalaces,erectedinGenoaby

thecommercialprinces,manyofwhichweredesignedbyGaleazzoAlessi(1502-1572).TheyincludetheBalbi,Brignole,Durazzo,Doria-Tursi,andPallavacini.

RICCARDIPALACE,FLORENCEBUILTFORCOSIMOIDE’MEDICI,BYMICHELOZZO.EARLYRENAISSANCE.P.358

PALAZZOVECCHIOORMUNICIPALPALACEOFFLORENCE;BYARNOLFODICAMBIO.GOTHICSTYLE.P.358

CAD’ORO,VENICEGOTHICSTYLE,BYGIOV.ANDBART.BUON.P.360

VENDRAMINIPALACE,VENICERENAISSANCESTYLE,BYPIETROLOMBARDO.P.360

FARNESEPALACE,ROMEBYSANGALLO;THECORNICEBYMICHELANGELO.P.363

COURTOFTHEFARNESEPALACECONSIDEREDTHEMOSTIMPOSINGINITALY.P.363

CAPITOLPALACES,ROMEBYMICHELANGELO.P.363

LIBRARYOFS.MARK,VENICEBYSANSOVINO.P.365

S.ANDREA,MANTUABYALBERTI.P.367

S.SPIRITO,FLORENCEBYBRUNELLESCHI.P.367

S.PETER’S,ROMESHOWINGFAÇADE,PIAZZAANDCOLONNADES.P.370,ETSEQ.

INTERIOROFS.PETER’S,ROMEP.370,ETSEQ.

CHAPTERIII

RENAISSANCEARCHITECTUREINITALY—CONTINUED

THE method that we have followed so far in this book has been to study architecture in relation to

problemsofconstructionandtothematerialsemployed,andtothinkofabuildingasanorganicgrowthdeterminedbyplan,site,andthepurposesforwhichitisintended—asastructureinwhichallthepartsareco-ordinatedtothewhole,eachdirectlyfunctioninginthecompletedscheme.Thisisthearchitect’swayof considering his problem.Sowehave followed it, in the desire to avoid the error intowhicharchitectstellusthatmostlaymenfallofthinkingonlyoftheoutsideofabuilding—howitisdecorated,whetherthedesignseemstobehandsomeorthereverse.

When,however,wecome to thestudyof ItalianRenaissancearchitecture, somearchitects tellusthatwemustadoptanothermethodofjudgment.Thesearethearchitectswhoareout-and-outadvocatesof the Italian Renaissance style, considering its achievements to be “supreme.” They admit that theItalianarchitectswerelessconcernedwithproblemsofconstructionthanwithgeneralbeautyofdesign;hence theywere actuatednot somuchby logic asby feeling; and feeling especially fordetail.Theydisplayedextraordinarygeniusfordesign,both in thechoiceanddispositionof thedecorativeeffectsandintheskillandrefinementoftheirexecution.Theyweredesignersratherthanconstructors.

This being the case, they should be judged accordingly. To estimate their work by the test ofconstructivelogicisarbitraryandunfair.Theyshouldbejudgedbywhattheystartedouttoaccomplish;bythecharacterandqualityoftheirdesigns.

Inaword,as itmayappear, theseadvocateswouldhaveusapplyapictorial test;suchaone,forexample, as may serve in the case of the great picture, “Marriage in Cana of Galilee,” by PaoloVeronese.We do not trouble to consider the appropriateness of the architectural setting, still less toexplain the functions of its several parts; we accept it without qualification as contributing to amonumentaldesign.

Very possibly this actually represents themain attitude of the Italian Renaissance artists towardarchitecture.Theythoughtofitinitspictorialaspectandpractiseditprimarilyasanartofdesign.Withthembeganthemodernhabitofconceivingabuildingprimarilyasadesignonpaper.Itisaneffectofwhatwehavealreadymentioned—theseparationofbuilderanddesignerthatcharacterisedtheItalianRenaissance.

Accordingly, while the following comparisons are based upon the principles that we have beenadoptingthroughoutthisbook,thereadershouldbearinmindtheexceptionthathasbeentakentothismethodofjudgment.

PalazzoVecchio—RiccardiPalace.—Agood ideaof the transition from theGothic to theEarlyRenaissanceinFlorentineArchitecturemaybegainedfromacomparisonofthePalazzoVecchioandtheRiccardiPalace.TheformerwasbuiltbyArnolfodiCambioin1298,astheMunicipalPalaceofthePodestaandSignoria.TheRiccardiwaserected in1430byMichelozzoforCosimoIde’Medici.WhiletheRepublicstillsurvivedasaname,hehadusurpedtheactualpowerandoccupiedthePalazzoVecchiountilthecompletionofhisownmansion,whichwasthenceforthtobethecentrenotonlyoftheMediceandominationbutalsoofitscourtlysplendourandliberalpatronageofliteratureandart.

Eachedificepresents to theoutsideworldacubicalmass,while the interior includesacortileoropen court. But the Vecchio is the severer in design, as befits Republican simplicity; it still hassomethingof thecharacterofamediæval fortress,due largely to theheavybattlementedcornice thatprojects onmassive corbels,withmachicolations or openings in the floor of the gallery, fromwhichdefendersmightdropmissilesonanattacking force.Asimilar feature surmounted theoriginal tower(for thepresent superstructurewasadded later)—a tower thatwasanadditional sourceofdefenceaswell as a lookout for the detection of fires or other local disturbances. It still served these purposesunder the despotism ofCosimo; so that no towerwas needed for his house.Meanwhile, he and hissuccessors had ever to be on thewatch against sudden alarms, so that itwas admissible to preserve

somewhatofthefortresscharacter—massivemasonry,withdoorandwindowopenings,thatmightnotbedifficulttodefend.Ontheotherhand,itwouldbeimpoliticeithertomakethepurposeofprotectiontooapparentortoexcitehostilitybytoolavishanappearanceofgrandeurontheexterior.Moderationmust be the keynote of the design, and the facilities of luxurious living should be confined to theinterior.

TheresultisamodificationofthePalazzoVecchiodesignbytheintroductionofclassicdetails.Aclassiccornicereplacesthemachicolated;roundarchessupplantthepointedarches,thewindowsoftheupper stories, in place of trefoils, have round-top lights, separated by a circular column. They aretechnically known as of the arcade type, while the windows of the ground floor are changed torectangular shapes and are of the architrave type, that is to say set in moulded frames, which aresupportedonconsolesandsurmountedbyclassicpediments.Moreoverinallthesedetails,attentionhasbeenpaidtorefinementsofmodelling;thereisachoicerfeelingofproportionintheadjustmentoftheopeningstothesolidwallspaceswhilethedivisionsofthestorieshavebeendistinguishedbyprojectingstring courses and in such away as tomark the importance of the second story orpiano nobile. Asuperior refinementand logicof arrangementhave regulated thewholedesign.Thebuilding, in fact,reflectsthechangedsocialconditionsandthenewmentalandæstheticattitudetowardlifeproducedbythestudyofclassicliteratureandworksofart.

Cad’Oro—Vendramini.—Nowifweshiftourglance toVeniceandcompare thefaçadesof theCad’OroandVendraminiPalaces,wediscoveragreatdifferencebetween themand theFlorentineexamples.TheCad’OrowaserectedbytheBrothersBuoninthefifteenthcentury,areminderofhowlatetheGothicstylewascontinuedinVenice.TheVendramini,PietroLombardo’sgreatachievementindomestic architecture,was completed in 1481.What a contrast both present to theRiccardi! It is anexpressionofdifferenthabitsoflife.ThereisinbothVenetianbuildingsthesuggestionofgreatersocialsecurityandafreer intercoursewiththeoutsideworldandlessobstructedenjoymentofoutofdoors.The ample windows of the Vendramini spread a welcome broadcast. And while the arcaded loggiawhichdistinguishedtheCad’OrohavebeenreplacedintheVendraminibyabalconyintheprincipalstoryandhavedisappearedabove,thechangemeansabrighterlightingoftheinterior.

ItistobenotedthatthedesignoftheCad’Oroisincomplete.Onehastoimagineontheleftawingsimilartothatontheright.Themassingoftheopeningsinthecentreofthefaçade,insteadoftheirevendistributionalong thewhole front,waspeculiar toVenetianpalaces. It isapparent,although ina lesspronouncedmanner,inthespacingofthefaçadeoftheVendramini.AnotherVenetianpeculiarityisthelimitingofthebeautyofthedesigntothemainfaçade.Evenwhenasideabuttedonanothercanaloragarden,thewallswerefinishedinstuccoinsteadofmarble;embellishmentswereomittedand,worstofall, not even was the cornice continued. These limitations impair the integrity of the design andseriouslydiminishitsdignity.ThefactisevenmoreapparentinthecaseoftheVendramini,forbythistimethehorizontalmembersofthefaçadehadacquiredadefiniteconstructivemeaning,andthefailuretocontinuethemaroundthesidesbetraysanindifferencetothelogicofdesign.

The façade of the Vendramini is no longer astylar (columnless), as, with the exception of thewindow columns, is that of theRiccardi. The adaptation of classic details has proceeded so far thatpilastersare introducedasdecorative features in thegroundstory,andengagedcolumns in theupperones;anexcusefortheirappearancebeingsuggestedbyattachingtheircapitalstothestringcoursesandcornice.ThisdevicewasdrawnfromtheexampleoftheRomanbuildings,inwhichtheGreekrelationofuprightandhorizontalmemberswasdivertedfromanelementofconstructionintoanelementpurelyofdesign.Further,while thewindowsof theVendraminirecall thecharacterof thearcade type, theyhaveadvancedtotheordertype,theopeningsbeingframedbypilastersorcolumns.Thus,thisdesign

embodiesmoreorlessallthechangeswhichtheEarlyRenaissancebroughtaboutinsecularbuildings.Vendramini—Cancellaria.—ComparingtheVendramini,however,withBramante’sadaptationof

classic details as illustrated, for example, in the Palazzo della Cancellaria, we can see how farremoved it is in feeling from the productions of the fully developedRenaissance.By the latter time(1505)thenutrimentderivedfromtheantiquehadbeendigestedandassimilated.Theantiquenotonlycontributedto,but,initsrevivedform,wasbecomingapartofthespiritofthetime.Architecturewasbecoming identifiedwith a culture thatwas fast losing its fresh, Italian inspiration in an unqualifiedadmirationandimitationofwhatwasantiqueandpagan.

ComparedwiththeVendraminioreventhesevererRiccardi,theCancellariaexhibitsaprecisionofstyle that is rather close to formalism. The design is less a product of inspired invention than ofscholarlyadaptation.Itmaywellstrikeone,especiallyatfirstsight,ascold,lifeless,evenpedantic;andit is not until one has studied the design in some detail and become conscious of the refinement offeelingandfinesseoftaste,involvedintherelationofthepartstothewhole,thatoneisinamoodtorecogniseitsclaimtoadmiration.

Thefaçadeisconstructedofblocksoftravertine,takenfromtheColosseum—fornotwithstandingtheir reverence for antiquity the Italians of theRenaissancewere prone to the vandalism of robbingPeter topayPaul.AnorderofCorinthianpilasterswith stronglymarkedcornicesandstringcourses,embellishestheupperstories,inwhichalsoisintroducedthenovelarrangementofalternatelynarrowandwidespacings,thecontrastbeingsubtlybalancedbythewindowopenings.Noticeableisthevarietyattainedbythealternatingofsquareandroundtoppedwindows,andalsotheirdistributiontomarktherelativeimportanceoftheseveralstories.Inthewindowsofthepianonobiletheeffectoftheround-toplights isheightenedbya rectangular frame, formedofpilasters,decoratedwitharabesques,while theupper part includes spandrels relieved by a single large rosette and surmounted by a delicatelyproportionedcornice.

Cancellaria—Farnese.—It is interesting to compare the official Cancellaria with the famousdomesticexample,thePalazzoFarnese.Thelatterdatesfrom1530to1546,whenthefaçadedesignedbySangallo,somesaywithVignola’sco-operation,wascompletedbyMichelangelo.Hiscontributionwas the cornice,which by its boldness of projection and richness of detail redeems the comparativemonotonyofevenlyspacedwindowsandrepeatedframings.However,itisthecourtofthispalace,saidto be themost imposing in Italy, that presents its finest claim to distinction, andhere the two lowerstories,erectedbySangallo,aresuperiorinfreedomofdesign,aswellasdignity,tothemorecrampedandcrowdedupperonethatwasaddedbyMichelangelo.

CapitolPalaces.—The latter, a fewyears earlier, namely in1540,hadbegun the erectionof theCapitolPalaces,adesignthatflanksthreesidesofasquare, therightandleftofwhichareoccupiedrespectively,bythePalazzodeiConservatoriandtheCapitolineMuseum,bothcompleted in1542,whilethecentre,finishedin1563,ayearbeforeMichelangelo’sdeath,holdsthePalazzodeiSenatori.

In these façades appears the innovation of pilasters, carried through the two upper stories. Thisemphasisoftheverticallinescontradictstheinternaldivisionofthestructureintostoriesandisatthesacrificeofthehorizontallinesofthefaçade.Thelatterarebrokenupintobalconies,whiletheinteriordivision is only hinted at by the windows. But Michelangelo with the audacity of genius rejectedproprietiesofdetailandevenlogicofstructure,ashewaspronetodoalsoinhissculpture—witnesstherecumbentfiguresontheMedicitombs—forthesake,asweshouldsayto-day,ofagranderandmoreimpressivesynthesis.Inaword,hesacrificedthepartstothewhole;andtosecuretheimpressivenessofthewhole, ties thepilasters togetherat the topwithanentablature thatcomprisesaboldlyprojectingcorniceandisadditionallyemphasisedbythecrowningfeatureofabalustrade.ExceptthatthecornicetakestheplaceofpedimentstheprincipleofdesignisvirtuallythatofaRomantemple,divertedfrom

its purpose and brusquely made to accommodate itself to novel conditions. In the hands ofMichelangelo the end may be said to justify the means, but this device of ignoring the interiornecessitiesofconstructioninfavourofanarbitraryexteriordesignbecameaprecedentthatcontributedlargelytothedecadenceoftheRenaissancestyle.Yet,afterall,itwasonlycarryingtoadestructivelylogicalconclusiontheuseoftheclassicordersaselementsnotofconstructivebutofpurelydecorativedesign.

We have already noted in the case of Gothic architecture that its decadence was exhibited in asuperabundance of decorative detail, and a similar course appears in the Renaissance.Much of theresponsibilityof thechange isattributed toSansovino.WhileMichelangelomagnified thedecorative,the Venetian architect elaborated it. His façade of theLibrary of SanMarco may be cited as anexample.

CapitolPalaces—LibraryofS.Mark.—IfwecomparetheLibrarywiththeCapitolPalaceswediscover several important differences. In the Venetian building the divisions of the interior areindicatedbytheemphatichorizontalfeatures;andthelatter,aswellasthedeepopeningsofthearcadeandofthewindows,produceadepthofshadoweffects,whichincombinationwiththelightedsurfacesresultsingreatvarietyandrichness.Itispreciselythesequalities,whicharealsoelementsinthedesignofHellenicandRomantemples,thatMichelangelolostordiscardedinhisadaptation.ContrastedeitherwithatempleorwithSansovino’sLibrary,theCapitolPalaces,grandiosealthoughtheyare,seemtameand tight, lacking in structuralvitality.Sansovino introducedvigour intohisdesignby increasing theprojection of his large and small columns and by using the latter in couples; also by giving acorresponding projection to all the decorative details and by introducing sculptured figures into thespandrelsofthearchesandthefrieze.

Theprincipleofhisdesign,statedinordinaryterms,was:Ifsuchandsuchthingsaregood,moreofthemwillbebetter.ItwasaprinciplethatmightwellcommenditselftotheVenetians’loveofpageantryanddisplay.Sansovinohadsufficienttastetoknowhowfartocarrytheelaboration;butinthehandsofsucceeding architects his restraintwas exchanged for license, variety degenerated into fussiness, andelaborationbecameextravagance.

Pesaro Palace.—These faults are discernible in the Pesaro Palace (1650-1680) by Longhena, aproductoftheVenetianRococospirit,andbynomeansanextremeexample.Foritpreservesacertaindignityofmassnotwithstandingthatitisoverchargedwithornamentthatgivesitaneffectoftrickinessandrestlessness.Andthelatter,itistobenoted,ispartlyduetothedevice,whichforalongtimehadbeenprevalent,ofcarryingthehorizontalmouldingaroundtheprojectingcapitalofanengagedcolumnorpilaster.BorrowedfromRomanusage,itrepresentsanelementofdecorationthattendstoconvertthecontrastingquietnessof thehorizontal lines into a jiggetydisturbance.Thispalace,however, can layclaimtothedistinctionthat thesuperimposedordersarecontinued,withpilasters insteadofcolumns,alongthefaçadethatabutsonthesidecanal.

ECCLESIASTICALBUILDINGS

WehavenowtotracetheprogressoftheRenaissancestyleasitaffectedEcclesiasticalarchitecture.It ismaintained by enthusiastic advocates ofGothic architecture, such asRalphAdamsCram in hisinspiredlittlebook,“TheGothicQuest,”thatwhereasGothicarchitecturewasevolvedbytheChurchandlaitythroughtheimpulseofacommonFaith,andwasdeterminedinallitsessentialparticularsbythesymbolismoftheChristianreligionandtherequirementsofChristianworship,thechangeeffectedby theRenaissancewasa reversion to thearchitectural typesofPaganism.Renaissanceecclesiasticalarchitecture did not grow; it was formulated out of precedents that were the direct antithesis of

ChristianityandChristianworship;derivedeitherfromtemplesthatwerebuiltafterthebeliefeveninthe Pagan religion had languished or died out, or from types of secular architecture, such as baths,basilicas,andtriumphalarches.Thereforeitwasfalseinprincipleandillogicalandinsincereinfact.

Itisdifficultnottoagreewiththiscriticism;themoreso,thatitisamatterofknowledgethattheRenaissance style was developed by ecclesiastics and laity who, while they tolerated the traditionalreligion—“Ifwearenotourselvespious,”asPopeJulius II said,“whyshouldweprevent thepeoplefrom being so?”—were in their own tastes, convictions, and habits of life notoriously pagan.Accordingly,it isnottheaspirationofthesoul,theascendingconfidenceoffaith,theyearningofthespirit beyond the confines of the flesh that are embodied in Renaissance church architecture; but,increasingly, the pride of intellect, the pride of life, and the satisfaction of the senses in ceremonialdisplay.

S.Spirito—S.Andrea.—Wewill compare firstBrunelleschi’sChurchofS.Spirito inFlorence(1476)withAlberti’sS.Andrea inMantua (1512). Professor Fletcher points out the close analogybetweentheformerandtheRomanesquechurchof theApostles,erectedinFlorenceduringtheninthcentury.Itrepresents,ineffect,areversiontothefeaturesoftheTuscanRomanesque—vaultedaisles,aflatceilingoverthenave,surmountingahighclerestoryandaisles.Forthesupport,however,ofthelowdomeover thecrossing,Brunelleschi revived theByzantinesystemofpendentives,whichhenceforthwere used in all the Renaissance domes. Classic influence is chiefly apparent in the details of thecolumns,whichpresentprobablythefirstexampleoffragmentsofentablatureplaceduponthecapitalstosustainthespringofthearches.

Alberti’sdesign,ontheotherhand,isunqualifiablyanadaptationofRomanstyle,exceptinthecaseof the dome, which is supported by pendentives and raised on a drum. But the latter assumes theclassical formofaperistyleofcolumnssurmountedbyanentablature.Theroofof thenave isbarrelvaulted and coffered in theRomanmanner and springs directly from the entablature,which rests onpiersthataredecoratedwithengagedpilastersoftheCorinthianorder.Thefaçadeoftheporchsuppliesthe motive of the whole design, being an adaptation of the Roman triumphal arch in Mantua.Accordingly,itiscomposedoffourCorinthianengagedcolumns,mountedonpedestalsintheRomanmanner,supportinganentablatureandpediment.The three interveningspacesareoccupiedbydoors,overeachofthesideonesbeingawindowaboveawindow,whilethecentraldoorisflankedbytwocolumns,whichsupportacorniceandarchthatframealunette.IfthestudentwillcompareitwiththemainportalofsomeGothicorRomanesquechurch,hewilldiscoveraninstructivedifference.

IlGesu—S.GiorgioMaggiore.—HereisafurthercomparisonofRenaissancechurch-façades:—theJesuitChurchinRome,IlGesu(1568)andS.GiorgioMaggioreinVenice(1560).TheformerisbyVignola;thelatterwaserectedbyScamozzi,thepupilofPalladio.ButPalladiodesignedtherestofthechurchand,sincethefaçadewasbuiltduringhislifetime,mayhavehadmoreorlesstodowithitsdesign.ItisatanyrateinthePalladianmanner.

BothPalladioandVignolawerepronouncedclassicalists,andyettheycontributedtothedecadenceoftheRenaissancestyle.ItistruethatPalladio’sownstylewascharacterisedbyamarkedseverity;notethe present façade which presents a severely formal application of columns, entablatures, andpediments. But it involves a feature that readily lent itself to extravagant exploitation; namely, theemphasis upon colossal columns. Vignola’s design, on the other hand, is characterised by amultiplicationandelaborationoffeatures,whichhissenseofclassicproprietyhaskeptwithinorderedboundsbutwhichalessrefinedtastemighteasilydegradeintoexuberantpretentiousness.

Andindeedacertainpretentiousnessmarksboththesefaçades.Theymakeclaimtobeingimposedby methods that are actually a pretence. For neither design has grown out of the necessities andcircumstances of the building. Each represents the arbitrary importation of alien ingredients, pieced

togethertoconformtotheprinciplesofastylethatwasevolvedforotherpurposesandconditions.Eachdesignisfalseinmotiveandspeciousinitsapplicationofprinciples;and,sinceliesbreedlies,itmustshareresponsibilityfortheflagrancyofspeciousandpretentiousshamsthatintimeensuedfromit.

And,already,inboththesedesignstheimitationoftheantiqueresultsincoldandrigidformalism.Compare, for example, Vignola’s façade with one of the Tuscan Romanesque, for instance, Pisacathedral.ThearchitectsofthelatterborrowedfromtheRomanstheuseofappliedarcadesofarchesand columns; but used the device frankly as a decorative sheathing, subordinated in scale to theconstructivemass, andmaintained the rich simplicity of effect by repetition of the same decorativemotive.

Vignola, however, treated his sheathing as if it had actual constructivemeaning; and,moreover,multiplied the motives. Big, coupled columns, mounted on pedestals, supported an entablature, thecorniceofwhichbecomesthesupportofanotherseriesofbig,coupledcolumns,whichmakeagreatdisplayofsupportingalittlepediment.ComparingthisRenaissanceexamplewiththePisan,onemayberemindedof a circus incident.At first there enters aperformerwhowithdelightful agility andgracekeeps a number of balls moving lightly in the air. He is followed by another, who, assuming theattitudesofanAtlassupportingtheworld,labourswithacannonball,which,whenitisfinallytossedaside,provestobenoheavierthanafootball.

Scarcely less incongruous is the Palladian design, with its colossal framework of columns,entablatureandpediment,andthepaltryscaleofitsdoorwayandwindows.Andthentheenormityofthebrokenpediment,thetwopartsofwhichformthefrontoftheseriesofside-chapelsthatflanktheinteriorofthenave.Ofcoursethereisasortofcallouslogicrepresented.Thepedimentistheendofaslopingroof;therefore,iftheroofbeseparatedintotwoparts,whynotseparatethepediment?Butwhataboutthetastewhich,aswehaveseen,alwaystemperedthelogicoftheGreeks?CouldtheGreektastehavetoleratedthecleavageinhalfofalittletempledesignandtheswaggeringintrusionbetweenthemofagiantdesignandpersuadeditselfthatthedominationofthelatterproducedaharmonyofrelations?

S.PETER’S

The culminating achievement of the Italian Renaissancewas the newChurch ofS. Peter’s, theerectionofwhich,datingfrom1506toabout1626,coversthewholeperiodoftheriseanddeclineoftheClassicmovementinRome.

Theoriginalplan,aslaidoutbyBramante,wasaGreekcross,comprising,thatistosay,fourequalparts.Onthisheproposedtodesignabuildingthatshouldcombinethethreegreatbarrel-vaultedhallsoftheBasilicaofConstantinewiththedomeofthePantheon.In1514,theyearprecedingBramante’sdeath,SangallotheElder,Raphael,andFraGiocondadaVeronawereassociatedwiththework;buttheadvancedageofthefirstandthirdandRaphael’spreoccupationwithpaintingandhisearlydeathcausedlittletobeaccomplished.

Meanwhileadifferenceofopinionhadarisenas towhether theplan shouldbeaGreekorLatincross.TheconstructionwascontinuedunderthedirectorshipofSangallotheYoungerandPeruzzi,untilin1546Michelangelowasappealedto.HerescuedthegroundplanofBramante,reinforcedthepierswhichthelatterhadbegunatthecrossing,andmadedrawingsandawoodenmodelofthedomeasfarupasthelanternandactuallycompletedtheerectionofthedrum.

HewassucceededbyVignola,whoaddedthefourcupolasaroundthedome.Thedomeitselfwascompleted fromMichelangelo’s model, and finished (1585-1590) with a lantern, by Giacomo dellaPortaandFontana.

During1605-1612,attheinstanceofPaulV,thenavewaslengthenedbyCarloMadernatoforma

LatininsteadofaGreekcrossandthefaçadewaserected.Finally,between1629and1667,Berniniconstructedthebrazenbaldachinoandlavishedsculpture

ontheinterior,whilecompletingtheexterioreffectbythecolonnadeswhichenclosethePiazza.Easilythelargestchurchintheworld,S.Peter’scompareswithotherlargechurchesasfollows,the

figuresrepresentingsquareyardsofareainroundnumbers:S.Peter’s,18,000;Seville,13,000;Milan,10,000;S.Paul’s,London, 9000;S. Sophia, 8000;Cologne, 7000. The interiormeasurement of S.Peter’s is approximately 205 yards long; the nave being 150 feet high and 87 feet wide (the samedimensionsasthoseofthegreathalloftheConstantinebasilica).Thedomefromthepavementtothesummitofthelanternis403feet,thecrossaddinganother30;whilethediameteris138feet,aboutfivefeetlessthanthedomeofthePantheon.

The prolongation of the nave by three bays has destroyed the symmetry ofmass, conceived byBramante andMichelangelo, besides interferingwith the exterior viewof thedome,which is visibleonlyfromadistance.Theeastfaçade(forS.Peter’sreversestheusualorientationfromwesttoeast)is,for all its magnitude, unimpressive. Its extension beyond the actual edifice at each end still furtheraccentuates thecomparativelymeanscaleof theportal.Butscale isverygenerallysacrificedbothonthe exterior and in the interior of S. Peter’s. This is attributed by experts to the change of designintroducedbyMichelangelo.

AsarrangedbySangallo theYounger, thefaçadeswere tocomprise thesuperimposedorders; forwhichMichelangelosubstitutedhisschemeoftheCapitolPalaces—asinglecolossalorder,surmountedbyanattic.Hethusgaineddignityat theexpenseofscale;foralthoughthehugepilastersareeighty-sevenfeethigh,theylookmuchsmaller,whilethewindowsbetweenthem,eachtwentyfeetinheight,giveanimpressiontotheeyeofabouthalfthatsize.Thereisasimilarapparentdwarfingofsizeinthepiers and engaged columns of the nave, which actually measure to the top of the entablature onehundredfeet.Andthisnecessitatedacorrespondingincreaseofthedimensionsofthesculpturedfiguresinthespandrels,whicharetwentyfeethigh,thusfurtheroverpoweringthesenseofheight.

Thenoblestfeatureoftheinterioristhemagnificentbarrelvaultofthenave,whilethesurpassinggrandeurofthewholeedificeconsistsinMichelangelo’sdome.

LikeBrunelleschi’s it has an inner and an outer shell, and is constructed on sixteen ribs,which,however,areallvisible internally.Thechiefdifferenceis theelevationof thedomeanddrumuponasecond and loftier drum, composed of coupled Corinthian columns and intervening windows. Thisdesignwasanadaptationof thosewhichhadbeenmadebyBramanteandSangallotheYounger.Theformer had suggested a peristyle of columns; the latter, two drums; and Michelangelo virtuallycombinedthetwo.But,indoingsoheconceivednewproportionsbetweentheverticalpartsofthedrumandthecurveofthedome,thatgivehisdesignnotonlyasuperiormajestybutalsoasuperiorlightnessandairiness.

S. Peter’s indeed, notwithstandingmuch extravagant, tasteless, andmeretricious sumptuousness,duetoBerniniandothers,remainsastupendousmonumenttothegeniusofMichelangeloandBramanteandtothegeniusoftheItalianRenaissance.Itisthefitsymbolofanagethatgraduallylosttouchofthefiner thingsof the spirit andgrew toworshipgreatness,power, andpomp; thathadallbutdiscardedChristianityforPaganism.

Meanwhile thenoblest traitof theItaliangeniuswas itsworshipofbeautyaswellaspower.The

creativenessoftheItalianswasrevealedintheirextraordinarysensitivenesstoallformsofbeautyinthevisible world; and in the world of intellectual conception, and in their marvellous aptitude fortranslatingtheirimpressionsofbeautyintoformsofequivalentrefinement.Accordingly,thestudentof

to-dayvisitschurchestoenjoythetreasuresofpicturedaltar-pieces,sculpturedtombs,pulpits,wondersofmetal-workinscreensandsacredvessels,marvelsofexquisitecraftsmanshipinobjectstoonumeroustomention.TheSistineChapeldrawshimbecauseofMichelangelo’sfrescoes,theStanzeapartmentsforRaphael’s,andtheadjoiningLoggiaforhispicturedBible.Again,itisRaphael’sfrescoesthatleadhimtotheVillaFarnesina,whilemanyanothervillacharmsto-dayby thebeautyof itsgardensandterraces, fountains,cascades,andfish-ponds,shadedalleysandgrottos. In innumerableways it is theaccompaniments of Italian Renaissance architecture, as well as the architecture itself, that exciteadmirationandhavetheirmessageforourselves.

CHÂTEAUDEBLOISGOTHICPARTBUILTBYLOUISXII.P.379

MAISONFRANÇOISI.PARISBUILTIN1527.NOTEUNUSUALSIZEOFWINDOWS;ALSORICHNESSOFINTERVENINGPILASTERS.P.380

CHÂTEAUDEBLOISPARTADDEDBYFRANCISI,SHOWINGSTAIRCASETOWER.P.380

CHÂTEAUDECHAMBORDPERIODFRANCISI.P.380

LUXEMBOURGPALACEERECTEDFORMARIEDEMÉDICIS,WIFEOFHENRIIV;BYSALOMONDEBROSSE.P.386

PLANSHOWINGGROWTHOFLOUVREFROMTHEORIGINALPARTERECTEDBYPIERRELESCOT—THELEFTLOWERCORNEROFTHEDARKQUADRANGLEONRIGHTOFPLAN.P.382,ET

SEQ.

PAVILLONDEL’HORLOGE,LOUVREWINGTOTHERIGHT,THEORIGINALPARTBYPIERRELESCOT.THEPAVILLONANDLEFTWINGBYLEMERCIER(LOUISXIII).PP.384,385

CHAPTERIV

RENAISSANCEARCHITECTUREINFRANCE

1.EarlyRenaissance.ReignsofCharlesVIII,LouisXII,andFrancisI(1483-1547).2.AdvancedRenaissance.HenriII,FrancisII,CharlesIX,andHenriIII(1547-1589).3.ClassicPeriod.HenriIV,LouisXIII,andLouisXIV(1589-1715).4.Rococo.TheRegencyandLouisXI(1715-1774).By themiddle of the fifteenth century commercial relationswith Italy and the number of Italian

ecclesiasticsholdingbeneficesinFrance,hadcausedasteadyinfluxofItalianinfluence,whichbecameintensifiedbythemilitaryinterferencesofCharlesVIII,LouisXII,andFrancisIinthepoliticsofItaly.The practical issue of these otherwise disastrous expeditionswas the invasion of Italian culture intoFrance.

ItalianCulture.—Itproducedaneweraof intellectualactivityandfosteredanewrefinementoftaste and social conditions. Its earliest results are typified in the career ofFrancis I.NoFrenchkingbeforehistimehadreceivedsoliberalaneducation.Undertheenlightenedcareofhismother,LouiseofSavoy, hewas early trained in Latin, Italian, and Spanish, sharing the studieswith his gifted sister,Margaret, afterward Queen of Navarre, a patroness of literature and herself the author of the“Heptameron,”acollectionofstories,supposedtoextendoversevendaysinthetellingandmodelledonthestyleofBoccaccio’s“Decameron.”Francisalsoplayedtherôleofpatron,surroundinghimselfwithmenoflettersandartists;butwhileheencouragedthevisitsofItalianartistshewasnolesseagerto encourage native talent. His patronage of Clement Marot, the first great poet of the FrenchRenaissance, is a case in point and, corresponding with this amour propre regarding native talentnotwithstanding his love for things Italian,was his employment of French architects, the services offoreignartistsbeingusedchieflyinthewayofsculpturalandpainteddecorations.

By themiddle of the fifteenth century the great era of churchbuildinghadbeen exhausted.Theneeds of the population for places ofworshipwere fully satisfied; the profession of architect passedfromtheclericstolaymen,who,sofarasecclesiasticalworkwasconcerned,werebusyembellishing

existingchurcheswithaltar-furnishings,screens,pulpits,fonts,tombs,andsoforth,inwhichthenovelskilloftheItaliancraftsmanwasfreelyused.

School of Tours.—Thus, in consequence of Italian influence, a new school of French sculpturegrewup,whichcenteredinTours,acityatthisperiodspeciallyfavouredbythekingsofFrance.Thegenius of this “School of Tours” was Michel Colombe, whose art represented a blend of Italianrefinement and Gothic vigour; and it was precisely this mingled quality that characterised thearchitecture of the Early French Renaissance. It, too, was centered in Tours, and blossomed forththroughouttheProvinceofTouraine.ForitwasadistinctionoftheFrenchCourtlifeoftheperiodthatitavoidedcrampedconditionsofcityenvironmentandspreaditselfluxuriantlyinthepleasuresofcountrylife.Accordingly,thearchitecturalmemorialsoftheEarlyFrenchRenaissancearemainlytheroyalandnoblechâteauxthatstudTouraine,especiallyalongthebanksoftheriversLoireandCher.

Châteaux.—The conditions being so local and essentially an expression of the French idea ofliving, themodelof theItalianpalace—aproductprimarilyof theneedsandconditionsofcity life—couldnotbedirectlyapplied,whilethelogicoftheFrenchgenius,workingatthattimefreely,eschewedthe attempt tomake a compromisewith imitation. So the châteaux of theEarly FrenchRenaissanceretainthestructuralcharacteroftheGothicFeudalcastlebutmodifyitinthewayofItalianrefinements,passingfrommilitaryoffensiveanddefensivepurposetothatofelegantandluxuriousliving.HenceadistinctionoftheseFrenchchâteauxistheirpicturesquenessandthedegreetowhichtheyparticipateinthenaturalpicture.

Insteadof theunityofeffectpresentedbyanItalianpalace,completelyenclosingitscortile, theyretainedtheGothiccharacteristicofvarietyinunity;theirextensiveanddifferingfaçadesbeinggroupedarounda spaciouscourtyard, andcomposed soas to furnishavarietyof effects fromdifferentview-pointsofthelandscape.

Onesideofthecourtwasoccupiedbyawindowlessscreenwallalongwhich,upontheinside,ranacolonnade,whilethecentrewaspiercedbyalargecoveredgatewaythataffordedaporte-cochère.Thesides of the courtyard were flanked by buildings, devoted to the servants’ quarters and the variousoffices connectedwith the home-life and the outdoor pastimes, while on the fourth side, facing theentrance,extendedthemainedifice,designedfortheoccupationofthefamilyandtheentertainmentofguests.Thechiefarchitecturaldistinctionof thismainpartwasreservedfor itsouterfaçade,whereitabuttedonaterrace,whichcommunicatedwiththealleys,parterres,andfish-pondsoftheformallylaidoutgardensandcommandedviewsofthesurroundingpark.

In thisadaptationof theplanofaGothic fortress to theconveniencesandpleasuresofacountrypalace,someoftheoldarchitecturalfeatureswerepreservedbutmodifiedtodecorativepurposes.Thusthegatewaywassquareandmassive,recallingdistantlytheappearanceofadonjonkeep;themoresothat round towers, built, however,with squaredwalls in the interior, projected from the angles. Theangles also of the outer façades were embellished with similar towers, that preserved a picturesquecontrast to the straight lines of the interveningmasonry aswell as presenting from theirwindows avarietyofviewsofthesurroundings.Theactualmachicolationsthatpreviouslyoverhungthewallswerenow reduced to a decorative motive of little arches upon corbels, and the battlements gave way tobalustrades. Further, the great hall was replaced by state apartments which, as in an Italian palace,occupiedthesecondfloororbelétage.

Meanwhile,thecrowningdistinctionoftheEarlyRenaissancepalaceswasthehigh-pitchedroofs,surmounted in the case of the turrets with lanterns or louvers, and everywhere enlivened with talldecoratedchimneysandrecurringdormerwindows,inframesofrichlycarvedtracery.Itwas,infact,inthetreatmentoftheroofsthattheFrencharchitectschieflypreservedtheGothictendencytoverticality;and, correspondingly, itwas in the gradual lowering of the roofs and the emphasis of the horizontal

featuresofthefaçadesthattheyexhibitedtheirgradualconversiontoItalianinfluences.To-day,thesechâteauxofTouraine,embosomedinthebeautyoftheirnaturalsurroundings,quietly

mirrored in the river’s surface, still testify to the vigour and freshness of the Gallic genius in thedayspring of its acceptance of Italian refinements.A little effort of imagination, assisted,maybe, bypictures such as those of Eugène Isabey, can reconstruct in fancy the splendour and vivacity of thescene, when the terraces viedwith the parterres in their blossoming of colours, as courtlymen andwomeninthebraveryofimportedItalianvelvetsandbrocades,loungedineleganteaseorgatheredinagrouptolistentoapoet’slatestchanson,whiletheactivityofthecourtyard,withitsconstantcomingandgoingofrussetandgreen-cladservingmen,wasstirredtoagayeraspectbythearrivalordepartureofabrilliantcavalcadeofhunterswithhawkandhound.

ChâteaudeGaillon.—OneoftheearliestofthecastlesthatmarkedthetransitionfromGothictoRenaissancewas theChâteau deGaillon, whichwas built for a Tourainer, the Cardinal George ofAmboise,not,however,inTouraine,butintheneighbourhoodofRouen.OnlyfragmentsofitremainwhicharenowpreservedintheÉcoledesBeauxArtsinParis;butinitsdayitwasamasterpieceoftheRouenSchool,which preceded that ofTours as a flourishing centre of art and letters. Itmuchmorenearlyresembledinitslay-outthecharacterofafortifiedcastle,havingamongotherdefensivedetails,amoatanddrawbridge.

ChâteaudeBlois.—Meanwhile,asurvivingexampleofthetransitionandEarlyRenaissance,istheChâteaudeBlois,thefirstoftheRoyalPalaces,begunbyCharlesXIIandcompletedbyFrancisI.TheearlierfaçadeisstillunmistakablyGothic;thearchesofthecolonnadeareflatsegments,characteristicofthelatestperiod;theshaftsofthecolumnsareattachedtopiersthatreinforcetheupperwallsandruninto the cornice; thewindows still have stonemullions and transoms, and the design and decorativedetailofthedormerwindowsarepurelyGothic.

Ontheotherhand,inthefaçadeofFrancisI,theornamentofthedormerwindows,aswellasthedecorative details elsewhere, are of Italian design. The cornice has been given a more pronounceddecorativetreatment;ithasabolderprojectionand,whiletheoldmachicolationsarerepresentedtheyare converted into a purely decorative motive. Further, although the square mullion windows stillappear,theyareframedwithpilastersandcorniceandtheinterveningspacesofsolidwallaretreatedaspanelsandenrichedwitharabesques.

Thefinestfeatureofthiswingisthestaircasetower,whichoccupiesthecentreofthefaçadeontheside facing the court. Polygonal in plan, it is constructed with four great piers, extending from thegroundtothecornice,towhicharefittedtherisingbalustrades.ThewholeismagnificentlyGothicinitsstructural design as well as in the character of the canopied niches; but the actual ornament isRenaissanceandwasprobablyexecutedbyItalianartists.InthepiercedcarvingofthebalustradesthedecorativemotiveistheKing’smonogram,“F,”intertwinedwithhisemblem,theSalamander.

Château de Chambord.—Another famous staircase appears in theChâteau de Chambord, apalacewhichinotherrespectsalsopresentsmostinterestingfeatures.ItwaserectedbyFrancisI(1526),probablyasahuntingbox,andthearchitect,PierreC.Nepveu,hasadheredmorecloselythanhadbeenusual to theplanof a feudal fortress.For inplaceof thegateway in the centreof the screenwall, asquarestructurewithcornertowers,whichareroundoutsidebutsquareintheinterior,projectsintothecourtyard, in the manner of a donjon-keep. Yet its purpose was not for defence but for ceremonialentertainment, since the interior contains four halls carried up to a great height and covered withcofferedbarrelvaults,whilethecentreoftheplanisoccupiedbythestaircase.

Thelatter,constructedinastonecage,consistsofadoublespiralstairway,respectivelyforascentanddescent.Itcommunicateswithsmallroomsintheanglesofthesquareandintheturrets,andfinally

withthelantern,whichcommandsasuperbviewofthesurroundingcountry.Thislantern,octagonalinplan,thecrowningfeatureoftheexteriordesign,risesabovethesurroundingroofs,dormer-windows,and chimneys in two tiers of arcades, noticeably Italian in their systemof pilasters and entablatures.They are surmounted by a domed roof,which supports an elaborate cupola.While the sky line thuspresents a richly picturesque confusion, the façades are comparatively severe and in the orderedrepetition of their details reflect the Italian influence. This is especially perceptible in the orders ofCorinthianpilasters,inthegeneralemphasisofthehorizontalfeatures,andintheuseofroundarchesinthearcades.Meanwhile,theuniformityofthefaçadesarerelievedbytheprojectingangle-turrets,andby the admirably disposed masses of solid masonry, which besides their decorative value serve thepracticaluseofbackingstotheinteriorfireplaces.

Other famous châteaux of Touraine are those of Bury, Chenonceaux, Azay-le-Rideau, andAmboise. Then came the day when Francis moved his court to Paris, thus shifting the scene ofarchitecturalactivity.AruralpalacesprangintoformatFontainebleau,aroyalchâteauatSt.Germain-en-Laye,andastartwasmadewiththecitypalaceoftheLouvre.

Palace of Fontainebleau.—The Palace of Fontainebleau was begun in 1528 by the architectGillesleBreton.Itfollowedtheplanofaconventwhichitreplaced,sothataremarkableirregularitydistinguishesitsarrangement.ThedesignofthefaçadeswasprobablyinfluencedbyVignolaandSerlio,whowereamongtheartistsinvitedfromItalybyFrancisI.TheyincludedalsothepaintersNiccolodell’Abbati, IlRosso,andPrimaticcio,and thesculptor,BenvenutoCellini,whowereemployedupon thedecorationoftheinterior.Indeed,itisforthemagnificenceoftheinteriordecoration,especiallyintheGalerie de François I, and in the Salle des Fêtes, added byHenri II, and the Galerie de Diane andGaleriedesCerfsofHenriIV,ratherthanforarchitecturaldistinction,thatFontainebleauiscelebrated.

Louvre.—TheLouvre was commenced in 1546, the year preceding the death of Francis I. ThedesignwasentrustedtotheFrencharchitect,PierreLescot,butissupposedtohavebeeninfluencedbySerlio.Itexhibits,infact,anoticeablyItaliancharacterandmarksthebeginningoftheadvancedphaseof the FrenchRenaissance, associatedwith the reigns ofHenri II, Charles IX, andHenri III (1547-1589),while subsequent additions,made during the reigns ofHenri IV, LouisXIII, and LouisXIV,record the progress of the matured Renaissance toward the period of pronounced Classicalism.AccordinglythehistoryoftheLouvreisanepitomeofwhatthisdevelopmentinvolved.

ThePalacewasoriginallydesignedtocoverthecomparativelysmallsquareplanwhichhadbeenoccupied by the Gothic, fortified palace of Philippe Augustus, and the parts, executed by Lescot,comprisethewestandsouthfaçades.InthereignofLouisXIIItheoriginalsquarewasdoubledinsize,soas to enclose thepresent courtof the, so-called, “OldLouvre.”Meanwhile,underCharles IX, theadjacent palace of the Tuilleries was erected by the architect, Philibert de l’Orme, for Catherine deMedicis;and toconnect itwith theLouvre,a longgallery, subsequentlycompletedbyHenri IV,wasbuilt along the bankof theSeine.Thiswas supplemented later bywings, forming three sides of thelargerCourtofthePlaceduCarrousel,whichwasfinishedbyNapoleonI.Meanwhile,byLouisXIVanewfront,borderingontheSeine,hadbeenaddedtotheOldLouvre,andfinally,underNapoleonIII,two wings were projected from the Old Louvre on the north and south of the Place du Carrousel,forming what is now known as theNew Louvre. At present the only change from the plan thusgradually compiled, consists in the loss of theTuillerieswhichwas burnt by theCommunemob in1871.

Old Louvre—Blois.—Returning to the original façade by Pierre Lescot, one may compare itprofitablywithboththeearlierandthelaterfaçadesofBlois.TheLouvredesign,liketheearlierBlois,consistsof threeparts, buthasbecomemoreunified.Thearcade is replacedbydeeply setwindows,underroundarches;thebelétagenowpresentsaregularrecurrenceofwindowsatcloserintervals,and

thedormerwindowshavegivenwaytoacontinuousatticwithaconsequentloweringofthepitchoftheroof. Again, when compared with the later façade of Blois, one notes in that of the Louvre thedisappearanceofthemulliondivisionsinthewindows,theirnarrowerandhighershape,andtheItaliandetail of their pedimental tops. Particularly noticeable is the more simplified and organic effectproducedbycompressingthefourstoriesoftheolderdesignintoanappearanceofthreedivisions,verycarefully balanced. Under this appearance, however, lies an actual fourth story, introduced as amezzaninefloorbetweenthefirstandsecond.Itisbetrayedbythebull’s-eyewindoworœildebœuf,acharacteristicallyFrenchshapeofwindow,andbyarangeofsemi-circularwindowswhichatfirstsightmayseemtobeapartof thewindowsbelowthem.Thisexteriorblendingof themezzaninewith thefirststoryresultsinstrengtheningthecharacterofthelowerpart,sothatitaffordsaresolutefoundationforthebelétage,whichinitselfiseffectivelyemphasisedbythespecialtreatmentofthewindows.

Andthisunityofdesignisfurtherincreasedbytheboldprojectionoftheentablaturesandcornice.Thesuggestionofverticalityhasbeenabandonedinthefrankacceptanceofthehorizontalmotive.Lest,however, this shouldproducemonotony, theGallicpreference forvariety relieved the flatnessof thefaçadesbydoublingthewidthofthewindow-baysattheendsandinthecentre,andbygivingthemaslightprojection.Aroundthistheentablaturesarebroken,whiledoublepilastersareemployedandthesummit terminates in segmental pediments, which break into and relieve the continuous line of thecornice.When further we note that in addition to the Corinthian and Composite pilasters and othercarveddetailsofpurelyItaliandesign,therearestatuesandmuchotherenrichment,characterisedbythefree,vigorousfeelingofFrenchsculpture,theworkitissaidofJeanGoujon,werealisethaneventheadvancedphaseofFrenchRenaissance,atleastinitsearlystage,reflectsstillatemperamentnoticeablyGallic.

When itwas decided, in the reign of LouisXIII, to double the size of the court of the Louvre,Jacques Lemercier, who was entrusted with the work, erected as a central feature of the prolongedfaçade, the “Pavilion de l’Horloge.” This was supplemented on the side facing west by anotherpavilioncalledafter thefamousministerofHenri IVandLouisXIII, thePavilionSully.Theformeroccupies a width twice that of the double, projecting bays, and, while it continues the sequence ofwindowsinthebelétageandattic,introducesintheformeralargeround-toppedwindow.Further,theattic is surmountedby a clerestoryof threewindows, framedwith twin-figured caryatids by JacquesSarrazin.Theysupportapediment,abovewhichrisesadomicalroof,dividedbyfourwell-definedribsandterminatinginabalustradedcrown—atreatmentofpavilionsessentiallyFrenchincharacter.

Itisakintothattypeofroofconstruction,whichwascalledafterthearchitect,FrançoisMansartorMansard,whopopulariseditsuse.Theprincipleisthereplacementofthecontinuousslopebya“hip”or“curb”—namely,themeetingofanupperandalowerslopeatanobtuseangel;aformofconstructionwhichreducestheoutwardthrustonthewallsbydirectingmuchofthestraintothepostthatsupportstheangle.Whenuseduponpavilions,itgivesthemsomethingoftheeffectoftowers.

EastFaçade.—UnderLouisXIVtheOldLouvrewascompletedbytheadditionoftheeastfaçade.TheworkhadbeenentrustedtoBernini,whowasavisitoratthecourt,buthisprojectwasrejectedinfavourofonedesignedbytheKing’sphysician,Dr.Perrault.Thisinvolvedagaindoublingthesizeoftheplanbythecontinuationofthenorthandsouthfaçades.InthesethestyleofLescot’swasfortunatelypreserved,thoughanotherstorywasaddedtoaccommodatetheextraheightoftheeastfaçade.

Thelatterrepresentsthefullacceptanceoftheclassicalstyle,whichreflectsthetasteofthetime;andissuchadesignasanintelligentstudentofthewritingsofVignolamightcompile.ItsmainfeatureisacolossalorderofcoupledCorinthiancolumns,formingacolonnade,behindwhichthewallsoftheedificearesetback.Theuniformityofthisfrontofsixhundredfeetisinterruptedbyprojectionsattheendsand in thecentre, thepredominanceof the latterbeingassertedbyapediment.Thecharacterof

thisfaçadeisechoedonthesouthone,overlookingtheSeine,byanorderofcolossalpilasters.Luxembourg Palace.—Before enumerating other examples of the Classicism of LouisXIV,we

mustreverttoanotableexampleoftheadvancedRenaissance;namely,theLuxembourgPalace,whichwaserectedin1611bySalomondeBrosseforMariedeMédicis,thewifeofHenriIV.InconformitywithherFlorentinetastesthedesignwasbaseduponthatofthegardenfrontofthePittiPalace,whichisdistinguishedbyitsordersofrusticatedpilasters.ButtheFrenchcharacterprevailsintheplan,whichpresentsacentralmainbuildingorcorpdelogis,flankedbywingsthatextendbackandformthesidesofacourtyard,which isseparatedfromthestreetbyascreen-wallwithporte-cochère.Moreover, thegardenfrontisdistinguishablyFrenchinthepicturesquevarietyobtainedbytheprojectingportionsthatformterminalandcentralpavilions,crownedwithcharacteristicroofs.Itisadesignofquietlyelegantrefinement.

AcorrespondingchoicenessofqualitywasprolongedintotheclassicalrégimeintheChâteaudeMaisons,nearSt.Germain-en-Laye,byFrançoisMansartandinthesamearchitect’sdomicalchurchofValdeGrace,Paris, inwhichhewasassistedbyLemercier.Meanwhile,Mansart’snephew,JulesHardouinMansart,wasassociatedwithLevauinLouisXIV’sspecialpride,Versailles.

Versailles.—Thisimmensepalaceisrepresentativeatonceofthemonarchicalspiritofthetimeandof the sterility of classicism. Colossally pretentious, for the total length of the garden façade is onethousand three hundred and twenty feet, the design in its monotonous repetition of orders, scarcelyrelievedbythetameprojections,isalsomonumentallydull.Itfrontsuponformalgardens,laidoutwithterraces and fountains, that in their magnificence are a memorial to the genius of Le Nôtre. Thedecorationsoftheinteriorofthepalaceexhibittheunfortunatetasteforprodigaldisplay,representedinexuberant and oppressively heavy relief work, executed in gilded papier maché, and set off withprodigiouscanvasesbyLebrunandhisassistants.

J.H.MansartalsodesignedthePlaceVendome,aroundthefoursidesofwhichallthehousesaretreated with a uniform order of colossal pilasters, out of scale with the size of the square andpretentiouslyinappropriate.His,too,wastheVeterans’home,theHôteldesInvalides.

HôteldesInvalides.—Thelatterisvastbuttrulybarrack-like,withtediousrepetitionoftheorders;butiscelebratedforthestatelygraceofthedome.Thissurmountsthechurchthat is intheformofaGreekcross,theanglesbeingfilledwithchapels,soastomakethecompleteplanasquare.Theexteriordesignofthedomeincludesahighdrum,piercedwithwindows,betweenwhichprojecteightcoupledcolumnsthatformbuttresses.Theseterminateincarvedcorbels,whichreinforceasmallerdrum,withroundtoppedlights.Fromthisspringsthedome;thegraceofitscurvebeingechoedintheairycupolawhoseroofdiminishesinconcavecurvestoasoaringpoint.

Thesomewhatexcessiveheightoftheexteriorneededontheinsideveryconsiderablereduction,inordertobringitintoproportionwiththerestoftheinterior.Thisthearchitectaccomplishedbyerectingbeneaththewoodenshelloftheouterdometwointeriorones,amiddleandalowerone,independentlyconstructed.The lower,which rises immediatelyabove the lowerdrum,hasa largecircularopening,throughwhichisvisiblethedecorationspaintedonthemiddledome,whichrestsupontheupperdrumandislightedbyitswindows.Thewholestructureissupporteduponfourlargepiers,which,asinS.Paul’s,London,arepiercedbyarchedopenings,leading,inthecaseoftheInvalides,intothefouranglechapels.

Another instance of a triple dome occurs in the Church of S. Geneviève, better known as thePantheon,whichweshallrefertolaterinconnectionwiththeClassicrevival,althoughitsconstruction,extendingfrom1755to1781,occupiedaconsiderablepartoftheRococoperiod.

Rococo.—TheRococoismarkedbyafurtherdeclineintodryandpedanticformalityintheuseof

the orders, which, however, in time produced a reaction toward a more intelligent, if uninspired,observanceoftheprinciplesofclassicdesign.ItappearsinthefaçadeaddedtotheChurchofS.Sulpicein1755bytheItalian,Servandoni.ThiscomprisesaDoricportico,supportinganIonicarcade,abovewhich,attheextremities,riseturretsintwotiersoforders.OtherexampleswhichmarktheendofthereignofLouisXVwillbereferredtointhesubsequentchapteronClassicRevival.

Meanwhile the style that is recognised as Rococo is characteristically exhibited in the interiordecorations.ThesereflectthechangeofspiritthatcameovercourtlifewiththedeathofLouisXIVandthesuccessionoftheDukeofOrleansasregentduringtheminorityofLouisXV.TheoldKingunderthecontrolofMadamedeMaintenonandhisconfessorhadbecomegloomilyreligious;thecourtspirit,punctiliousasever,wasponderouslydull.WiththeRegencyitreboundedintolightsomeness.Versailleswas abandoned for the Luxembourg; the peruke and stiff fashions gave way to powdered hair andeleganceofcostume;rigidetiquettewasreplacedwithgaywitandgallantry;allthatwaslightestintheGallic temperament bubbled sparkling to the surface. To the call of this new spirit the decoratorsresponded.Thepapier-machéornamentwasdiscardedforstucco;profusionstillabounded,but itwasno longer heavy and oppressive; it wandered in light luxuriance over walls, doors, and ceilings;exhibitinga fertilityofdecorative invention in its combinationsof curly-cues, scrolls, shells, foliage,flowers,androckwork.Thelastnamedmotive(roccainItalian)isthedoubtfuloriginattributedtothetermRococo.

It was a style that characteristically avoided straight lines and, in general, the formality ofarrangementwhich distinguishes classic ornament.Accordingly it fell under the ban of theClassicalRevival and is always condemned by those whose preferences are classical. And, undoubtedly, itsfreedom often degenerated into license and its profusion became excess, especially in the hands ofGermanorSpanishimitators.Yet,atitsbest,whenconsideredasasettingtothecostumesandmannersoftheperiodandasanexpressionofthesocialspirit,itrepresentedsomethingsovitallyappropriatetothetimeandplaceofitscreationthatitcommandstheconsiderationofthestudent.Underanimpulseinfinitely inferior to that which inspired the decorators of the Gothic and Early Renaissance, it yetrepresentsthesamefecundityofGalliccreativeness.

CASTLEOFHEIDELBERGONRIGHTRUINSOFTHEHEINRICHSBAUWING,ADJOININGREMAINSOFOLDGOTHICPORTION:ONEXTREMELEFTTHEFRIEDRICHSBAUWING

(1601).P.394

ANOTHERVIEWOFTHEHEINRICHSBAUP.394

BREMENCITYHALLNOTEGOTHICWINDOWS,WITHRENAISSANCEPEDIMENTS,ANDINTERVENING“GAINES.”P.395

PELLERSHAUS,NÜREMBERGRUSTICATEDMASONRY.P.395

ANTWERPCITYHALLP.406

LIEGE,COURTOFTHEPALAISDEJUSTICEGOTHICVAULTINGANDOTHERDETAILSCOMBINEDWITHRENAISSANCE.NOTEBALUSTER-SHAPEDCOLUMNS;CAPITALSCOVEREDWITH

GROTESQUEMASKS,FIGURESANDFOLIAGE.P.406

COLLEGEOFSANTACRUZ,VALLADOLIDCHOICEEXAMPLEOFEARLYRENAISSANCE,BYENRIQUEDEEGAS.P.399

COURTOFTHECASADEZAPORTANOTEARCADEINTHESECONDSTORY.P.400

ELEVATIONANDPLANOFTHEUNCOMPLETEDPALACEINCLASSICALSTYLE,OFCHARLESVINTHEALHAMBRA

GROUNDS.P.402

COURTOFTHECOLLEGEOFALCALADEHEÑARES

BYALONZODECOVARRUBIAS.P.400

THEESCORIÁLAPALACE,MONASTERYANDMAUSOLEUM.P.403

PLANOFTHEESCORIÁLIMITATINGTHEGRIDIRONONWHICHS.LAWRENCEWASMARTYRED.P.403

CHAPTERV

RENAISSANCEARCHITECTUREINGERMANY,THENETHERLANDS,ANDSPAIN

NOTWITHSTANDING the close commercial relations that cities such as Augsburg and NüremburgmaintainedwithNorthernItaly,especiallywithVenice,theRenaissanceinfluencesdidnotmakemuchimpression onGerman architecture until about themiddle of the sixteenth century. It had, however,appearedinthepaintingsandengravingsofDürerandBurkmairandinthesculptureofPeterVischer—asinhisTombofS.SebaldinNüremburg.Buteveninarchitecturetherehadbeensymptomsofthespread of Italian taste, Italian architects being employed on castle-building, as in the case alreadymentioned,oftheVenetian,Scamozzi,inPrague.These,however,wereonlysporadicinstances;fortworeasons conspired to defer a general movement: the deep-rooted Gothic feeling and the politicalconditions.

Architecturedepends largelyuponconditionsof social stability,making forwealthandease, andthesehadbeendisturbedbyCharlesV’s longstruggle tocrushthenobility thatupheld theProtestantfaith.Itwas,therefore,notuntilsecurityhadbeenestablishedbythePeaceofAugsburgin1555,thatawidespreadactivityofarchitecturewasresumed.ItlasteduntiltheoutbreakoftheThirtyYears’Warin1618. This covers the period of the Early and Later German Renaissance; the remainder of theseventeenthcenturybeingmarkedbyagradualdeclineintotheextravaganceofRococo.

Characteristics.—Moreover,theGermanarchitects,afterborrowingtheGothicstyle,hadsofittedit,especiallyinthewayofdecorativedetails,totheirowntaste,thatwhenatlengththeyborrowedfromtheRenaissance, theypreserved, except in rare instances,muchof theGothic feeling.Thenewstylewasemployedchieflyincastles,domesticbuildings,cityhalls,gildandcorporationhouses.InthesetheGerman love of irregularity, profusion, fantasticalness, and general picturesqueness still prevailed. Itwasdisplayedinthecontinuedpartialityfor towersandturrets(octagonal,notcircular,as inFrance),oftencontainingspiralstaircases;high-pitchedroofsanddecoratedgables,carriedupinsteps;dormerwindows, prolonged through several stories up to the height of the roof and emulating the effect ofgables;orielwindows,curvedorpolygonal,projectingfromthefaceofthefaçadeorfromtheanglesuponcorbel-supports.

TheGermantastealsoshoweditself in thecharacteranddistributionof theornament.While thiswasapttobespreadfreelyoverthefaçadesandwasusedprofuselyinthedecorationofthewindowsanddoors, itwaslavishedespeciallyonthegablesanddormergables,sothat theyare thedistinctivefeatureofthedesign.TosomeextentthedetailsofItalianornamentwereintroduced,butmoregenerallytheGermancarver followedhisown taste forboldanddeeplycutdesigns, showingapreference forrusticatedmasonry, including rusticated pilasters, and drawing on his fancy for grotesques, caryatidsandthehalf-lengthfigures,terminatinginapedestal,knownasgaines.Andthewoodcarverviedwiththesculptor,especiallyintheinteriordecorationofceilingsandwallpanelling,while theexteriorsaswellastheinteriorsaffordedscopeforthefancyofthepainter.

Theornamentaltendencyincreaseduntil thepurposeseemedtobetocovereveryavailablespacewithdecoration;whileasthelattergrewlessandlessorganic,itbecamelessoriginal.Thecarverceasedto invent his designs andwas satisfied to copy themwith tedious repetitions from the pattern bookswhich, compiled apparently in the Netherlands—one of them by Cornelius de Vriendt—circulatedthroughGermanyand,asweshallsee, foundtheirwaytoEngland.Theycomprisedaheterogeneousassortment ofmotives, for title pages and frontispieces of books aswell as for doorheads and otherarchitecturaldetails,andintroducedavarietyofdesignsinbandsandstraps,borrowedfromtheworkoflocksmithsandleather-workers.ThedegradationreacheditsclimaxintheRococoornamentoftheearlyeighteenth century, especially in the Zwinger Palace, Dresden, “themost terrible Rococowork everconceived,ifweexceptsomeoftheChurrigueresqueworkinSpain.”

In the neighbourhood of the Hartz Mountains, where forests abounded, timber was used withhandsomeeffectinthedesignofthestructure;beams,doorsandwindowframes,corbels,andsoforthbeing richlycarvedandoftencoloured. In thealluvialplainof theNorth,bounded roughlybya linedrawneastandwestthroughBerlin,theabsenceofstoneandtheabundanceofclayencouragedtheuseofbrickbothforthestructureanditsdecoration,anddevelopedaskillinthehandlingofthismaterialthat could scarcelybe surpassed.Elsewhere stonewasplentiful and themainwallswereconstructedeitherofmasonryorrubblecoveredwithstucco.

CastleofHeidelberg.—AmongthehighestachievementsoftheGermanRenaissanceisreckonedtheCastleofHeidelberg,whichaffordsacomparisonoftheearlyandlaterstyles.FortotheoldGothicfortresswasadded,in1556,thewingknownastheHeinrichsbau,whichwassupplementedin1601bythewingcalledFriedrichsbau.Thelatterisingoodrepairandusedasamuseum,buttheearlierisarooflessshell,devastated,aswastheGothicpart,byafirewhichoriginatedinastrokeoflightningin1764.Consequently, to-dayweviewthefaçadeof theHeinrichsbauwithout thedormergableswhicharesomarkedafeatureof the laterdesign.Andtheloss,nodoubt,helps toemphasise thehorizontalcharacter of the older façade. The design, in fact, throughout suggests a struggle to apply ItalianprinciplesandadjustthemtoGermanGothiccharacteristics.Thus,ordersofpilastersareemployedinall three stories, but these are rusticated and alternately broken in upon by niches embellishedwithgaines. The windows have double lights separated by sculptured mullions and, although they aresurmountedbypedimentsandcornices,theconstructivesimplicityofthesedetailsisinterferedwithbyornamentalaccessories.

ThegeneralconflictofeffectsbecomesmoreperceptiblewhenonecomparesthisfaçadewiththatoftheFriedrichsbau.Herethepilastersandentablaturesareofbolderprojection;thewindowsarewellsetback,theirrepetitionispleasantlyvariedbythetraceriedwindowsofthefirststory;thepedimentsareundisturbedbyaccessorycarving.Thewallspresentanagreeablebalancebetween thehorizontaland the perpendicular features; and then, above the cornice, the perpendicular asserts a final quietpredominance in the dormer gables. The whole façade, indeed, suggests that the architect hadthoroughlymastered the principles of Italian design and could apply them freely; neither yielding tothemunduly normuddling themwith theGothicmotive, but blending them flexibly in an ensemblethat,whileithasderivedacertainorderlinessfromtheItalian,preservestheessentialspiritofGermanpicturesqueness.

CityHalls.—OutofthevarietyofCityHallsspacepermitsonlyacomparisonoftwofamousones—thoseofCologneandBremen.BothareGothicbuildingsmodifiedbyRenaissanceadditions.InthecaseofColognethetwo-storiedporchwasaddedin1571.Instyleanddetail,itismorepurelyItalianthan usual. So much so, that it presents a somewhat incongruous addition. On the other hand, theRenaissancefaçadeoftheBremenHall,ismoreinharmonywiththeoriginalGothicedifice.Itistruethearchesofthearcadesarepointedinsteadofround;butthespacing,proportions,andtreatmentoftheuppermasonryareveryItalianinfeeling.Again,whilethewindowsarecappedwithpediments, theyretainthemullionsand,whichismoresignificant,theheightoftheolder,purelyGothiclights.Finally,thefaçadeiscrownedbyacornice,markedlyItalianinthedepthofitsprojection,abovewhichappearsthe characteristicallyGerman roof and dormer gables. This façade, in fact, erected in 1611, presentsanotherexampleofintelligentcombinationofthetwostyles.

Domestic.—As an example of domestic architecture we may study the famousPellershaus, ofNüremburg.Themasonryofthewallisrusticatedthroughout.ThetreatmentofthefirststorywithitsarcheddoorwayandwindowsisasmassivelyreposefulasthatofaFlorentinepalace;while,exceptforthecorbelsalternatingwiththepilastersinthesupportoftheentablatureandthecorbel-supportedbaywindows,theupperstoriespresentaquiteItalianorderliness.Itisonlyinthehugedormergablethatthe

Germanfeeling isallowedfullplay.ThearchitecthasutilisedItalianprinciplesofdesign;buthehasemphasisedtheprojectionofthepilastersandoftheentablaturesthatbreakaroundthem;hasexercisedhisGermantasteinthedetailsofthepilasters;retainedtheGermanstepstothegableandembellishedthem with the characteristic ornament of obelisks, but has also filled in the angles with curvingbuttressesand,whenhereachedthesummit, lethimselfgointhewayofenrichments,usingGermangaines, the French bull’s-eye, and Italian pediment, on which, with a fine flourish of Germanindependence, he props a statue! Note also the pilasters and curved pediments of the small dormerwindows.

Here,asinmostexamplesoftheGermanRenaissance,thedecorativeemphasisislavishedabovethecornice in the treatmentof the roof.And thePellershauscombines the twoprinciplesofGermanrooftreatment.Forinsomecasestheroofridgeisparalleltothestreetandtheseveralstoriesintowhichtheinteriorisdividedaremarkedbytiersofdormers,whileelsewheretheroofrunsatrightanglestothestreetandthegable-endistheimposingfeature.Inthisinstance,however,whiletheridgeisparalleland twosmalldormersare introduced, themaindormer feature ismagnified to the importanceofanactualgable,andthusthepicturesquenessofthetwomethodsareunitedinoneeffectivedesign.

Fountains.—AmongthesmallermemorialsoftheRenaissancearethefountainswhichaboundinGerman cities: some of the finest examples being those of Tübingen, Hildesheim, Mainz,Rothenburg,Ulm,andNüremburg.

SPANISHRENAISSANCE

Theelectionin1492,oftheSpaniard,RoderigoBorgia,tothePapacyunderthetitleofAlexanderVI,drewSpainintocloserelationswithRome,whiletheabsorptionoftheKingdomofNaplesintotheSpanishmonarchybyCharlesVin1522involvedthecountrymoreandmoreinthepoliticalintriguesofItaly.AtthesametimetheimmensewealththatwasflowingintoSpainfromherpossessionsintheNewWorldgaveanimpetustohertradewithItalyandfosteredtheenrichmentofsuchfamiliesastheMendoza, Fonseca,Miranda, Ribera, and Velasco, who rivalled the merchant princes of Genoa andMilan.ThusaneweraofsplendourandoflavishexpenditurewaspromotedinwhichtheinfluenceofItalianartbegan topenetrateSpain.Thedateof thisSpanishRenaissancemaybe reckoned from thebeginningofthesixteenthcentury.

In Spanish painting the example of the Flemish School was abandoned for that of the Italian;especiallyfortheMilaneseSchoolofLeonardodaVinciandtheworksofRaphaelandMichelangelo.ThesculptorsabsorbedtheItalianinfluenceeitherthroughtheexampleofItaliancraftsmeninvitedtoSpainorbydirectstudyinItaly,whilearchitecturebecameaffectedbytheexamplefirstofBramanteandlaterofMichelangelo.ButthereactiontoItalianinfluenceofthesethreeartswasdifferent.

Paintingneededreinforcement;itwenttoschoolwiththeItalianstomasterprinciplesofdrawing,foreshortening,perspective,andcomposition,aswellastheartoffullerandmorerefinedexpression.Ithadtoserveanapprenticeshipofimitationbeforeitcoulddevelopeitsownindividuallynativestrengthin the seventeenth century.But itwas otherwisewith architecture.The fundamentals of the artwerethoroughlyunderstoodbytheSpaniardsthroughGothictraditionand,whentheycameunderthespelloftheItalian,itwasinthewayonlyofmodifyingthedesign,especiallythecharacterofthedecorativeelements, inwhichtheywereassistedbytheirsculptors.Inplaceof theflamboyantdecorationof thelateGothictheregrewupanewstyleofmorerefinedornament.Anditwasalsoanewstyle,bothinitscharacterandintheusemadeofit;astylecreatedbySpanisharchitectsandsculptorsandconfinedtoSpanishart,andknownasestiloplaterescoorsilversmith’sstyle.

Plateresque Style.—The Spaniards had inherited from theMoors a consummate skill inmetal-

craftsmanship; andnow the inflowof silver from theNewWorldgave a stimulus to the craft of thesilversmith. It reached extraordinary development in the making of church plate, particularly in thecustodiasortabernacles,designedtoholdthe“Host,”whichreachedthemagnitudeofloftystructures,simulating towers and decorated with a wealth of intricate ornament of themost exuberant and yetdelicatefancy.ForemostamongtheseartistsinsilverwasthefamilyofArphe,consistingofEnriquedeArphe, his son Antonio, and grandson Juan. Their work, which extended throughout the sixteenthcentury, began by being Gothic in character, but gradually reflected the Italian influence. It was soremarkable in its exuberant creativeness and so widely spread throughout the country—in Toledo,Cordova,Santiago,Seville,Valladolid—thatitsenormouseffectuponarchitecturaldecorationisquitecomprehensible.

Theplateresquestyleisacombinationofseveralelements:thefreedomoftheGothic,thedelicateprofusion ofMoorish ornament, and the ordered refinement ofRaphael’s arabesques,mingled into anewandlivingmediumofdecorativeexpressionbythevitalityandfecundityoftheSpanishfancy.Andacorrespondingoriginalitywasdisplayedinthemannerofusingit.Itwasmassedchieflyaroundthedoorsandwindows.Itsearliestappearanceisinthedecoratedportals,addedtotheGothiccathedralsortothenewlyerectedsecularbuildings,ofwhichafamousexampleisthedoorwayofthewestfaçadeoftheUniversityofSalamanca,intheprovinceofCastile.

Theearliest architect toapply this sculpturalembellishment to the façadesofbuildings is said tohave been Enrique de Egas, a native of Brussels, trained in the Gothic style, who was supervisingarchitect of the Cathedral of Toledo. Among the gems which he contributed to the Early SpanishRenaissancearetheCollegeofSantaCruzinValladolid,builtforBishopMendoza,andtheHospitalof the same name, erected byCardinal PedroMendoza inToledo, which served as amodel for theUniversityofSalamanca.All threeof theseedificesarecelebratedfor themagnificentdecorationoftheirprincipalportal:theoneinSalamancabeingspeciallynotableforthedeviceadoptedtooffsettheeffectofforeshorteningintheornamentremotefromtheeye.Forthedepthofthecuttingisgraduatedfrom flat relief in the lowest panels up to a bold enrichment of light and shade at the top.Anotherfeatureofthesebuildings,particularlyfineinthetwoearlierones,istheinteriorcourtorpatio.

Patio.—TheimportanceofthepatioisadistinctivecharacteristicofSpanisharchitecture,deriving,notfromthecortileoftheItalianpalace,butfromtheatriumoftheRomanvilla,preservedinthecourtsofMoorishbuildings.Thepatioissurroundedonallfoursidesbycolonnadesoftwostoriesintowhichall the rooms open, while approach to the second floor is given by a handsome staircase. Acharacteristic feature is the use of bracket columns, awell-known example being in the patio of theHouseofMirandainBurgos.Sometimes,inthesecondstory,anarcadeissubstitutedforcolumnsandentablature,asintheCasadeZaporta,alsoknownastheInfantadoPalace,inGuadalajara.

Frequently thecolumnsandsurfacesof thepatioare richlydecoratedwithplateresqueornament,forthepatiowasthecentreofthelifeandceremonyofthefamily.Andthishabitofdomesticseclusion,inheritedapparentlyfromMoorishtimes,reactedontheexteriorofthebuildings;and,whilethepatiowasluxuriantlydecorated,asingularbarrennesscharacterisedthefaçades.

Thusthechieffeatureofthelatterwastheentrancedoorway;thewindowswerefew,smallinsize,and raisedhigh above the level of the street,whileoccasionally aporticowas addedunder the roof,wheretheinmatescouldtaketheairandviewtheoutsidelifewithoutthemselvesbeingseen.Afamousexample of this is seen in the college erected forCardinalXimenes inAlcala de Henares by theCastilian architect, Alonzo de Covarrubias, son-in-law of Enrique de Egas. He also designed theArchbishop’s Palace in the same city and the celebratedChapel of the NewKings in theToledoCathedral.

Cathedrals.—Another northern centre of the Early Spanish Renaissance wasBurgos. Here the

master of the plateresque style wasDiego de Siloe, sculptor and architect, who built the celebratedGoldenStaircaseintheCathedral,toconnectthehigherlevelsoftheold,thirteenthcenturyPuertadelaCoroneria,withthefloorofthenorthtranseptbyaflightof39steps,whichhasagildedbalustrade,richlyembellishedandbearingthearmsofBishopFonseca.

In1520SiloewassummonedtoGranadatosuperintendthebuildingoftheCathedralwhichhadbeendesigned in theGothic style byEnriquedeEgas.This, the earliest andmost remarkableof theRenaissance cathedrals of Spain, represents an application of the Classic orders to the piers whichsupport thevaulting.But itsmostdistinctivefeature is that thesanctuaryorcapillamayor, insteadofterminatinginanapse,isfullycircularinplanandcrownedbyaloftydome,underwhich,inafloodoflight,standsthehighaltar.

TwootherimportantexamplesofRenaissanceCathedralsarethoseofJaenandValladolid,whileamongst the Gothic edifices that were embellished with magnificent Renaissance portals may bementionedtheCathedralsofMalagaandSalamancaandtheChurchofSantoDomingointhelattercity and of SantaEngracia in Saragossa. Also of the Early Renaissance period are the octagonallantern of Burgos Cathedral, designed by Vigarni, called de Borgoña, because he was born inBurgundy, famousasasculptorevenmore thanasanarchitect;and the towersof theCathedraldelPilar andofLaSeo inSaragossa.The last named, octagonal inplan and consistingof four stories,diminishing in size and crowned with a lantern, bears some resemblance to the English steeples ofWren.

CasaLonja.—ThemostsplendidMunicipalbuildingofSpainistheCasaLonja,orExchangeformerchants, in Seville, whichwas built in 1583-1598 byDiego de Riano from a design, not closelyadheredto,byJuandeHerrera.Themosthighlydecoratedfaçade,whichisonthesideremovedfromthe Square, shows a more than usual following of the Italian style in its system of pilasters andentablatures and the repetition and treatment of thewindows.Yet the style is usedwith a decorativefreedom,characteristicallySpanish.

Thusthepilastersof thesecondstoryareofthebaluster type,emulating, that is tosay, theformswhichcanbeobtainedinwoodbyturningonalathe;theornamentislavishlyexpendedoverthewholefrontinarichencrustation,and,asinthecaseofSalamanca,alreadyalludedto,increasesinboldnessofrelieftowardthetop.Moreover,thevivacityisenhancedbytheintricatemitreingofthecoursesoftheentablatures, broken round the projection of the pilasters. The handsome patio is double-storied,respectively in the Doric and Corinthian orders. The sumptuous marble staircase was added in theeighteenthcentury,duringthereignofCharlesIII.

ClassicalStyle.—EvenwhiletheplateresquestylewasflourishingamoredirectinvasionofItalianinfluencewasinprogress.

PalaceofCharlesV.—TheearliestexampleofthisisinthePalacewhichCharlesVbegantobuildon the hill of theAlhambra. Theworkwas entrusted to PedroMachucha,who, likeBerruguete, hisassistant in thedesign,hadstudied inRome.Theplan isasquare,enclosingacircularcourt,and thestyleisPalladian.Eachfaçade,measuring207feetinlengthand53inheight,iscomposedofrusticatedmasonryandpilasters in thefirststoryand, in thesecond,ofanorderofIonicpilasters,supportingaDoriccornice.Inbothstoriesoccursamezzaninefloorlightedbycircularwindows.Thecircularcourt,nearly one hundred feet in diameter, is surrounded by a lower and an upper open colonnade,respectivelyoftheDoricandtheIonicorder.AtributeexactedfromtheMoriscoesorsurvivorsoftheMoors,whowerepermitted to remainafter theexpulsionof themajority,defrayed thecost;but theirinsurrection in1568 interferedwith thework,whichdraggedonduringPhilip II’s reign,until itwas

abandonedbeforecompletion.Theroofwasneverbuilt;northeoctagonalchapel,crownedwithadomewhich, at the northeast angle, was to dominate all the buildings of the Alhambra. The unfinishedbuilding further suffers from the competition of theAlhambra,which is the chief attraction to everyvisitor,sothatinsufficientjusticehasbeendonetothegrandeuranddignityofthedesign.

TheEscoriál.—PhilipII’scessationofworkuponhisfather’spalacemayhavebeenlargelyduetohispreoccupationwiththememorialtohisownmemory—theEscoriál.Bythetermsofhisinheritancehewasboundtoerectamausoleumforhisfather.HeenlargedtheschemetobeaburialplacealsoforhimselfandsucceedingCatholicKingsandaddedachurch,amonastery,andpalace.

Situatedthirty-onemilesfromMadridandoverlookingtheintermediatelandscape,thisprodigiouscongeries of buildings occupies a rocky plateau that juts out from the precipitous side of theGuadarrama Sierra and is extended by immense foundations. Its plan, which tradition says was toreproducethegridirononwhichSt.Lawrencesufferedmartyrdom,isagiganticrectangle,675feetby530,fromwhichprojectsthehandle,asmallrectangle.Oneentersonthemountainside,thePatiooftheKings.Along the right extends themonastery, terminating in the cloisteredPatio of theEvangelists;whilealongtheleftistheCollege,terminatinginthePalace.Butthechieffeatureisinfrontofus,thevestibuleofthechurch.

Thelatterisbuiltoverthemausoleum-crypt,intheformofaGreekcross,aftertheoriginalplanofS. Peter’s, Rome. ItsCapillaMayor adjoins the small projecting annex,which contained the privateapartmentsof the royal family: theKing’ssmall,cell-likebedroom,commandingaviewof theHighAltar,sothat,unseen,hecouldparticipateintheserviceoftheMass.

Theworkwas begun by Juan deBautista and continued by Juan deHerrera.But Philip himselfperpetually supervised the design, which reflects his character not only in the ambitiousness of itsdimensions but also in the grim plainness of the façades. Constructed of grey granite, cut in largeblocks,theyarecomposedoffivestories,thewindowsofwhicharesquareheaded,withoutdressingofanykind,andrangedinrows,withoutanyattemptatgrouping,sothatthefaçadespresentabareandbarrack-like appearance.Meanwhile an effect of grandeur is produced by the immense scale of thewholemass,whilethesky-lineisrenderedimposingbythetowers,crownedwithlanterns,whichflankthefaçadeofthechurch,andbythenobledomeandlantern,builtentirelyofstone,onwhichrisesinsequenceapyramid,ahollowball,andacross.Theinteriorofthechurch,designedintheDoricorderwith flattish vaulting, is again of majestic scale and of extreme simplicity, which, however, iscontradictedbytheextravagantpaintingsontheceilings.AfeatureofthechurchistheremovalofthecorofromthefloortoagallerysothatthereislessinterferencethanusualinaSpanishchurchwiththeimpressivenessofspace.

TheseverelyclassicalstyleoftheEscoriálwasareactionfromtheluxuriousnessoftheplateresqueand theextravaganceof theso-called“GrotesqueStyle,”whichBerruguete,apupilofMichelangelo,introducedintohissculpturaldecorations.TheabsenceofembellishmentandrelianceuponastrictuseoftheorderscausedtheclassicstyletobeknownasGriego-Romano,though,asamatteroffact,itwasinnowiseGreek.

ChurrigueresqueStyle.—BytheseventeenthcenturySpain,denudedofherforeignpossessionsbyHollandandEnglandandimpoverishedwithwarandcorruptgovernment,hadreachedaconditionofnationalexhaustion.Inconsequencenonewbuildingsofimportancewerecreated,andsuchadditionsasweremadetoexistingoneswerechieflyinthenatureofsculpturalembellishments,whichreflectedthe prevailing taste for the baroque. This, toward the end of the century, passed into the glaringlyostentatiousandvulgarlymeretriciousChurrigueresquestyle,calledafter itsprincipalperpetrator, thesculptorChurriguera.

FLEMISHANDHOLLANDRENAISSANCETYPES

At thebeginningof the sixteenthcentury theNetherlands, especially the southernprovincesnowcomprisedinBelgium,entereduponaperiodofenhancedcommercialprosperity.Throughtheirtextileindustries, their overland tradewith Italy and the East, and their sea traffic with Cadiz and Lisbon,which tapped the trade routes to India and theNewWorld, they had become the richest country inEurope. Theywere the favourite dominions of Charles V, whowas born in Brussels, and, while heallowed his “dearNetherlander”municipal self-government, taxed them roundly for the privilege. ItwasinevitablethatNetherlandishartshouldbecomeaffectedbytheItalianinfluence.

It showed itself first in painting: Mabuse, Floris, Van Orley being among those who soughtinspiration in Rome, where Raphael’s and Michelangelo’s fame was supreme. One can picture thesensationinBrussels,in1515and1516,whiletheformer’scartoonsfortheSistineChapelwerebeingexecutedintapestrybyFlemishweavers.Brusselssharedthegloryoftheachievementandherartistsanddecoratorsmaywell have aspired to emulate the Italianmanner.At any rate, it shortlybegan toappear in the decorative treatment of certain buildings: the superb chimney piece in the Council-ChamberofthePalaisdeJustice,inBruges(1529);thefaçadeofthegild-houseoftheFishmongersinMalines,knownastheSalmorSalmonHouse(1534),andthetwocourtsoftheArchbishop’sPalace,nowthePalaisdeJustice,inLiège(1533).Thesecourts,attributedtoFrançoisBorset,aresurroundedby vaulted arcades, inwhich occur baluster columns, and capitals carvedwith grotesquemasks andfantasticfigurinesandfoliage—featuresthatsuggestaSpanishinfluence.

Then, about 1565, was built the City Hall of Antwerp, which represents the most imposingexample of the Renaissance in Belgium. It corresponds to the importance which the city had nowattainedasthechiefcommercialemporiumoftheNetherlands.ForthesupremacyofBrugeswaspast:her harbours had been allowed to fill up with silt and in 1505 the Fuggers, merchant princes ofAugsburg, removed their affairs to Antwerp, whither the “factories” of the Hanseatic League soonfollowed.Bythemiddleofthecenturyathousandforeigncommercialfirmswererepresentedthere;hergreatfairsattractedmerchantsfromallpartsoftheworld;theScheldtwasfilledwithshippingandoverahundredvesselsaresaidtohavepassedinandoutofherharbourdaily.ShesurpassedinwealthandprosperityevenVeniceandGenoa.

Thedesignisbythesculptorandarchitect,CorneliusdeVriendt,alsoknownasCorneliusFloris.Theprincipalfaçade,overthreehundredfeetlong,consistsoffourstories;thefirstbeingofrusticatedmasonry, forming an open arcade; the second and third embellishedwith pilasters and entablatures,framing a regular repetition of mullioned windows, while the fourth comprises, as occasionally inSpain,anarcadedloggia,theshadowedeffectsofwhichcorrespondtothoseofanItaliancornice.Theroof has a slight curb inward and is studdedwith two tiers of small dormers. Themonotony of thefaçadeissomewhatrelievedbytheprojectioninthecentre.But, thoughthisinvolvesachangeintheshape of the windows, there is a new kind of repetition, while above the third story the place of adormer-gable is taken by an erection that has no structural significance and ismerely a piling up ofornamentaldetailstoproduceacolossalembellishment.It isinstructivetocomparethispavilionwiththe Pavillon de l’Horloge of the Louvre, which represents a logical as well as flexible and originalapplication of the Palladian style. Comparedwith it DeVriendt’s design exhibits a formality whichsuggests that it had been copied from some work in the Orders of Architecture, while the top partproclaimshimasculptoroffloridtaste,ratherthananarchitect.

The best examples, however, of Flemish Renaissance are to be found in the gild houses anddomestic buildings. Magnificent examples of the former are theHouses of theBrewers,Tanners,Archers,andCordeliersorrope-makers,inAntwerp,andinBrusselsthoseoftheArchers,Butchers,Carpenters,andSkippers;thegable-endofthelast-namedrepresentingthesternofavesselwithfour

protrudingcannons.Musée Plantin.—Themost interesting example of domestic architecture is theMusée Plantin-

Moretus,originally thehome,office,andprintinghouseof thegreatpublisher,CharlesPlantin,whoobtained fromPhilip II amonopoly in theprintingofbreviaries andmissals for theNetherlandsandSpain.After his death the businesswas continued in the family of his son-in-law,Moretus; and thebuilding which had been erected in 1549, received various additions down to the middle of theseventeenthcentury.Meanwhiletheinteriorpresentsacompletepictureofthecombinedresidenceandplace of business of the period, since there are still preserved the wainscots, Spanish wall-leather,panelled ceilings, chimney-pieces, stained glass, and other furnishings, as well as the fittings of thevariousdepartmentsoftheshop,devotedtocomposing,printing,proof-reading,binding,anddisplayofgoods.

Carillons.—AnincidentalfeatureoftheFlemishRenaissanceistheCarillon,orsetofbells,tunedtothechromaticscaleandconnectedwithamanualkeyboard,sothattheycanbeplayedbyhand.ThemostfamousoftheseisintheCathedralTowerofMalines(Mechlin). Itcomprises45bells,mostofwhichwere cast in the seventeenth centuryby thegreat bell-founder,Hemong, ofAmsterdam.TheysurpassinvolumeandtoneeventhefamouschimesoftheBelfryofBruges,whichweresetupin1743.

HOLLAND

TheearliestRenaissanceCityHallinHollandisthatofTheHague.Erectedin1564,itexhibitsthepicturesque features of stepped gables and octagonal turrets that became characteristic of laterexamples, such as theCity Hall atLeyden (1597) and the Renaissance addition made to that ofHaarlembetween1620and1630.Whilethedecorativedetailsofthefaçadeareofstone,thewallsareconstructedofredbrick.Thismaterial is thedistinctivefeatureofHollanddomesticarchitecture,andthecombinationofitsred,blue,orbufftints,weatheredbytime,withthegreenoffoliage,reflectedinthe sleepy waters of the canals, gives a colourful picturesqueness to the quaint street fronts that ispeculiarlyfascinating.

WeighingHouses.—ThebestpreservedbuildingsoftheseventeenthcenturyaretobefoundintheSouthatDordrechtandDelft,andintheNorthinLeyden,Haarlem,Alkmaar,Hoorn,Enkhuisen,and,acrosstheZuyderZee,inLeuwarden,Bolsward,Zwolle,andKampen.OfparticularinterestaretheWaaghuisen, orWeighing Houses for cheese, which are often of imposing size and richlydecorated.

During the latterpartof theseventeenthand thefollowingcenturyHollandarchitectureemulatedthestylesofLouisXIVandXV,thoughwithouttherefinementoftheFrenchmodels.

CHAPTERVI

RENAISSANCEARCHITECTUREINENGLANDANDAMERICANCOLONIALARCHITECTURE

Transition.—ThedirecteffectoftheItalianRenaissancedidnotreachEnglisharchitectureuntiltheseventeenthcentury,whenInigoJonesintroducedthePalladianstyle.Theso-called“Anglo-Classical”stylewhichthenensuedhadbeenprecededbyaperiodoftransitionfromtheGothic,whichisusuallydividedinto“Elizabethan”and“Jacobean.”Theserepresentnotsomuchstylesasmannerisms.Justas,according to Shakespeare, the Englishman derived the fashion of his clothes from various foreignsources, so, at this time,hedeckedoutwhatwas leftof theGothic stylewithdetailsborrowed fromItalian,French,Netherland,andGermanmodels.

ThedebasedformofGothic,knownasPerpendicular, involvingtheuseof the low,four-centeredarch, emphasising vertical and horizontal lines, and covering surfaces with mechanically repeatedgeometricalpatterns,lingeredonintothesixteenthcentury.ButconditionsinEnglandwerechanging.TheWarsoftheRoses(1455-1485),wagedbythenoblesononeanother,hadcompletedthebreakupofthe Feudal System. Castles were destroyed and the powerful families exterminated or representedmainlybyminors.Statesmanshippassedintothehandsofanintellectualmiddleclasswhosepowerwasadvancedbythegrowingprosperityoftradeandcommerce.

WOLLATONHALL,NOTTINGHAMSHIREBYROBERTSMITHSON.ELIZABETHANEXAMPLEOFGOTHICCOMBINEDWITHRENAISSANCE.NOTETHEGERMANINFLUENCEINTHESTRAPWORK

GABLES.P.412

BANQUETINGHALL,WHITEHALLBYINIGOJONES.P.418

HADDONHALL,DERBYSHIREGOTHICEXTERIOR.P.412

HADDONHALL.THELONGGALLERYELIZABETHAN-JACOBEAN.P.412

S.MARY-LE-BOW,CHEAPSIDE,LONDONBYSIRCHRISTOPHERWREN.P.423

S.PAUL’SCATHEDRAL,LONDONBYSIRCHRISTOPHERWREN.P.420

OLDCHARLTON,KENTJACOBEAN,REDBRICKANDSTONEFACINGS

GEORGIANCHIMNEYPIECEANDOVERMANTELBYROBERTADAMS.P.428

ItalianInfluence.—Thiswasaugmented,as thecenturyadvanced,by the foreigncraftsmenwhosoughtrefugeinEnglandfromthereligiouspersecutionsintheNetherlandsandtheHuguenotwarinFrance.They introducednotonlysuperior skillofworkmanship,but theFrench,Dutch,andFlemishmodes.MeanwhileHenryVIII,insurroundinghimselfwithanewkindofpoliticaladvisers,hadalso

welcomed foreign artists to his court. Among them were Holbein, a versatile designer in variousmediums as well as a great portrait painter; Torrigiano, who executed Henry VII’s Tomb inWestminsterAbbey(1512);GiovannidaMajano,whomodelledthebustsoftheemperorsintheterra-cottamedallionsover theentrance-gatesofHamptonCourt;BenedettodaRovezzano,designerof theTombofCardinalWolsey,whichhasperished,andacertainJohnofPadua,whoissupposedtohavebeenthearchitectofLongleatHouseinWiltshire.

Henry’spartialityforItalianartistsmaywellhavebeeninspiredbytheexampleofFrancisI,whomhemetin1520onthecelebrated“FieldoftheClothofGold.”Atanyratetherearemanyexamplesofsculpture,dating from the firsthalfof the sixteenthcentury, represented in tombs, choir-screens, andorgan-screens,whichwerepurely Italian in their decorativedesign andofmarked refinement.Terra-cotta enrichments, of similarly pure Italian craftsmanship, are to be seen in certain specimens ofdomesticarchitecture,suchasSuttonPlace,nearGuildford,Surrey,andtheentrancetowerofLayerMarney,Essex,bothofwhichwerecompletedin1525.

Thesuppressionof themonasteries,1536-1540, resulted ina revivalofarchitecture, for inmanycasesthebuildingswerebestoweduponlaymenwhoconvertedthemintomansions,whilealargepartof the Church fundswas devoted byHenryVIII and EdwardVI to the erection and endowment ofGrammarSchools.

ELIZABETHANANDJACOBEANPERIODS

Under Elizabeth England reached a hitherto unexampled prosperity and the period is one ofcountry-house building, in which especial attention began to be paid to the allied art of landscapegardening.Amongthemostfamousare:BurghleyHouseandKirbyHall,Northamptonshire;Knolland Penshurst, in Kent; Charlecote, Warwickshire; Longleat House and Longford Castle,Wiltshire;Wollaton,Nottinghamshire,andHaddonHall,Derbyshire.

Some of the mansions built during the reign of James I, the so-called “Jacobean Period,” areHollandHouse,Kensington;BolsoverCastle,Derbyshire;OldCharlecoteHouse,Kent;AudleyEnd,Essex;Hatfield,Hertfordshire;HamHouse,Surrey;Bramshill,Hampshire;BicklingHall,Norfolk;andAstonHall,Birmingham,whichwascompletedinthefollowingreign.

Thehousesmentionedinboththeselistsareconstructedofstoneorbrick;buttimberconstructionwasstillemployed,especiallyinCheshire,Lancashire,andShropshire.Totheseperiodsalsobelongthefollowing Colleges. In Cambridge:TheGate of Honour, Caius;Emmanuel; the courts of SidneySussexandSt.John’s;thequadrangle,Clare,andNevillCourt,Trinity.InOxford,Jesus,Wadham,Pembroke,MertonLibrary,andtheGatewayoftheSchools,nowtheBodleianLibrary.

ItisoflittleadvantagetotrytodistinguishbetweentheElizabethanandtheJacobeanperiod.BothrepresentaprogressionfromtheGothic in thedirectionchieflyofsuperiorconditionsofcomfortableliving; but they retain many of the Gothic characteristics, while the modifications, more or lessRenaissance, are in the manner of embellishments, and applied not according to any structuralprinciplesbutasopportunitiesofimitationwereavailable.

BooksofDesign.—TherewerebooksontheuseofClassicOrders.ThefirsttoreachEnglandwastheworkoftheItalianSerlio,whohadbecomedomiciledinFrance.In1567,JohnShute,apainterandarchitect,whohadbeensenttoItalybytheDukeofNorthumberland,broughtouthis“ChiefGroundesofArchitecture,”thefirstworkofitskindpublishedinEngland.In1577appearedthepatternbookofVredemandeVriesofAntwerp,representingItaliandetails,debasedbyFlemishandGermaningenuity,whichwasresponsibleespeciallyfortheprevalenceofstrap-ornament,thatistosay,geometricdesignsofflatbands,studdedwithknobs,asiftheyweremetalorleatherwork,attachedtothewallbyrivets.

The decorative inspiration, therefore, was purer at the beginning than in its subsequentdevelopment.For example, thedecorativeuseof theorders isbetter in someof the earlierbuildingsthan the later ones. In fact, what chiefly distinguishes the Jacobean from the Elizabethan is anincreasinggrossnessofdetail,apparentinthefurnitureandfittings,aswellasintheembellishmentoftheexteriors.

Architect’s Function.—These conditions were fostered by the circumstances under which thebuildingwasconducted.Therewerearchitectswhosenamessurvive,theearliestbeingJohnThorpe,thedesignerofKirby,Burghley,LongfordCastle,andHollandHouse.Butthecustomofthetimeseemstohavelimitedthearchitect’sfunctiontothesupplyingofaplananddesign;probablymoreinthenatureof a sketch than of actual detailed drawings, after which the building was handed over to the solecontrolofamaster-mason,whoworkedouthisdetailsfromthepatternbook.Naturally,suchadivorceofconstructionanddesignwas little likely to result in theconsistentdevelopmentofanarchitecturalstyle.

Plans.—The square plan was retained from Gothic times in the case of colleges and in somemansions.Butusually,tosecuremoreairandlightthefourthsidewasdispensedwith,thegate-house,whichhadbeenitscentralfeature,becomingaseparatebuilding.Andthetendencywastoprolongonesideandshortenthewings,soastoproducetheEplan,ortolengthenthewingsbyprojectingthemoneachsideofthemainfaçade,thusformingaletterH.Orthewingsarereplacedbyoutlyingpavilionsjoinedtothemainbuildingbycorridors.Sometimestheplansareirregular,representingtheadditionsmadetoanoriginalGothichouse.

Roofs.—Many Gothic features were preserved. Oriel and bay windows were frequent, and thewindowsretaintheirmullionsandtransoms,andincreaseinsize,beingoftencarriedupthroughseveralstories. Square or octagonal towers abound, occasionally battlemented but generally finishing in aparapetor cresting, the roofbeingconcealedor rising in a lowconeorpyramid.Similarly, themainroofsvary;high,flat,andlowonesevenoccurringinthesamedesign.Theyarecoveredwithleadortiles, and surrounded by balustrades, formed of battlements, successive arches, or pierced ornament.Gables are edged with scroll-work, while dormer-gables, as in the Netherlands and Germany, arestepped or carried up with variously curved outlines. The chimneys, single or grouped in stacks,continuetobeaprominentfeature,theirdecoration,occasionally,asatKirbyandHatfield,involvingauseoforders.

UseofOrders.—Theorderswhenappliedtothefaçade,aretreatedwithlittleregardtopurityofstyle and are often disfigured with strap ornament. When used in interior decoration, the pilastersfrequentlydiminish inwidth toward thebase,or swellout inbulbouscurves; therebeing littleornolimit to the extravagance of form that columns and pilasters alike assume in chimneypieces andfurniture. Indeed, during the Jacobean period the grotesqueness of ornament notably increased,accompaniedbyacorrespondingcoarsenessinthemodelling.Moreover,thischaracteristicinvadedthegardens, where trees and hedges were trimmed or “pleached” into the shape of birds, or beasts, orfantasticdesigns.

However,althoughthemansionsoftheElizabethanandJacobeanperiodswillnotstandscrutinyonthe score of architectural propriety, they have besides their picturesqueness a quality that is aptlycharacterisedinCowper’sphrase,“thestatelyhomesofEngland.”Theypossessdignityand,aboveall,arehomelike.Theybear thestamp,notof theprofessionalarchitect,butof thevariegatedfamily lifethattheyhavefosteredforsuccessivegenerations.

Interiors.—And this is equally trueof the interiors.Comfort is not sacrificed to stateliness.Thechiefapartmentsmayattaingrandproportions,buttheydonotgivetheimpressionofbeingreservedformerelyceremonialpurposes;theyarecentresofdomesticlife.TheGothicfeatureoftheGreatHallwas

preserved;and,intheearlyexamples,whilethefamilyandtheretainersstilltooktheirmealstogether,adaisoccupiedoneend,theoppositeendbeingseparatedfromthebutteryorlarder,andthekitchenbyarichlydecoratedwoodenscreen,abovewhichwastheminstrelgallery.Theconspicuousfeatureofthehallwas thefireplace,withachimneypieceonwhichthemostelaboratedecorationwaslavished, therest of thewalls being panelled inwood to a height of eight or ten feet, leaving a space above fortrophiesofthechaseorfamilyportraits.ThistypeofhallisstillretainedinallthedininghallsoftheOxfordandCambridgecolleges.

Adjoiningthehallwasasolarfortheintimatelifeofthefamily.Gradually,asthetasteforprivacyincreased,aseparateroomwasusedfordiningandotherliving-roomswereaddeduntilthehallcametobemore andmore an entrance hall, and themain living apartmentswere disposed as in Italian andFrench custom, on the second floor. This caused the staircase to be treated as a prominent feature,which,asitwere,prolongedthespaciousnessofthehall.Occasionallyofmarbleorstone,itwasusuallyconstructedofoakwithmassivenewel-postsandbalustrade,richlydecorated.

Intheearlierexamples,andeveninsomelaterones,asInigoJones’sdesignofCheveningHouse,theapartmentsarearrangedon the“thoroughfare”system,opening intooneanotherensuite.But theinconvenienceofthisintheentertainingofguestsledtotheadoptionofacorridoralongoneside.BydegreesthiswaswidenedanddevelopedintowhatisthemostdistinctivefeatureoftheseoldEnglishhouses—theLongGallery.Litwithtallwindows,oftenwithdeepbaysthatformattractivealcoves,itservedasapleasantsitting-roomandequallyasaplaceforexerciseinwetweather,whileitsinnerwallprovided space for pictures. In fact, this room seems to have been the origin of the term “picturegallery.”

Specialcarewasbestowedupontheceilings.Occasionallythebeamswereexposed,buttheusualpracticebythistimewastosheathethemwithlathandplaster,thesurfaceofwhichwasdecoratedwithstuccoreliefingeometricaldesigns.Attimestheflatoftheceilingwasconnectedwiththewallsbyaconcavemember,calledacove.Often,when thewainscotwasnotcarriedup to the levelof this, theupperpartordadoalsowasdecoratedwithstuccorelief.

It ischaracteristicof theuseof thepatternbooks that themotivesofdecorationemployed in theexteriorandinteriorembellishmentareusedalsointhefurnitureoftheperiod,whichonthewholeisdistinguished by its massiveness, exuberance of ornament, and the mechanical method of theworkmanship.Formuchoftheornamentiseithercutoutoftheflatwoodwithajig-saworcarveduponformsthathavebeenturneduponalathe.

ANGLO-ITALIANPERIOD

WiththeaccessionofCharlesIcommencedaneraofmorerefinedandcultivatedtaste.TheKing,asayoungman,escortedbythepleasure-lovingDukeofBuckingham,hadvisitedtheCourtofSpaininsearchofawife,andhadseenthewonderfularrayofTitiansandRubens’sintheRoyalGallery.LaterhehadmarriedHenriettaMaria,daughterofHenriIV,who,undertheinspirationofhiswife,Mariede’Medici,wasintroducingtheclassicalstyleintoFrencharchitecture.

InigoJones.—Charleshimselfhadplanned toerectapalaceatWhitehall thatshouldsurpass theLouvreingrandeurandfoundinInigoJones(1573-1652)anarchitectfullyqualifiedfortheambitiousenterprise.HehadmadeaprolongedstudyoftheRenaissancestyleinItaly,spendingmuchofthetimeinVicenza,wherehehadbecomeanardentadmirerofPalladio’swork.

WhitehallPalace.—HisplanofWhitehallPalaceprovidedforanimmenserectangle,1152by720feet,surroundedbyfaçades,threestorieshigh.Theinteriorcourtwastobedividedintothreepartsbytwowingsoftwostories,whichweretobeunitedtothemainside-façadesbytransversewings,sothat

theplanwouldhaveembracedalargecourtandsixsmallercourts,onebeingcircularinplan.However,aschemeofsuchmagnificencewasentirelybeyondtheKing’smeansandtheonlyparterectedwasasmallportionofoneoftheinteriorwings—theBanquetingHouse,whichnowabutsonthestreetthatretainsthename,Whitehall.

ThefaçadethatitpresentstothelatterisinthePaladianstyleandofextremepurity.Constructedthroughout of fine, rusticated masonry, it consists, above the basement, of two stories, decorated,respectively,withtheIonicandtheCorinthianorders,whileawell-proportionedcornice,surmountedbyabalustrade,definesthesky-line.Anadmirablefeature,apparentlyoriginatedbyInigoJones,foritisnot found in Italy, is the slight prominence given to the central three window bays by substitutingcolumns for pilasters and breaking the entablature and cornice round them. The interior contains ahandsomevaultedhall,dividedintothreeaisles.

Another design by Jones,which recalls Palladio’sVicenza gates is theWaterGate, now in theEmbankmentGardens, which formerly was the water entrance from the river to old York House,whichhasbeendestroyed.HealsobuiltS.Paul,CoventGarden(1638),aseverebutimposingdesignthatsuffersfromitsproximitytothemarket,thearcadesofwhicharealsohis.HisdesignfortheriverfaçadeforGreenwichHospital,inwhichthetwolowerstoriesareincludedinonecolossalCorinthianorder,wasexecutedbyhispupil,JohnWebb.AmongtheexamplesofJones’sdomesticbuildingsareRaynham Hall, Norfolk; Wilton House, Wiltshire; Chevening House, Kent; Stoke Park,Northamptonshire,andColeshill,Berkshire.

ButtheerectionofcountryhousesandindeedallarchitecturalactivitywereseriouslyinterruptedbytheCivilWarandtheconsequentunsettledconditions.

Wren.—More fortunate in opportunity was Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723), upon whom itdevolvedtorepairsomeofthedamagewroughtbytheGreatFireofLondon,in1666.HewasneverinItaly and his foreign experience was limited to six months in Paris, where Bernini’s design for theLouvre, fortunately never executed, was being commenced. Consequently he did not possess thetechnicalequipmentofInigoJonesandwasnotalwayssuccessfulinthedecorativesheathingwhichheappliedtotheconstruction.Itwasontheconstructivesidethathisgeniuslayandinthishewasassistedby his previous career as a mathematician and professor of astronomy at Gresham College and theUniversityofOxford.

Wren’s earliest architectural works, executed before he went to Paris, were the Library ofPembrokeCollege,CambridgeandtheSheldonianTheatre,Oxford.Hisscientificknowledgewasdemonstrated in the ceiling of the latter, which has a span of 68 feet. After the fire of London heplannedtolayoutthedevastatedpartofthecityonnewandbroaderlines;butthereconstructionwasdefeated, as city replanning is liable to be in our own day, by the opposition of property owners.MeanwhileaplanhehadpreviouslymadefortheenlargementofS.Paul’swasnowsupersededbythenecessityoferectinganentirelynewbuilding.

S.Paul’s.—TheplanofS.Paul’s isacrosswithshortarms;both thechoirandnave,comprisingthreebays,flanked,likethetransepts,withaisles.Thechoirterminatesinasmallapse;thetranseptsinsemi-circularporticoesandthewestendinavestibulewithlateralchapels.

TheinternalpiersareembellishedwithCorinthianpilasters,supportinganentablatureandattic,thelattercontainingclerestorywindows,which,however,thoughgivinglighttotheinterior,arenotvisiblefromoutside.Theceilings,throughout,arecomposedofrepetitionsofflat,saucer-likedomes.

Butthedominantfeatureoftheinterioristheoctagonatthecrossing,whichcomprisesthewidthnotonlyofthenaveandchoirbutalsooftheaisles.Itpermitsfourgreatarches,openingintothenave,choir, and transepts, and four smaller and lower arches, connecting with the ambulatory, which is

formedbytheaisles.ThisarrangementissomewhatsimilartotheoctagonofElyCathedralandmaybecomparedwiththeplanofthedomeoftheInvalides.

Surmounting the eight pendentives of St. Paul’s is a circular gallery, known as the “WhisperingGallery,” above which rises a circular peristyle. The latter’s entablature supports the interior dome,whichmountstoaheightof281feetfromthefloor.

In recent years the barrenness of the interior has been considerably relieved by glass mosaicdecorations,designedbySirWilliamRichmond.

TheFaçadescomprisetwostories;thelowerembellishedwiththeCorinthianorder,theupperwiththeComposite;thelineofdivisionbeingattheheightoftheaisles.Thus,onthenorthandsouthsidesofthebuilding,theupperpartofthefaçadeisonlyascreen,carriedupforthepurposeofcomposingwith the mass of the dome. The flying buttresses of the latter are concealed behind it, while lightpenetrates through it to the clerestory windows. Admirable features of the lower story of the sidefaçadesarethesemi-circularporticoes,ofbeautifuldesign,whichprojectfromtheendsofthetransepts.Excellently proportioned, if somewhat bald, is thewest façade,which is a double storied portico ofcoupledcolumns,supportingapediment.Thisisflankedbytwotowers,whichriseabovethesky-linein diminishing stories, terminating in bell-shaped cupolas. Not only are they fine compositions inthemselves,buttheyarealsodesignedinfinerelationtothedominatingfeatureofthedome.

TheDome.—Thelatter,inmassandoutlineandintherelationachievedbetweenitsseveralparts,canlayclaimtobeingthemostmajesticdomeoftheRenaissance.Amongtheelementsthatenterintoitsimpressivenessistheemphasisgiventothelowestcourseofmasonry,whichwellsuggeststheunionofthenave,choir,andtranseptsandformsasubstantialstylobatetotheperistyle.Thelatter,again,isexceptionallyfineinproportion.Inappearance,relativelyhigherthanthatofS.Peter’sandrelatedwithmorefreedomtothemassabove,itisformedofcoupledcolumnsattachedtoradiatingbuttresswalls;everyfourthspacebetweenthecolumnsbeingfilledwithsolidmasonry,whichisrelievedinthewayoflightandshadowbyadecoratedniche.Theeffectisatoncestrong,stately,andofairylightness.Veryfine also, in its peculiar accent of effectiveness is the proportion of the upper drum to thesuperincumbentmassofthedome,whosecurveisliftedtoaculminatingspringinessbytheheightandfreedomandsensitiveproportionsofthelantern.

No less remarkable is the scientific knowledge expended in the construction of this externallysuperbmasterpiece.Itiscomposed,likethedomesoftheInvalidesandthePanthéoninParis,ofthreeshells,althoughthearrangementisdifferent.Fortheintermediateshellconsistsofaconeofbrickwork,18inchesthick.Itspringsfrombehindtheupperdrum,andonitbearsthestonelantern,ball,andcross;thelastbeing365feetabovethegroundlevel.Italsohelpstobeartheweightofthetimbersupportsoftheoutershell,whichisconstructedentirelyofwood,sheathedwithlead.Theinnerdome,restingontheperistyle,isofbrickwork,andofthesamethicknessasthecone.

Wren’s Churches.—Between the years 1670 and 1711 were erected some fifty-three Londonchurches, inwhichWrendisplayedremarkableversatilityinadaptingRenaissancedesign,notonlytothe different conditions which the crowded site involved but also to the requirements of Protestantworship,whichlaidsomuchstressonpreachingandneededchieflyanauditorium.AfamousexampleisthatofS.Stephen’sWalbrook,inwhichsixteencolumnssupportacofferedceiling,interruptedbyapendentivedome.Thisisthepredominatingfeature,foritsdiameteris43feetinatotalwidthof60feet.

Wren’schurches,however,arebetterandmorecharacteristicallyknownbythevarietyofsteeples,whichmaybeconsideredaninventionofhisown.Fromasquaretower,whichistreatedasthemainfeatureofthefrontfaçade,theypassintocircularoroctagonalstories,diminishingindiameter,clothedwithRenaissancedetails, and terminating in a slender spire.Their beauty consists in the variety andproportionsgiven to theseveralparts,achievinganensembleofpeculiarelegance.Occasionally they

suggestacertainmechanicalnessofrepetition;hencetheexamplewhichisconsideredthebestisthatofS.Mary-le-Bow.Forhere the repetitionof theorders is interruptedbyastorycomposedof invertedconsoles, the effect of which is to vary not only the character of the embellishment, but also, byintroducingthecontrastofacurve, theregularityofsuccessivesteps.Wren’s inexhaustibleactivity isrepresentedalso,amongmanyotherexamples,by theMonumentatLondonBridge;The FountainCourtandGardenFaçadeofHamptonCourt;ChelseaHospital;MarlboroughHouse,PallMall;andTempleBar.Thelast,formingtheentrancegatetotheCityofLondonproper,hasbeenremovedfromitsoldsiteatthefootofFleetStreet,andsetupinTheobald’sPark,Northamptonshire.

Heliesburiedbeneaththechoirofhismasterpiece,atabletbiddingyou,“Simonumentumrequiris,circumspice.”

Hawksmoor,Gibbs.—ThemostnotableofWren’spupilswereNicholasHawksmoor(1666-1763)andJamesGibbs(1683-1754).Thelatterpublishedabookofhisowndesigns,which,asweshallsee,exercisedaconsiderableinfluenceonthebeginningsofarchitectureintheAmericanColonies.

EIGHTEENTHCENTURYSTYLES

ANGLO-CLASSICAL.QUEENANNE.GEORGIAN

ThisperiodcomprisesthereignsofAnne(1702-14)andofthethreeGeorges(1714-1820).Inthecase of largemansions it represents a continuation of the “Anglo-Palladian” style,with an increasedimportance given to the use of columns, especially in porticoes. Hence it is sometimes called the“Anglo-Classical,”ormorespecifically,the“PorticoStyle.”

In lesspretentioushouses the tendencywas to avoid columnsandornamental details and to relyuponthesterlingcharacterofplainbrickwork.Theso-calledFlemishbondwasintroduced,amethodof binding awall into solidity by laying the bricks in courses of alternate stretchers andheaders—bricks, that is tosay, laid, respectively lengthwisewithandat rightangles to theoutersurfaceof thewalls.ItdifferedfromtheEnglishbond,inwhichstretchersandheaderswerelaidinalternatecourses.Asingleprojectingstringcoursemightmark thedivisionof thestories,whileseveral,projectingoneover theother,would formacorniceunder theeavesof the tiled roof.Or thisarrangementmightbereplaced by awooden cornice.Windows, owing to the tax upon them,were reduced in number andoften increased in size, especially in thedirectionofheight.Correspondingly,doorswereheighteneduntiltheyhadaneffectofnarrowness.Inalltheseparticulars,asalsointheintroductionofpediment-shapedgablesandwoodencornicesundertheeavesofthetiledroofs,therewasadispositiontofollowtheseventeenthcenturytypeofDutchandFlemishdomesticarchitecture.Thisso-called“QueenAnne”style—thoughitismoreamannerthanastyle—involvedacertainprimnessofeffect,quiteinkeepingwith the somewhat pedantic attitude of the time, but is characterised by simple refinement andsuggestionofcomfortabledomesticity.

By the time of George III—1760 and onward—certain modifications were introduced into theAnglo-Classicalstyle,whicharesometimescharacterisedbythedistinction,“Georgian.”

Anglo-Classical.—The Anglo-Classical is frankly a style of ostentation and magnificentpretension.SofarasonemancouldberesponsibleforwhatwasineffectanexpressionofthetemperofanagethatwasamassinggreatwealthintheIndianandChinesetrade,themanwasSirJohnVanbrugh.But it is significant that he first became famous as a writer of witty and spicy comedies. Then he“turned his attention to” architecture andwrote to his friendTonson, the publisher, for a “Palladio.”With the aid of this he qualified himself as an architectural designer and having already gained thefavourofsocietybyhistalentsasawitwasreadilyacceptedasanarchitect,enjoyingparticularlythepatronageofQueenAnne,whosenthimabroadonaspecialmission.Hisfirstimportantmansionwas

CastleHoward(1714),followedayearlaterbyBlenheimPalace.In both of these he achievedwhatmay be described as a scenic impressiveness on a prodigious

scale,butwithoutmuchreferencetoarchitecturallogicortointernalconvenience.Thetwoplanshaveageneralsimilarity,consistingofamainblockwithanextensivegardenfront,connectedattherearbytwocorridorswiththekitchenblockandthestableblock.Theseflankagreatcourt,whichatBlenheimisclosedbyascreenwallandgatewayinthemannerofaFrenchchâteau.ThekitchenatBlenheimwassome400feetdistantfromthediningroom!Windowsinbothdesignsweredisposedforexterioreffectandnotforproperlightingoftheinterior.Innumberlessparticularsinternalconveniencewassacrificedtopalatialplanninganddisplay.AsVoltairesaid,iftheroomshadbeenaswideasthewallswerethickthepalacewouldhavebeenpassablyconvenient.Amongstthenewfeatures,introducedbyVanbrugh,wastheconvertingofthegroundstoryintoakindofmimiccellar,withinconvenientlysmallstaircasestothefloorabove,themainapproachtowhichwasontheoutsideofthebuilding,byagrandflightofstepsleadinguptoasuperbportico.

Notwithstanding themagnificence of scale, these designs have a chill formality thatmakes theirdignityratherdull.

Meanwhile they set a fashionexactly suited to the tasteof the time,which in literature alsowasdisposedtosubstitutedilettantismforculture,and,initsinfatuationforwhatitcalled“style,”toattachmore importance to form than to subject-matter. Itwas the age of the amateur.LordBurlington, forexample,apatronofart,designedavillaatChiswickinafreetranslationoftheVillaCapra,VicenzabyPalladio.Also, in conjunctionwithhisprotégé,Kent, he erected theHorseGuards andDevonshireHouseinLondonandHolkhamHall,Norfolk;thelast-namedpresentingacentralblockconnectedbycorridorswithfouroutlyingpavilions.Oneoftheshibbolethsofthistimethatpassedforaprinciplewasthattoastyleofthisgrandeuronlyoneformofroofwasappropriate—adome.Interiorproprietiesweresacrificedtothesecuringofadome,andwheretheexigenciesofbuildingnecessitatedaflatorpointedroofitwashiddenbehindanatticorbalustrade.

Pope’s Satire.—The fatuities, however, of this craze for the monumental did not escapecontemporary satire. When Lord Burlington published the designs of Inigo Jones and Palladio’sdrawingsofthe“AntiquitiesofRome,”Popereferredtotheminoneofhisepistles—

“Youshowus,Romewasglorious,notprofuse,Andpompousbuildingsoncewerethingsofuse.Yetshall,myLord,yourjust,yournoblerules,Fillhalfthelandwithimitatingfools;WhorandomdrawingsfromyoursheetsmaytakeAndofonebeautymanyblundersmake;Loadsomevainchurchwitholdtheatricstate,Turnarcsoftriumphtoagardengate:.......“ ’tisveryfine,Butwhered’yesleeporwhered’yedine?IfindbyallyouhavebeentellingThat’tisahouse,butnotadwelling.”

Chambers.—Itwas a reaction from thismania formagnificence that encouraged, in the case ofmore modest houses, the so-called “Queen Anne” style, and later, in large and small alike, the“Georgian.”Thechangetothelatter,moreover,wasassistedbytheinfluenceofSirWilliamChambers,whoacquireda realknowledgeofarchitecture through longstudy in Italyand in1759publishedhis“TreatiseonCivilArchitecture.”Hismost importantwork is the river frontofSomersetHouse.He,too,however,wasresponsibleforacraze.InearlylifehehadvisitedChina,wherehemadesketchesofarchitecture,furniture,andcostumes,whichformedthebasisofhis“DesignsforChineseArchitecture,Etc.”publishedin1757.Itledtoaninfatuationforthesocalled“ChineseStyle”whichsurvivesdirectly

in the Pagoda at Kew Gardens and indirectly in the Chinese motives that Chippendale (d. 1779)introducedwithsomuchtasteintohisfurnituredesigns.

Adam.—Meanwhile,theGeorgianrevivalwasdueevenmoretothegeniusoftheScotsmanRobertAdam(1728-1792).RealisingthattheexistingknowledgeofRomanarchitecturehadbeenderivedfrompublic buildings, he visited the only example known then of domestic architecture, the ruins ofDiocletian’s Palace at Spalato in Dalmatia. Here in co-operation with the French architect, C. L.Clerisseau,andtwoexperienceddraughtsmen,hemadethemeasurementsanddrawingsoutofwhichheprojectedarestorationofthebuildinginafineworkentitled“TheRuinsofthePalaceofDiocletian”(1764).Tohimbelongsthecreditofinauguratingthemodernidea,notyetsufficientlylivedupto,ofusing the monumental style for a number of separate buildings, grouped in one design. His firstachievementwasonthebanksoftheThamesjusteastofBuckinghamStreet,wherethesteepdescentnecessitatedasystemofvaulted foundations thataresaid tobea remarkableexampleofengineeringskill.OnthisAdamerectedthedignifieddesign,which,sincehisbrotherJamesco-operatedwithhim,was called after the Greek word adelphoi, brothers,Adelphi Terrace. Other instances of his groupdesignsarepartsofFitzroySquare,theolderportionofFinsburyCircusandPortlandPlace.AmonghiscountryhousesisKeddlestonHall,Derbyshire.Hereheclungtothesprawlingplan,inwhichtheoffices arewidely parted from themain block; but, in the façades, employed largewindows, finelygrouped,andpermittedtheslopingroofstobeastrongfeatureofthedesign.

HOMEOFTHEPOETLONGFELLOW,CAMBRIDGE,MASS.P.431

CHRISTCHURCH,PHILADELPHIAP.430

WASHINGTON’SHOMEATMOUNTVERNONREARVIEW.EXAMPLEOFSOUTHERNCOLONIAL.P.432

ANOTHERSOUTHERNCOLONIALEXAMPLE,MONTGOMERY,ALABAMAP.432

ItwasAdam’s idea that the architect should be responsible also for the interior decorations andfurniture,thusmakingeachroomanditsfurnishingsaunifieddesign.Indeed,thateverythingoutsideaswellasinsidethehouse,summer-houses,terracesandso-forth,shoulduniteinasingleensemble.Inthestyleof furniture thathasbeenassociatedwithhisnamehe showeda rare taste inblendingclassicalmotiveswithelementsofhisownfancy;exhibitingaparticularskillinthegracefuluseofcurvilinear

forms, inwhichhehadapartiality forovals,and inmodellingdetails that,whileverydelicate,wereneitherweaknorpetty.Astheresultofhis influencetheGeorgianinteriorpresentedanappropriatelydaintysettingtothecostumesandmannersofsociety,whichhadabandonedthestiffostentationoftheearlierGeorgianperiodforthegracefuleleganceofthelatermode.

AMERICANCOLONIALARCHITECTURE

NaturallyitwasfromtheMother-CountrythattheAmericanColoniesderivedthemodelsoftheirearliestarchitecture.Thedateatwhichincreasedpopulationandprosperityencouragedbuildingsofamore permanent character, distinguishedby their appearance aswell as by their immediate utility, isplaced at about 1725. From this time the rigour of life in New England, and particularly inMassachusetts, began to be considerably abated. The theocratic form of government, in which theclergywere thearbitersofmoralandsocialconventions,hadgivenwayto theactiveparticipationoflaymen in public affairs. The manners as well as the costumes of society became elegant and thepleasuresoflifewerenolongerfrownedupon.ThechangewhichthuscameoversociallifeisreflectedinthecontrastpresentedbyCopley’sportraitsandthoseofhispredecessor,Smibert.

A corresponding advance in the amenities of life was represented also in New York andPhiladelphia;while, as to theSouthernStates,whichhadbeen colonisedbyRoyalists rather thanbyPuritans,thetraditionofelegantlifehadalwaysbeenmaintainedandthechangeatthisperiodwasonlyintheincreasedopportunityofrealisingit.

English Influences,Modified.—The edificeswhich began to be erected comprise churches andmeeting-houses,mansions,andafewpublichalls; thelastbeingofhistoricalrather thanarchitecturalinterest. The places of worship represent an adaptation of theWren-Gibbs type, while the domesticdesigns are based on Queen Anne and Georgian styles. In a few cases the prototype was fairlyreproduced; notable examples beingChrist Church, Philadelphia (1727-35);Old South Church,Boston,nowusedasamuseum(1730-82),andS.Paul’s,NewYork(1766).Thelastnamedisoneofthefewinstancesofstonebuildingat thisperiod;theusualmaterialbeingeitherbrickimportedfromEnglandor,farmoreusually,wood.Thisaffectedtheusewhichwasmadeof thedrawingsofGibbs,Adam,andothers,fromwhichtheColonialchurch-buildersderivedtheirdesigns.Brickdidnotpermitofcarvedenrichment.Mouldingswere,inconsequence,ofextremesimplicityandsuchembellishmentsascolumns,pediments, andcorniceswereconstructedofwood.Thecharacterof thedesignwas stillfurthermodifiedintheNewEnglandStates,sincewoodwasusedalsoforthemainstructure.

ColonialStyleDeveloped.—Thustherewasdevelopedaskillofdesignintheuseofwoodaloneand ofwood in combinationwith brick that is distinguishable as a distinct style, towhich the term“Colonial”hasbeenapplied.Itisastyleinnosensemonumental,evenwhenitincludesspires,columnsand porticoes. On the contrary, it is characterised by simplicity and reserve but is saved frominsignificancebythequietdignityofthewholeandtherefinementofthedetails.Thewoodenspiresofthe innumerablemeeting-housesdistributedoverNewEngland,manyofwhichweredesignedby thealmostforgottenworthies,AscherBenjaminandIthielTown,presentatypeoftheirown,distinguishedby extreme sensitiveness of outline and aspiring grace and airiness. These are veritable creations,growinglogicallyoutofthewoodconstruction.Andevenintheporticoes,althoughtheircolumnsarestructurallyshams,beingmereshellsenclosingapost,thefeelingofwoodworkissofranklyretained,thatinassociationwiththewoodenwallstheyseemquitereasonable.

A corresponding unity of effect is achieved in the best examples ofwooden domestic buildings,suchastheCraigieHouse,Longfellow’shomeinCambridge;theSherburnHouse,Portsmouth,andinnumerableotherexamplesthroughoutNewEngland.Theyarecharacterisedbythechoiceproportions

and distribution of thewindows, by the pilasters running up through two stories, to awell-designedcornice,brokeninthecentrebyapedimentthatservesasaporch.Theroofsvary.Someareflat;someslopeupfromfrontandrear,withagableateachend.Inothercases,thecontinuousslopeisbrokenbyagambrelintotwoslopes,forminganobtuseangle,asintheMansardroof.Whileagain,theroofmaybehipped,slopingup,thatistosay,fromallfoursides,thefourplanesmeetinginhipsorridges.

WhilesimilarstylesofroofsandwindowsreappearintheSouthernColonialtypeofhousethelatterisdistinguishedbytheadditionofaverandah.Itmaytaketheformofapedimentedportico,composedofcolossalcolumns,carriedupto thecornice,orofacolonnadeextendingalongtheentirefrontandfrequently consisting of two stories; the floor beams of the upper one being let into the columns—adevicethatviolatesstructuralproprietybutmaybeoverlookedinthecomfortabledignityofthewholedesign.Thelatterinsomecasescoversanextended,symmetricalplan,as,forexample,inWashington’shome,MountVernon,wherethemainblockisconnectedbycurvingcolonnadeswiththekitchenwingononesideandofficesontheother,whiletheslave-quarterswereindetachedbuildings,separatedbyformalgardensfromthemansion.ThecomparativesmallnessofthelatteremphasisesthesuggestionofthepatriarchalcharacterofthebestoftheoldSouthernlifebeforetheCivilWar,whilethequietdignityoftheexteriorisrepeatedinthespiritofrefinedandgentlebreedingthatpervadestheinterior.

Both in Southern and Northern Colonial houses the wainscots, door-and window-trims, themantelpieces, cornices, and balustraded staircases exhibit a choiceness of design, derived from themodelsofAdamandSheraton.

BOOKVII

POST-RENAISSANCEPERIOD

CHAPTERI

CLASSICALANDGOTHICREVIVALS

IN the latter half of the eighteenth century commenced a Classical Revival, which in the variouscountries that itaffectedlastedfaroninto thenineteenth.Insomedirections it representedareactionfromthedebasedRenaissancestylesofthebaroqueandrococo;inallitwaslargelypromotedbyamoreaccuratestudyofantiquitiesandbythediscoveryofthedistinctionbetweenGreekandRomanart.Itseffectuponarchitecturewasbutonephaseofitsinfluence,whichpenetratedmoreorlessthethoughtoftheworldandfoundexpressioninliterature.Thisrevivalbelongsrathertoahistoryofarchitecturethantoastudyoffundamentals,suchasthisbookhasattempted.Accordinglywemustbesatisfiedherewitha brief sketch of the subjects. To continue the thread of the previous chapter let us start with theappearanceoftheclassicalrevivalinGreatBritain.

CLASSICALREVIVALINGREATBRITAIN

EnglishExploration.—The“RevivalofLearning”hadbeenfollowedinEnglandbyacontinuousfondness forGreek andRoman literature.Milton, as late as 1654,waswriting his political tracts inLatin;and,althoughsuchuseofthelanguagewasabandoned,afamiliaritywithLatinandatleastsomeacquaintancewithGreek continued through the rest of this century and the following one to be theordinarymarkofaneducatedgentleman.In1647DrydenpopularisedtheÆneidofVirgilbytranslatingit,andin1720PopeproducedhistranslationofHomer’sIliad.ForthepromotionofartsandletterstheDilettanti Society was founded in 1734; and some twenty years later financed the archæologicalexplorationofStuartandRevettinGreece.Theirwork,“AntiquitiesofAthens,”waspublishedin1762.Oneof the resultsof the interest itcreatedwas theacquisition throughLordElginof thebulkof thesculptureoftheParthenonandacaryatidandcolumnfromtheErechtheionwhichwerepurchasedbytheGovernment (1801-1803).These in turnprompted the researchesof the architect,H.W. Inwood,whopublishedin1831hisstudyofthe“Erechtheion.”

Winckelmann’sCriticalStudies.—MeanwhileinGermanyWinckelmannhadgiventotheworldin1763,practicallyat the same timeas theappearanceof theworkofStuartandRevett,his famous“HistoryofArt.”TheproductofthirteenyearsofstudyoftheantiquesculpturesinRome,byonewhowasaprofoundclassicalscholaraswellasamanofremarkableindependenceandextraordinarycriticalfaculty, this work, for the first time, made exact distinction between Greek and Roman examples,established a basis of sound criticism, and analysed the characteristic quality of Greek art. ThisWinckelmannfoundtoconsistinarelationbetweenthewholeandtheparts,socompletelyharmoniousandsobalancedandcontrolledbyrefinedfeelingthat,ifonequalitycanbeselectedastypicalofGreekwork,itisrepose.

The influence ofWinckelmann’s work and that of Stuart and Revett was reciprocal in the two

countries.ButthatthefunctionsofGreeksculptureandGreekarchitecturewerealsoreciprocalescapedobservation.Even

LAMADELEINE,PARISP.443

ST.GEORGE’SHALL,LIVERPOOLP.438

PANTHEON,PARISBYJ.J.SOUFFLOT.P.442

ARCDEL’ETOILE,PARISP.443

OPERAHOUSE,PARISBYCHARLESGARNIER.P.444

STATEHOUSE,BOSTONBYCHARLESBULFINCH.P.448

CAPITOLATWASHINGTONORIGINALCENTRALPORTIONBYWILLIAMTHORNTON,ADVISEDBYB.H.LATROBEANDCHARLESBULFINCH.WINGSANDDOMEADDED1851TO

1865.P.446

CITYHALL,NEWYORKBYMANGIN.LOUISXVISTYLE.P.448

CourtesyBertramGrosvenorGoodhueST.THOMAS,NEWYORK

BYCRAM,GOODHUEANDFERGUSON.P.453

HOUSESOFPARLIAMENTBYSIRCHARLESBARRYANDAUGUSTUSW.N.PUGIN.VICTORIATOWER,LEFT;CLOCKTOWER,RIGHT.INTHEDISTANCE,LEFT,WESTMINSTER

ABBEY.P.450

PLANOFTHEHOUSESOFPARLIAMENTP.451

more than the combination of architecture and sculpture in a Gothic cathedral, because moredeliberately,asaresultof reasoned logicaswellasof feeling,Greeksculptureandarchitecturewereconstituentpartsofonedesign.Todivorcethearchitecturefromitssculpturalenrichments,istoreducethetemperatureoffeelinginabuilding,tomakeitcoldandtoosevereinitsrefinement.Moreover,theexteriordesignofaGreekbuildingwassocalculatedto itsplan,whichwasusually thatofa temple,thattoattempttoadaptittothedifferentneedsofmodernplanningisnotonlyaviolationofitslogicbutalsoanattenuation—astretchingouttothinness—ofitsexpressiveness.

AdaptationLimited.—In fact, aGreek façade cannot be an integral part of amodern building.Insteadofgrowingoutoftheinteriorconditionsitismerelyascreen,asarbitraryinitsseparationfromwhat is behind it, aswas theoldpainted act-dropof a theatre.The realisationof this has influencedarchitectstoemulateorimitate,asthecasemaybe,theRomanratherthantheGreekstyle.And,sofaras Roman architecture was an adaptation of Greek particulars to the new problems of the basilica,palace,publicbath,triumphalarch,amphitheatreandsoforth,themodelmaybejudiciouslyfollowed.But,whenthearchitectessays toadapt thecolossalordersofaRomantempleto thefrontofabank,library,museum,orrailroadstationhemaydisplayafeelingforimpressivenessthatgiveslittleproofof

intelligent comprehension of design. He commits the same error that he is fond of charging to thelayman, who, he says, thinks of the design of a building only as an exterior effect and not also inrelationtotheplanandinternalstructure.For,totakebutonepoint,thatofthelighting.Windowsareanessentialofamodernbuilding,whileinaRomantempletheyplayedonlyasubordinatepart;sothatthepedimented,columnedporchattheentranceandthecolonnadesatthesideswerenotemployedatanysacrificetotheinternalrequirements.

Greek Model.—The window problem did not enter into the earliest example of the ClassicalRevivalinEngland—theGreekdesignoftheBankofEngland(1788)bySirJohnSoane.For,asthebuildingwas for the safe-keeping of gold and securities, thewalls behind the colonnades and porchcouldappropriatelybesolid.Yet,evenso,thecharacteroftheprincipalfaçadeisnotcarriedroundtothesideofthebuildingandthedesignofthefaçadeismerelyafrontispiece.StillmoresoistheGreekfaçadeof theBritishMuseum, erected (1823-47) bySoane’s pupil, SirRobert Smirke (1780-1867),whichnotonlyhasnoco-ordinationwiththeinteriorarrangement,butalsoobstructstheneededlight.

GeorgeBasevi,anotherpupilofSoane’s,contrivedamoreappropriateuseoftheGreekstyleintheFitzwilliamMuseum,Cambridge,becausehewasable toavoid the incongruityofwindows.H.W.Inwood (1794-1843) applied the results of his study of theErechtheion to the design ofS. PancrasChurch;whileamongtheexamplesofWilliamWilkins(1778-1839)aretheUniversityofLondonandtheNationalGallery. The design of the latter, which is very inferior to that of theUniversity,wasunhappily fettered with conditions. Most fortunate of all the buildings of this Classical revival inEnglandisSt.George’sHall,Liverpool,byH.L.Elmes(1815-1847).Itisliftedwellabovethelevelonastylobate-terraceandthedesignpresentsastatelytreatmentofGreekporticoesandcolonnades;buttheGreekisabandonedonthethreshold,theinteriorbeinganadaptationoftheRomanthermæ.

TheincongruityoftheGreekstylewithmodernrequirementsledtoareactioninfavourofastylaror columnless buildings; a return, in fact, to Renaissance design, which was started by Sir CharlesBarry,whomweshallmeetagainintheGothicRevival.

GERMANCLASSICALPERIOD

InGermanytheclassicalrevivalinarchitecturewasintimatelyrelatedtothethought-movementofthetime,especiallyasitexpresseditself inliterature.WehavealreadynotedthealmostsimultaneouspublicationofStuartandRevett’s“AntiquitiesofAthens”andWinckelmann’s“HistoryofArt,”andthewelcome which the former received in Germany. It was stimulated by the appearance in 1765 ofLessing’s“Laokoon,”acriticaltreatiseonpainting,sculpture,andpoetry.HebaseditupontheClassicCanons;bywhichhemeantnotthecanonsofFrenchpseudo-classicalism,whichhadhithertostoodforclassic inGermany, but theGreek canons of art and literature as laid down byAristotle. Indeed, heaffirmedthatShakespeare,despitetheirregularitiesofhisstyle,wasnearertothespiritofAristotlethanRacine.

Goethe’sInfluence.—Goethe,at thecourtofWeimar,whereFrenchpseudo-classicalismwas thevogue, espoused the newmovement. He had visited Italy and confirmed for himself the studies ofWinckelmann and Lessing’s attitude. Being director of the Ducal Theatre, he was able in a largemeasuretocontrolthedramatictasteofGermany,andencouragedSchillertowritehisclassicaldramas.TheaimofbothGoetheandSchillerwastoreconciletheculturalidealsoftheeighteenthcenturywiththemodelsofancientGreece.

Thezealofthismovementspreadtoarchitecture.TheearliestexampleistheBrandenburgGateinBerlin (1784); but the actual revival didnot begin till some thirtyyears later,when its leaderswereFriedrich Schinkel (1781-1841) and Leo von Klenze (1784-1864). The scene of Schinkel’s

achievementsismainlyBerlin,whereheisresponsibleforthefinedesignoftheOldMuseumandtheRoyalTheatre.TheNewMuseumofBerlinwaserectedlater(1843-55)byStühler.

Klenze’s opportunity camewith the ambition of Louis I of Bavaria to increase the architecturalmagnificenceofMunichandmakeit therivalofBerlinandDresdenasanartisticcentre.AmongthechiefworksofKlenzeare theGlyptothek (SculptureGallery), thePinacothek (PictureGallery),andthePropylæa.Associatedwith him in the decoration of these and other buildingswere the paintersPetervonCorneliusandWilhelmvonKaulbachandthesculptor,LudwigSchwanthaler.

TothisperiodbelongstheParliamentHouse (Reichsrathgebande)atVienna (1843)byTheophilHansen.

FRENCHCLASSICALPERIOD

Philosophic and Social Movement.—In France also the Classical revival was due to themomentum of writers and thinkers, impelled, however, in the first place, not so much by æstheticconsiderationsasbyphilosophic.Itrepresentedarevolutionagainst thedegradationofindividualandnationallife,thecorruptionoftherulingforcesofChurchandState,thesoullessfripperyofcourtiersandtheabjectdestitutionofthemassesoftheproletariat.ThelasttermwasrevivedfromthevocabularyofImperialRomeanddesignatedthepeasantryandlabourersofallkinds,whosedutywastolabourforthebenefitoftheprivilegedclassesandwhosesolerightwasthatofpropagatingtheirspecies.

TheprotestagainstthissocialrottennesswasvoicedbyJeanJacquesRousseauintreatiseson“TheInequalityofConditions”and“TheSocialContract”andbyDiderotandtheotherEncyclopædists,whoin the form of a dictionary, the first volume of which appeared in 1751, not only disseminatedinformationbutsought toguide thought,especiallyas to therightsanddutiesofgovernmentand thegoverned.Notwithstanding theeffortofChurchandStatealike tostrangle this intellectualandsocialmovement, its influencespreadnotalone inFrancebut throughoutEuropeandreachedtheAmericanColonies.

ExampleofRome.—GraduallythetraditionsofRomancultureinherentintheFrenchledthemtoreasonthat,sincetheevilsoftheStatehadgrownoutoftheautocracyofLouisXIV,whoemulatedtheauthorityandmagnificenceofaCæsar,alleviationwastobesoughtinareturntothefrugallivingandhighpatrioticthinkingoftheEarlyRomanRepublic.Suddenly,whileallthoughtswerebeingdirectedtothismodel,theyoungpainter,JacquesLouisDavid,returnedfromRomeandexhibitedattheSalonof1785his“OathoftheHoratii.”Thepicturemarkedthebeginningofanewepoch.Itgaveconcreteexpression to the fluid thought of the time. The austerity of the early Roman ideal became thewatchword and the aim of themany as well as of the few intellectuals.Men began to address oneanotherasCitoyens.WhentheRevolutionburst,DavidwasmadeMinisteroftheFineArtsanddictatedthestyleoffashionsandfurniture,basedonRomanmodels.FromtheirplacesintheNationalAssemblytheorators,cladinRomantogas,emulatedtheoratoryofCiceroinhisattackonthecorruptCatiline.

Then came the victories of Napoleon, and the ideal of a united and powerful France dictatingpoliciestoEuropetooktheplaceoftheidealof“Liberty,Fraternity,andEquality.”Davidturninghiscoat and, vying with the rest in acclaiming Napoleon Emperor, painted pictures of Imperialmagnificence and designed the so-called Empire furniture and costumes to suit the new ideas ofsplendour.Napoleonhimself emulated theRomanEmperorsbybecomingagreatconstructor;on theonehand,prescribingacodifiedsystemoflaw,basedonthatofJustinian,andontheotherpatronisingtheconstructionofbuildingsofImperialgrandeur.

Inlateryears,whenafteraninterregnumoftheBourbonKingsNapoleonIIIsnatchedthecrown,hetoowasambitioustobethepatronofgreatbuildingachievements.

Such,insketch,wasthebackgroundoftheClassicalRevivalinFrance.Panthéon.—Thefirstnotableexample is thatof thePanthéon,originallydedicated to thepatron

saintofParis,S.Geneviève.Erected(1755-81)duringthereignofLouisXV,byJ.J.Soufflot,itsplanis aGreek cross, four halls surrounding a central onewhich is surmounted by a dome.The latter iscomposedofthreeshells,theexteriorpresentingarareblendofgraceanddignity,thoughtheperistyleofCorinthiancolumnswhichformsthedrumissomewhat lackinginforcebecauseof theabsenceofbases toattach thecolumns to thestylobate.The façadesareofmonumental simplicity,consistingofsolid masonry unbroken by windows and crowned with a chaste but emphatic cornice; the soledeparturefromtheseverityofdesignbeingamagnificentporticoofCorinthiancolumns.ThevaultedhallshavebeendecoratedinrecentyearsbysomeoftheforemostpaintersofFrance;butmostoftheworkispictorialratherthanmural,andservestoaccentuatethesuperiordecorativequalityofthepanelsbyPuvisdeChavannes,whichcommemorateincidentsinthelifeofSte.Geneviève.

ImperialPeriod.—Thisexampleofcorrectclassicalism,designedinprotestagainsttherococoofitstime,isalsobyitsoriginalityoftreatmentinmarkedcontrasttothegreatproductionoftheimperialperiod—theMadeleine (1804). Dedicated to Glory, it is a direct imitation of a Roman Corinthiantempleofvastsize;theonlydeviationfromtheantiquemodelbeingthevaultingoftheinterior,which,incliningtowardtheByzantinemethod,consistsofthreeflattishpendentivedomes,piercedwithlargeeyes,thesolesourceoflighttotheinterior.

Another imitation of the Roman model is the Arc de Triomphe in the Place du Carrousel,commemoratingthevictoriesof1805andintendedasaprincipalentrancetotheTuileriesPalace.Ontheotherhand,theArcdel’Etoile,largestofalltriumphalarches,being162feethighby147feetwide,representsafreetranslationoftheantiqueintoanimposingdesign,sufficientlymoderntoformafittingbackgroundtothepassionateintensityofFrançoisRude’ssculpturedgroupoftheVolunteersof1792,knownasLaMarseillaise.These,andotherclassicalstructures,whichwereplannedbyNapoleon,werecompletedaftertherestorationoftheBourbons.

Between1830and1850anechooftheNeo-GreekmovementwasheardinFrance,butFrenchlogicrepudiatedthedirectimitationofGreekformsandstrovetoreflecttheGreekspiritonlyinasuperiorrefinement of feeling. Its chief exponents were Duc, Duban, and Labrouste, who are represented,respectively,bytheremodellingofthePalaisdeJustice,theLibraryoftheEcoledesBeauxArtsandtheLibraryofSte.Geneviève.

SecondEmpire.—Chief among the architecturalmemorials of theSecondEmpire (1852-70) arethe completionof theLouvre and theTuileries byLouisVisconti andHectorLefuel; and theParisOperaHousebyCharlesGarnier.TheTuilerieswasdestroyedbytheCommunein1871,butthetwowings of the New Louvre, which occupy the western corners of the Place du Carrousel, worthilycontinueinamodernspiritthecharacterofPierreLescot’sRenaissancefaçade.Theyrepresent,infact,notClassicalism,butratherareversiontoRenaissanceinspiration,asalsodoesGarnier’smasterpiece,whichisabrilliantadaptationoftheItalianstyletothesumptuousrequirementsofamodernceremonialtheatre and to the extravagant ostentation and somewhatmeretricious taste of a society ofnouveauxriches.

Paris Re-planned.—A memorable feature of this period is the extensive replanning of Paris,projectedunderBaronHaussmann.Itinvolvedthewideningofstreets,creationofnewboulevards,andgeneral improvementsof sanitation,aswellas increasedmagnificence—aschemeof suchmagnitudethat it has been but recently completed.Meanwhile, this gradual development of an organised plan,regulated in its progress so as to reconcile the rights of private ownership with the interests of thecommunity,hasbeenanobjectlessoninthepropercourseofcityreconstruction.

UNITEDSTATESCLASSICALREVIVAL

TheUnitedStatesofAmericahavingwontheirindependenceasanation,therewasanimmediateneedforGovernmentbuildings.Thattheyshouldbedesignedintheclassicalstylenaturallyfollowedfrom the intimate relations which had grown up between the New Republic and France. WhenWashingtonhadbeenselectedastheseatoftheNationalGovernment,itwasaFrenchman,MajorPierreCharles l’Enfant,who laid out the city on a plan so convenient andornamental, that it is strangenoother city of America, with a similar chance of starting forth from the beginning, has emulated it.Instead,thegeneralpracticebothwithnewcitiesandtheextensionofolderones,hasbeentoadoptthegridironplanofa repetitionofparallelstreets,cutat rightanglesbyanother repetitionofparallels;adeadly monotonous system and far from convenient. For it makes no adequate provision for thegravitation of government, finance, and so forth to certain centres, which in consequence becomeinconvenientlycongested.

PlanofWashington.—TheWashingtonplan,onthecontrary,islogicallydesignedabouttwofoci:theLegislativecentre,theCapitol,andtheExecutivecentre,theMansionofthePresident,TheWhiteHouse.

From these radiate broad avenues, called after the names of States, which in turn are cut by arepetitionof streets, running east andwest, andby another series, runningnorth and south; theodd-shapedspaces,formedbytheintersectionofthesestreetswiththeavenues,beingutilisedaslittlepublicgardens.ThusWashingtonisacityofbeautifulbreathingspaces,itsgardens,parks,andtree-borderedavenuescomprisingone-halfofitstotalarea.

ThefirstofficialbuildingwastheTreasury,whichwascommencedin1781byRobertMills,whoheldthepositionofUnitedStatesArchitect.Thedesign,ascompleted,presentsanimposingrectangularmass, the east sideofwhich ismaskedwith a colonnadeof 38 Ionic columns,while Ionicporticoesdecoratetheotherthreefaçades.In1792workwasstartedontheWhiteHouseandayearlaterontheCapitol.

WhiteHouse.—TheExecutivemansion,designedbyJamesHobanafterthemodel,itissaid,ofaseatof theDukeofLeinsternearDublin,consistedofa twostoryhouse,surmountedbyabalustradeand frontedbyan Ionicportico.Evenwith theadditions,made in recentyears to serveasExecutiveoffices,itischaracterisedbyadignifiedsimplicity,befittingtheresidenceof“thefirstgentlemanoftheland.”

TheCapitol.—TheCapitolisfinelyplacedonahillsome100feetabovethelevelofthePotomacRiver.ItscentralportionwasdesignedbyWilliamThorntonwithsomemodificationssuggestedbyhiscollaborators,B.H.LatrobeandCharlesBulfinch.Thewingsanddomewereadded1851to1865.Themainfaçadeisontheeast,wherethreeimposingflightsofstepsleaduptothreeCorinthianporticoeswhich indicate thespecial functionsof thebuilding.Thaton the left,withallegoricalsculpture in thepedimentbyThomasCrawford,formsthemainentrancetothewingoccupiedbytheSenateChamber,whilethatontheright,towhichsculpturebyPaulW.Bartletthasjustbeenadded,distinguishestheHallofRepresentatives.

Thecurtainbuildingthatconnectsthissouthwingwiththecentralblock,wasformerlyoccupiedbytheHallofRepresentatives,butnowcontains theNationalHallofStatuary, towhicheachStatemaycontributetwostatuesofher“chosensons.”Thecorrespondingbuildingonthenorth,whichuntil1859housedtheSenate,isnowdevotedtotheSupremeCourt.TheCentralPorticoistheceremonialentrancetothewholeandheretheoutgoingPresidenthandsoverhisfunctionstohissuccessor.It leadsintoarotundawhich is decoratedwith the following historical paintings: “Landing ofColumbus” by JohnVanderlyn;“DeSotaDiscoveringtheMississippi”byWilliamHenryPowell;“BaptismofPocahontas”

byJohnGadsbyChapman;“Embarkationof thePilgrims fromDelftHaven”byRobertWalterWeir;“Signing of the Declaration of Independence” by John Trumbull, who also painted the remainder:“Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga,” “Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown” and “WashingtonresigninghisCommissionatAnnapolis.”

ThedomewhichformsastatelyclimaxtothedignityofthewholedesignwaserectedinironbyThomasUsticWalter.Itrisestoaheightof268½feetandiscrownedbyastatueofLiberty,nearly20feethigh,theworkofThomasCrawford.

TheorganicfitnessoftheCapitoltothefunctionsofGovernmenthasbeensupplementedinrecentyears by additional buildings, connected by subways: on the east, by the Congressional Library,primarily for the use of the Legislature, but virtually a national library; and on the northeast andsoutheast,byoffice-buildings,respectively,fortheSenateandtheHouseofRepresentatives.

Bulfinch.—MentionhasbeenalreadymadeofCharlesBulfinch(1763-1844).ThesonofawealthyphysicianinBoston,hegraduatedfromHarvardandspentsomefiveyears travellingandstudyinginEurope,afterwhichhesettledinBostonandpractisedasanarchitect.HebuilttheoldFederalStreetTheatre (1793), the first playhouse erected inNewEngland, and in 1798 completed theworkwithwhich his name is most associated, the State House on Beacon Hill. It has been overgrown withadditions but the original part, surmounted by a small, well-proportioned dome, still testifies to itsdesigner’srefinementoftasteandconstructivesincerity.

AnexceptiontotheuseatthistimeoftheClassicalstyleistheNewYorkCityHall,built1803-12by the Frenchman,Mangin. The design isRenaissance, influenced by themanner of the LouisXVIperiod,andisparticularlychoiceintherefinementofitsproportionsanddetails.

Meanwhile,theSub-TreasuryandtheOldCustomHouseinNewYorkwerebuiltintheClassicalstyle; as also were theCustom House inBoston, theMint in Philadelphia,Girard College forOrphans in the same city; Thomas Jefferson’s design for his new foundation, the University ofVirginia,andmostoftheNationalandStateBuildingsthatwereerectedbeforetheCivilWar.

GOTHICREVIVAL

TheGothicRevivalofthenineteenthcenturywaschieflyconfinedtoEnglandwhereitgrewoutofarevivalofspiritualenergyintheChurchitself.ThisspiritualRenaissancehadbeguninthelastquarterof the eighteenth century, as a protest against the rationalistic temper of the age, its tendency todisregardtheclaimsoffaithanddogmaticauthorityinfavourofwhatappealedtoreason.

ReligiousRevivals.—TheEvangelicalrevivalwhichensuedwasanearnestattempttoawakentheChurchfromthesupine indifference intowhich ithadsunk, tokindle in theclergyahighersenseoftheir responsibilitiesandgenerally topromoteaspiritual regeneration.Themovementwasreinforcedbothwithin theChurchandon thepartof theStateby theexcessesof theFrenchRevolution,whichseemedtomenaceallformsofauthority.TherevivalgrewapaceduringtheearlyyearsofthenineteenthcenturyandintimewassupplementedbyanotherwhichisknownastheOxfordMovement.

ForitoriginatedintheUniversityofOxfordwithagroupofmen,includingKeble,Newman,andPusey, who felt that the Church was in danger of becoming merely a humanitarian institution.Accordingly they held that theChurch ofEnglandwas a branch of theCatholicChurch and that itspriesthoodwasindirectsuccessionfromApostolictimes;andinaccordancewiththisurgedareturntotheritualandtherubricalobservances,enjoinedintheFirstPrayerBookofEdwardVI.Thismovement,knownalsoastheTractarianmovement,fromthetractsissuedbyitsadvocates,orPuseyite,fromthenameofitschiefexponent,wasassailedbythepartiesintheChurch,distinguishedasBroadandLowinoppositiontothenewpartywhichcametobeknownasHigh.

Thepointofthecontroversy,asitconcernsourstudy,isthatthereligiousrevivalontheonehandledtoageneralrestorationofthecathedralsandchurcheswhichhadfallenintoaconditionofshamefulneglect and,on theother, laid stressuponmediæval churcharchitecture as the formwhichhadbeeninspiredbythefervouroftheCatholicfaithandwasalonesuitedtoaCatholicritual.HencearosethestudyandthereviveduseofGothicarchitecture.

Pugin.—EarlyinthecenturyJohnBrittonandThomasRickmanhadpublishedanillustratedworkon“CathedralAntiquitiesandtheGothicStyle,”whichwentthroughmanyeditions.TheypreparedthewayfortheinfluenceofAugustusW.N.Pugin(1812-1852),whostoodforthasaveritableapostleoftheGothic.Forhesuppliedpassiontothemovement,sothatitrepresentednoshallowfadbut,forthetimebeing,aconvictionthatthecharacteristictraditionoftheEnglishmustbethemediævalstyle.Andtotherealisationofithebroughtaknowledgeofdetailandornament,gainedfrommanyyearsspentinmeasurementsanddrawingsofGothicbuildings;whileforthepurposeofreproducingthespiritoftheoriginalsheestablishedandtrainedaschoolofcraftsmen.Hewas,infact,thepioneerofthelaterArtsand Crafts Movement. He became a convert to Roman Catholicism and his most importantecclesiasticalworkwasexpendedonRomanCatholicchurchesandmonasteries.

HousesofParliament.—WhenthecommissionfortheNewHousesofParliamentwasgiventoSirCharlesBarrywiththeprovisothatthestylemustbeGothic,Puginwasassociatedwithhimaschiefdesigneroftheexteriordetailsandinteriordecorativework.

The style selected by the authorities, under the unfortunate impression that it should correspondwith the adjacentHenryVII’sChapel,was theTudorGothic, or latePerpendicularStyle, so that thefaçadesintheirlinealrepetitionpresentacertainstiffnessandmonotony.Thiseffect,however,isoffsetbythegrandiosescaleofthevastbuildingandthepicturesquesky-lineoftowersandspiresandturrets.Ofthesethetwodominatingfeaturesarethelanternovertheoctagonalcentralhall,therichlydecoratedVictoriaTowermarkingtheceremonialentranceofthesovereigntotheHouseofLords,andtheClockTower,whichstandsattheCommons’end,proclaimingitssimplepurposeasaclocktowerand,whenthesummit-lightisburning,thefactthattheHouseissitting.

But thegrandest featureofBarry’s conception is theplan, accommodated to the site of the still-existingWestminsterHall.Notwithstandingthecell-likecomplexityofitsinnumerableunits,thewholepresentsanorganiccompletenessofcomparativesimplicity,soadaptedtothefunctionsdemanded,thatit has servedmore or less closely as amodel formany other buildings, notably for theParliamentHouseinBudapest.

ThemeritbothoftheplanandofthefaçadesisemphasisedbycontrastwiththeNewLawCourts,designedbyG.E.Street(1824-1881).Herethezealforarchæologicalrevivalranaheadofreasonableadaptation.Sotheexteriorpresentsacongeriesofmediævaldetailsthathavelittleornorelationtotheinternalnecessities,withtheadmittedresultthattheinteriorisinconvenient,whileitsonefinefeature,thegreatvaultedHall,isrendereduselessbynotbeingonthesamefloorastheCourts.

Street was a pupil of Sir Gilbert Scott (1810-1877), under whose influence the Gothic revivalreached its full flood. He, too was an archæological enthusiast, with a preference for the EarlyDecoratedstyle,andhisnumerouschurchesarefranklyreproductions,asnearaspossible,ofMediævalarchitecture.

Ontheotherhand,afreeradaptationoftheGothictomodernneedsandfeelingappearsinWilliamButterfield(1814-1900);forexample, inthedesignofKebleCollege,Oxford,AllSaints,MargaretStreet,London,andhislittlechurchatBabbacombeinDevonshire.OtherindependentGothicistswereJ. L. Pearson, architect of Truro Cathedral and eight London churches; James Brooks, whosuccessfully employed brick in ecclesiastical design, and Alfred Waterhouse. The last has provedhimselfamasterofplaninadaptingtheGothictosecularbuildings,twoofhismostimportantdesigns

beingtheLawCourtsandTownHall,Manchester.

FRANCE

AcharacteristicallyFrenchindependencedistinguishesthefewchurchesinwhichtheinfluenceoftheGothicrevivalmaybetraced.ThemostessentiallyGothicchurchoftheperiodisS.Clotilde,Paris,designed by Theodore Ballin, who, however, in his later work, La Trinité, exhibits a remarkablyinterestingblendofRenaissancedetailswithGothicfeeling.ButthetendencyinFrenchecclesiasticalarchitecturewasrathertowardByzantine,amovementwhichculminatedinthegreatchurchofSacréCœuronMontmartre,erectedbyPaulAbadia(1774-1812).

UNITEDSTATES

IntheUnitedStatestheGothicRevivalmadeitsappearanceasearlyas1839-40,intheworkoftwoEnglish architects, Richard M. Upjohn and James Renwick. The former was entrusted with therebuildingofTrinityChurch,NewYork and later erected theStateCapitol ofConnecticut, whileRenwickisresponsibleforGraceChurchandS.Patrick’sCathedral,NewYork.

With the advent, to be noted later, of architects trained in theEcole desBeauxArts, theGothicvoguedeclined.Butinthepasttenyearsithastakenonanewlifeofremarkableachievement,undertheleadershipoftheNewYorkandBostonfirmofCram,GoodhueandFerguson,whichrecentlyhasbeendissolved,thelatepartnersnowworkingindependently.Thevitalitywhichtheyhavesucceededingiving to their work in the number of examples distributed over the country may be traced to twocauses.

Thefirstisrevealedinalittlebook,“TheGothicQuest,”writtenbyRalphAdamsCram.ItbreathesthepassionofaPugin; it is inspiredwithsuch religious faithanddevotionas thebuildersof theoldcathedralsandchurchesmusthavepossessed.Henceitsauthor’sconvictionthatthearchitecturalforms,evolvedasanexpressionofthatfaithandinaccordancewiththeneedsoftheworshipitinspired,aretheonlyfitembodimentsforthecontinuanceofthatfaithandworship.ToMr.Cram,infact,theGothicdoesnotrepresentmerelyastyletobeprofessionallyemployed;butalivingconcreteexpressionofthesoul.Furthermore,thethoroughmasteryofGothicformshasbeendirected,notasinthebeginningoftheGothicRevival,toareproductionofoldmodels,buttoanapplicationoftheoldprinciplesofGothicdesign to the changed conditions of modern times. There is, accordingly, in the designs of thesearchitectsnoevidenceofthe“deadhand.”Theybelongtoandservethepresent,whilepreservingalinkoftraditionwiththepast.Byfew,indeed,ifany,hastheGothicbeenrevivedwithsomuchmaterialandspiritualvitality.

CHAPTERII

THEMODERNSITUATION

FOLLOWING the trend of modern civilisation, architecture to-day, in so far as it is not continuing toimitate the past, is becoming, on the one hand, more cosmopolitan and, on the other, moreindividualistic. The free-trade in ideas, encouraged by travel and through the interchange ofarchitecturalmagazines, is obliterating the distinctions of nationality.Moreover, the immensevarietyandthenewnessofproblemsthatnowconfrontthearchitectaretendingtowardapersonalsolutionofthem.Theydemandinventiononhispartandstimulatehimtoindividualexpression.

TheStudent’sAttitude.—Hithertointhisbookwehavestudiedthehistoricstylesofarchitecture,

intheiroriginsandrevivals;but,ifithasserveditspurposeofawakeninginterestintheart,weshallforthe future think lessof stylesandacquire thehabitof studyingabuildingverymuchaswestudyanindividual.Wedonotestimateanindividual, inthefirstanalysis,atanyrate,bycomparinghimwithsomeworthyofhistory,butbyhisfitnesstothepresent—thefronthepresentstosocietyatlargeandhisvalueinthespecificpartthatheplaysinthecommonlife.Hashe,forexample,dignityandsomeothercharmofcharacter?Arehismotivessincere?Doeshepossessthequalitiesthatmakehisworknotonlywell-intentionedbutpracticallyefficient,andsoforth?

Similarly,weshallestimateabuildingnotasathing

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RESIDENCEOFMRS.COOPERHEWITT,NEWWINDSOR,N.Y.P.468

TRINITYCHURCH,BOSTONBYHENRYH.RICHARDSON.P.462

COUNTYBUILDINGS,PITTSBURGHBYHENRYH.RICHARDSON.P.462

THEBREAKERS,NEWPORT,R.I.RESIDENCEOFCORNELIUSVANDERBILT,BYRICHARDMORRISHUNT.P.462

©TheAmericanArchitect.CourtesyArchitects,Carrere&HastingsDETAILOFRESIDENCEOFMR.THOMASHASTINGS

WESTBURY,LONGISLAND.P.468

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FULLHEIGHT,SOANALL-AROUNDCORNICEWASPOSSIBLE.P.474

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BYCASSGILBERT.FIFTY-ONESTORIES.PP.471,476

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SCENEINLOWERNEWYORK;SPIREOFTRINITYCHURCHINTHEFOREGROUND.P.470

{455}apart fromour lives,butasaproductandexpressionofandacontribution to, the livingpresent.Weshall thinkofit intermsoflife,assimulatingtheorganicandfunctionalqualitiesofalivingthing.Itwillbeallbuta living thing,bothas it takes itsplaceamid the lifeof itssurroundingsandalsoas itservestheneedsoflifeinitsspecificcapacity.

Alreadywehave thoughtofbuildingsasorganic, as structures thathavebeenbuiltuponawell-considered plan,with parts that perform their individual functions in the commonpurpose.Wehavealso noted that the character of the structurewas affected by the actualmethods of building and thematerial employed.We have learned to be critical on certain points.Was the plan a fit one for itspurpose?Didthefaçadesconformtoorconfuseorcontradictthecharacteroftheplan?Didthedesignconformtothepurposeofthebuildingandthemethodsofconstruction,orwasit,howeverhandsome,ineffectasham?Wasitoverladenwitharbitraryenrichmentsthathadlittleornorelationtostructureandweremainlyoronlydesignedfordisplay?Diditsacrificethenecessitiesoftheinteriortomerelyæstheticconsiderations?

Andtheseprocessesofappreciationwhichwehaveacquiredthehabitofapplyingtobuildingsofthepast,wehavebuttobringtobearuponthebuildingsofthepresent.Forthearchitectureofto-dayistrueorfalse,goodorbad,reasonableandadmirable,notbecauseitdoesordoesnotconformtosuchandsuchtypes,butbecauseitsucceedsorfailsinmeetingthepracticalandæstheticrequirementsofto-day.

Need of Public Appreciation of the Art.—Hence the need of an intelligent appreciation ofarchitectureonthepartofthepublic.Itisrequisitefortheirownsakeaswellasforthatofthearchitect.Oneofthegreatdifficultieswithwhichthelatterhastocontendistheignoranceandindifferencenotonly of the public but also of official authorities. They do not give the sincere architect the

encouragementofintelligentpraise;theyexercisenorestraintupontheinsincereandinefficient.Theydismissallresponsibilityfortheresultby“puttingitup”tothe“expert.”Architecture,inconsequence,isliabletoberegardednotasanartbutmerelyasaprofession.Thusaidandencouragementaregiventothosearchitectswhopractiseitmainlyorsolelyasa“businessproposition.”

And in these days the responsibility of the public is more necessary than it ever was. For theproblems of architecture are so infinitely more various and exacting, that they demand for theirsuccessfulsolutiontheco-operationofthelayman.But,althoughpeopleprofessdemocraticideas,theyactinthematterofarchitectureasthoughtheywerelivinginaristocratictimes,whenrespectwaspaidtobirth,andnotintimeswhenwearetryingtocultivaterespectforcommonhumanity.To-day,ifwearetruetoourprofessedideals,thetenementhouseoftheworkerisasimportantinthesocialschemeasthe palace of the rich or the country house of the well-to-do. And it should be a subject of publicconcern.

Or, to consider another of themany new types demanded bymodern conditions—the factory. Itmust meet the need of the specific industry. That is its utilitarian necessity. But there is also thehumanitariannecessitythat itshallbeafitplacefor themenandwomenwhospendinitone-halfoftheir waking lives. And, again, there is what wemay call the communal necessity, as it affects theoutside lives of the community, that the factory shall not be a thing of ugliness or drearmonotony,sordidlydevastatingthepossiblebeautyofthelocality.ForwehaveadvancedlittleincivilisationifwearecontenttosubstituteforthegrimcastleoftheMiddleAges,surroundedbyitshuddleofretainers’huts,agrimfortressofindustry,entrenchedamidthemeanhomesofmenandwomen,notconsideredintheir individual and collective capacity as human beings, but massed under the mechanical term—“operatives.”

And what is true of the factory is true of the retail shops and department stores, city markets,warehouses, docks, andwatersides, andof the hundred andonevarieties of need createdbymodernindustryandcommerce. It isalsoas trueof theprovision for theculturalneedsof thecommunity inchurches, schools, colleges, libraries, andmuseums, aswell as for needs of recreation and health—theatres,concerthalls,movingpicturehouses,dance-halls,baths,hospitalsandparks.Butwhyattempttoenumeratetheinnumerableproblemsthatmodernlifepresentstothearchitect?Thepointisthatallinvolvesociologicalconsiderations,affectingintimatelythelivesofcommonhumanity.Architecture,infact,whenproperlyconsideredandpractised,isthegreatdemocraticart,whichthroughco-operationofartist and layman, may become one of the greatest means of human betterment. How essential,therefore,thattheunderstandingandappreciationofitshouldbefosteredbypubliceducation!

Sincethisisthepurposeofthepresentbook,whichonlyincidentallyhassuggestedthehistoryofthe art, it is not possible or necessary to attempt to cover themodernmanifestation of it in all thecountries. Itmust suffice to allude briefly to those ofGreat Britain and theUnited States, inwhicharchitecturalactivityhasbeenconspicuous,thoughtheresultsarewidelydifferent.

MODERNMOVEMENTINGREATBRITAIN

InGreatBritainthemoderntendencyhasbeenespeciallymarkedinthedirectionofindependenceand individuality. It began with certain movements, which perhaps might be more correctly styledfashions.Therewas theQueenAnne revival,which, although it involvedmuch thatwas tricky andmuch gerrymandering in construction, drew renewed attention to the capabilities of brick and itssuitabilitytotheclimate.Further,fromthefactthatitgainedthepopularityofafashion,itencouragedthepublictotakesomesortofinterestinarchitecture.Andthisinterestwasfurtherstimulatedbythe“MorrisMovement.”

WilliamMorris’sMovement.—ItwasthelimitationofWilliamMorris,thatinhiszealforthingsMediævalhehadnotolerationforanyotherformsofdecoration.Moreover,heassumedthattheartoftheMiddleAgeswascreatedsolelybycraftsmenworking inharmoniousco-operation.Herefused tobelievethattheirworkwascontrolledbyamasterdesignerandinveighedingeneralagainstarchitectsasthecauseofeverythingthatisobjectionableinsubsequentarchitecture.Inbothrespects, therefore,hisinfluencewasreactionaryratherthanhelpingforward.But,ontheotherhand,ithaslastedandbornevaluablefruitinpromotingaregardforhonestcraftsmanship,onwhichhelaidessentialstress,andinrevivingarecognitionofthepartsplayedbypaintingandsculptureandthedecorativeartsgenerallyinalliancewitharchitecture.Accordingly,oneindirectresultofMorris’sinfluencehasbeentheincreasedattentiongiventothecharacterandqualityofsimplemasonry,arefreshingandsalutaryreactionfromthenotionthattheinterestofarchitecturedependsonpicturesquevarietyofdetailandornament.Therewas even a group of young architects who, inspired by Morris’s idea of craftsmanwork, sought toconfine theirdesigns to thesimplestelementsofbuilding.Theywouldbefirst, last,andall the time,builders;allprecedentsofarchitecturaldetailshouldbedisregarded;theywouldconfinethemselvestothe simplest abstractions of structural elements andout of these in time a newdecorative vernacularmightbeevolved.

ItisinterestingtonotetheanalogybetweenthisaimandthatofMatisseandothersinpainting.Inbothartsitrepresentsarevoltagainstthesophisticationandmechanicalismthatareapttoresultfromtherepetitionofschool-learnedstyles.Itwoulddigawaythesurfaceandgetdowntothesub-soil, inwhichelementalprinciplesarerooted,inordertoencourageagrowththatmorenearlymayconformtomodernneedsandideals.

On the other hand, there is the obvious objection, too obvious by the way to be accepted asconclusive,thatthepasthassogrownintothepresent,theinheritancehasbecomesointegralapartofpresent understanding and feeling, that one cannot eliminate it from one’s consciousness by takingthought,asonecanstripone’sbodyofclothes.Meanwhile,althoughthisargumentseemsplausiblethefactremainsthatinpainting,atanyrate,manyartists,ignoringargumentinfavourofactualdoing,areclothingtheirideasinnewformsthatarecomingtoseemreasonabletoanincreasingnumberofpeople.

“FreeClassic”Movement.—However,manyarchitects,acceptingtheinheritanceofthepastandyetthemselvesinrevoltagainstthescholasticreproductionofthestyles,initiatedamovementinfavourofwhattheycalled“FreeClassic.”Theirendeavourwastodiscovertheelementalsinagivenstyleandto use them with flexible understanding and feeling and with free play, especially of decorativeaccessories.Thefirst togivepracticalevidenceof this ideawasR.NormanShaw,R.A., in theNewZealandChambers,inLeadenhallStreet,London,whichwereerectedasfarbackas1873.

Itwas anartist’s essay inpersonal liberation; theworkof amanwho,whilehedidnot love theClassics less, loved life and his own participation in it more, who claimed for himself the artist’sbirthright of personal expression and creativeness. Fortunately his adventure aroused considerableinterest in the intelligent public, while other architects saw in it a promise of their own artisticdeliverance. The result has been for Great Britain a genuine rebirth of architecture as a living andpersonalart. Innoothercountryhave thevarietyandversatilityofourmodern lifebeenmore freelyexpressed in its buildings. Not always happily, no doubt. The purist may point to some as “awfulexamples,”andthusseektojustifyhisbeliefinsafemediocrityratherthanwhatheconsidersdangerouslatitude. But the purist is not an individualist and Great Britain is individualistic, even to a fault.Therefore,whatherarchitectsaredoingisracyofthecountry’stemperament—athingcommendableinitself.Meanwhile,thereisanabundanceofrecentbuildingsinwhichreasonablenessandadventurearehappilyunitedandasoundregardfortheutilitiesandforstructurallogicareweddedtooriginalityandtaste.

In the past twenty-five years London, for example, has been transformed into one of the mostarchitecturally impressive cities ofEurope.Andnot in thewayof aping inmore or less perfunctoryfashionthesplendoursofimperialRome;butinaspiritofartisticindividualenterprise,andwiththatcourageeventomakemistakes,providedtheendbeliberty,thatbefitstheMetropolisofself-governingDominions.

MODERNMOVEMENTINTHEUNITEDSTATES

Since the middle of the nineteenth century the United States has experienced an extraordinaryactivityinbuilding.AnunprecedenteddemandwascreatedbytheopeningupoftheWestandtherapidincreaseofpopulationandwealth,aswellasbythedestructionwroughtbythegreatfiresinChicagoandBoston.Ontheotherhand,circumstancesledtothedevelopmentofanewmethodofconstruction—thatofthe“steelcage.”Meanwhilethenewperioddiscoveredtwoarchitects—RichardMorrisHunt(1828-1895)andHenryHobsonRichardson(1838-1886)—whoseinfluencehadamarkedeffectuponthearchitecturaldevelopment.

Hunt andRichardson.—The former, younger brother ofW.M. Hunt, the painter, was born atBrattleboro,Vermont,in1828;whileRichardson,tenyearshisjunior,wasanativeofLouisiana.BothreceivedtheirtrainingintheEcoledesBeauxArtsinParis,andbytheirinfluenceestablishedthevogueforthatcelebratedschoolwhichhassostronglyaffectedarchitecturalprogressinAmerica.Whentheyreturned home—Hunt in 1855 and Richardson in 1865—they brought back a thoroughly scientifictraining,alreadyreinforcedbypracticalexperienceinParis.Andthegeniusoftheonecomplementedthatoftheother;forwhilebothhadapersonalforcethatcommandedattentionandcompelledrespect,Hunt’sspecialfacultywasexecutiveandorganising,whileRichardson’swasmorespecificallythatoftheartist.Thusbetweenthemtheyestablishedinthepublicmindtheunderstandingofarchitectureas,notmerelyaprocessofbuilding,butoneoftheFineArts,andalsosettheprofessionofarchitectureonasoundbasis.Forin1885HunttookaprominentpartinfoundingtheAmericanInstituteofArchitects,ofwhichhewasthefirstpresident.

Among his most important works are the Theological Library and Marquand Chapel atPrincetonUniversity; theDivinityCollegeandScrollandKeyHouseatYale; theLenoxLibrary,NewYork,sinceremoved;theNewYorkresidencesofW.K.VanderbiltandHenryG.Marquand;GeorgeW.Vanderbilt’s country house atBiltmore and some of the palatial “cottages” atNewport,including“MarbleHouse”and“TheBreakers.”HealsoexhibitedhisgeniusforplanninginthelayingoutoftheMetropolitanMuseumofArtsinNewYork.

Richardson took as his model the Romanesque of Southern France, but used it with so muchfreedomandadaptabilitythat,ithasbeensaid,hecameverynearcreatingastyleofhisown.Itisseentobestadvantageinthoseexamplesinwhichhewasunhinderedbyoutsideinterference,especiallyintheCountyBuildingsinPittsburghandTrinityChurch,Boston.Bothofthesearedistinguishedbystructural significance; dignity of mass, fine correlation of parts to the whole and by a decorativedistinctionthatavoidedaliketheflamboyanceofsomeofhisearlierembellishmentandthebaldnessofsimplicity thatcharacterised theworkofsomeofhis imitators.Othernotable instancesofhisartare:Sever Hall and Austin Hall, Harvard; the City Halls of Albany and Springfield; the PublicLibraries of Woburn, North Easton, Quincy, Maiden and Burlington and the Chamber ofCommerce,Cincinnati.

WhileRichardson’sartisticseriousnessandrefinedtaste lefta lastingimpression,hisselectionoftheRomanesquestyle,althoughitobtainedsomefollowing,wasabandonedinfavouroftheRomanandtheRenaissance; thechangebeingdue to theway inwhich the subsequentAmerican studentsof the

EcoledesBeauxArtsreactedtoitsteaching.BeauxArtsTraining.—The“BeauxArts”trainingisbaseduponthestudyofGreek,Roman,and

RenaissanceStyles.TheGreek,within a limited rangeof building types, exhibits themost perfectedrelationofplantoelevation,offormtofunction;themostharmoniouscombinationofmindandfeeling.TheRomanrepresentsageniusofconstructivelogicandpracticalinventivenessinapplyingprinciplesto a wide variety of problems. The Renaissance replaced constructive logic by a logic of taste andrehandledRomandetailswithafinesseofskill thatwasassubtleastheGreek.Moreover, theGreek,Roman, andRenaissance are (to use amodernword) standardised styles; inwhich proportions havebeen calculated and the principles reduced to certain recognised relations of harmonious agreement.ThustheylendthemselvestoamoreexactlydeterminedkindofstudythanispossiblewiththeGothic,whichmorenearlycorresponds to thefreegrowthsofnature, involvingall theprinciplesofstructureandtheelementsofbeauty,butwithafreedomofapplicationthatmakesformulationdifficult.

NowtheeffectsofthisBeauxArtstrainingbynomeansalwayscorrespondswithitsaim.TheaimoftheSchool,respondingtotheFrenchaptitudeforlogicalprocesses,istoteachthestudenttoreason,tocultivatethehabitofapplyingtoeveryproblemanindependentandindividualprocessoflogic.Heistaught to get down to the bone of any problem and discover its cleanest and simplest solution. Thehistoric styles are treated not as models for imitation but rather as a grammar of principles andapplications,bymeansofwhichthestudentmayfithimselffororiginalcomposition.Thesystem,inaword,encouragesoriginalityandnotimitation.

EffectofBeauxArtsTraining.—Meanwhile,amongthemanyarchitectsinAmericawhosenamesareassociatedwith the“BeauxArts,”onlyaminority iscomposedofactualgraduatesof theschool.Theremainderhaveavailedthemselvesmoreorlessofthecourtesiesthattheschoolextendstoforeignstudents;buthavenotenjoyedtheexhaustivetraininginthedirectionofindependentreasoningthatitistheschool’spurposetoimpart.Theresultisthatmanyofthemacquiredthehabit,notofapproachingthe solution of each problem independently, but of becoming more or less intelligent and tactfuladaptersofRomanandRenaissancecharacteristics.InconsequenceofthusmisrepresentingtheaimoftheBeauxArts, the latter has incurred in this country the unjust charge of promoting imitation—thepreciseantithesisofwhattheschoolactuallystandsfor.Accordingly,therehasarisenareactionagainstwhatissupposedtobethe“BeauxArts”influence.

Inthisreactionthereisapossibilityoflessthanjusticebeingdonetosomeofthesequasi-Beaux-Artsarchitects.Manyof themhavebeenmenofexceptionally fine taste.Theyraised thestandardoftasteinthecommunity,accustomedthepublictoconsiderbeautyaswellasutility,andaddedgreatlytothedignityandbeautyoftheexternalsoflife.TheyplayednotonlyanexcellentpartbutanecessaryoneintheevolutionofarchitectureinAmerica.Theywillbelookedbacktoasthemenofthetransition,who established the recognition of architecture as an art, fostered higher standards of taste andcompelled a public thatwas chiefly interested in commercial expansion to begin to regard art as anindispensableelementinprogress.

Influence ofChicagoExposition.—The opportunity of propagating these ideas on a large scalewasfurnishedbytheInternationalExpositionatChicagoin1892-93.AlreadytheCentennialExhibitionatPhiladelphiain1876hadawakenedmanufacturerstoaneedofartisticdesign,iftheirproductswereto compete successfullywith thoseof theolder countries.Moreover, innumerablepersonshad foundtheirimaginationsstimulatedbythevarieddisplayoftheDepartmentofFineArts.Thegroundwasthusprepared for the organised effort in the direction of an object lesson in beauty, such as that of “TheWhiteCity”atChicago.

Here theDirectorsvirtuallygave freehand to theCommitteeofArchitects, in the lay-outof thegroundsandthedispositionofallthebuildings.Theresultwasanensembleonascale,notonlymore

magnificentthaneverhadbeenattemptedbeforeforsuchapurpose,butcompleteinitsunionofvarietyandharmony.Itrepresented,ontheonehand,whatcouldbeaccomplishedbytheco-operationofthealliedartsof landscapeandgardendesign,architecture, sculpture,andpainting,and,on theother,anextraordinarylessoninthedesirabilityofbeautyasapracticalasset.Theimpressionthatitmadewasnation-wide.Everywherethedrybonesofindifferencetobeautybegantoquickenintoalivinginterestinbeautyasthefitandnaturalexpressionofthenation’sprogressincivilisation.Ithasfoundabundantactivityduringthepasttwenty-fiveyearsinFederal,State,Municipal,andcommercialbuildings,inthedevelopment of parks and boulevards and, more recently, in the increased attention given to thescientificandartisticplanningofcities.

Andthismovement,whichhastransformedthecharacterofpublicbuildings,hasworkedasfreelyin the case of domestic buildings, and, on thewhole,withmore originality. For the principle of themovementhasbeeneclecticism;themoreorlessintelligentadaptationofoldstylestonewneeds;thestylesespeciallyfollowedbeingtheRomanandtheItalianRenaissance.Theaxiomofthebodyofmenwhichhadcontrolledthemovementhasbeenthatitissaferandbettertofollowgoodmodelsthantotrytobeoriginal.Andforthetimebeingverypossiblytheywereright.Butthishasalwaysbeenthepleaofeclectics,wheneverandwherevertheyhaveoccurredinthehistoryofallthearts;andsucheclecticismhasalwaysmarkedatransitionperiod,leadinguptoafreshoutburstoforiginalcreativeness.

WeaknessofImitation-Tendency.—The immediateandgreatadvantage to thearchitectsof thusfollowingoldmodelshasbeen, toestablish, through theRoman,a familiaritywith largeproblemsofconstruction and, through the Italian Renaissance, a refinement of taste in the handling of details.Meanwhile, the disadvantage has been a tendency to take an excess of interest in merely stylisticconsiderations.Thearchitecthasoftenseemedmoreintentuponreproducingwithtasteanoldstylethanuponadaptingittothepracticalneedsofthelivingpresent.

It would be possible to point to libraries, for example, that have been designed with a view tobeautifulexteriorsratherthantothatofstoringanddistributingbooks.Thedesignhasnotgrownoutofthe practical needs but has beenmore or less arbitrarily adopted for its own sake. The architecturalprincipleoffitnesshasbeenviolated.Furthermore,thispreoccupationwiththefaithfulreproductionofanold style hasmade a fetish of consistency.Everything in andout of the buildingmust be “in thestyle.” The architect, being an imitator, compels all his co-operating artists to imitation. The paintermustimitatesuchandsuchastyleofmuraldecoration;thesculptor,suchandsuchastyleofsculpturalembellishment.Sculptorsandpaintersalikehavebeentrainedtoforgetthattheymightbeinterpretersofthelifeofthepresentandtoworkandfeelinthemannerofthepast.Themanner—notthespirit—forthespiritoftheolddecoratorswaskeenlyalivetothelifeoftheirowntimes.Hencethesearchitectsofthetransitionhavedonemuchtofindemploymentforpaintersandsculptors,butpracticallynothingtopromote thedevelopmentofcreativeartists. Indeed, their influence in this respecthasbeenquite theotherway—retrogressiveratherthanprogressive.

Possiblyanevenmoreflagrantillustrationofthistendencyistobefoundinthepalatialresidences,erectedduringthisperiodintownandcountry.Soslavishwastheinsistenceuponconformity,thatthefurnitureandfittingshadtobeeitherantiquesorimitationsofantiques.Theoccupantsofsuchhousesweretrainedtobeblindtothebeautyofanythingthatwasnot inthestyleof theirsurroundings;andwere forced to try to feel at home in surroundings of the past. Typical, possibly, is the story of themillionaire, who fled from his stylistic apartments to one of the attic bedrooms, provided for theservants,andfittedituptosuithisownideasofcomfort.

Theresultofallthishasbeenthatthemajorityoftherich,whomighthavebeenleadersoftasteandplayedthepartofMycænasorMedici to theartistsof to-day,havebeenthevictimsofanobsession,imposeduponthembyarchitects,thathasmadethemneglectandevendiscouragetheartofthepresent.

Theyhaveputapremiumonantiquesandadevastatingdiscountoncontemporaryart.Whilebledbythespeculatorsinantiquesandnear-antiques,theyhavedoledoutpatronage,forthemostpart,onlytothoseworkersinmetal,wood,andotherfabricswhowerewillingorcompelledbynecessitytoimitate.Theideaofencouragingnativeartoroffosteringthegeniusofsomeindividualcreatorhasbeenallbutentirelyoverlooked.Creativegeniushasbeenstifled.

FreerTendencyinDomesticArchitecture.—Ontheotherhand,inthecaseofdomesticbuildings,erectedduringsay,thepasttenyears,especiallycountryhouses,therearetheevidencesofaveritablerenaissanceofarchitecturalart.Itisdueinagreatmeasuretotheimprovedtasteofthecommunity.Anewgenerationhasgrownupwhichbytravelandstudyhasfamiliariseditselftoamoreorlessextentwithartandhascometothinkofartasanexpressionoflifeand,therefore,hasdesiredtoembodyitssense of beauty in the home. Such people have co-operated with the architects who are no longerdesigningmerelyforthembutalsowiththem.Theresulthasbeenanincreasedattentiontothequestionof fitness; fitness of design to the character of the locality; to the conditions of climate and to thevarious needs and necessities arising out of the modern circumstances of living. To cite but oneexample:theproblemofdomestichelpinAmericaissourgentthatlabour-savingconsiderationshaveaffectedtheplanningofthehomes,tendingtoconcentrationratherthandiffusioninthearrangementofrooms,serviceoffices,staircases,andso-forth;andoutofthisorganiclay-outoftheinteriorasuitableexteriortreatmenthasdeveloped.

Thus,while the architectmay still be adaptingmotives derived from old styles, he is no longerdoingsoforthemainpurposeofreproducingagivenstyle;hehasceasedtobeastylisticpedant.Headaptswithflexibilityandfreedom;usingastyleinsofarasitconformstothecharacterofhisplan.Theplanishisowncreationand,ifinthedevelopmentofhisdesignhefeelsthefitnessofadapting,headapts creatively. The result is that, since the domestic architecture of the past has been made tocontributetotheneedsofthepresent,anewkindofdomesticarchitecturehasbeenevolvedinAmerica,characterisedbyvarietyofdesign,originalityof treatment, and,moreandmore,bya regard for thatfitness to thespecial requirementsofeachproblem,which is thefoundationofevery trueadvance inarchitecturaldesign.

OfficeBuildings.—Sidebysidewiththisprogresstowardoriginalityindomesticarchitecturehasbeenasimilartendencyinthatofpublicbuildings,especiallytheofficebuilding.Theofficebuildingisdistinctively a feature of American cities, because it grew out of conditions in certain cities whichimperativelydemandedsomesuchexpedient;and,havinginthesecasesproveditsfitnesstobusinesssituations, has been adopted elsewhere. Though the earliest of these tall buildings, characteristicallyknown as “sky-scrapers,” were erected in Chicago, the spot which now contains the greatestaggregationofthemisManhattanIsland,thesectionofNewYorkCityboundedbytheNorth,East,andHarlemRivers,inwhichthebusinessofthecityisconcentrated.

Inthesituationthusexistingwasanarea,limitedinsizeandincapableofbeingenlarged,whilethebusinessdemandsuponitwerecontinuallyexpanding,inthewaybothofincreasedaccommodationandadequatefinancialreturnuponthevalueandcostoftheland.Itwasimpossibletomeettheseconditionsbyspreadingoutlaterally;theonlyalternativewastobuildskyward.Bythetimethenecessityofthiswas realised, two inventions made it practicable—an improved method of rolling steel and thedevelopment of elevator connection. The problem of accessibility was solved by the latter; that ofeconomicalandefficientconstructionbytheformer.Accordingly,onceagain,assoofteninthehistoryofarchitecture,practicalexpediency,methodsofbuilding,andthematerialemployedwereoperativeinevolvinganewkindofform.

“Steel-Cage” Construction.—The method of building is that of the so-called “steel-cage”construction:anewapplicationoftheprincipleof“postandbeam”construction,inwhichthevertical

andhorizontalmembersarecomposedofsteelandrivetedtogether.Thefoundationpostsareanchoredtotheground,whichinthecaseofManhattanIslandmostlyconsistsofaveryhardspeciesofrock.Thepostsareconnectedatthetopbycrossbeams,thusformingtheskeletonframeofacompletestory,uponwhichothersimilarskeletonstoriesareerected,theirnumbervaryinguptothepresentextremeintheWoolworthBuilding,offifty-onestories.Thismodeofconstructiondoesawaywiththenecessityofexternalbuttressing;thestrainisoneoftensionontheground,theproblemofwindpressurebeingmetby the introductionof interiorcross-braces.By this systemalso thedownwardpressure isdistributedthroughouttheseveralstories,eachcarryingitsownweightofexteriorandinteriorwalls;sothat,intheprocessofconstructionit isnotunusual toseesomeof theupperstoriesapparentlycompleted,whileloweronesarestillinaskeletonstate,awaitingthearrivalofthematerialthatistosheathethem.

The character of the sheathing, representing the design of the building from the outside,will beconsidered presently, for of primary and essential importance is the character of the interior.Here ismanifestedatitshighestthecreativeoriginalityoftheAmericanarchitectinconstructiveadaptabilitytotheneedsandnecessitiesoftheproblem.Theseofficebuildingsandtheircounterpartsindomesticlife—the tall apartment-houses—represent the economic tendency of this age in its progress throughcombination to possible co-operation. They also embody the latest achievements of science andinvention, applicable to the requirements of convenience and health.They are thus in a distinctivelymodernway, aswell aswith remarkable completeness, organic architectural structures. In a singulardegree, they are self-efficient. Their cellular arrangement comprises an elaborate aggregation ofmembers,eachhavingitsspecialfunction;whilethewholeisprovidedwithitsownsystemofpowerplantsforthesupplyofheat,air,light,andlocomotion.TheyareinawaytheequivalentoftheRomanbasilica and insula, developed to that higherdegreeof complexity that themodern agedemands andmodern progress in science and invention has made possible. In their organic completeness onediscovers conspicuous evidence that architecture, after a long period of revivals, has recovered itscreativeness.

ExteriorDesignofOfficeBuildings.—It is instudying theexteriordesignof thesesky-scrapersthatonefindstheprogresstowardoriginalityhasbeenmorehaltinganduncertain.Theexplanationofthis cuts deep down to the fundamentals of all progress in art and life. It is out ofman’s needs andnecessities, physical, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual, that he is impelled to advance, and theadvanceismostsureaccordingasitmostcloselyfitsthecircumstances.Insofarasthearchitectsweredealingwiththepracticalproblemsoftheinteriorofthesebuildingstheyconformedconsistentlytothedemandsoffitness,andtheiradvancewassure.Butwhentheyapproachedtheproblemoftheexterior,the necessities of which are few and comparatively unexacting, the logic of fitness was apt to besuperseded by mere caprice of choice. They experimented, for the most part rather aimlessly, withvarious historic styles of treatment; clapping on to the façade embellishments derived fromRoman,Italian, Renaissance,VenetianGothic, and so forth; treating the designmainly as amatter of addedornamentationinsteadofsomethingtobeevolvedoutofthespecialcharacterofthestructure.

Wemust remind ourselves that the façades of these buildings, whether thematerial be stone ormarble, brick, terra-cotta, or reinforced concrete, are virtually only a sheathing to the actual organicstructureinsideofthem.Theycorrespondtotheclothesonahumanbody.Therearecertainnecessitiesto be served in the case of the building: on the one hand, financial; on the other constructive. Theinvestorsdemandacertain returnon thecostorvalueof the site,whichdetermines theaggregateofrentablefloorspace,andhencetheheightofthebuildingandtheamounttobeexpendedonthefaçades.Again, the lay-outof the floorscalls foracertainquantityofwindow-spacesand there is the furtherconstructive necessity that, while parts of the building may under certain restrictions overhang thesidewalks,nothingmayprojectoveradjoiningproperty.Withintheselimitationsthearchitectisusuallyfreetoadoptsuchdesignfortheexteriorashechooses.

In the early days of the sky-scraper, which coincided with the period of more or less imitativereproduction of oldmodels, the architect found himself confrontedwith an entirely new problem indesign. His classical studies had familiarised him with buildings comparatively low andcharacteristically horizontal in design.His experience of ItalianRenaissance had involved buildings,stillinconsiderableinheightthoughtheyincludedseveralstories,andhadledhimtobepre-occupiedwith details of design, especially with the effectiveness of a cornice. On the other hand, thecharacteristic of the new problem was vertical instead of horizontal, and on a scale that gavepredominancetomassoverdetail;whilethespecificdetailofthecrowningcornicecouldonlybefullyadoptedinthecaseofstructuresthatdidnotabutonadjoiningproperty.

Height—thePrincipleoftheDesign.—But,foratime,thearchitectfailedtograspthenewnessofhisproblem.Hewasconfrontedwithheight,butdidnotstartwithitasaprincipleofdesign.Instead,hetriedtoaccommodatetheoldprinciplestothenewconditions;experimentingwithvariousmethodsofembellishment near the ground and at the top, and treating themain, intermediate part as merely arepetitionoffloors.

Gradually,however,he realised the fact that thenewbuildingsactuallypresentedanewproblemwhichcouldonlybesolvedbytakingtheverticalprincipleasthebasisofthedesign.Sohebethoughthimself of a precedent in the column. It is theverticalmember in theClassic design, and comprisesthreesubdivisions:base,shaftandcapital.Thebasemightbeemulatedinthetreatmentofthelowerpartofthefaçade,whichgenerallyenclosesabankorsomefeatureofspecialimportance,surmountedbyamezzaninefloor.Thecounterpartofthecolumn’sshaftwastherepetitionofstories,whiletheeffectofthecapitalcouldbereproducedinsomeemphaticcrowningtreatment.Andthosearchitectswhomostlogically adopted theprecedentof the column, recognising that thebeautyof a tall buildingmustbeevolvedfromitsspecialcharacteristicofheightandthatthebeautywouldbeenhancedbyasuggestionof height growing up in its own strength, abandoned the mere repetition of stories for a vertical

treatmentthatwouldemphasisethesuggestionofupwardgrowth.In some cases they applied to the masonry between the windows continuous bands of vertical

ornament,projectinginthenatureofshaftingorpiers,whichbytheireffectoflightandshadecarrytheeye upward, giving to the whole structure a suggestion of soaring. Or, in other cases, they soproportioned thewidth of thewindows to thewidth of themasonry that the latter, especially at theangles of the building, gave the suggestion of soaring piers. Meanwhile there still continued to bearchitectswhoignoredthesedevices,treatingthewindowsandmasonrysolelyasrecurringhorizontalfeatures, with the result that their repetition contradicts both the vertical feeling and that of upwardgrowth.

Bydegrees,however,astheprinciplesofverticalityandgrowthcametobegenerallyaccepted,itwasrecognisedthattheanalogyofatallbuildingtoaClassiccolumnwasfallacious,sincethebuildingshouldinvolveacompletedesign,whilethecolumnisonlyaconstituentmemberofastructureandone,too,thatisdesignedtosupportahorizontalmember.Possiblytherealisationofthiswasassistedbythedifficultyoftreatingthetopofthebuilding.Forthemostfrequentconditionspermittedtheprojectionofacorniceonlyononeside, thatof thefrontsideof thebuilding,whereitsticksout likeaprodigiousmantelshelf.That architects should have persisted so long in reproducing this futile expedient seemsonlytobeexplainedbyahabitofseeingadesignonthedrawingboardasanelevationtobeviewedfromone fixedpoint, insteadof as a structural composition, occupying space and to be seen fromavarietyofdirections.Moreover,itisafactthat,asonewalksalongastreet,itisthesideofabuildingthat ischieflyand longestvisible,while,by the timeone isopposite the front, thenarrownessof thestreetandtheheightofthebuildingmakeitdifficulttoviewthefaçadeasawhole.

GothicInfluence.—Accordingly,intime,asthelogicoftheproblemofthetallbuildingcametobemoreresolutelygrasped,itwasrealisedthat,ifaprecedentwastobeadopted,itmightbefoundintheGothic style.This is essentially the styleofverticaldesignandupwardgrowth, and its characteristicprofilehasatendencytosetbackfromthegroundlineinsteadofprojectingoverit.Furthermore,ifyouchoosetoconsiderit,itwasthestyleoftheNorthernnationsascontrastedwiththehorizontalstylesoftheMediterraneannations;thestyleoftheracesmostrepresentedinourpopulation,evolvedbythemasanexpressionoftheiradventurousanddaringspirit.Eveninrelationtoinheritedracialgenius,aswellastofitnessofdesignandpracticabilityofconditionsofsite,theGothicisfullofsuggestion.

Its influence at first appeared in the character of detail of some of the later sky-scrapers; butgradually more fundamentally, as the architect began to give fuller attention to the masses of hiscomposition.Uptothepresent,thenoblestexampleofthisnewmovementistheWoolworthBuilding,which isnotonly the tallestof the tallbuildingsbutamonumentofarrestingandpersuasivedignity.Therepetitionofornamentaldetailmaybesomewhatdryandmechanical;butfromashortdistanceoffthismeltsintothemass,whichvieswithmediævaltowersandspiresinitssplendidassertionoforganicupwardgrowth.

Such a building supplies an uplift to the spirit, whereas the exteriors of many sky-scrapers,conveyingnosuggestionoforganicgrowth,beingonlymonstrouspilesofmasonry,produceinsteadanoppression of the spirit. Nor is such an impression imaginary; it is a physical result of the sunless,airlesscanyonsintowhichthesecliff-likewallshavetransformedthenarrowstreets.Architects,infact,realisethattheproblemtheypresentisonenotonlyofconstructionanddesignbutalsoofrelationtothegeneralcityplan.Variousproposalshavebeenmade toconfine themtocertainareas; torestrict theirheightonthestreetline,whilesettingbackthehigherportions,whichwouldriseliketowersabovetherest of the building; to limit the number of such towers in a given space, and so forth. Some suchrestrictions are enforced in certain cities; but inNewYork,where the problem is greatest andmosturgent,theconsiderationofthequestionhasnotmademuchheadwayagainstthegeneralindifferenceto

mattersoflargepublicconcern.Here,asinsomanyotherinstances,thewelfareofthecommunity,asacollectivewhole,isnotproperlyadjustedtoindividualisticinterests.

ArchitectandEngineer.—Thisandothermattersof“cityplanning”—asubject that ismoreandmore engaging the attention of progressive communities—demands the co-operation of the architectandengineer. Indeed, theco-operationof their functions inall importantworks,especially thoseofapubliccharacter, isoneof theurgentneedsof theage.There is scarcelyanarchitectural scheme thatdoesnotinvolveproblemsofengineering;andmanyanengineeringachievementwouldhavebeenofgreaterpublicutilityifbeautyofdesignhadbeenconsidered.Foritisonlyanarrowviewofutilitythatoverlookstheutilityofbeauty.Itisinthepowerofanengineertoimproveormartheappearanceofalocality,andhencetoaddtoordetractfromthehappinessofthehumanliveswhichinhabitit.

Noristheunionofthefunctionsofengineerandarchitectanewthing.Theonlydifferencebetweenthepastandthepresentis,thatinClassic,Gothic,andRenaissanceperiodsthefunctionswereunitedinone person, whereas with the advent of the age of iron, followed by that of steel, they have beenspecialisedinseparateindividuals.Accordingly,to-daythereisoneschoolofArchitecture,andanotherschool of Engineering; and the separation has caused each to disregard the points at which theirrespectiveartscanandshouldunite.Thedesirability,however,ofsomeaffiliationisbeingrecognisedandcertainschoolsofengineeringnowincludeacourseintheprinciplesofarchitectonicdesign.

Any termination of a book onArchitecture is but an abrupt stop in the telling of a story that is

perpetuallycontinuous.Itwillgoonaslongasmanapplieshiscreativeabilitytothesolutionofnewproblemsofconstructionastheyarise,andpersistsinstampingtheworkofhishandswiththeevidenceofhisdesireofbeauty.Thislittlebook,howeverimperfect,willadditsmitetohumanprogressifithasawakened or stimulated in the reader a realisation of the rich and varied humanness of the art ofArchitecture in its intimate relation to the lives of individuals and the progress and welfare of thecommunity.

GLOSSARY

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,Z

Abacus:theblockthatformstheuppermostmemberofthecapitalofacolumn.Usuallyasquareblock;but inRoman Ionic andCorinthian, the sides are concave,while inGothic the blockmay also becircular,octagonalorclustered.

Abutment:amemberofsolidmasonrytosustainalateralstrainorthrust;e.g.,thatofanarch.Acanthus: a plant of the warmer regions of Europe, distinguished by large, handsome leaves, withindentedandsharplypointededges.ConventionalisedasadecorativemotiveinClassicarchitecture:speciallyintheCorinthiancapital.

Acropolis:ahillwithinacity,convertedintoacitadel;oftencontaining,asatAthens,thetemplesofthetutelaryorguardiandivinities.

Acroteria:plinthsorblocks,placedontheapexandendsofaPediment(whichsee),forthesupportofacarvedornament.

Æsthetic:oforpertainingtobeauty.Thatqualityinanything,especiallyaworkofart,thatstimulatesthesenses,emotionsorimaginationtoanappreciationandloveofthebeautiful.

Aisles (lit. “wings”): the lateraldivisionsofachurchorcathedral,parallel to thenaveandseparatedfromitbycolumns.

Alcove:acoveredrecess,openingfromaroomorcorridor.Ambo:pluralAmbones:raisedpulpitsfromwhichtheEpistlesandGospels,respectively,wereread.Ambulatory:aspace,usuallycovered,forwalkingin.Amphi-prostyle: used todesignatea temple-plan thathasa rear aswell as a frontportico.CompareProstyle.

Anta:pluralAntæ(lit.opposite):speciallyinClassicarchitecture,thepilasterattachedtothesideofatemple,oppositeacolumn.Generally,anypilasteroppositeacolumn.ForInAntisseePortico.

Antefixæ:ornamentalblocksplacedalongtheloweredgeoftheroofofatemple,tocoverthejointsofthetiles.

Anthemion:adecorativedevice,alsocalledHoneysuckleorPalmetteornament,composedofflowerformsorfronds,radiatingfromasinglepoint.Usedespeciallyonthecymarectamoulding,roundthenecksofcolumnsandonstele-headsandantefixæ.

AnnulaorAnnulet:asmall filletor flatband,encirclingaDoriccolumnbelowtheEchinus (whichsee).

Apse: originally, the semi-circular projection at one end of a basilica hall; later, the semi-circular orpolygonal termination of a choir in a ContinentalGothic cathedral, as contrastedwith the square-endedchoirofEnglishGothic.

Apsidal:havingtheformofanApse.Apteral(Gk.“withoutwings”):appliedtoatemplethathasnocolonnadeonthesides.Arabesque: a fanciful, painted,modelled, or carved ornamentation, composed of plant forms, oftencombined with human, animal, and grotesque forms. Used by the Romans and revived by theRenaissance decorators. Also used by the Arabs—hence the name—for a flatly modelled andcolouredornamentofintricatedesign,withouthumanor,generally,animalforms.

Arcade:asystemorrangeofarches,supportedoncolumns,e.g.,therangeofarchesandcolumnsoneachsideofthenaveofacathedralorchurch.Whenusedasanembellishmentofexteriororinteriorwalls,itisdistinguishedasOpenorBlindArcade,accordingasitisdetachedfromorattachedtotheplaneofthewall.

Arch:generally, a structure supportedat the sidesorendsandcomposedofpieces,nooneofwhichspans thewhole interval. Specifically, a structure, involving one ormore curves, supported at thesides,spanninganopeningandcapableofsupportingweight.Distinguishedaccordingtothenatureofthecurveas,segmental,semi-circular,ogee,pointed,horseshoe,four-centred,trefoil,cinquefoil,andmultifoil.Arches,involvingstraightlinesaswellascurved,areknownas“shouldered.”

Architect(pr.ar-ki-tect):lit.themaster-builder.Architectonic:possessinganarchitectural,ororganicallyconstructive,character.SeeOrganic.Architecture: thescienceandartofdesigningandconstructingbuildings,withaview toUtilityandBeauty.SeeBeauty.

Architrave(lit.“principalbeam”):thelowestmemberofanEntablature(whichsee);henceappliedtoanybeamthatrestsoncolumnsandcarriesasuperstructure;alsotothemouldedframewhichboundsthesidesaswellastheheadofadoororwindowopening.

Archivolt:themouldingsaroundthefaceofanarch.Arris:thesharpedgeatwhichmeettwoflutingsofaDoricColumn.Ashlar:appliedtomasonryofwhichthestonesaresquaredanddressedwithhammerorchisel.Astragal:aconvexmouldingwithaprofilesemi-circular,likethatoftheTorus,onlysmallerinwidth.

OftendecoratedwithBeadandSpoolornament.Astylar:usedofafaçade,nottreatedwithcolumns.Asymmetries:deviationsfromgeometricalsymmetryandprecision;suchassubstitutingaslightcurvefor horizontal and vertical straight lines; varying slightly the spaces between columns, settingcolumnsonacurvinginsteadofastraightline,andsoforth.RefinementswhichHellenic,Byzantine,andGothicarchitectsintroducedtogiveflexibilityandrhythmtotheirstructures.SeeRefinements.

Atlantes:SeeCaryatid.Atrium:inRomanhousesanentrancecourtopentothesky,butsurroundedbyacoveredambulatory.InEarlyChristianarchitecture,asimilarentrancecourtinfrontofchurches.

Attic:theupperstoryofabuilding,abovethecornice.Axis:animaginaryline,aboutwhichanarchitectarrangesthesymmetryofhisdesign.Themainaxisusuallyrunsthroughthelongestdirectionofthebuildingandmaybeintersectedatrightanglesbyasecondaxis.SeeCrossing.

Baldachino:orBaldachin:acanopysupportedonuprights;usedespeciallytosurmountanaltar.Baluster: a small ornamental pillar supporting a rail or coping; the whole structure being called aBalustrade.

Balustrade:SeeBaluster.Baroque:fantastic,grotesque,appliedtosomeoftheheavilydecoratedarchitectureof theeighteenthcentury.

Barrel-vault: also called Semi-circular or Wagon-headed vault: a continuous arched roof over anoblongspace,restingonthesidewalls.

Barrow:anartificialmoundofearth,formingaprehistoricsepulchralmonument.BarTracery:SeeTracery.Base:thelowermemberofanystructure;comparePlinth.Basilica:originallyabuildingerectedforbusinessorlegalprocedure;specificallythelargehallofsuchabuilding;later,inChristiantimes,achurchthatmoreorlessretainstheplanofsuchahall.

Batter:theupward,inwardslopeofawall,affordinggreaterresistancetoThrust(whichsee).Battlement: the terminationof aParapet (which see) in a series of indentations, called embrasures,whiletheinterveningsolidpartsarecalledmerlons.

Bay:eachoftheprincipalcompartmentsintowhichthevaultingofaroofisdivided;alsousedofthespacebetweenanytwocolumnsofanArcade(whichsee)ofaGothicchurch.

Bay-window: a window of angular plan, that projects from the wall and reaches to the ground.DistinguishedfromanOrielwindowthatissupportedonabracketorCorbel(whichsee)andfromaBow-windowwhichiscurvedinplan.

Bead:asmallconvexmoulding;oftendecoratedwithBeadandSpoolornament.BeadandSpool:anornamentaldeviceofsmallhalvedspheres,alternatingwithhalvedspools;usedonsmallconvexmouldings.

Beauty:asappliedtoArchitecture,thosequalitiesinabuildingthatstimulateandgratifytheæstheticsense.TheyresultfromthearchitecthavingcreatedanOrganicstructureaccordingtotheprinciplesofFitness,Unity,Proportion,Harmony,andRhythm(seetheseterms).

BelÉtage:Frenchtermfortheprincipalstoryofabuilding.CompareItalian,PianoNobile.Belfry:specifically,thepartofatowerinwhichthebellsarehung;hence,sometimes,thewholetower.

Bema:araisedplatform,reservedfortheclergyinEarlyChristianchurches.BlindArcades:SeeArcade.Bond: themethod of laying bricks or stones to bind themasonry. InEnglishBond, the courses arecomposed alternately ofHeaders andStretchers (which see); in Flemish Bond the Headers andStretchersarelaidalternatelyineachCourse(whichsee).

Boss:ornamentalprojectionattheintersectionoftheribsofvaultsandceilings.Bow-window:SeeBay-window.BranchTracery:SeeTracery.BrokenEntablature: one that projects over each column or pilaster instead ofmaintaining a singlestraightplane.

Broken Pediment: where the triangular or curved form is broken into in the centre; an ornamentaldeviceadoptedintheRenaissance.

Buttress:amassofmasonry,projectingfromthefaceofthewalltoresistthethrustofanarchorvault.Whenthemassisseparatedfromthewallandconnectedwithitbyanarch,thearchandmassformaFlyingButtress.

Byzantine:thestyleevolvedinByzantium(Constantinople)inthefifthcentury,A.D.

Cairn: an artificial heap of stones, sometimes piled about a corpse-chamber, which served as aprehistoricsepulchreandmonument.

Campanile(cam-pah-neé-la):Italiantermforbell-tower.Canopy:specifically,thecarvedornamentationthatsurmountsaniche,altarortomb.CapellaMajor: the space in a Spanish cathedral, enclosed with screens orRejas (which see) andcontainingtheHighAltar.

Capital:theuppermemberofacolumn,pier,pillarorpilaster.Carillon:asetofstationarybells,playeduponbyamechanicalcontrivance,regulatedfromakeyboard.Caryatid:pluralCaryatides:sculpturedfemalefigures,usedinsteadofcolumnsorpilasterstosupportanentablatureorcornice.SaidtobesocalledafterthewomenofCaria,whoaidedthePersiansandweremadeslaves.Malefigures,soused,arecalledAtlantes.

Caulicoli:theeightstalksoftheacanthusornament,supportingthevolutesofaCorinthiancapital.Cavetto:asimpleconcavemoulding.CavettoCornice:thehollowmemberthatcrownsawallordoorinEgyptianarchitecture.Cella:theportionofatempleenclosedbywalls.Cerce:amechanicalsupportingdeviceusedintheconstructionofvaultribsandlightarches.Shapedlikeabow,insectionsthatworktelescopically,sothatitcanbeadjustedtothewidthofthespan.

Chamfer:theedgeproducedbychamfering;thatistosaycuttingasquareedgeorcornertoaflattenedorgroovedsurface.

Chancel(Lat.cancellus,ascreen):SeeChoir.Chapter-house: originally the assembly place of the Chapter or fraternity of abbot andmonks of amonastery,forthetransactionofbusiness.NowattachedtoEnglishcathedralsforthetransactionsoftheChapterofbishopandcanons.

Chevêt(pr.shev-ay):termappliedtotheeastendofaRomanesqueorGothicchurch,whenittakestheformofacircularorpolygonalapse,surroundedbyanaislewhichopensintochapels.

Chevron:adecorativedevice,likeaV,repeatedeitherverticallyorhorizontally;forminginthelatter

caseazig-zag.Chryselephantine(Gk.“gold-ivory”):appliedtoasculpturedfigureofwood,whenthenudepartsarecoveredwithgoldandthedraperieswithivory.

ChoirorChancel:theportionofthechurchorcathedraleastofthenave,screenedofffortheuseofthechoir.SeeCoro.

Cimborio:SeeLantern.Cinquecento:ItaliantermfortheperiodcalledinEnglishthesixteenthcentury.Cinque-foil:SeeFoil.Clerestory or Clearstory (Fr. clair = light): the highest story of a nave immediately above theTriforium(whichsee),containingwindowsoverlookingtheroofoftheaisles.

Cloison:apartition;specifically,themetalbandsdividingthepatternincloisonnéenamel.Cloisters (lit. enclosed space): the covered ambulatory around the open court of a monastery; stillretainedasanadjunctofmanyEnglishandSpanishcathedrals.

Close:theprecinctofanEnglishcathedral;survivalofthe“Garth”orgrassyenclosureofamonastery.Coffer:oneofthesunkenpanelsofgeometricaldesign,usedintheornamentationofaceiling,vaultordome.

Colonnade:asystemorrangeofcolumns,surmountedbyanentablature.WhenitentirelysurroundsatempleorcourtitiscalledaPeristyle.WhenitisattachedtothefrontofabuildingitisknownasaPortico(whichsee).

Column:averticalmember,consistingofaShaft,surmountedbyaCapitalandresting,usually,onaBase.Itsfunctionistosupport,inClassicarchitecture,anentablature,andinGothic,anarch.

Composite:aRomanOrderinwhichthecapitaliscomposedoftheupperpartofanIonianCapitalandthelowerpartofaCorinthian.

Concave:curving,likethesegmentofacircle,inward,formingahollowtotheeyeofthespectator.Concentric:havingacommoncentre.Console:a supportingblock,projecting fromawall,generallydecorated;specifically thesupportsofthecorniceoveradoororwindow.SeeModillion.

Conventionalisation: therepresentingofsomethinginaformalway,generallyprescribedbycustom.Forexample, itwasneither ignorancenor lackofskill,butacustom,prescribedby thepriesthood,thatcausedEgyptianartiststorepresentthehumanfigurewithheadandlegsinprofileandtrunkfullfront.Indecorativedesign,basedonnaturalobjects,thebestusageavoidsnaturalisticrepresentation,and translates the form into a convention, which, however, reproduces and even emphasises thesalientfeaturesofstructureandofgrowthormovement.Thus,theGreekacanthusornamentactuallysuggestsmoreenergyofgrowthandmoreexpressivenessofformthanthenaturalplant.

Convex:curving,likeasegmentofacircle,outwardortowardthespectator.Corbel: a block of stone, often elaborately carved, which projects from a wall to sustain a weight,especiallythatofroof-beams,orvaultingshafts.SeeConsole.

Corinthian: latest order of Hellenic architecture, commenced by the Hellenic architects and fullydevelopedbytheRomans.

Cornice: specifically, in Classic architecture, the crowning or uppermostmember of an entablature;generally,thecrowningfeatureofanywallconstruction,ordoorsandwindows.

Coro:thespacescreenedofffortheuseofthechoirinaSpanishcathedral,situatedinthenave,westoftheCrossing.

Corridor:awidegalleryorpassagewithinabuilding,usuallywithroomsopeningintoit.Cortile:Italiantermforinteriorcourt,opentotheskyandsurroundedbyarcades.Course:acontinuoushorizontallayerofstonesorbricks.SeeBond.Cove:specifically,theconcavesurfacethatmayoccurbetweenthetopofaninteriorwallandtheflatoftheceiling.

Crenellated:fortifiedwithbattlements.Cromlech:aprehistoricmemorial,composedofstonesofhugesize,disposedinoneormorecircles;e.g.,Stonehenge.

Cross:adoptedbytheChurchinthefourthcenturyasthesymbolofChristianity.TheseparationoftheEasternorGreekChurchfromtheWesternorLatinChurch,wasreflectedintheshapeoftheCross;theGreekhavingallitsfourmembersequal,whilethelowermemberoftheLatinislengthened.

Crossing: the space about the intersection of the twoAxes (which see) of a church or cathedral, onwhichthenave,transepts,andchancelabut.Oftensurmountedbyadomeortower.

Cruciform:usedoftheplanofachurchthatisbasedontheformofacross.WhereaGreekcrossisfollowedthenave,choir,andtranseptsareofaboutequallength;whileiftheRomanisthemodel,thenaveislengthened.SeeCross.

Crypt:vaultedchambersbeneathabuilding,especiallybeneaththechancelofachurch,inwhichcaseoftenusedforburial.

Cupola:SeeDome.Cusps(lit.points):oneofthepointsformingthefeatheringorfoliationofGothicTracery.Frequentlyornamentedwithacarvedtermination.

Custodia:SeeTabernacle.Cyclopean:ofcolossalsize;derivedfromCyclops,agiantofGreekmyth.Cyma (pr. Si-mah) (lit. “wave”): the rising and falling curve; amoulding, perfected by theHellenicsculptors,whoseprofilecombinesaconvexandaconcavecurve.Whenthecurvebeginsinconvexandflowsintoconcave,itisknownasCymaRecta(Hogarth’s“LineofBeauty”).Whentheconcaveprecedestheconvex,theprofileiscalledCymaReversa.ThelatterisalsocalledOgee.

Cymatium:thecrowningmemberofaClassiccornice,socalledbecauseitsprofileisaCymaRecta(whichsee).

Dado:thesurfaceofaninteriorwall,betweenthebasemouldingandanuppermoulding,placedsomedistancefromtheceiling.

Decastyle:SeePortico.Decorated: used to distinguish the second period of English Gothic (fourteenth century), owing toincreasedrichnessofwindowtraceriesandotherornamentation.CompareRayonnant.

Dentil:oneofaseriesofsquare,so-calledtooth-like,blocksthatornamentthecorniceintheIonicandCorinthianOrders.

Diagonal: specifically applied to the arches or ribs of a vaulting that are diagonal to themain axis.CompareLongitudinal,Transverse.

Dipteral(lit.“double-winged”):designatingatemplethathasadoublerangeofcolumnsoneachsideofthecella.ComparePseudo-dipteral.

Dolmen: a prehistoricmegalithicmonument, composed of single stones set on end or on edge andcrownedwithasingleslab;formingasepulchralchamber,oftenembeddedinamound.SeeMastaba.

Dome:asphericalroof,overacircular,squareorpolygonalspacerisinglikeaninvertedcup.Hence,whenthestructureissmall,calledaCupola.

Doric:theearliestandsimplestOrder(whichsee)ofarchitecturedevelopedonthemainlandofHellas.Dormer(lit.“sleeping”):awindowinaroof,usuallyofabedroom,oftenprojectingwithagableend.Drum: specifically a cylindrical wall, supporting a dome; used also of a section of the shaft of acolumn.

EarlyEnglish:firstperiodofEnglishGothic,evolvedduringthethirteenthcentury.Eaves:theedgeofaroofprojectingbeyondthewall.Eclecticism:thepracticeofcombiningvariouselementsofstyle,derivedfromvarioussources.Echinus:thecushion-shapedmemberoftheDoriccapital,justbeneaththeAbacus(whichsee).Ithasanovolooregg-shapedprofile.AlsousedoftheEggandDartmoulding(whichsee).

Egg and Dart: an ornamental device, composed of an alternate repetition of an egg-shaped form,halvedvertically,andaspearhead.Usedespeciallyonmouldingsthathaveanovolooregg-shapedprofile.

Embrasure: theslopingorbevellingofanopeninginawall,soastoenlargeits interiorprofile.SeealsoBattlements.

Enamel: amaterial composedofpigment andglass, fusedandapplied inmelted state to surfacesofmetal,porcelainorpottery,fordecorativepurposes.SeeMosaics.

Encaustic:aprocessofpaintinginwhichthepigmentsaredissolvedinmeltedbees-waxandappliedhot.

EngagedColumn:acolumnthatdoesnotstandclearofthewallatthebackofit.Entablature: the horizontalmember of a classic or columnar order. It rests upon theAbacus of thecolumnandconsistsofalower,middle,anduppermember—theArchitrave,Frieze,andCornice.

Entasis (Gk. “Stretching”): a curved deviation from the straight line; specifically, the swell in theprofileoftheshaftofaClassiccolumn.

Epinaos:SeeNaos.Exhedra:acurvedrecess,usuallycontainingaseat;henceacurvedseatofmarbleorstone.

Façade:theoutsidevieworelevationofabuildingthatfacesthespectator.FanVaulting:SeeRib.Fascia:oneoftheflat,verticalfacesintowhichtheArchitraveofanIonicorCorinthianEntablatureisdivided.

Fenestration (lat. fenestra, window): the distribution of windows and openings in an architecturalcomposition.

Fillet:asmallflatband,usedespeciallytoseparateonemouldingfromanother.Finial:thefinishingpartortop,frequentlydecorated,ofaspire,pinnacleorbench-end.SeePinnacle.Fitness: a principle of beauty; that the design of a work of art shall conform to the necessaryrequirementsofitspurpose,materialandmethodofmaking.

Flamboyant(“flaming”):usedtodistinguishthethirdperiodofFrenchGothic(fifteenthcentury),fromtheencreasedelaborationofthewindowtraceries.

Fleche:specifically,awoodenspiresurmountingaroof.Fluting:theverticalgrooving,usedtoenrichtheshaftofacolumnorpilaster.

FlyingButtress:SeeButtress.Foil:aleaf-likedivisionincarvedornamentation;especiallyinthetraceryofaGothicwindoworthepanelling of walls and bench-ends. According to the number of foils included, the design isdistinguishedastrefoil,quatrefoil,cinquefoil,etc.

Formeret:SeeRib.Fresco(lit.freshordamp):seeSeccoandTempera;termsusedinMuralPainting(whichsee).Afterthewallhadthoroughlydriedout,aportion,suchastheartistcouldcoverinonedaywasspreadwitha thin layerof fine,quick-dryingplaster.While the latterwasstill freshordamp, theartist,havingpreparedhisdrawingor“cartoon,” laid it inplaceandwentover the lineswithablunt instrument,which left the design grooved in the plaster. Then he applied the tempera colours, finishing as heproceeded,forthecoloursankintotheplasterandrapidlydriedwithit,sothatsubsequenttouchingsup or alterations could only be applied by painting in Secco. As long as the surface of the wallremainsintact,thecoloursareimperishableandretaintheirvivacityandtransparence.Theyhave,too,theappearanceofbeingpartoftheactualfabricofthewall,asthebloomofcolouruponfruit.ThusFrescoisthefittestandmostbeautifulprocessofmuralpainteddecoration.

Frieze: specifically, the middle division of an Entablature, between the Architrave and the Cornice(whichsee).Alsothecontinuousbandofpaintedorsculptureddecorationthatcrownsanexteriororinteriorwall.

Gable:theupperpartofthewallofabuilding,abovetheeaves;triangularinshape,conformingtotheslope of the roof. Compare the Classic Pediment. If the edge of the gable rises in tiers it isdistinguishedasStepped.

Gaine (lit. a sheath): a sculptured decoration of a half-figure, terminating below in a sheath-likepedestal.

Galilee:aporchorchapel,sometimesattachedtoanEnglishGothiccathedral,usuallyatthewestend.Fortheuseperhapsofpenitents.CompareNarthex.

Gambrel:appliedtoaroof,theslopeofwhichisbentintoanobtuseangle.Gesso-work:adecorativedesigninRelief(whichsee)executedinfine,hardplaster.Gothic(lit.of,orpertainingtotheGoths):atermappliedtoMediævalarchitecturebytheItaliansoftheRenaissancetomarktheircontemptforwhatwasnon-Classic.Thetermwithoutreproachhasbeencontinuedtodesignate thearchitecturalstylebetweentheRomanesqueandRenaissance,during thethirteenth,fourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.TheFrenchhavetriedtosubstitutetheterm,Ogival.SeeOgee.

Grille:awroughtmetalscreenofopenworkdesign.Grisaille:astyleofpaintingingreyishtones,inimitationofbas-relief.Groin:theangleoredgeatwhichthesurfacesofacrossorgroinedvaultmeet.SeeVault.GroinedVault:SeeVault.Guilloche (pr.Gil-losh): an ornament composedof the repeated intertwining of twoormore bands;frequentlyusedtodecorateaTorus(whichsee).

Gutta(lit.“drop”):oneofthesmalltruncatedcones,attachedtotheundersideofaRegula(whichsee)andtheMutules(whichsee)ofaDoricEntablature.

Half-Timbered:whentheconstructionhasatimberedframe,theintersticesofwhicharefilledinwithmasonryorconcrete.

Hammer-beamroof:lateformoftimberroofconstruction,withoutcontinuousTieBeams(whichsee).Harmony:aprincipleofBeauty,thatgovernsthevarietyinunityofaworkofart,relatingallthepartsinanaccordoffeeling.

Header:inmasonry,abrickorstone,laidacrossthethicknessofthewall.SeeBond,Stretcher.Heart-leafandDart:anornamentcomposedofaheart-orleaf-shapedformandadartortongue.UsedspecificallyonCymaReversamouldings.

Hexastyle:SeePortico.Hip-roof:aroofthatrisesfromallthewall-platesand,accordingly,hasnogable.Honeysuckle:ornament.SeeAnthemion.Hypæthral:completelyorpartiallyopentothesky.Hypostyle:havingtheroofbeamssupportedoncolumns.

Impluvium:thecisternsunkintheAtrium(whichsee)ofaRomanhousetoreceivetherainwater.Impost: the member above the capital of a column, on which the arch rests, usually composed ofmouldings.

InAntis:SeePortico.Ionic: theorderof architecture,developedby theHellenesofAsiaMinor andadjoining islands, andborrowedandmodifiedbythemainlandHellenes.

Insula:Romantermforaresidentialbuilding,housingmanyfamilies.Intercolumniation:specificallyinClassicarchitecture,thespacebetweenanytwocolumns,orbetweenacolumnandthewalloftheCella.

Interlace:indecoration,anornamentcomposedofinterwovenbandsorlines.

Jambs:thesidemembersoftheopeningsofdoorsandwindows.

Kaaba:thecube-likeshrineintheMosqueofMecca.Keystone:thecentralstoneofanarch.King-Post:intimberroof-construction;acentralpost,restingononeoftheTie-beams(whichsee)tosupporttheridge.SeeQueen-Post.

Lady-Chapel: a chapel in anEnglishcathedral, dedicated to theVirginMary,usually situatedat thebackofthealtar.

Lancet:appliedtoanarchorwindowthathasasharplypointed,lance-shapedopening.Lantern: a superstructure that rises above the roof level, openbelowandadmitting light through itssides.CalledinSpanishaCimborio.

Lierne-rib:SeeRib.Lintel: thehorizontalbeam,supportedon twouprightsorposts,coveringanopeningandsupportingweight,e.g.,thetopmemberoftheframeofadoorwayorwindow.

Loggia:acoveredgallery,opentotheairononeormoresides.Longitudinal:parallel to thedirectionof themainaxis.SpecificallyappliedtothearchesandribsofthevaultingofanaveoraisleinthedirectionEastorWest.CompareDiagonalandTransverse.

Louver:alantern-likecupolaontheroofofamediævalbuilding,originallytheflueforsmokefromthefireinthecentreofthehall.

Lunette: a space somewhat resembling a half-moon,with the curve uppermost. Especially thewall-space,enclosedbytheendsofabarrel-vault;orbythewall-archofagroinedorribvault.

Lych-Gate (lit. “corpse-gate”): covered gateway at entrance to a churchyard, where the coffin restsduringthefirstportionoftheburialservice.

Machicolation: the opening between a wall and a parapet, when the latter is built out onCorbels(whichsee).Throughitmissilesorburningliquidscouldbeshowereduponassailants.

MansardorMansart:appliedtoroofswhichhaveahiporangle—insteadofacontinuousslope—onallfoursides.NamedaftertheFrencharchitectwhopopularised,thoughhedidnotinvent,it.

Mastaba:anEgyptian tomb,so-calledfromitsconstructionresembling theordinaryEgyptianbench,whichiscomposedofahorizontalboard,supporteduponboardsthatslopeinwardtowardtheseat.

Mausoleum(mō-so-lée-um):tombofmorethanordinarysizeandarchitecturalpretensions.Socalledfrom the tomberectedatHalicarnassus in325B.C., inmemoryofMausolus,KingofCaria,byhiswidow,Artemisia.

Megalith(lit.hugestone):Megalithic,composedofsuch.SeeCyclopean.Megaron:Homericwordforpalaceorlargehall.Member(lit.limb):anycomponentpartofastructuraldesignthathasaspecificfunctiontoperform.Menhir:aprehistoricmonument,consistingofasingleroughorrudelyshapedstone,usuallyoflargesize(megalithic);perhapsoriginallyconnectedwithfetishworship,towardoffevilspirits;thenasamemorialofadeadchieftainoravictory.TheprototypeoftheObelisk.

Merlons:SeeBattlements.Metope: the space between any twoof theTriglyphs (which see) of aDoricFrieze. Originally leftopen,laterfilledandoftenwithsculpturedrelief.

Mezzanine:alowstorysituatedbetweentwohigherones.Mihrab:anicheinthewallofamosquethatmarksthe“Kibleh,”ordirectiontowardtheKaaba(whichsee)atMecca.

Minaret:thetallslendertower,attachedtoaMosque,fromabalconyofwhichthemuezzinsummonsthepeopletoprayer.

Modillions:thedecoratedblocksrangedundertheCorniceofaCorinthianorCompositeEntablature.Monolith(lit.singlestone):usuallyoflargesize.Monolithic,composedofsuch.Mosaic (lit. belonging to the muses, the goddesses of the arts): decorative designs composed ofparticles,usuallycube-shaped,ofmarble,stone,glassorenamel,usedtoenrichthesurfacesofvaults,wallsandfloors.SeeOpus.

Motive:indecoration,theformonwhichtheornamentisbased;e.g.,theacanthusmotive.Mullion:oneoftheverticalstonebarsdividingaGothicwindowintotwoormore“lights.”AlsooneofthebarsofaRose-Window(whichsee).ThehorizontalbarsarecalledTransoms.

Mural:oforpertainingtoawall;e.g.,amuraldecoration.SeeSecco,Fresco.Mutule:oneofaseriesofrectangularblocksundertheCorniceofaDoricEntablature,studdedontheundersidewithGuttæ(whichsee).

Naos:theprincipalchamberofanHellenictemple,containingthestatueofthedeity.Enteredfromthefront through an unwalled vestibule, called the Pronaos and from the rear by a correspondingvestibule,calledEpinaosorOpisthodomos.

Narthex: the arcaded porch of a Christian basilica, where penitents, barred from full communion,worshipped.SeeGalilee.

Nave(fromNaos,whichsee):centraldivisionofachurchorcathedral;usuallywestofthechoir.Necking:thehollowedsurfacebetweentheAstragal(whichsee)oftheshaftandthecommencementofthecapital;specificallyofaRomanDoriccolumn.

Necropolis:cityofthedead:anassemblageofgravesortombs.NewelPost:theshaftaroundwhichaspiralstaircaseisconstructed;alsotheprincipalpostsupportingthehandrailofastaircase.

Norman: the style in England, preceding Early English: corresponding to Romanesque on theContinent.

Nymphæum(consecratedtothenymphs):abuildingcontainingornamentalwater,plantsandstatuary.

Octastyle:SeePortico.Ogee(pr.O-jée):anothertermfortheCymaReversa.SeeCyma.Ogival: termappliedtothePointedArch,becauseit iscomposedoftwocontrastedcurves.OwingtothisarchbeingcharacteristicoftheGothicstyle,theFrenchhaveproposedtocallthelatterOgival.

OpenArcades:SeeArcades.Opisthodomos(Gk.“roombehind”):sameasEpinaos.SeeNaos.Opusreticulatum(lit.“network”):aveneeringcomposedofequalsquareslabs,arrangedsothattheirjointsarediagonalandformanet-likemesh.

Opus Sectile (lit. “Cut-work”): a mosaic ornament, composed of glass or marble, cut into variousshapestoformapattern.TherichestvarietyofitisknownasOpusAlexandrinum.

OpusSpicatum:pavementcomposedofbrickslaidin“herring-bone”fashion.Opustesselatum:amosaicornamentcomposedoftesseræorsquareblocksofglassormarble.Order:specifically,inClassicarchitecture,thecombinationofColumnandEntablature.Organic:primarilyusedofthestructuresofanimalsandplants;secondarily,ofanyorganised,whole,composedofparts thatperformdefinite functions;always in thisbookwithan implication that therelationbetweenthewholeanditspartspartakesofthenatureofaliving,asopposedtoamechanical,structure.

Oriel-window:SeeBay-window.Orientation:theconstructionofatempleorchurchonamainaxis,regulatedtothepositionofthesunorastaronsomeparticulardayornight;or to thepointsof thecompass,usuallyaneastandwestaxis.

Ovolo(lit.“egg-like”):aClassicconvexmoulding—aquarter-roundinRomanarchitecture;inHellenic,thecurveofconicsectionknownashyperbolic.

Palmette:SeeAnthemion.Papier-maché:atoughplasticsubstance,formedofpaper-pulp,mixedwithglue,oroflayersofpaper,gluedtogether;andmodelledintoornamentalforms.

Parapet: specifically, the portion of thewall of a building above the eaves of the roof.Generally, aretainingwall,orenclosingwall,e.g.,thewallsofabridge,abovetheroadway.

Patio:theopen,innercourtofaSpanishorSpanish-Americanhouse.Pavilion:specifically,asectionofabuildingthatprojectsfromtheplaneofthemainfaçadeandhasa

distinctrooftreatment.Pediment:specifically,thetriangularmembersurmountingthePorticoofaClassictemple.ItrestsontheEntablatureandterminatesoneachsideinarakingCornice,parallelingtheslopeoftheroof.InRenaissanceand later times, a triangular surface, framedbyahorizontal and twoslopingcornices,e.g., theembellishmentsurmountingwindowsanddoors.Thetriangularspacewithinthehorizontaland raking cornices is called aTympanum and is frequently decoratedwith sculptured figures orornament.Tympanumisalsousedforthesurfacebetweenalintelandthecurvedcorniceoverit.

Pendentive:oneof thefour triangular,concavemembersthatconvertasquarespaceintoacircleforthe support of a dome.Their apexes rest on the four piers at the angles of the square, and, as thetrianglesarchinward,theirbasesuniteinacircle.

Peripteral(lit.“winged-around”):designatingatemple,whenthecellaissurroundedbyasinglerangeofcolumns.ComparePseudo-peripteral.

Peristyle:asystemorrangeofColumns,specificallysurroundingatempleorcourt.SeeColonnade.Pianonobile:Italiantermfortheprincipalstoryofabuilding.CompareFrenchBelÉtage.Pier:averticalsupportingmember,otherthanacolumnorpillar.Pilaster: a square column, projecting about one-sixth of its width from the wall, and of the sameproportionsastheOrderwithwhichitisused.

Pinnacle:asmallturret-liketermination;especiallyatthetopofbuttressestoincreasetheirweightandcapacityoflateralresistance.

PlateTracery:SeeTracery.Plinth:specifically,ablock,usuallysquare,whichformsthelowestmemberofthebaseofacolumn.Generally,theblockonwhichacolumn,pedestalorstatuerests.

Podium:awallsupportingarowofcolumns;specifically,inRomanarchitecture,thetempleplatformthatdoesnotprojectbeyondthelineofthecolumnsasdoesaStylobate(whichsee).

Polygonal:afigurecomposedofmorethanfourangles,ofequalsize.Porte-cochère(pr.port´-co-share´):acoveredentrance,underwhichacarriagecanbedriven.Portico: anopenspaceorambulatorycoveredbya roof, supportedoncolumns, formingaporch. InClassictemplesthefrontoftheporticoconsistsofColumns,Entablature,andPediment,coveredbytheextensionoftheroofoftheCella.AccordingasthePorticohasfour,six,eightortencolumnsinfrontthetempleisdistinguishedasTetrastyle,Hexastyle,OctostyleorDecastyle.WhenthePorticoisenclosed on the left and right by an extension of the sides of the Cella it is distinguished as “InAntis.”

Post:anuprightsupportingmember,asofadoor.AnelementintheprincipleofconstructionknownasPostandBeam.

Post andBeam: generic term for the constructive principle of a horizontalmember, supported uponverticalones.

Posticum(LatinforEpinaos):SeeNaos.PotMetal:glassfusedinacrucible.Pozzolana:aclean,sandyearth,ofvolcanicorigin,usedbytheRomansincombinationwith limetoformconcrete.

Profile:specifically,theouteredgeofthesectionofamoulding.Projection: a general term for any member that extends beyond the main planes of a structure,especiallyusedofmouldings.

Pronaos:SeeNaos.Proportion:aprincipleofBeauty,thatregulatesthequantityandqualityofthepartsofaworkofartaccordingtotheirfunctionalimportanceintheorganicunityofthewhole.

Propylæa:theentrancegateorvestibuletoagroupofbuildings.Proscenium(lit.“beforethescene”[skene]):intheClassictheatreastructure,occupyingtheopenendof the horse-shoe plan, to screen from view the “skene” or actor’s dressing-place. It formed thebackgroundtotheDrama.

Prostyle(lit.“havingcolumnsinfront”):usedtodescribeatempleplanthathasaPorticoatonlyoneofitsends.CompareAmphi-prostyle.

Prototype: the primitive, rude, original form, out ofwhich finer andmore efficient types have beendeveloped.

Pseudo-dipteral (lit. “false-double-winged”): when the temple appears to have a double row ofcolumnsonthesides,buttheinnerrangeisomittedandthespacebetweenthecolumnsandwalloftheCellaistherebydoubletheusualIntercolumniation(whichsee).

Pseudo-peripteral(lit.“false-winged-around”);whenthecolumnsonthesidesofatemple,insteadofstandingfree,areEngaged(whichsee)inthewalloftheCella.

Pteroma(pr.ter-ō´-ma):pl.pteromata:termappliedtothesidewallsofaCella;hence,sometimestothespacebetweenthelatterandthecolumnsofthePeristyle.

Pylon:adoorway,flankedbytwoTruncatedPyramidswithoblongbases.SeePyramid.Pyramid: a structure ofmasonry, generallywith a square base,with triangular sidesmeeting at anapex.WhenthesidesmountinstepsitisdistinguishedasaSteppedPyramid.Whenthesidesendabruptly,beforereachingtheapex,itiscalledaTruncatedPyramid.

Quadriga:afourhorsechariot.Quatrefoil:SeeFoil.Quatrocento:ItaliantermfortheperiodcalledinEnglishthefifteenthcentury.Queen-Post: in timbered roofconstruction,oneof the twoposts restingononeof theTie-beams,atequaldistancefromthecentre,toreinforcetherafters.SeeKing-Post.

Quoin:specifically,oneofthelarge,squarestonesattheangle(coign)ofabuilding.

Ramp:aninclinedapproachtoaterraceorplatform,usuallyparalleltothesustainingwallofthelatter.Rayonnant:(“radiating”):usedtodistinguishthesecondperiodofFrenchGothic(FourteenthCentury);fromthecharacteristicradiatingor“wheel”traceryoftherose-windows.Compare“Decorated.”

Refinements: a term applied to the instances in Hellenic, Byzantine, and Gothic architecture ofdeviationsfromgeometricalsymmetry,tosecureamoreflowing,rhythmicbeauty.SeeAsymmetries.

Regula:oneofaseriesofshort,flatfilletsplacedundertheTenia(whichsee)ofaDoricArchitrave,aboveeachoftheTriglyphs(whichsee);usuallyhavingsixGuttæ(whichsee)ontheunderside.

Reja (pr. rā-hah): Spanish term for an elaborate grille or screen of hammered and chiselled iron,characteristicofwhichwererepousséfiguressetintoorattachedtotheverticalbars.

Relief:adesignofornamentorfiguresraiseduponasurfacethatformsthebackground;distinguished,accordingtotheextentofprojection,asHighorLow;inbothcasesdistinguishedfrommodellingorcarving“intheround”wherethedesign,isdetachedfromthebackground;andfromIntaglio,wherethedesignissunkbelowthesurface.

Renaissance: the periodof the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries inwhich theClassic culture and the

ClassicformswererevivedinEurope.Reredos(pr.rir´-dos):ascreenbehindanaltar,usuallyofmarble,decoratedwithsculpturedornamentandfigures.CalledRetabloinSpain,whereexamplesreachprodigioussizeandgreatelaboration.

Retablo:SpanishforReredos(whichsee).Retrochoir:thespace,otherthanthatoftheLadyChapelbehindthealtar.Rhythm: primarily used to describe the harmonious recurrence of certain sound-relations inmusicalandpoeticcompositions;amovementofsoundcharacterisedbyrecurrenceofstressandaccent.Itisbasedontime,buteludesthemeasuredrepetitionofthebarandmetre.Hencearelationoflinesandmasses, characterised by harmonious recurrence of stress or accent. Not a repetition of measuredintervals and identical parts, but of general similarities, involving variety, uniting in closestrelationship thepartsofanorganicdesign tooneanotherand to thewhole.Rhythm is the subtlestelementofartisticharmonyandyetisnearesttothefreegrowthandarticulationsofnature.

Rib: a projecting band or moulding on a ceiling. Specifically, the projecting members of Gothicvaulting. Thesewere first constructed—probablywith the support of aCerce (which see) as lightarches,whichthenformedthesupportoftheinterveningmasonrysurfaces.TheRibswhichparalleltheaxisof thenavearecalledLongitudinal, thosewhichcross it fromcolumn to columnat rightangles are called Transverse, while those crossing the axis diagonally are called Diagonal.Sometimes, especially inEnglishGothic, to strengthen the vault, extra ribs, known asTiercerons,wereinsertedbetweenthemainribs.TheyspringfromtheImpost(whichsee)andabutonanextraridge, projecting along the axial line, known as theRidge-Rib. The vaulting, thus formed by thetierceronsradiatingfromtheImpostiscalledFanVaulting.Sometimes,foradditionalstrengthandtoincrease the decorativeness, short intermediate ribswere introduced,which are known asLiernes,theirdistinctionbeingthattheydonotconnectwiththeImpost.Whenthegeometricalpattern,madeby the Liernes, resembles a star the vaulting is distinguished as Stellar Vaulting. Sometimes averticalrib,knownasaFormeret,wasappliedtothewall toseparateonevaultcompartmentfromanother.

RibVault:SeeVault.Ridge:thehighestpointorlineofaroof.RidgeRib:SeeRib.Rococo:styleofdecoration,distinguishedbyrock-work,shells,scrolls,etc.,whichoriginatedinFranceduringtheperiodoftheRegencyandLouisXV.

Rood-loft:agalleryovertheentrancetothechancel,inwhichstoodacrossorrood.Usedforreadingportionsoftheserviceandalsointheperformanceofmiracleplays.

Rose-windoworWheel-window:acircularwindow,whoseMullions(whichsee)convergetowardthecentre.

RostralColumn: a column decorated with imitations of the prows (rostra) of vessels; used by theRomanstocommemorateanavalvictory.

Rubble:Rubblework:masonrycomposedofirregularlyshapedorbrokenstone,whethermixedornotwithcement;alsothefragmentsofstone,mixedwithcement,usedtofillinthethicknessofawall,betweenthetwofacesofdressedstone.

Rustication:treatmentofmasonrywithdeeplyrecessedjoints,groovedorbeveled;thesurfaceofthestoneissometimesmaderough.

Scotia:aconcavemoulding,frequentlyusedinthebaseofClassiccolumns.

Screen: a partition of wood, metal, marble, or stone, separating the choir from the nave. Latincancellus;hencebycorruptiontheEnglishterm,Chancel.

Secco(lit.“dry”):ascontrastedwithFresco(whichsee),“freshorwet.”TermsusedinconnectionwithTemperapainting(whichsee)accordingasthesurfaceofplasterbedryorfreshlyspreadatthetimethecolourisapplied.

Section:adrawingshowingabuildingorpartofabuilding,asitwouldappearifitwerecutthroughvertically,andthepartbetweentheplaneofsectionandthespectator’seyewereremoved.

Serdab:thecellwithinanEgyptiantomb,inwhichimagesofthedeceasedwereplaced.Sexpartite: applied tovaults, divided into six compartments. InRomanesque churches, owing to theshort intercolumniation, the bays were oblong. Hence for convenience of construction two weretreated together as a square. Sometimes from the intermediate columns a transverse shafting wasconstructed,whichtogetherwiththediagonalsdividedthesquareintosixdivisions.

Shaft:themainmemberofaColumnbetweentheCapitaland(wherethereisone)theBase.Soffit:theundersideofanentablature,lintel,cornice,orarch.Solar:aprivateupperchamberfortheuseofthefamily,inaMediævalCastle.SpandrilorSpandrel:thetriangularspaceoneachsideofanarchthatisenclosedinarectangle.Sphinx:awingedmonster,combininghumanandanimalforms.Spire:thepointedterminationtoatower.SeeSteeple.Squinch:asmallarch,setdiagonallyacrosstheangleofasquarespacetotransformthelatterintoanoctagon.

Stalls:thefixedseatsinachancelfortheclergyandchoir.Stanza:ItalianforChamber.Steeple:thecombinationoftowerandSpire.SeeSpire.Stele: Stela: an upright tablet of stone or marble, often sculptured and engraved; serving as atombstone,orboundarymarkormilestone,etc.

StellarVaulting:SeeRib.Stepped:SeeGable;Pyramid.Stilted:appliedtoanarchwhenitscurvebeginssomedistanceabovetheimpostandisconnectedtothelatterbyverticalsectionsofmoulding.

StrapOrnament: geometrical patterns formed of bands, that suggest straps of leather kept in placewithstuds.

Stretcher:inmasonry,abrickorstone,laidlengthwiseofthecourse.SeeBond,Header.Stucco:specifically,aplastermadeofgypsum,powderedmarbleorfinesand,mixedwithwater;usedforwallsurfacesandraisedornament;generally,anyplasterorcementusedforexternalcoating.

Stylobate (lit. “column-stand”): in Classic Architecture, a continuous base supporting columns;specifically,theplatformonwhichaGreektempleisraised.ComparePodium.

Tabernacle: a structure tocontain the“Host”orconsecratedBread; resemblinga toweror spireandelaboratelyembellishedwithwindows,mouldings,pinnacles,etc.,oftenrisingtoagreatheight—90feetintheCathedralofUlm.AfeatureofGermandecorativeart.AppearsinSpanishGothicunderthenameofCustodia.

Temenos:thesacredenclosureorprecinctofaGreektempleorgroupoftemples.Temperapaintingorpaintingindistemper:theprocessofpaintingonaground,usuallypreparedwitha

coatoffineplaster,withpigmentsthataremixedwithyolkofeggorsomeotherglutinousmediumandare soluble inwater.Themethodemployed forallpaintingsbefore thedevelopmentof theoilmedium in the fifteenthcentury; andcontinued inuseby the Italianmuraldecorators.SeeFresco,Secco.

TeniaorTænia:theflatfilletorband,formingtheuppermemberofaDoricArchitrave(whichsee).Terminal:appliedtoposts,originallyusedtomarkboundaries.Madeofmarble,withaheadandbustorhalffigure,surmountingthepedestal,itisusedasagardenornament.

Terrace:araisedlevelspaceorplatform,sustainedbywallsorslopingbanks,usuallyapproachedfrombelowbyaflightofstepsorRamp(whichsee).

Terra-cotta:aspeciesofhardclay,mouldedandbaked:especiallyusedinornamentation.Tessera:acubeofglassormarbleusedinMosaicdecoration(whichsee).Tetrastyle:SeePortico.Tholos:abuildingofthebeehivetype,circularinplan,withadomedroof.Thrust:astrainthattendstopushthedownwardpressuretowardthesides;asinthecaseofanarch.Tie-Beam:intimberroofconstruction,thetransversebeamthattiestogetherthelowerpartofoppositerafters.

Tierceron-rib:SeeRib.Tile:athinpieceofterra-cotta,stone,ormarblefortheexternalcoveringofroofs.Torus: a large convex (usually semi-circular) moulding used especially in bases of columns. SeeAstragal.

Trabeated:havingahorizontalBeamorEntablature.Tracery:thepatternofstoneworkthatfillstheupperpartofaGothicwindow.DistinguishedasPlateTracery,wherethetracerylooksasifitwerepiercedinasingleplateorslabofstone;BarTracery,whencomposedinanarrangementofgeometricdesigns.TheGermanimitationofbranchesisknownasBranchTracery.

Transepts:thepartsofachurchorcathedralthatprojectatrightanglestothenaveandchoir,formingthearmsoftheCrossinaCruciform(whichsee)plan.

Transom:SeeMullion.Transverse:atrightanglestothemainaxis.Specificallyappliedtothearchesandribsofthevaultingofanaveoraislethatareinthedirectionsofnorthandsouth.CompareLongitudinalandDiagonal.

Travertine:ahardlimestonefoundinTivoli.Trefoil:SeeFoil.Triclinium:diningroomofaRomanhouse.Triforium: thearcadedpassageabove thearchesof thenaveofaGothiccathedral,opening into thespacebetweenthevaultingandroofoftheaisle.

Truncated:finishingabruptlyinsteadofinapoint.SeePyramid.Tufa:avolcanicsubstanceofwhichthehillsofRomearelargelycomposed.Tumulus:aprehistoricartificialmound,servingasasepulchralmonument.Tympanum:SeePediment.

Unity:aprincipleofBeauty,thattheworkofartshallpresentanorganiconenessandcompleteness.

Vault: an arched covering of stone, brick or concrete over any space. Barrel vault: a continuous

semicircular arched covering over an oblong space, supported on the sidewalls.Groinedvault: avaultformedbytheintersectionoftwobarrelvaults,atrightanglestoeachother,supportedonfourcornercolumnsorpiers.Ribvault:adevelopmentof thegroinvault, thegroinsbeingreplacedbyribs or profiled bands of masonry, which are erected first, the vaulting spaces being filled insubsequently.

Vestibule: the walled space before the entrance to a Roman house; later an enclosed or partiallyenclosedentrancespacebeneaththeroofofanearlyChristianchurch;generally,theentrancespaceofanybuilding,especially,ifusedforpublicassemblage.

Volute:thescrollorspiralfeatureoccurringinacapitaloftheIonicandCorinthianOrders.Voussoir:oneofthewedge-shapedstones,composingthecurveofanarch.

Wainscot:theliningorpanellingofaninteriorwall,skirtingthefloorandcarrieduptoonlyapartoftheheightofthewall.

Wheelwindow:SeeRose-window.

Ziggurat:(a“holymountain”):theplatformusuallySteppedorrisinginrecedingtiers,onwhichtheChaldæanserectedatemple;theywerealsousedforastronomicalobservations.

INDEX

(FortheCompilationofwhichtheauthorisindebtedtoCAROLINECAFFIN)A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,X,Z

AAbacus(Gloss.),42Corinthian,132,165Doric,125EnglishGothic,291,294Ionic,129atMycenæ,99Romanesque,245

Abelard,331Abury,monumentat,17Abutment(Gloss.),284Abydos,tombat,42Templeat,53

Acanthus(Gloss.),inornament,132,164,165,171Achæanmigrations,91,105Acropolis(Gloss.):ofAthens,108,119,141AtheneNike,141Erechtheion,141OdeionofHerodesAtticus,145OdeionofPericles,145theParthenon,119Propylæa,the,141TheatreofDionysos,143Mycenæ,of,100

Acroteria(Gloss.),127onParthenon,137

Ægean,civilisation,88etseq.Islandsof,89,90,91,92,95

Æolian,migrations,91,105Æsthetic(Gloss.),defined,3,4,5Africa,Mediterraneanracein,95Muhammedansin,215,220Romans,in,150

Agrippa,erectsPantheon,171Aix-la-Chapelle,Charlemagne’scapital,192Cathedralat,258Churchat,207

Akkadia,race,56,57,58Alberti,authorof“DeReÆdificatoria,”344,345Alcove(Gloss.),inEnglishgalleries,417intempleofHera,118

AlexandertheGreat,inEgypt,37inMacedonia,109inPersia,25,76

Alhambra,218,226-7Almshouses,299

Altars,oftheDorians,117EarlyChristian,194-5Escoriál,Churchin,404GranadaCathedral,401Greekdrama,142MinoanPalace,101Persia,81,83Stonehenge,16

AltunObu,Sepulchreof,14Ambo(pl)ambones(Gloss.),195Ambulatory(Gloss.),242Gothic,289,303S.Paul’sCathedral,420

Amenopheum,the,45AmericanInstituteofArchitects,462Amphi-prostyle—stylar(Gloss.),120Amphitheatres,173,174,175Anglo-Classical,435,436Anglo-Saxonarchitecture,254,255,289Annula(Gloss.),125Antæ(Gloss.)120,125,165inParthenon,137

Ante-fixæ(Gloss.),127“AntiquitiesinAthens”byStuartandRevett,436,439Apse(Gloss.),originof,177replacedbyChancel,237inCathedralsofGranada,401Monreale,Palermo,249Pisa,247S.Paul’s,420Worms,258

ChurchesofTheApostles,Cologne,259EarlyChristianChurches,195,198,200,201Romanesquechurches,244SantiagodeCompostello,260S.Cunibert,Cologne,259S.Maria-in-Capitol,Cologne,259S.Martin,Cologne,259TurkishMosques,228

Apteral(Gloss.),141Aqueducts,182AguaClaudia,183AnioNovus,183PontduGard,Nîmes,183

AraballiancewithMoors,226,227Arcades(Gloss.),inAkbar,mosqueof,230

Alhambra,the,226Amiens,cathedralof,282-3Amru,Mosqueof,223AntwerpCityHall,407BremenCityHall,395Brunelleschi’s,343Chambord,381Cordova,Mosqueof,224,225Diocletian,Palaceof,195Doge’sPalace,316EnglishGothic,289IffleyChurch,257Ispahan,GreatMosqueof,229LibraryofS.Mark’s,365Liège,PalaisdeJustice,406Mecca,GreatMosque,221Mosques,217,221-223NôtreDame,Paris,282-3Palladianstyle,352Patios,400Pavia,S.Michele’s,251Romanesque,244,245,253S.Paul’sCoventGarden,419S.Peter’s,194S.Sophia’s208S.Sulpice,389Syria,EarlyChristianChurches,200Worms,Cathedral,258Asymmetriesin,280

Arcade,blind,244,247,259Arcades,typeinwindows,360,362Arch(Gloss.):Anglo-Saxonuseof,255Assyrianuseof,69Basisofdesign,202Bridges,usein,182Byzantineuseof,202Delos,at,15Domes,builton,205-6Egypt,usein,42EnglishRenaissance,420Etruria,usein,156Four-centrearches,290,410Gothic,270,284English,298Italian,310

Horseshoe,229

Mediæval,252Muhammedan,221,224,230Norman,255-6PalaceofDiocletian,in,195Pointed,272,252Romanuseof,156,166,174Romanesque,usein,245,249,250Spanish,260

Rudimentaryarch,14-15Singlestone,199Stilted,245Triumphal,5Arcdel’Étoile,443ArcdeTriomphe,443Constantine,of,159-178EarlyChristianchurches,196Janus,of,159Mantua,at,368Orange,at,178SeptimusSeverus,of,161,178TempleBar,423Titus,5,159,178

Architects(Gloss.):Abadie,Paul,452Adam,James,428Adam,Robert,428,429,430Alberti,LeoBattista,344,345,368Alessi,Galeazzo,356AnthemiusofTralles,208ArnolfodiCambio,315,340,355Ascher,Benjamin,431Ballu,Theodore,452Barry,SirCharles,439,450,451Basevi,George,438Bautista,Juanda,404BencidiCione,315BenedettodaRovezzano,411Bernini,Lorenzo,371,373,386,419Berruguete,Alonzo,402,405Boromini,Francesco,351Borset,François,406Brunelleschi,Filippo,342-344,367,373Bulfinch,Charles,446,448Buon,Bartolommeo,353,360Buon,Giovanni,353,360Buonarotti,Michelangelo,346,349,350,363-365,371-373,397,405Burlington,Lord,352,426

Butterfield,William,452Chambers,SirWilliam,427Clerisseau,C.L.,428Colombe,Michel,376Covarrubias,Alonsode,400Cram,RalphAdam,366,453Cram,GoodhueandFerguson,453Cronoca,345Del’Orme,Philibert,383DeVriendt,Cornelius,(Floris),407DiegodaSiloe,400,401Duban,Felix,444Elmes,H.L.,438EnriquedeEgas,399,400Fontana,Domenico,371Garnier,Charles,444GiacomodellaPorta,371Giacondo,Fra,371Gibbs,James,423,430GiottodiBondone,312GiulioRomano,347Hansen,Theophil,440Hawksmoor,Nicholas,423Herrera,Juande,402,404Hoban,James,446Hunt,RichardMorris,461,462Inwood,H.W.,436IsidorusofMiletus,208JohnofPadua,411Jones,Inigo,416,418,427Klenze,Leovon,440Labrouste,Henri,444Latrobe,B.H.,446LeBreton,Gilles,382Lefuel,Hector,444Lemercier,Jacques,385,387L’Enfant,PierreCharles,445LeNôtre,387Lescot,Pierre,382,383,386,444Levau,387Lombardi,Antonio,353,354Lombardi,Martino,353Lombardi,Moro,353Lombardi,Pietro,353Lombardi,Tullio,353Longhena,Baldassare,355,366Machuca,Pedro,402

Maderna,Carlo,371Mangin,448Mansart,François,385,387Mansart,JulesHardouin,387Michelozzi,Michelozzo,344,358Mills,Robert,446Mnesicles,141Nepveu,PierreLe,381Palladio,Andrea,351,368and369,418,426,427Pearson,J.L.,452Perrault,Claude,386Peruzzi,Baldassare,347,348,371Pisano,Andrea,312,319,340Pisano,Giovanni,312Porter,ArthurKingsley,243Pugin,AugustusWild,450,453Raphael,346,347,348,371Renwick,James,452Richardson,HenryHobson,461,462Sammichele,Michele,355Sangallo,Antonioda,(theElder),371Sangallo,Antonioda(theYounger),371-373,347,348Sansovino,Jacopoda,354,363,365Scamozzi,Vicenzo,352,355Schinkel,Friederich,440Scott,Sir,Gilbert,451Serlio,413Servandoni,389Shaw,Norman,460Shute,John,413Smirke,SirRobert,438Soane,John,438Soufflot,J.J.,442Street,G.E.,451Stühler,440Talenti,Simonedi,315Thornton,William,446Thorpe,John,414Town,Ithiel,431Vanbrugh,SirJohn,425VigarnidiBorgoña,401Vignola,GiacomoBarozzida,348,368,369Viollet-Le-Duc,E.M.,444Visconti,Louis,444Waterhouse,Alfred,452Wilkins,William,438Wren,SirChristopher,401,419-423

ArchitectandEngineer,477Architecture,defined,5(Gloss.):InfluenceofMonkson,237Needofpublicappreciation,455OpportunityatChicago’sWorldFair,465Relationtolife,7,9,25,456-9,472,478

Architrave(Gloss.),Asymmetriesin,137Byzantineimpost,204

Corinthianentablature,in,165Doricentablature,in,126,135Ionicentablature,in,129and130Romanuseof,164Windows,359-360

Archivolt(Gloss.),203Argolis,88,98Ariosto,329,341Aristotle,439Armada,Spanish,336Arris(Gloss.),124ArtaxerxesII,III,76tombof,82

Aryanrace,the,74Assyria,Architecture,65-73AstronomyandAstrologyof,64Asurbanipal,61Civilisationof,56,etseq.ConquestofJudea,60ConquestbyNabopolassar,61Culture,63Growthofpower,59JunctionwithBabylonia,59Recordsof,57Tiglath-Pileser,59

Astragal(Gloss.),129Astylar(Gloss.),361,439Asymmetries(Gloss.),inEgyptianarchitecture,43Gothic,278-80Hellenic,136,137,207Mason’serrors,not,129Pisa,at,247-9

AthenaPolias,141Atrium(Gloss.),inS.Ambrogio,Milan,250S.Paul-without-the-wall,196S.Peter’s,194S.Sophia,209

Attic(Gloss.),179Louvre,in,384-5S.Peter’s,in,372

Attica,Architecturalremainsin,89AugustinefoundationsincludingCathedrals,288Avebury,seeAburyAztecs,structuresofthe,19

BBabylonia,Architecture,65et.seq.

Babylondescribed,61Civilisation,56etseq.ConqueredbyAssyrians,59EmpirejoinedtoAssyrian,61,65Gardens,62GodMarduk,59Recordsof,57Sculpture,63

Balconies,onMinarets,222,223Muhammedanuseof,218NetherlandishGothic,367PalacesoftheCapitol,365VendraminiPalaces,361

Baldachino(Gloss.),inEarlyChristianchurches,194S.Peter’s,Rome,371

BallandCross,DomeofEscoriál,404S.Paul’son,422

Balustrade(Gloss.),364Burgos,GoldenStaircase,of,400ChâteaudeBlois,in,380EnglishRenaissance,414,427

BankofEngland,438Baptistries,ofFlorence,197,311Pisa,247,248Ravenna,201S.JohnLateran,198

Baroquestyle(Gloss.),338,350-1,355Barrows(Gloss.),13,14,16BarTracery(Gloss.),275,354,355Base(Gloss.),ofcolumns,123Corinthian,131Ionic,128Minaretsof,222Parthenon,in,442Romanuse,164

Basilicas(Gloss.),originof,159,177Æmilia,of,160,177Amiens,at,281Augustus’s,Palace,in,179Byzantine,205Cluny,inBenedictineAbbeyof,253Constantine,of,(orMaxentius),177,371,372EarlyChristianchurches,193Florence,in,343Fulvia,of,177Italy,inSouthern,246Julia,of,160,177

Mediæval,352Monksdevelopplantocruciform,237-40NôtreDame,Paris,281Porcia,of,177S.Peter’s,Rome,371Sicily,in,249Ulpia,of,177-8-9

Baths,ofAgrippa,176Brunelleschi,studiedby,342Caracalla,of,176Commodus,of,176Constantine,of,176Diocletian,of,176Domitian,of,176Minoan,93,96-7-8,101Nero,of,176Roman,176,439Titus,of,176Zeus,intempleof,111

Batter(Gloss.),Assyria,in,66,68Egypt,41,47Giralda,in,225Renaissance,in,378,414Sargon’sCastle,68

Bays(Gloss.),invaulting,167,178,242,250Frontofbuildings,303,372Windows,417,418

BeadandSpoolornament(Gloss.),130,132,134Beams,Cross,296EnglishRenaissanceceilings,in,417GermanRenaissance,usein,393Hammer,297Tie,221

BeautifulArts,the,3Beauty(Gloss.),feelingfor,37,95,469CampanileinFlorence,in,313ChicagoWorld’sFair,465,466DifferencebetweenGermanandItalian,328DomesticArchitecture,in,469Gallic,333Hellenic,112,113MoorishandSaracenic,226Renaissance,373Roman,113

BeauxArts,Écolede,379,461-3-464,465Bee-hiveconstruction,Tombs,15,89,99Dwellings,46

Belétage(Gloss.),383-4Belfries(Gloss.),254Netherlands,in,307

Belgium,seeNetherlandsBema(Gloss.),seeSanctuaryBenedictineFoundationsincludingCathedrals,288Billets,Norman,decoration,in,255Bingham,ProfessorHiram,ruinsdiscoveredby,19BlackStone,the,214,221Boccaccio,325,331,341,376BooksofDesign,inEnglishRenaissance,413,414,417“AntiquitiesofRome,”Palladio,427“CathedralAntiquities,”JohnBrittonandThomasRickman,450“ChiefGroundsofArchitecture,”JohnShute,413“DeReÆdificatoria,”Alberti,345“DesignsforChineseArchitecture,”WilliamChambers,427“FiveordersofArchitecture,”Vignola,349“FiveOrdersofArchitecture,”Sammichele,355“FourBooksofArchitecture,”Palladio,351“GothicQuest,The,”RalphAdamsCram,300,453“HistoryofArt,”Winckelmann,436“HistoryofArt,”StuartandRevett,436JamesGibbs’Designs,423,430“RuinsofthePalaceofDiocletian,”Adam,428“TreatiseonCivilArchitecture,”WilliamChambers,427

Brackets,seeModillionsBoston,DecorationinLibrary,98TrinityChurch,462

Botta,PaulÉmile,discoveriesof,67Brick,useof:Byzantine,202,209Chaldean,65-66Colonial,430,431Domes,in,167,222,343,422Egyptian,39,47,55EnglishandFlemishbond,424EnglishRenaissance,412GermanGothic,305GermanRenaissance,393Hellenic,117HollandRenaissance,409ItalianGothic,313,352Mesopotamia,in,65Persian,85QueenAnneStyle,424,458Roman,172,175S.Sophia,in,209

SteelConstruction,in,473StretchersandBinders,424Tiryns,in,102

BritishMuseum,ColossalBulls,in,69Cuneiformscript,in,61RosettaStone,27TempleofArtemis,128TombofAtreus,99,124

Brittany,primitivestructuresin,17BronzeAge,19ByzantineArchitecture(Gloss.),190,193-5,211Armenia,in,211Basilicas,193-6Brick,useof,202Columns,195,202-4Decoration,203Developmentof,202Domes,167,204-7DomesticArchitecture,210-11Floors,203Greece,in,210HagiaSophia,207-9InfluenceonMediævalarchitecture,197,200Romanesque,212,245,248-9

Mosaics,203Russia,in,210Venice,in,252-3S.Mark’s,209-10

Byzantium:siteof,selectedbyConstantineascapital,157,190LinkbetweenEasternandWesterncivilisation,191

CCairn(Gloss),13Calderon,Spanishdramatist,330Calvin,332Cambridge,299CaiusCollege,412EmmanuelCollege,412GateofHonour,412King’sCollege,290King’sCollegeChapel,295

Campaniles(Gloss.),ItalianGothic,312Romanesque,244,247,251

Canopies(Gloss.),Gothic,247,275,276,283,307,309Renaissance,380StainedGlass,in,309

CapillaMayor(Gloss.),seeSanctuary

Capitals(Gloss.),treatmentof,134Byzantine,204Corinthian,131,132,171Doric,118,123-4Egyptian,51-2,131,164Etruscan,155,163Gothic,275,276,279Gothic,asymmetriesin,279Gothic,English,291Gothic,Italian,314,316Hellenic,118Ionic,129Muhammedan,221,224,226NameofCrœsusinscribedon,128Norman,255Persian,83,86,87Renaissance,French,385Renaissance,Italian,345,367Renaissance,Netherlands,406Roccoco,366Roman,164Romanesque,245,249

CapitolineHill,158,159,350,363-364CardinalMendoza,399CardinalWolsey,411CardinalXimenes,400Carillons,(Gloss.),408,409Cartouche,36Caryatides(Gloss.),Erechtheion,in,141,436Louvre,in,385

Castles:Albrechtsberg,305Bolsover,412Feudaltype,377FifteenthCentury,299German,305Gothic,286Heidelburg,394Heilsberg,305Howard,425Longford,412,414Marienburg,305

Cathedrals,Placeof,inMediævallife,236Aix-la-Chapelle,192,207,258Amiens,280,281-4,302,308,314Angoulême,252-3Auxerre,284

Barcelona,308Beauvais,284Birmingham,289Borah,200Bourges,281,285,309Bristol,257,288Bruges,307,308Burgos,308,401

Canterbury,257,275,288Carlisle,288Chartres,275,284Chester,288Chichester,288Cologne,302-4DelPilar,401Dordrecht,308Durham,256,288,297Ely,257,288,295,420Exeter,288Ghent,308Gloucester,288,294Gothic,described,277-8Granada,401Haarlem,308Hereford,288Jaen,401Laon,284LaSeo,401Leon,308Lichfield,288,298Liverpool,289Llandaff,288Malaga,401Malines,408Manchester,289Mayence,259Milan,302,313,371Monreale,249Montefiascone,355Newcastle,289Norwich,256,288NôtreDame,Paris,281-4,308Orvieto,311Oxford,257,288,295Peterborough,256,288,294Piacenza,251Pisa,247Pistoia,249Ratisbon,302Rheims,279,283,286Rochester,288Rouen,280,284,286S.Albans,289S.Asaph,288S.David,288

S.Gudule,Brussels,307S.Mark,Venice,209-10,248,315S.Patrick,NewYork,453S.Paul,London,288,371,388,420-2S.Peter,Rome,346-7,349,350,370-4,404,421Salamanca,260,401Salisbury,288,294,296,298SantiagodeCompostello,259Seville,302,309,371Siena,311Southwark,289Southwell,257,289Spires,259Strasburg,302Syracuse,Sicily,193Toledo,308-9Tournai,306-7Tours,286Trêves,259Truro,289,452Utrecht,308Valladolid,401Wakefield,289Wells,288,294,296,298WestminsterAbbey,294,296,309Winchester,257,288,295Worcester,257,288Worms,258York,288,291,296,298Ypres,308Zamora,260

Cavea,174Cavetto(Gloss.),47,134Carnac,Menhirsin,17Ceiling:Coffered,178,181,196,422Gothic,English,293,256Gothic,Italian,348,367Muhammedan,225MuséePlantin-Moretus,408OdeionofHerodesAtticus,145Painted,inEscoriál,404Renaissance,English,417Renaissance,Netherlands,408SheldonianTheatre,419-20

Cella(Gloss.),53HellenicTemples,in,117,118,120-22

PersianTombs,81RomanTemples,169

Cellars,426Celtic,churches,255Monuments,16,17Ornament,18

Cervantes,329Chaldean,civilisation,56etseq.SeeAssyrianChamfer(Gloss.),126Chancel(Gloss.),Anglo-Saxon,255EarlyChristian,195Mediæval,257Renaissance,355-6Romanesque,341

Chapel,Ante,253Arena,Padua,311CapillaMayor,Escoriál,404EnglishCathedrals,289Galilee,Durham,256HenryVII,Westminster,295,450HôteldesInvalides,388King’sCollege,Cambridge,290,295Marienburg,305Marquand,Princeton,462NewCollege,Oxford,293NewKings,ofthe,400NormanCathedrals,in,255PalaceCharlesV,403Romanesque,253SainteChapelle,253,296S.Croce,Florence,311,343S.George,Windsor,299S.Isadore,210S.John,TowerofLondon,255S.MariaMaggiore,197S.Paul’s,420Sistine,374

Chapter-Houses(Gloss.):EnglishGothic,295Marienburg,305OldFoundationCathedrals,288Worcester,257

Charlemagne,207,238,239,258,263,266,323Châteaux,377Amboise,382Azay-le-Rideau,382Blois,de,379,380,383

Bury,382Chambord,de,380-1Chenonceaux,382Gaillon,379Maisons,de,387

Chevêt(Gloss.),241-2,253Amiens,281Cologne,303LeMans,285Norwich,257Tournai,307

Chimneys:ChâteaudeChambord,381Gothic,299,307Renaissance,378,415

Chimneypieces:Colonial,432Gothic,299MuséePlantin-Moretus,408

Chivalry,ageof,238-9Choir(Gloss.):Amiens,281Asymmetries,in,281Canterbury,257EarlyChristian,195,196Escoriál,404Gothic,289,295,303,309Renaissance,346Romanesque,244,246,249,256S.Paul’s,420-1

ChoirScreens,seeScreensChoirstalls,299Chryselephantine(Gloss.),140Church:formderivedfrombasilica,177AgeofChurchbuilding,193Authorityquestioned,328Influenceof,263,320Spanishloyaltyto,329

Churches:AbbeyChurch,Laach,259AbbeyofFontevrault,253Aix-la-Chapelle,207,258AllSaints,London,452Apostles,Cologne,259Babbacombe,Devonshire,452BenedictineAbbey,Cluny,253ChristChurch,Philadelphia,430

CollegiateChurch,S.Quentin,285CollegiateChurch,Toro,260Escoriál,403-5GraceChurch,NewYork,453“Hall”Church,304HolyApostles,Constantinople,209HôteldesInvalides,388IffleyChurch,Oxfordshire,257IlGesu,Rome,349,368IlRedentore,Venice,352KalbLauzeh,Syria,200LaTrinité,Paris,452NôtreDame,Avignon,252OldSouthChurch,Boston,430Sacré-Cœur,Paris,452S.Ambrogio,Milan,249,251S.Andrea,Mantua,345,367S.ApollinareinClasse,201S.ApollinareNuovo,201S.Certosa,Pavia,313S.Clemente,Rome,195,196,197S.Clotilde,Paris,452S.Constanza,Rome,198S.CristodelaLuz,Toledo,225S.Croce,Florence,311S.Cunibert,Cologne,259S.Domingo,Salamanca,401S.Elizabeth,Marburg,304S.Engracia,Saragossa,401S.Francis,Assisi,311S.Francisco,Rimini,345S.Front,Perigeux,252S.Genéviève,(Panthéon),388,442S.George,Esrah,200S.GiorgiodelGreci,Venice,354S.GiorgioMaggiore,Venice,352,355,368S.Jacque,Dieppe,286S.JohnLateran,Rome,194,198S.Lambert,Hildesheim,304S.LorenzoinMiranda,Rome,347S.Maclou,Rouen,286S.MariadeiMiracoli,Venice,353S.MariadellaGrazia,Milan,346S.MariadellaSalute,Venice,356S.MariadiLoreto,Rome,348S.MariainCapitol,Rome,259S.MarialaBianca,Toledo,225

S.MariaMaggiore,Rome,196-7S.Martin,Cologne,259S.Martino,Lucca,249S.Mary-le-bow,London,423S.Michele,Lucca,249S.Michele,Pavia,251S.Millan,Sagovia,260S.Miniato,Florence,246S.Ouen,Rouen,279,286,314S.Quentin,Mainz,304S.SergiusandS.Bacchus,Constantinople,206S.Sergius,Constantinople,200,207-9S.Sernin,Toulouse,259S.SimonStylites,KalatSeman,200S.Sophia,Constantinople,207,228S.Spirito,Florence,343,367S.StefanoRotondo,Rome,198S.Stephen,Vienna,304S.Stephen,Walbrook,422S.Sulpice,Paris,389S.Urban,Troyes,285S.Vitale,Ravenna,200,202,207-8S.Wulfrand,Abbeville,286S.Zaccaria,Venice,353TewkesburyAbbey,295TrinityChurch,Boston,462TrinityChurch,NewYork,452Turmanin,Syria,200Val-de-Grâce,Paris,387Vézélay,253

Chaldæa,civilisation,56etseq.Architecture,seeAssyrian

China,13,427Churrigueresque,style,405Cinquecento(Gloss.),338Cinquefoil(Gloss.),291CircularplanBuildings,197-8Campanile,247ChapterHouses,257,295

CircusMaxentius,173Maximus,173Nero,194

CityPlanning,inAmerica,445London,ChristopherWren,419Paris,byBaronHaussmann,444Washington,MajorPierreCharlesL’Enfant,445

CivicArchitecture:

CasaLonja,401CityHalls,Antwerp,406Bremen,395Cologne,395Haarlem,409Hague,The,409Leyden,409NewYork,448

CountyBuildings,Pittsburg,462Doge’sPalace,315PalaisdeJustice,Bruges,406PalaisdeJustice,Liège,406PalaisdeJustice,Rouen,286PalaisdeJustice,Paris,444PalazzoVecchio,Florence,315,358-9

TownHalls,Breslau,305Brunswick,305Brussels,307Halberstadt,305Hildesheim,305Louvain,307Lübeck,305Manchester,452Mechlin,307Munster,305Ratisbon,305

ClassicArchitecture,8ComparedtoGothic,276-7Hellenic,116,

seeRoman,163Classicandclassical,113

InfluenceonByzantine,203onGothic,310onRenaissance,319,320,328,338,340,342

ClassicLiterature,325,335,341,344France,383

ClassicalRevival,390,401-5,435,439BooksofDesignof,413Free-Classic,460FrenchImperial,443Neo-Greek,444

Cleopatra’sNeedles,43Clerestory,the(Gloss.):Asymmetriesin,279Egypt,usein,49,86,122Gothic,usein,272,299,304,314,367Normanuseof,256Romanesque,242,246,250,253S.Paul’sCathedral,420-1

Cloisonné(Gloss.),291Cloisters(Gloss.),288OldFoundationCathedrals,in,288SanMarco,Fiesole,344Spanisharcadesturnedinto,343SpanishGothic,308SpanishRomanesque,260

Close(Gloss.),The,297Cnossus,Architecturalremainsin,89,93Palace,96etseq.

Coffers(Gloss.),168,196,368Colleges:Caius,Cambridge,412Clare,Cambridge,412DivinityCollege,Princeton,462DivinitySchools,Oxford,295,299Emmanuel,Cambridge,412Escoriál,ofthe,404Girard,Philadelphia,448Gresham,419Jesus,Oxford,412Keble,Oxford,452King’s,Cambridge,290,295Merton,Oxford,412NevillCourt,Cambridge,412Pembroke,Oxford,412S.Cruz,Valladolid,399

S.John,Cambridge,412ScrollandKeysHall,Yale,462SidneySussex,412Trinity,Cambridge,412Wadham,Oxford,412

Cologne,259,302-4,395Colonnades(Gloss.):Colonial,432EarlyChristianChurches,194Egyptian,50EnglishClassical,438FrenchChâteaux,377,380,386Hellenic,116,120,122,141Minoan,100,101Muhammedan,221Persian,81Roman,170,180,181S.George’sHall,Liverpool,in,438S.Peter’s,Rome,in,371Spanish,400,403TreasuryBuilding,Washington,446Zeus,Templeof,111

Colosseum,the,159,174-5,342,362Colourasamotive:Byzantine,in,203Egyptian,33Muhammedan,227

Column,abasisofsky-scraperdesign,474Columns(Gloss.):Anglo-Palladian,424Anglo-Saxon,254Assyrian,70Balustercolumns,406Basilicas,in,352Bracketcolumns,400Byzantine,202,204,208Colonial,430,431,432Colosseum,inthe,174,342Colourin,136Doric,118,122,123,124,125,163EarlyChristianChurches,in,195-6,197,198,199,200Egyptian,42,43,44,51,52,53Erechtheion,in,141,165,436Gothic,275-6,295,299,314,316,343Hellenic,116,117,118,119,124,125,126,137,140,141,144Ionic,128Median,80

Minoan,99,101Monumental,158,179,348Muhammedan,221,224,226,231Norman,255,272Pantheon,in,442-3Persian,82,83,85,86,87Renaissance,English,365,367,368,369French,380,386,388Italian,354,365,367,368,369Spanish,400

Rococo,366Roman,135,158,169,170,179,180Romanesque,241,245,249Rudimentary,15S.Peter’s,Rome,in,373

CompositeOrders(Gloss.),165Concrete,useof:Byzantine,202Reinforced,473Romans,by,153,154,166,172,173,175,183

Constantine,188,189,193,209Constantinople,190Ahmed,Mosqueof,228Fountains,228Hagia-Sophia,207-8HolyApostles,Churchof,209LatinKingdom,of,264Mediævalcentreoflearning,266-7Minaretsin,222Muhammedanoccupation,215,220Suleiman,Mosqueof,228S.Sergius’Church,200SS.SergiusandBacchus,206S.Sophia,209Turkishoccupation,325

Consoles(Gloss.),345,360,423Copernicus,322Corbels(Gloss.),174,205Minarets,of,222Muhammedandomes,of,222Renaissance,in,359,378,388,392,395,396Romanesque,250,258

CorinthianOrder(Gloss.),131Byzantineuseof,204Gothicuse,275-6,310MaisonCarrée,169,175Romanuseof,132,158,164-5

Romanesqueuse,245Cornices(Gloss.),42Asymmetriesin,68Assyrianuse,68Byzantineuse,202Cavettocornice,47,49Colonialuse,430-1-2Corinthian,165Doric,126-7Gothicuse,312Minoanuse,99Persianuse,84QueenAnne,style,424Renaissance,361,363,364,370,395Romanuse,164Romanesqueuse,250,257

Coro,405Corona,127,130Corridors(Gloss.),414,416,425,426Cortiles,seeCourt(Gloss.)CostaRica,ruinsin,20Courts:Alhambra,of,226-7Amru,Mosqueof,223CasaLonja,401Chambord,Châteaude,381Cnossus,96Egyptian,51,55Escoriál,Patioof,404FountainCourt,HamptonCourt,423Ispahan,GreatMosqueof,229ItalianandFrenchcompared,376Louvre,ofthe,383,385Miranda,PatioinHouseof,400Mosques,of,217MuhammedanHouses,of,218PalaceofCaprarola,348CharlesV,402-3Farnese,363Infantado,400Luxembourg,386PalazzoVecchio,358-60Riccardi,358-60Whitehall,418

PlaceduCarrousel,383PalaisdeJustice,Liège,406RomanThermai,176

S.John’sCollege,412S.SimonStylites,200SidneySussexCollege,412SpanishRenaissance,399Suleiman,Mosqueof,228Tiryns,at,101-2Zaporta,400

Coves,417Craftwork,7,89,91ArtsandCraftsMovement,450,458-9Corinthian,110Etruscan,155Gildsof,233,235,338Muhammedanexcellencein,216,217,219Renaissance,357,411

Cram,RalphAdams,453Cresting,414Cromlechs(Gloss.),13,16CrossandBallondomes,404,422Crusades,264-6Crypt(Gloss.),246Escoriál,in,404S.Miniato,Florence,246WorcesterCathedral,257

Cuneiform,writing,57,61Cupolas(Gloss.),ofChâteaudeChambord,381HôteldesInvalides,388S.Paul’s,421S.Peter’s,349,421

Curb,seeHip.CurvilinearGothic,seeDecoratedCusps(Gloss.),290Custodia,seeTabernaclesCuzco,Incaruinsin,19CymaRecta-Reversa(Gloss.),133Cymatium(Gloss.),127,130Cyprus,ruinsin,89.Kingdomof,264

DDado(Gloss.),72Damascus,219Dante,324Decastyle(Gloss.),121DecoratedStyle,271,275,287,290DecorativeMotives(Gloss.):Acanthus,132,164-5,275,310

Anthemion,132,165,203Arabesques,216,227,363,380,399ArmorialBearings,as,401BallFlower,291Bandsandstraps,393,413,415BeadandSpool,130,132Caulicolæ,165Celtic,18Chevrons,99,124-125Diaper,291DogTooth,290EggandDart,132FleurdeLys,291FourLeafFlower,211Grotesques,165,251,406Guilloche,69,129HeartLeaf,133Lotus,84,87,131Mexicangrotesque,21Monograms,as,380Portcullis,291Rosettes,72,102,131,155,363Scrollwork,415Spirals,165,179Stiffleaf-foliage,291TudorRose,291

Volutes,87,129,130,131,164Delos,Archat,15Dentils(Gloss.),42,130,164DepartmentofFineArts,442,465DeReÆdificatoria,345Diningrooms,416,426Dionysos,142-3;Festivalof,107

DionysosTheatreof,143Dipteral(Gloss.),120Dolmen(Gloss.),13,14,17Domes(Gloss.),15Alhambra,227Anglo-Classical,425-7Angoulême,Cathedral,253Assyrian,70Byzantine,202Capitol,Washington,446-7Escoriál,404Granada,Cathedral,401HôteldesInvalides,388,420,422Indian,220,231Madeleine,The,443Muhammedan,217,221PalaceofCharlesV,403Panthéon,Paris,388,422,442Pantheon,Rome,167,171,172,207,371,372PazziChapel,S.Croce,343Pendentive,204-6Persian,229Pineapple,222Pisa,at,247Ravenna,at,201Renaissance,197Roman,201Romanesque,244Rudimentary,15,89S.Andrea,Mantua,367S.Constanza,198S.George,Esrah,200S.MariadeiMiracoli,353S.MariadellaSalute,346S.Mark’s,209S.Paul’s,420-2S.Peter’s,343,371-3,421S.PietroinMontano,346S.Sophia,207

S.Spirito,Florence,343,367S.Stephen,Walbrook,422S.Vitale,207S.S.SergiusandBacchus,207SalamancaCathedral,260Semi-circular,208ToroCollegiateChurch,260TurkishMosques,228VillaRotonda,352

DomesticArchitecture:ApartmentHouses,471AstonHall,412BeehiveHuts,15,46BicklingHall,412Biltmore,462Bramshill,412Breakers,The,462BurghleyHouse,412CaD’Oro,315CheveningHouse,416-7,419Coleshill,419CraigieHouse,Cambridge,431DevonshireHouse,426Doge’sPalace,315-6DukeofLeinster’sHouse,446EnglishRenaissance,411-15HaddonHall,412HamHouse,412HolkamHall,426HollandHouse,412,414Gothic,French,286German,305-6Italian,315

JacquesCœur,Houseof,286KeddlestonHall,428KirbyHall,412,414,415KnollHouse,412LayerMarney,Essex,411Longford,412,414LongleatHouse,411MarbleHouse,462MarlboroughHouse,423MinoanHouses,93MountVernon,432MuhammedanHouses,217MuséePlantin-Moretus,408OldCharlecoteHouse,412

Pellershaus,395-6Penshurst,412PrimitiveHouses,15RaynhamHall,419Renaissance,392Roman,180,182,472SherburnHouse,431StokePark,419VanderbiltHouse,462VillaMadama,347WhiteHouse,446WiltonHouse,419WollatonHouse,412YorkHouse,419

Doorways:Anglo-Saxon,254-5Baptistry,Florence,319Cad’Oro,360Colonial,432Doge’sPalace,353Gothic,269,275,276English,290French,298Italian,311

Janus,159Muhammedan,229Norman,255,257PalazzoRiccardi,359Vecchio,359Vendramini,360

Palladiandesignsfor,370QueenAnne,424Roman,167Romanesque,245PuertadelaCoroneria,401Renaissance,German,393,395Spanish,399,400,401

TajMahal,231Tiryns,at,102S.Andrea,Mantua,368S.Sophia,210S.Peter’s,372

Dorians,The,91,105,118DoricOrder(Gloss.),87,99,118,123-124Corinth,templesat,118Etruscanuseof,155Parthenon,in,119

PhœbusApollo,Templeof,118Propylæa,in,141Renaissanceuseof,346,349,352,389,403-4Romanuseof,164Syracuse,Cathedralof,193Trajan’sColumn,179

Dormers(Gloss.):Antwerp,Cityhall,406Gothic,German,306Netherlandish,307

Renaissance,French,378,381,384German,392,394,396

Worms,Cathedralat,258-9Dörpfeld,discoveriesby,89,100Drama,Greek,142-5,175Mediæval,237-8Renaissance,330Roman,175Drawbridge,379DrumofDome(Gloss.),206Angoulême,at,252Florence,at,342HôteldesInvalides,388Panthéon,Paris,442S.Andrea,368S.MariadellaSalute,356S.Paul’s,422S.Peter’s,371,373

Dryden,435

EEarlyChristianArchitecture,193Basilicas,193-4,197CircularPlans,197Columns,195InfluenceinArabia,214onByzantineArchitecture,202onGothic,276

S.Peter’s,194Syrianexamples,199,200

EarlyChristianCivilisation,187Byzantiumbecomescapital,157,190CarolingianKings,192ConstantineacceptsFaith,189CouncilofMilan,188PowerofthePatriarchs,157,188Ravenna,201

RiseoftheFrankishtribes,191EarlyEnglish(Gloss.),257,271,290Eaves(Gloss.),424Eclecticism(Gloss.),466ÉcoledesBeauxArts,seeBeauxArtsEchinus(Gloss.),125,129,164Egyptiancivilisation,25etseq.Agriculture,31Clothing,32ConquestbyAssyria,60ConstructionofthePyramids,35Decline,37Dynasties,26Geography,of,28HebrewExodus,36HyksosInvasion,35,91Recreations,31Religion,32,33Schools,32Skillinengineering,30ThebanMonarchy,35,91

EgyptianArchitecture:Abydos,Tombat,42,53Columns,Treatmentof,52-3Deir-el-BahriTemple-tomb,44Domesticarchitecture,54-5Elephantine,Templeat,53Isis,Templesof,54Karnak,Templeat,44,50Luxor,51,53Mastabas,40-1,42MiddleEmpire,architecture,42-3Mycenæanremainsin,39NewEmpire,44Obelisks,43-4Palaces,54Ptolemaicremains,53Pyramids,34,39,40RosettaStone,27Sphinx,theGreat,38-9Avenuesof,48Temples,41

Temples,8,33-45,46-54Tombs,33,34,41,42,45,83Towns,54

Elevation,plans,11,255Elgin,Lord,436

Embankment,Thames,418Enamels(gloss.),86,218,222Encaustic(gloss.),136Engineeringproblems,477England,Architecturein:Anglo-Classical,410,424-5Anglo-Italian,417Anglo-Saxon,254-5Asymmetries,279Cathedrals,288CelticChurches,255Classicalrevival,435-9Elizabethanarchitecture,412Exteriors,Gothic,297-8Free-classicalmovement,460Gothic,271-287GothicRevival,448InigoJones,418Interiors,415Jacobeanarchitecture,413Mansions,412Morris,William,influenceof,458Orders,useof,415Ornament,290QueenAnneStyle,424Roofs,296,414S.Paul’s,420-3StainedGlass,291-3Stonehenge,16Vaulting,293Vistas,inGothic,273-4Whitehall,418Wren,Christopher,419

Entablature(Gloss.),8Basilicas,in,178Broken,179,180Corinthian,131Doric,126EarlyChristian,195-7Gothic,contrasted,with,277Hellenic,116Ionic,130Michelangelo,useby,364Renaissance,367,370Renaissance,French,381German,394-6Netherlands,407

Spain,402Roman,164,170,198Rudimentary,15S.Paul’s,in,420Whitehall,in,418

Entasis,(Gloss.),43CaryatidinErechtheion,141Helleniccolumns,in,124-5Ionicuse,129Overlooked,138

Epinaos,seevestibule(Gloss.)Erechtheionthe,121,129,141,165Escoriál,the82,180,403-5Etruscans,154Arch,useof,156Artsandcivilisation,155Burialurns,155Dwellings,155Temples,156

Evans,Dr.A.J.,discoveriesby,89,90Exhedras(Gloss.),176

FFaçades(Gloss.),11BankofEngland,438CaprarolaPalace,348Certosa,313CityHall,Antwerp,407Bremen,395Haarlem,409

DariusTomb,83Doge’sPalace,315

Escoriál,the,403FrenchChâteaux,377,378,379,380,381,383-4GardenFaçade,HamptonCourt,423GothicCathedrals,277,282,286,297,298,307-8Gothic,Italian,311Greek,onmodernbuildings,436GreenwichHospital,419Lombard,258Louvre,ofthe,383-6Museum,British,438PalaceofCharlesV,402Panthéon,Paris,442PesaroPalace,366Pisa,Cathedral,247Renaissance,English,414,415German,392-4Netherlands,406-9Spanish,399,400,402

S.Andrea,Mantua,368S.JacopoSansovino,354-5,365S.Lorenzo,inMiranda,347S.MariaNovella,345S.Paul’s,421S.Peter’s,371-2Sky-scrapers,474-5Steelconstruction,in,472TajMahal,231Versailles,387Washington,Capitolat,446Wren’sChurches,423

Faience,96Fascia(Gloss.),130Ferrero,Dr.,quoted,152Fetiches,13,92,96,98,214FeudalSystem,233-4England,in,410France,in,331Germany,in,302Overthrown,322

Fillet(Gloss.):Doricentablature,in,126Ionicentablature,in,129,130Romanuse,164

FineArts,The,3,337,346Finials,seepinnacles(Gloss.)Fireplaces,EnglishRenaissance,416FrenchChâteaux,382

MediævalCastles,299,416FirstPointed,seeEarlyEnglishFitness,considerationsof(Gloss.),12,87,128Flagstaffs,176Flamboyant(Gloss.),271,275,282,285,287,290Fletcher,ProfessorBanister,170,367Floors,Byzantine,203Chaldæan,72EarlyMediæval,196Roman,181,182

Florence,ArchitectureoftheRenaissance,342-345Baptistry,197,319Campanile,312Cathedral,311,342-3LaurentianLibrary,349LibraryofS.Giorgio,344LoggiadeiLanzi,315S.Paolo,344

NewSacristry,346OspedaledegliInnocente,344PalazzoGuardagni,345Riccardi,344,358-61Strozzi,345Vecchio,315,342,358-60

PazziChapel,343S.Croce,Churchof,311S.Lorenzo,Churchof,343S.Miniato,Churchof,246S.Spirito,Churchof,343,367-8University,325

Fluting(Gloss.),onHelleniccolumns,135Norman,256Roman,164

Fontainebleau,332Fortifications,348,355,359,379Forum(pl.Fora),157,170Fountains:Hildesheim,397Mainz,397Mosques,in,217Nuremburg,397Persian,86Renaissance,327German,396

Rothenburg,397TajMahal,231TempleofDiana,Nîmes,170

Tubingen,396Ulm,397Versailles,387

FreeMasonry,235FrenchCivilisationafterCharlemagne,232FrancisI,375LouisXIV,389Napoleon,442Renaissance,327Revolution,441SecondEmpire,444

FrenchArchitecture:Châteaux,377-382ClassicPeriod,440-4GallicSpirit,332-3Gothic,273,281-9Asymmetriesin,278Influenceonothercountries,306,308,310,313Sculpture,276

GothicRevival,451Influenceonmodernarchitecture,461-5Louvre,The,382-6Renaissance,331,349,375,etseq.Renaissanceinfluenceonothercountries,413,445RibVaulting,243Rococo,338,375Romanesque,170,232,240,252-4Romanremains,in,132,169,241SchoolofTours,376-7TheatreofOrange,176Versailles,387

Frescoes(seeGloss.)Cnossus,at,123CretanPalace,in,96Gothic,German,306Gothic,Italian,311SistineChapel,374VillaFarnesina,347,374

Frieze(Gloss.),Asymmetriesin,137Corinthian,165Doricentablature,of,126Ionicentablature,of,130LibraryofS.Mark’s,365MaisonCarrée,Nîmes,170Parthenon,ofthe,137Romanuseof,164Tiryns,at,102

XerxesPalace,of,86Furniture,Adam,429,432Chippendale,428Empire,442EnglishRenaissance,in,413,415,417Imitativeinfluencein,467-8Sheraton,432

GGables(Gloss.)Colonial,431DoricTemples,121,127,seePedimentsEarlyChristianarchitecture,196Egypt,in,40Gothic,275German,306Italian,307,312

Minoan,99,130Persian,81Primitive,20QueenAnne,424Renaissance,English,415German,392,394,395,396Netherlands,407,408,409

Romanesque,251,257,258SteppedGables,306

Gaines(Gloss.),392,394,396Galgal(Gloss.),13,14Galilee(Gloss.),256Galleries:Byzantine,208Fontainebleau,382Glyptothek,440Louvre,383Mediæval,237National,The,438PalazzoVecchio,259Pinacothek,440Renaissance,English,416-7Romanesque,244Whispering,420

Gallicspirit,332,379,384-5,389Gambrel(Gloss.),431Gardens,witharchitecture:BlenheimPalace,424CastleHoward,425Hanging,20,62

Kew,428Luxembourg,386-7Renaissance,English,412,415French,378Italian,374

TajMahal,231TampuTocco,19ThamesEmbankment,418-9Versailles,387VillaofHadrian,180Washington,445-6

Gateways:Ahmedabad,229Akbar,230Blenheim,426BrandenburgGate,Berlin,440CaiusCollege,GateofHonour,412Châteaux,377-8Darius’sPalace,85Diocletian’sPalace,180Etruscan,atVolterra,156Janus,of,159LionGateway,Mycenæ,88,98Mecca,Mosque,of,220Propylæa,121,131,141Propylæa,Munich,440Renaissance,English,414Sargon’sCastle,68Schools,Oxford,gatewayof,412Tiryns,at,101WaterGate,418

Genoa,palaces:Balbi,356Brignole,356Doria-Tursi,356Durazzo,356Pallavacini,356

GermanArchitecture:Brick,useof,305ClassicalRevival,439Gables,306Gothic,301-306Cathedrals,302-305SecularBuildings,305-6

Handicrafts,skillin,304InfluenceonBelgiumGothic,306ItalianGothic,310,313

Spanish,308Ornament,251Renaissance,391-7CityHalls,395Domestic,395

Romanesque,232,245,301Roofs,305-6Universities,328Winckelmann’sinfluence,436,439

GermanCivilisation,188,232,239AfterCharlemagne,239Renaissance,327Riseofthecities,235,301StruggleofProtestants,391

Gessowork(Gloss.),97Gildhouses,306Antwerp,408Brussels,408Ghent,307Louvain,307Malines,406Mechlin,307Ypres,307

Gilds,trades,233,235,278,342,406Giotto,319Bas-reliefs,by,312Campaniledesignedby,312Frescoesby,311Paintingsby,340

Giovannoni,Professor,Asymmetriesdiscoveredby,139Gizeh,Sphinxat,38Templeat,41Wallpaintingsat,48

Goethe,439Goodyear,ProfessorWilliamH.,Discoveriesofasymmetries,131,137,139,247-8,278-9“GrammaroftheLotus,”131

GothicArchitecture(Gloss.),49,263,etseq.Arches,272,290,312Asymmetriesin,139,278-80Buttresses,useof,166,272-3Cathedrals,269,277,279,281-2,284-5,288,289ComparedwithClassic,276Cnossus,96Hellenic,118Persian,85Renaissance,328,364

Decayof,364

DecoratedPeriod,271,287,291EarlyEnglishPeriod,271FlamboyantPeriod,271France,in,281-287Periodsin,285Secularbuildings,286

Germany,in,301Useofbrickin,305

GreatBritain,287-301Exteriorsin,297Interiorsin,298Ornamentin,290Periods,287

Italy,in,310-316Motivesinarchitecture,277Netherlands,in,306-7Periods,270-1,285,287Perpendicular,orTudor,275,287,295,410,450Rayonnant,271,282,285-7Revivalof,439,452-3

Sculpture,276Spanish,308,398Thrustsandcounter-thrusts,272-3Transitionperiod,310,346,358Vaulting,284-5,293-6,310WestFronts,282Windows,274-5Woodenroofs,296

“GothicQuest,”R.A.Cram,366,453GovernmentBuildings:Capitol,Washington,445-6CustomHouseBoston,448CustomHouse,N.Y.C.,448Doge’sPalace,315HorseGuards,London,426HousesofParliament,450LawCourts,Manchester,452Mint,Philadelphia,448NewLawCourts,London,451Pantheon,Paris,388ParliamentHouse,Budapesth,451ParliamentHouse,Vienna,440StateCapitol,Conn.,452Sub-Treasury,448Treasury,Washington,446WhiteHouse,the,445-6

Greece,Mycenæanartin,88,89.SeeHellenes.

Greek-Asiatic,82,84,89Griego-Romano,405Grille(Gloss.),Turkish,228Grotefind,GeorgeFrederick,discoveriesby,57Grotesque:Mexicanprimitive,21Ornament,in,165,251,255PalaisdeJustice,Liège,in,406Style,405

GuelphsandGhibellines,323Guttae(Gloss.),127

HHadrian,builderofPantheon,171Villaof,180

Half-timbered(Gloss.),412Halls:CentralHall,HousesofParliament,451

Châteaux,in,378,381,382Darius’sPalace,in,85EgyptianTemples,of,34GermanKnights,HalloftheOrderof,305HallChurch,304HundredColumns,Hallofa,85HypostyleHall,49,51Karnak,at,51MedianPalaces,of,80MediævalCastles,of,300,378,416MiddleTemple,of,297NationalHallofStatuary,Washington,447RenaissancePalaces,in,416S.George’s,Liverpool,438Westminster,297,451Whitehall,418

Hamlin,Professor,quoted,206,282HanseaticLeague,301,407Harmony,Principleof(Gloss.),11,134Haroun-el-Raschid,215Haussman,Baron,444Hawkins,Admiral,336Height,indesign,474HellenicArchitecture,116-146Asymmetries,136-140Beauty,feelingfor,112Corinthianorder,131-2DionysianFestival,the,107Doricorder,the118,126-7Entablature,the,126-7InfluenceonBeauxArtstraining,463-5InfluenceonEtruscans,155InfluenceonGermany,439-40IonicOrder,the,128-30OlympianFestival,110Orders,the,116-7,123,131Ornament,132-4Parthenon,the,119,137-8,140Projections,133Propylæa,141Temples,116-124

HellenicCivilisation,105ConflictwithPersians,76Doriansupremacy,106Originof,105PeloponnesianWars,109Persianinvasion,108

SupplantCretans,91-2TheGreatAge,107

Hemong,thebell-founder,408“Heptameron,The,”375HerodesAtticus,145Hexastyle(Gloss.),121Hieroglyphicwritings,27,90Hiproof(Gloss.),385,432“HistoryofArt,”Winckelmann,436-439Hogarth’sLineofBeauty,133,380Holland:CityHallsin,Alkmaar,409Bolsward,409Delft,409Dordrecht,409Enkhuisen,409Hague,409Hoorn,409Kampen,409Leuwarden,409Leyden,409Waaghuisen,409Zwolle,409

Renaissance,409InfluenceonEnglishRenaissance,424

Homer,91,107Hospitals:Chartres,286Gothic,286,299Greenwich,419OspedaledegliInnocente,344SantaCruz,Toledo,399

Humanism,320,331,334Hutconstruction,36Hypœthral(Gloss.),122HypostyleHalls(Gloss.),49,51,54,80,85

IIdeographwriting,ideograms,57ÎledeFrance,271-2,310Impluvium(Gloss.),181ImpostBlock(Gloss.),201-204InAntis(Gloss.),82,83,120Incas,structuresofthe,19India,229Agra,230

Ahmedabad,229Akbar,Mosqueof,230Mahmud,Tombof,230

Indians,NorthAmerican,18Insula,pl.Insulæ(Gloss.),180,182Intercolumniation(Gloss.):Dorian,118,125EarlyChristianuse,195Egyptianuse,86Gothicuse,298Hellenic,134Ionic,129Persian,86

Interior,Designsof,455HousesofParliament,451OfficeBuildings,471

IonicIslands,89Culture,109Luxury,110,128Migrations,105

IonicOrder(Gloss.),128-30Egypt,in,128Lycia,columnsin,99Myra,columnsin,99Parthenon,in,140Persianuseof,140Renaissance,in,349,352,389,402-3Romanuse,164,165,174Romanesque,245Washington,446

Iran,seePersianIronworkGothicinGermany,305ItalianArchitecture:Gessoworkin,97Gothicin,271,312Hellenicremainsin,89InfluenceonEngland,335Ecclesiasticalbuildings,366-74Florentine,342,345,358-60France,331,376,380Germany,327Lombardy,251,258Netherlands,333Renaissance,in,323-337,338-374Roman,346-352,363-5Spain,329Venetian,352-356,360-3,365

Roman,seeRome.Romanesque,241,313-315CentralItaly,246-9NorthernItaly,249-52SouthernItaly,249

ItalianCivilisation:Byzantine,in,194,196-7,209-10ClassicInfluence,340ConflictwithGermanEmpire,239CounterReformation,329Declineofculture,331Etruscan,154PoweroftheDukes,323-4Renaissance,323,338RiseofpoweroftheChurch,189SackofRome,327TheRomanEmpire,147-157

JJambs(Gloss.),245,254,283Jars,clay,93,97Jerusalem,79,223JuliusII,346,349,367JuliusIII,348

KKa,32,33,41Kaaba,the(Gloss.),214,217,221Kahun,ruinsat,55Karnak,44,50,85,86,281Keep,theDonjon,378,381Keystones(Gloss.),295Khorsabad,72,131Kibleh,the,217King-post,the(Gloss.),296Kitchens,AssyrianPalace,73Blenheim,at,426Châteaux,377Colonial,432EnglishMansions,416

Koyunjik,bas-reliefsat,71,204library,61mounds,59

L

Labyrinth,atCnossus,93LakeDwellings,13Lancetwindows(Gloss.),274,287,290Landscapedesign,466Lanterns(Gloss.):Burgos,Cathedral,401Certosa,The,313ChâteaudeChambord,in,381ChurchoftheApostles,Cologne,259Escoriál,The,404FlorenceCathedral,343Gothic,Spanish,309Renaissance,French,378Romanesque,258S.Mark’s,210S.Paul’s,422S.Peter’s371-2SantiagodeCompostello,260TombofGallaPlacidia,201WormsCathedral,258

“Laokoon”byLessing,439Lassen,Christian,discoveriesincuneiformscript,57LatePointedGothic,seePerpendicularLaterPlantagenet,seeDecoratedLeading,inwindows,275Libraries,ofAsurbanipal,61Babylon,at,62Bodleian,412Congressional,the,447ÉcoledesBeauxArts,of,444Laurentian,349Lenox,N.Y.C.,462Merton,Oxford,412Pembroke,Cambridge,419S.Genéviève,444S.Marco,354,365Theological,Princeton,462TiglathPileser,of,59Varro’s,151

Lighting,ofGreektemples,123ofGothicchurches,274

Lintels(Gloss.),inEgypt,48Persia,84

Lions:CathedralPorch,Piacenza,251Courtof,Alhambra,226Decorativemotiveis,100

Gatewayof,Mycenæ,88,92,99,100Headsof,inornament,130

Loggias(Gloss.),ofCaD’Oro,360CityHall,Antwerp,of,407Doge’sPalace,316S.Paolo,344VillaFarnesina,347

LombardyafterCharlemagne,323Merchantsof,235Ribvaultingin,243-4,310Romanesquein,249,250

London:AdelphiTerrace,428AllSaintsChurch,452BankofEngland,438BritishMuseum,438ChelseaHospital,423DevonshireHouse,426FinsburyCircus,428FitzroySquare,428GreenwichHospital,419HollandHouse,412,414HousesofParliament,450LawCourts,New,451Marlborough,423Monument,the,423NewZealandChambers,460PortlandPlace,428S.Mary-le-Bow,423S.Pancras,438S.Paul’sCathedral,288,371,388,420-3S.Paul’sCoventGarden,419S.Stephen’s,422TempleBar,423ThamesEmbankment,418WestminsterHall,297,451Whitehall,418YorkHouse,419

Lotus,seeDecorativeMotivesLouver(Gloss.),299Louvre,The,382-6

Façades,383-4,386NewLouvre,383OldLouvre,383Pavilions,385Roof,385

Lunette(Gloss.),Gothic,276Renaissance,368

Luther,Martin,328Lycians,the,83-4

MMachicolations(Gloss.),378,380MachuPicchu,19,20MaisonCarrée,Nîmes,169-170Maksura,217,221,224Manetho,Egyptianhistorian,25Mantelpieces,colonial,432effectofincornices,475

Mantua,345,347Marot,Clement,376Masonry,Ashlar,254Batter,41,47Buttresses,in,282Cyclopean,15,98,100,155Drafted,81Egyptian,40Gothic,Italian,312,358GreekandRomancompared,154LeaningTower,Pisa,in,247Muhammedandomes,in,222Primitive,14,20Renaissance,inEnglish,412,418,421-2French,378,382German,393,395Netherlands,407Spanish,402,404

Ribvaulting,in,243,272Romanesque,242,244,245Romans,of,153Rubble,85,254Rusticated,292,294,348,392,407Skyscrapers,in,474,476Syrian,199

Mastabas(Gloss.),34,38Sakkarah,at,41Thy,of,41

Mausoleum(Gloss.),347,404.

SeeTombsMecca,214,220Medes,74,75,80.SeePersiansMediæval,Early,Civilisation,232-240

Architecture,241-260,seeRomanesque,Late,civilisation,263-269Architecture,270,seeGothic

Medici,The,344,346,358,359,386,468MedinetAbou,54Mediterraneanraces,95Megaron(Gloss.),97,98,100,102Memnon,theVocal,46Memphis,Obelisks,at,43Menes,rulerofEgypt,25Menhir(Gloss.),13,17,seeobeliskMerchantfamilies,England,410Netherlands,406Spain,397Venice,352-3

Mesopotamia,56,seeAssyriaMetalwork:inbaldachinos,371ofGermans,305ofMoors,309

Metope(Gloss.),Coloured,136Hellenic,126

MetropolitanMuseum,42,219Mexico,primitiveremainsin,19,20Mezzaninefloors(Gloss.),384,403Mihrab,the(Gloss.),217,221,224Milton,John,435Mimbar,217Minarets(Gloss.),GreatMosque,Ispahan,229MosqueofMecca,220,221MosqueofSultanBarbouk,224TajMahal,230

Miniaturists,theAnglo-Saxon,257Minnesingers,302MinoanArchitecture,95LionGate,88Mycenæanremains,98,100Palaces90,92,99ofCnossus,91,96-8

RuinsinPhrygia,99Tiryns,100-102Wallpaintings,93

MinoanCivilisation,88-94ConfirmationofGreeklegendofCrete,90

Earlyperiod,90MiddleandLatePeriods,91Rediscoveryof,88-9

Minotaur,Legendof,93Moat,17,379Modillions(Gloss.),165Mommsen,Professor,quoted,151Monasteries:Dissolutionof,287,411Escoriál,in,403,404Gothic,286Mediæval,236-7MontSaintMichel,254Mosquesequivalentto,223MountAthos,211Norman,258SanMarco,Fiesole,344

Monoliths(Gloss.),8,15Cyrus’Palace,81DoorwaysatTiryns,102Memphis,at43SphinxTemples,in,41

Monuments,atAbury,17Choragic,ofLysicrates,131Cleopatra’sNeedles,43Milliarium,158Monument,The,London,423Propylæa,121,131,141Rostra,158TempleBar,423Umbilicus,the,157

Moors,influenceofonSpanishGothic,308,309OnSpanishRenaissance,400,403Skillinmetalwork,398-9

Mosaics(Gloss.),Byzantine,203CathedralofMonreale,249EarlyChristian,197,199GreatMosqueofMecca,225Roman,168,181S.Mark’s,210S.Paul’s,421

Mosques:derivation,descriptionof,name,217Ahmedabad,of,229Ahmedizeh,228Akbar,230Alhambra,of,226Amru,Cairo,223

Bagdad,229Cordova,225Damascus,205DomeoftheRock,seeOmarEl-Aksah,Syria,223El-Walid,Damascus,223GreatMosque,Mecca,217,220HagiaSophia,Constantinople,207-210,228,372Ispahan,GreatMosqueof,229Kalaoom,Egypt,224Omar,GreatMosque,Jerusalem,223S.CristodelaLuz,225S.MarialaBianca,225S.Sophia,seeHagiaSophiaSuleimaniyeh,228SultanBarbouk,224SultanHassan,224SultanMahometII,209Teheran,GreatMosqueof,229

Mouldings:Bead(Gloss.),134Cavetto,47,134Colonial,430CymaRecta,Reversa,133Doric,125Etruscan,155Egyptian,47Fillet,of,134Gothic,272,290,299,305Guilloche,129Hellenictreatmentof,135,165Ionic,128,129Norman,257Ovolo,133Rococo,366Roman,165Romanesque,244,245Torus,of,47,134Wreath,134

Muhammed,214-216Learningencouragedby,216,218

MuhammedanArchitecture,220-231Alhambra,of,218,226-7Arcades,221Ceramics,218Cordova,at,225Domes,221

Egypt,in,223India,in,229-31Minarets,222Mosques,217,220-2Seville,in,225-6Spain,224-7Syria,223Toledo,225

MuhammedanCivilisation,212etseq.Mullions(Gloss.),290ChâteaudeBlois,in,380,384CityHall,Antwerp,407CityHall,Bremen,395EnglishRenaissance,414Heidelberg,394

Muralpainting,seeWallpaintingMuseums,339-40British,438Fitz-William,Cambridge,438Friedrichsbau,394Metropolitan,NewYork,462NewMuseum,Berlin,440OldMuseum,Berlin,440Pinacothek,440Plantin-Moretus,408

Mutule(Gloss.),127,164Mycenæ,Architecturein,14,89-100Fortifications,98Palaces,89-102SimilaritytoEtruscan,155Temples,92,101

NNaos,seeSanctuary(Gloss.)Naples,Kingdomof,323,331Narthex(Gloss.):EarlyChristianchurches,in,194,196Romantemples,in,177S.Sophia,of,209SanAmbrogio,of,250

Nave(Gloss.):Anglo-Saxonchurches,255,256Asymmetriesin,279EarlyChristianchurches,193,194,195,196,197,200Gothic,churches,English,289,294French,281

German,304Netherlands,308Spanish,309

Lombard,251Mediævalchurches,237Norman,256,259S.Mark’s,209S.Paul’s,420S.Peter’s,194,372,373S.Sophia,208Renaissancechurches,367Romanesque,241,245,249Temples,Hellenic,118,140,177-8

Nebuchadnezzar,61NetherlandArchitecture:Antwerp,in,406,408Bruges,406Carillons,408-9Ecclesiasticalbuildings,307,308GuildHalls,306-7,408Holland,334,409Liège,406Malines,406

Netherlands,History,of,306RelationswithFrance,331Renaissancein,333,405-9

Newelpost(Gloss.),416Niches(seeMihrab):Gothic,275,276German,304Italian,314Netherlandish,307

Heidelberg,at,394Muhammedan,207,222Rheims,at,283Romanesque,250S.Paul’s,422

Nile,the,28,30,90InundatedTemplesof,54LandscapesinpaintingsatCnossus,96

Nîmes,Amphitheatreat,175MaisonCarrée,169Pont-du-Gard,183TempleofDiana,170

Nineveh,59,60,61NormanArchitecture(Gloss.),254-257NôtreDame,Paris,281-284

Nymphæum(Gloss.),170Muhammedanadaptationof,217Pantheononsiteof,171TempleofDiana,170TempleofMinervaMedica,207

OObelisks,14Cleopatra’sNeedles,43Memphis,at,43Pellershaus,Nuremburg,395,396UsertesenI,43

Octastyle(Gloss.),131Odeion,the,145Pericles,of,145Skias,Sparta,145

Œil-de-Bœuf,384,396OfficeBuildings,469-477WoolworthBuilding,471,476

Ogee,seeCymaReversaOgival(Gloss.),270OlympicFestival,110,112Opisthodomos(Gloss.),140

OpusSectile,seeMosaics(Gloss.)OpusTessellatum,seeMosaics(Gloss.)Orders,the(Gloss.),116,117Corinthian,131Doric,118Hellenicuseof,123Ionic,128OneOrderStyle,350,372Renaissance,English,415Renaissance,French,387,388Rococo,388-9Romanuseof,163Sansovino’suseof,356Superimposed,366,372Tuscan,163Wren’ssteeples,on,423

Organicgrowth(Gloss.),11,34,140Orientation(Gloss.):Christianchurches,194Mastabas,41MuhammedanMosques,217Romanindifferenceto,161S.Peter’s,372Temples,Egyptian,54Temples,Hellenic,121TombsatAbydos,42

Ornament:Assyrian,69,72Baroque,351Byzantine,199,202,211Celtic,18Chaldæan,72Churrigueresque,393,405Egyptian,48,53Gothic,275English,290Italian,312

Hellenic,129-133,171,203ItalianClassic,357,393Minoan,102Muhammedan,216Norman,255Oriental,202-3Perpendicular,410Persian,84,86,87Pierced,415

Plateresque,398-9,400Primitive,18inMexico,21

RenaissanceEnglish,410-11-12,414,415,417German,392-3Netherlands,407Spanish,402

Rococo,366,388-9,393Roman,164-5,168-9,171,203Romanesque,251,260Scandinavian,251

Osiridpiers,53Osiris,50Oxford,257,288,293,299,419

PPadan-Aram,56PaganRevival,325-328Pagoda,The,428PaintedGlass,292Painters:Aretino,354Burkmair,391Chapman,JohnGadsby,447Cimabue,311Claude,332Clouets,The,332Cornelius,Petervon,440David,JacquesLouis,441-2DelSarto,332Dürer,328,391FraAngelico,344Hogarth,133,280Holbein,328Isabey,Eugène,379Kaulbach,Wilhelmvon,440Lebrun,387LeonardodaVinci,332,397Mabuse,406Matisse,459Michelangelo,374,397,406Niccolodell’Abbati,382Poussin,332Powell,WilliamHenry,447Primaticcio,332,382PuvisdeChavannes,443Raphael,374,397,406

Reynolds,SirJoshua,293Richmond,SirWilliam,421Rosso,Il,382Rubens,417Smibert,430Titian,354,417Trumbull,John,447Vanderlyn,John,447VanEycks,333VanOrley,334,406Velasquez,330Weir,RobertWalter,447

Palaces:AlcaladeHeñares,400Alcazar,the,225Alhambra,the,218,226,403Augustus’,Rome,179Babylon,61Balbi,356Barbarano,352BevilacquaPalace,355Blenheim,425Brignole,356Cad’Oro,360-1Cancellaria,346,362-4Canossa,355Capitania,352CapitolPalaces,350,363-5Caprarola,348CharlesV,Alhambra,402-3Cnossus,91,96-8,102Conservatore,363Cornaro,354Ctesiphon,228-9Diocletian,Spalato,180,195,428Doria-Tursi,356Ducal,Venice,210Durazzo,356Ecbatana,at,80Escoriál,403-5Farnese,348,350,363Firuzabad,228-9Fontainebleau,332,382Giraud,346Guardagni,345Gvimane,355HagiaTriada,98

HamptonCourt,411Hradschin,355Karnak,54Khorsabad,60Louvre,382-6,407,419,444Luxembourg,386Massimi,348MedinetAbou,54MuhammedanPalaces,218Mycenæ,at,89,100Nimroud,at,67Nineveh,at,59PalazzodelTe’,347Pallavacini,356Pandolfini,347Pasargadæ,75,81,84Persepolis,Darius’Palace,76,82-5Pesaro,356,366Phæstus,91,98Pitti,344,386Pompeii,355Rezzonico,356Riccardi,344,358-60Sargon’sCastle,67Serbistan,228-9Strozzi,345Susa,80,86Tiryns,91,100-2Tuilleries,383,444Vecchio,Palazzo,342,358-60Vendramini,354,360-3Versailles,387-9Whitehall,418XerxesII,76,85-7Zaporta,Casade,400Zwinger,Dresden,393

PalatineHill,159Paneling,Gothic,English,291

Italian,314Renaissance,English,416French,380German,393

Pansa,Houseof,181Pantheon,Rome,171-3BurialplaceofRaphael,348Columnsin,164Dome,167

Eyeof,172,208InfluenceonByzantine,207Roof,122,168StudiedbyBrunelleschi,342

Papier-machéornament(Gloss.),387-9Parapets(Gloss.),307EnglishRenaissance,in,414ItalianGothic,314

Paris:Arcdel’Étoile,443ArcdeTriomphe,443ÉcoledesBeauxArts,444Fontainebleau,322,382HôteldesInvalides,387-8LaTrinité,452LibraryofS.Genéviève’s,444Louvre,382-6,407,418,419,444Luxembourg,386Madeleine,443NôtreDame,281-4,302OperaHouse,444PalaisdeJustice,444Panthéon,388,442-3PlaceduCarrousel,383,443-4PlaceVendome,387Replanned,444Sacré-Cœur,452SainteChapelle,285,296S.Clothilde,452S.Genéviève,Panthéon,388,442-3Tuilleries,the,383,444Val-de-Grâce,387Versailles,387

Parthenon,the,8,119Asymmetriesin,137-8Columns,124,141Intercolumniation,125Metope,127Parthenonproper,140-1Peristyle,117Preservationof,193StatueofAthenein,140Turksdestroy,138

Pasargadæ,75,81,84Patio,seeCourt(Gloss.)Pavilions(Gloss.):AntwerpCityHall,406

del’Horloge,385,407EnglishRenaissancein,414HolkamHall,426Luxembourg,of,387MedinetAbou,of,54Sully,385

Pedestals,127GreekDrama,usein,142Renaissance,369,370

Pediment(Gloss.):Asymmetriesin,137Balustradesubstitutedfor,364Broken,370Colonialwooden,430-2Doric,127Heidelberg,at,394Louvre,in,386MaisonCarréein,170Minoanarchitecture,in,100PalazzoVecchio,inwindows,360Pellershausin,396Persianuseof,81Renaissanceuseof,368-70,384S.MariadeiMiracole,353S.Paul’s,421Sculpturein,135SegmentalPediment,384VillaRotonda,in,352

Peloponnesus,architecturein,89-98Pendentives(Gloss.),167-8Domes,in,204-6,209Moguluse,230Muhammedanuse,221Renaissanceuse,343,368,420Romanesque,252Vaults,in,259

Pennethorne,John,Asymmetries,discoveredby,136Penrose,FrancisCranmer,136Peripteral(Gloss.),53,120,170Peristyle(Gloss.):Colosseum,of,174EarlyChristiantombs,of,198Egyptian,44,50Hellenic,117,120,122,177Panthéondome,in,442Parthenon,117Renaissanceuse,346,368

S.Paul’s,of,420-22S.Peter’s,373TempleatSyracuse,193

PerpendicularGothic,271,275,287,290,295Persepolis,76,82-4Persia:AlliancewithBabylon,75Civilisation,74-9ConqueredbyGreeks,108,145Darius,83-5DestructionbyAlexander,76,77Zoroaster,78byMuhammedans,215,220,228

PersianArchitecture,80etseq.Minarets,222Muhammedanpalaces,228-9PalaceofCyrus,81Darius,83-5Pasargadæ,at,75,81,84Xerxes,of,85-6

Persepolis,buildingsat,82Pottery,218Tombs,75,83

Peru,primitiveornamentin,18Incaremainsin,19

Petrarch,324-5,331,341PianoNobile(Gloss.),360,

363Piazza,351,371Pictures:EnglishRenaissanceHouses,in,416Giralda,of,225GothicCathedralsin,278ProvincialMuseum,in,226“OathoftheHoratii,The,”441

Piers(Gloss.),Anglo-Saxon,254Asymmetriesinsetting,279-80Campanile,in,252ChâteaudeBlois,in,380EgyptianTemples,in,41,52-3Gothicuse,258,272,284-5,304,314,345,368HagiaSophia,in,208HôteldesInvalides,in,388LombardChurches,in,251Normanuse,255,256,257Provincialuse,252Osiridpiers,53Romanesque,241,242,244,245,250,273Romanuse,166-7,175S.Paul’s,in,420S.Peter’s,in,371Suggestioninskyscrapers,474

Pilasters(Gloss.):Colonial,431Gothic,284Renaissance,English,415,418French,380,381,384-6German,392,394,396Italy,350,361,364,366,368,372Netherlandish,407Spanish,402

Pillars,92Cretanpalaces,in,96-8Hindu,230S.SimonStylites,of,200

Pinnacles(Gloss.),273,312,314Pisa,246-9PlainofShinar,56Plans:groundandfloor,10Alhambra,of,226-7Anglo-Saxon,255Basilicas,of,177BenedictineAbbey,Cluny,253CasaLonja,401-2

CathedralofAngoulême,252-3Cologne,303

Château,deBlois,380DeChambord,381

Circular,197CityHall,Antwerp,407Colosseum,174Curvatureof,137-8Cyrus’Palace,82Darius’Palace,83,85Diana,Templeof,170Diocletian’sPalaceSpalato,180Egyptian,Palaces,45-50English,289Erechtheion,141Escoriál,403-4FrenchChâteaux,377Gothic,277HagiaSophia,208HellenicTheatres,143-4HôteldesInvalides,388HouseofPansa,181HousesofParliament,451HowardCastle,425Karnak,Templeat,50Khorsabad,Palace,72Louvre,The,383Luxembourg,386-7MaisonCarrée,169MediævalMonasteries,237Mosques,217;ofAkbar,230

OctagonalPlans,121Palazzo,Cad’Oro,361Caprarola,348Riccardi,358-60Vecchio,358-60Vendramini,360-3

PalaceofCharlesV,402-3Panthéon,Paris,442Polygonalplans,197Propylæa,of,141Renaissance,414Romanforum,159Romantemple,169S.Andrea,Mantua,368S.Francisco,Rimini,345

S.Front,252-3S.MariadellaSalute,356S.Mark,Venice,209S.Paul,London,420S.Paul-without-the-wall,196S.Peter’s,370-1S.SimeonStylites,200S.Zaccaria,353SantiagodeCompostello,259Sky-scrapers,472SphinxTemple,41TajMahal,231Tiryns,Palaceat,100VillaRotondo,352Whitehall,418Wren’splanofLondon,420

Platetracery,274,290Platforms,65,66,67GreekTheatre,of,144Muhammedanmosque,of,217Persian,81,85Romanforum,in,158Stylobate,122TajMahal,of,231

Plateresquestyle,398-400Plinth(Gloss.),52,99,129,164,245Podium(Gloss.),seeStylobate,156,169-70Colosseum,of,174-5RomanTombs,of,198

PolishedStoneAge,17,18,19,95Pope,Alexander,quoted,427,436Porch,atAbydos,42BankofEngland,438Chartres,at,269Cologne,CityHall,395Colonial,431Doric,121EnglishGothic,290

Portals,seeDoorwaysPorticoes:Anglo-Palladianuse,424-426Capitol,Washington,446Colonialuse,431-2Darius’Palace,83,85EarlyChristianChurches,193Ecbatana,at,80GreekTheatre,of,144

Hellenicuse,116,120-2,131,141Panthéon,Paris,443Pasargadæ,82Renaissance,353,365Spanish,400-1

Romanuse,169,171,181S.George’sHall,Liverpool,439Tiryns,at,101TreasuryBuilding,Washington,446WhiteHouse,446XerxesPalace,in,86

Postandbeamorlintel(Gloss.),8,14,16PotMetal(Gloss.),292Pottery,218Etruscan,155Mycenæan,97

Presbytery,289PrimitiveOrnament,18Structures,8,12

Printinginvented,322Projections(Gloss.),useof,133,179,312,365Pro-naos,seeVestibule(Gloss.)Proportion(Gloss.),11,134Propylæa(Gloss.),85,101,121,131,141Proscenium,orproskenion(Gloss.),144,145,176Prostylar(Gloss.),120Provence,235,238,241,252,331Ptolemaicperiod,53Pulpits,Muhammedan,217Puritaninfluence,336,430Pylons(Gloss.),Assyrian,68Byzantine,208Egyptian,48,50

PyramidalDome,404roof,252,414

Pyramids(Gloss.),14Cheops,34,39Chephren,34,39Gizeh,34,39,40Medun,66,67Menkara,34,39Nebo,62,67Primitive,14Sakkarah,34Truncated,48

Q

Quadriga(Gloss.),179Quatrefoil(Gloss.),316Quattrocento(Gloss.),338,340Queenpost(Gloss.),296Quoins(Gloss.),348

RRa,Egyptiandeity,30Rabelais,329Racine,439Raleigh,SirWalter,336Ramasseum,46-50Ramp(Gloss.),66,68,85Ravenna,201Baptistry,201ChurchofS.Apollinare-in-Classe,201S.ApollinareNuovo,201S.Vitale,202

TombofGallaPlacidia,201Rawlinson,Henry,translatorofcuneiformscript,57RayonnantGothic(Gloss.),271,282,285-6,287RectangularGothic,seePerpendicularRefinements(Gloss.),136,140,seeAssymmetriesReformation,The,328,332,335,337Regula(Gloss.),126Reja,seescreen(Gloss.)ReligiousOrders,growthof,236Renaissance,The(Gloss.):America,influenceof,in,429Anglo-classicalstyle,425Architects,importanceof,339ArchitecturederivedfromRome,183Baroquestyle,351BeauxArtstrainingfoundedon,463Bohemia,in,355Châteaux,377-88Churrigueresquestyle,393,405Classicinfluence,340,402CounterReformation,329,330Elizabethanstyle,410,413Flamboyantstyle,285-6Flemish,Renaissance,405-9Florence,architectsof,342-4France,Renaissancein,331Germany,in,327,391-6Giralda,Towerof,225Gothic,comparedto,366

Gothicdespisedby,366GreatBritain,in,410-28Holland,in,409Incongruitiesin,360-70Interiors,415Italy,in,333,338Jacobeanstyle,410,412-13,415Paganismof,326PalazzoVecchio,315,358Plateresquestyle,398Pointofviewofartists,357-9,373-4QueenAnnestyle,424Reactionfrom,435Reformation,the,328Reversionto,444RomanArchitecture,basisof,346,351SkyscrapersofRenaissancedesign,473Spainin,329,397-405Tours,Schoolof,376TuscanRomanesque,comparedto,369Venetianarchitects,352

Retablos(Gloss.),309Retrochoir(Gloss.),289,295,298RevettandStuart’sClassicexploration,436Revolution,French,333RhenishConfederation,331Rhythminarchitecture(Gloss.),11,134Ribs:Invaulting(Gloss.),242Diagonal,250,272,294Lierne,294Longitudinal,294Louvre,inpavilionof,385Tierceron,294Transverserib,294S.Peter’s,indomeof,373

Rococostyle(Gloss.),333,389-90French,375,389-90German,391,393Venetian,366

RomanAugustineAge,151AttempttoreviveEmpire,232Barbarianinvasions,157Christianityin,157Citizenship,147-8Civilisation,147-162Etruscans,156

Exponentsoforder,149Greateraofbuilding,152,156HolyRomanEmpire,321Provinces,148,152Renaissance,323-7,346-352RomanWriters,150SackedbyGermans,347,354

RomanArchitecture163-183Amphitheatres,174Aqueducts,182Arch,the,166

Arch,Triumphal,178Basilicas,177Baths,176Bridges,182Circuses,173Colosseum,174Columns,169,170,171,178Compositeorder,useof,165Concrete,useof,153Corinthianorder,164DecorationofWalls,168-9Domesticbuildings,180InfluenceonByzantine,202Persian,152Romanesque,170,180,183

MaisonCarrée,Nîmes,169Masonryof,153Mosaics,168Nymphæum,170Orders,the,163-166Ornament,169Palaces,179Revivalofinfluence,437Rotundas,170,171,198Temples,169-173Theatres,175-6Tombs,198Trainingin,atÉcolesdesBeauxArts,463Vaulting,167,243Villas,180-1

RomanesqueArchitecture,241-260Arcading,244-5,307Arch,the,245Chêvet,the,241-2Doors,245,254England,in,254Exteriors,245France,in,252InfluenceinFrenchGothic,282Germany,301

Italy,in,313,315Central,246-249Northern,249-251Southern,249

Originof,170,180,183,212OriginatesGothic,270,271,276Periodof,232

RhenishProvinces,in,257,307RibVaulting,243Romanprinciplesin,241Spain,in,259-60Tuscany,in,367Variationsin,240Windows,245,251

Rome:AnioNovusAqueduct,183AquaClaudia,183ArchofCæsarAugustus,160Constantine,159,178Janus,159SeptimusSeverus,161,178Titus,159,178

Basilicas,Æmilia,160,177Fulvia,177Julia,160,177MaxentiusorConstantine,177Porcia,177Ulpia,177

Baths,ofAgrippa,176Caracalla,176Commodus,176Constantine,176Diocletian,176Domitian,176Nero,176Titus,176

Bridges,182CapitolineHill,158Circus,Maxentius,173Maximus,173

Colosseum,174-5ColumnsofVictory,178Comitium,158Curia,158EtruscanMuseum,348ForumBoarium,170Romanum,157-8,170

IlGesu,349Milliarium,158Nymphæum,170PalacesofAugustus,179Cancellaria,346Capitol,350,363-5Caprarola,348

Farnese,348Massimi,348Pandolfini,347

Pantheon,122,164,167,168,170,171,348,372Rotunda,The,171S.Clemente,195S.JohnLateran,194,198S.LorenzoinMiranda,347S.MariadellaGrazie,346S.Paul-without-the-Walls,196-7S.Peter’s,194,346-7,349-50,370-4S.PietroinMontorio,346S.StefanoRotondo,198Tabularium,the,161Temples,169CastorandPollux,160Circular,176-7DivinitiesMaleandFemale,158MaterMatuta,170,171MinervaMedica,207Saturn,160,164

TombofCæciliaMetella,173Constanza,198

Trajan’sColumn,179,348Umbilicus,the,157VillaFarnesina,347Madama,347

Roodloft(Gloss.),237Roofs,46,47,53Arch-braced,297Assyriantreatmentof,71Byzantine,198Colonial,431-2Decorativetreatmentof,396Domeroofs,71Etruscan,155Gothic,inEngland,293,296-7,299German,304-5Italian,314Netherlands,307

Hammer-beam,297Hiproof,385,432Lombard,252Louvre,ofthe,384-5Luxembourg,ofthe,387Mansard,385-6,431Mediæval,196,198,241

Muhammedan,228Primitive,14-15,20QueenAnneStyle,424Renaissance,English,414,428German,392,395Netherlandish,407,408Spanish,403

Stoneroof,199Tie-beam,296Trussed-rafter,296Woodenroof,196,246,256,296

RosettaStone,27Rosettes,seeDecorativemotivesRoseWindows(Gloss.),271,282Rostra,the,158RostrumofJuliusCæsar,160RoughStoneAge,18Rugs,Persian,219“RuinsofthePalaceofDiocletian,”byRobertAdam,428

SSanctuaryof,EarlyChristianchurches,194,196EgyptianTemples,49,50,53GothicChurches,289HellenicTemples,120,141SpanishRenaissancechurches,401

Saracenic,seeMuhammedanSardinia,Mycenæanremainsin,89,90Sargon,AkkadianKing,57,58AssyrianKing,60

Sarzac,Professorde,discoveriesby,67SassanianEmpire,77,205,229Schiller,439Schliemann,Dr.,Mycenæandiscoveriesby,88,100Schools,Divinity,Oxford,295,299ÉcoledesBeauxArts,379,444,453Grammar,inEngland,412ScuolodeS.Marco,354

Scotia(Gloss.),129,164Screens(Gloss.):GothicChoir,275,291English,291,298Spanish,309

MediævalChurches,237Muhammedan,218S.Sophia,208TemplesofEgypt,54

TempleofHera,118ScreenWalls,377Blenheim,at,425ChâteaudeChambordat,381S.Clemente,Rome,195

Scrolls,seeVolutesSculptors:Bartlett,PaulW.,446Berruguete,402,405Borromini,The,351Cellini,Benvenuto,332,382Churriguera,405Crawford,Thomas,446,447Giotto,312,319Goujon,Jean,332,385Maderna,Carlo,351Majano,Giovanni,411Michelangelo,349-51,405Pheidas,111,140Pilon,332Pisano,Andrea,312,319Praxiteles,118Robbia,Luccadella,312Rude,François,443Sansovino,Andrea,354Sansovino,Jacopo,354Sarrazin,Jacques,385Torrigiano,411VigarnideBorgoña,401Vischer,Peter,391Vriendt,Corneliusde,407

Sculpture:Amenopheum,The,45Assyria,in,65Baroque,351Bulls,Colossal,69Egypt,of,40,41,48,75Gothic,276,278French,269,283German,304Italian,309,312,316Netherlands,307

Lombardy,in,251Osirid,50PedimentofCapitol,Washington,446Phrygian,99Relief,inAssyria,71,131

Bronze,171Byzantineuseof,203Chartres,at,269Doricmetope,in,135Gothic,276,312Hellas,in,127Ioniccornices,in,130MedallionofPopes,196

Mycenæ,in,98Tiryns,in,102Trajan’sColumn,on,179Versailles,at,387

SecondaryStyle,seeRayonnantSemiramis,Hanginggardensof,62Semiticraces,56,58,74Serdab(Gloss.),41Seville:TheAlcazar,225CasaLonja,401-2Giralda,the,225Plateresquein,398

Sewers,152.TheCloacaMaxima,Rome,156

Shaft(Gloss.),ofcolumn,123Corinthiantreatmentof,131Doge’spalacecolumns,316Fluted,87,124Greektreatmentof,124,125Ionictreatment,129Proportionsof,134,135Romanesque,245Romantreatmentof,164Sky-scraper,suggestionsof,in,474

Shakespeare,330,336,410,439Shalmaneser,KingofAssyria,59,60,75Sicily:Cathedralof,Monreale,Palermo,249CathedralofSyracuse,193Muhammedanconquestof,215Romanesque,in,249

Sidney,SirPhilip,336Silversmiths:AntonioArphe,398EnriqueArphe,398JuanArphe,398

Skene,the,144Sky-scrapers,472-5Soffit(Gloss.),127

Solar(Gloss.),416SolePiece,297Sophia,Hagia,(S.),207,209SouthSeaIslands,ornamentin,18SpandrelorSpandril(Gloss.):Cancellaria,of,363LibraryofS.Mark’s,365S.Peter’s,373

Spain,Architecturein:AlcaladeHeñares,400Alcazar,Seville,225,Alhambra,218,226-7,403BridgeofCordova,182BridgeofToledo,182Burgos,400-1Cordova,182,398Escoriál,403-5Giralda,the,225Gothic,271Granada,401InfluenceonNetherlands,406Madrid,403Malaga,401MosqueofCordova,224,225Muhammedan,212,215,220,224-7Mycenæanremainsin,89-90Plateresquestyle,398-9Renaissance,329,398-405Romanesque,259-60Salamanca,401Santiago,398Saragossa,401

Seville,302,309,371,398Toledo,182,308,398Valladolid,398,401

Spain,Historyof,212,213,326-7,397Sparta,128“SpeculumUniversale,”266-8,312Spencer,336Sphinx(Gloss.),Avenueof,51Temple,41TheGreat,38

Spires(Gloss.):Antwerp,308BrusselsTownHall,307Colonial,431English,274Gothicdecorated,275English,289,298French,282German,303

HousesofParliament,451WoolworthBuilding,476Worms,at,259Wren’sChurches,423

Spirals,165,179Square,the,85Squinch(Gloss.),230,259StainedGlass,275-278Gothic,English,291-2German,305

Methodsofusing,291-2MuséePlantin-Moretus,40SSainteChapelle,Paris,285

Stairs:Capitol,Washington,446CasaLonja,402Chaldæan,66ChâteaudeBlois,380ChâteaudeChambord,380-1Colonial,432DoricTemples,121Egyptiantemples,44GoldenStaircase,the,400-1LeaningTower,Pisa,in,247-8MachuPicchu,20Persepolis,at,85Pyramids,in,39QueenAnneentrances,of,426

Renaissance,English,416German,392Spanish,400

RomanPodium,of,156Sargon’sCastle,68Trajan’sColumn,179

Stalactitework,222,224,227Stalls(Gloss.),ofchancel,237StanzeApartments,374Statues:Arches,on,179Athene,inParthenon,140Baroque,351Cella,inHellenic,140Chaldæan,65ChartresCathedral,on,269Cheops,of,40Coloured,136DomeofCapitol,Washington,on,447Giralda,S.Faith,225GothicCathedrals,on,276-8German,304Italy,312,314Netherlands,307Spain,309

HermesofPraxiteles,118Louvre,on,385Marseillaise,La,443Michelangelo,by,350,364PalaceofRezzonico,in,356Renaissance,English,411German,392,396

S.John,byMichelangelo,344S.MariadellaSalute,of,356S.Peter’sin,372TempleofDiana,Nîmes,170Trajan’sColumn,on,179Tympanum,inHellenic,135Zeus,of,111

SteelConstruction,461,470,471,473,478Steeples(Gloss.),423Stele(Gloss.),14,132Stone,useof:Arches,singlestone,199Crosses,18CutstoneofPersia,81Egyptianuseoflarge,41

Italy,in,154Mediæval,in,241Obelisks,43Polishedstone,18,19Primitiveuseoflarge,8,13,14,15,20Pyramids,in,40RoughStoneage,18Sacrificial,16,20Steelconstruction,in,473

Stonehenge,8,16,100Stories,divisioninto:Arcades,in,229Byzantineuse,208,209CasaLonja,in,402Escoriál,in,404Gothic,German,306Italian,312Netherlands,307

Michelangelo’streatmentof,350Renaissance,English,414,418421French,354,360,363,364

Renaissanceuse,Netherlands,407Skyscrapers,in,474TempleofNippur,in,66Wren’sSteeples,in,423

Strains,15Carriedbycolumns,124Gothic,271-2,285Hellenicrecognitionof,135Vaulting,in,166,270

Stretchersandheaders(Gloss.),424Stringcourse:Gothic,Italian,312,314Netherlands,306

PalazzoVecchio,360QueenAnnestyle,424Renaissance,Venetian,361

StuartandRevett,discoveriesby436Stucco,useof(Gloss.):DoricTemples,in,121Egypt,usein,55Greekuseof,122Renaissance,352English,417German,393Venetian,361

Rococouseof,389

Tiryns,in,102Styles:Anglo-Classical,410,424Chinese,428Churrigueresque,393,405Colonial,430Elizabethan,410Georgian,427,430Jacobean,410Palladian,368,370,402,418,424Plateresque,398-9,400Portico,424QueenAnne,424,427,430QueenAnneRevival,458

Stylobate(Gloss.):Asymmetriesin,137Doric,122Ionic,128Panthéon,Paris,443Parthenon,138S.George’sHall,Liverpool,438S.Paul’s,421

Stylus,useof,57Subjectivepointofview,4Symonds,JohnAddington,329Syria,199Architecturalremainsin,199CathedralofBorah,200Churches,Kalb-Lauzeh,200S.George,Esrah,200Turmanin,200S.SimeonStylites,200

ConqueredbyMuhammedans,215InfluenceonByzantine,202Mosques:DomeoftheRock,or,MosqueofOmar,223El-Aksah,223El-Walid,Damascus,223

TTabernacles(Gloss.),GermanGothic,305SpanishRenaissance,398

Tabernæ,inRome,159Taconia,126TampaTocco,ruinsat,19Tel-el-Amarna,Ruinsat,55Temples:

Abydos,at,53Agrigentum,119Ammon,51Aphrodisias,Caria,193ApolloatBassæ,123atMiletus,122atNaucratis,128

Assos,at,126Athene,atÆgina,119AtheneNike,119,141-2Cæsar,160CastorandPollux,160,164Chons,51Concord,of,161Corinth,at,118CostaRica,ruinsat,20Deir-el-Bahri,44Delos,in,119Delphi,at,119Diana,170Diocletian’sPalace,in,180Edfou,at,54Egyptian,plansof,46-50Erechtheion,The,121,129,131,136,141,165,193,436,438Etruscan,155Hellenic,plansof,Early,119Later,121-123

Hera,of,111,117Hyperboreans,ofthe,17Jerusalem,at,79,223Jupiter,Capitoline,156,158Karnak,at,44,50Luxor,at,51,53Madeleine,The,modelledon,443MaisonCarrée,169MaterMatuta,170,171MedinctAbou,at,139Mexico,in,20Michelangelo’sadaptationsof,364-5MinervaMedica,207Minoan,notemples,92Nebo,at,62,67Nineveh,at,60Nippur,at,66Olympia,of,119Pantheon,Rome,122,164,167-8,170-1,348,372Parthenon,the,8,119,125,127,137,138,140,436

Pasargadæ,at,75Philæ,at,53PhœbusApollo,of,118Poseidon,of,118,119,125RamesesII,of,45Saturn,160,164SetiII,of,51Sippar,at,57Sphinx,TheGreat,38,41TampuTocco,19Theseum,119,193Tholos,Epidauros,121,131Uri,at,139Vesta,Rome,160,170Vesta,Tivoli,170,171Zeus,111,122atAgrigentum,118,119Olympian,119,120,122Selinas,119

Tænia(Gloss.),126Terraces(Gloss.):Babylon,Gardensof,61Châteaux,of,379MachuPicchu,of,20Nippur,of,66Pasargadæ,of,81Persepolis,of,85Renaissanceexamples,374S.George’sHall,Liverpool,438Sargon’sCastle,of,68TampuTocco,19Tenochtitlan,of,20Versailles,of,387Xerxes’Palace,of,85

Terracotta(Gloss.):Etruscans,useby,155Renaissance,in,411Romans,useby,168,182Roofconstruction,usein,122Steelconstruction,usein,473

TertiaryStyle,seeFlamboyantTessera(Gloss.),168Tetrastyle(Gloss.),121Thatchedroofs,155Theatres:Dionysos,of,143Ducaltheatre,Weimar,439

EpidaurosinArgolis,143FederalStreetTheatre,Boston,448HellenicTheatres,142,145,173,175Marcellus,of,164Orange,at,176Roman,173RoyalTheatre,Berlin,440Sheldonian,Oxford,419TeatroOlympico,352Vitruvius’descriptionof,144

Thermæ,seeBathsThessaly,remainsat,89ThirteenthCenturyGothic,seeGothic,PrimaryThrust(Gloss.),15Basilicas,in,178Gothic,in,273Mansardroof,in,385Muhammedanarches,221Romanarches,in,166,170Vaulting,in,242,244,253

Tiglath-Pileser,Assyriankings,59,60Tiles(Gloss.):Alhambra,usein,227Assyria,in,68,72,97Chaldæan,68Domes,in,207DoricTemples,in,121,122,123EarlyChristianchurches,in,201Greekuse,122Muhammedanuseof,222Persianuseof,86,97,218,229Renaissance,English,414

Romanuseof,168TempleofHera,roofof,118Turkishuseof,228

Tiryns,Prehistoriccivilisationof,88Architecture,98,100-2ResemblancetoEtruscan,155

Tivoli,TempleofVesta,in,170-1VillaofHadrian,180-1

Tombs:Abydos,at,42Agamemnon,of,100AltunObu,at,14Amenopheum,the,45Artaxerxes,of,76,82Atreus,of,124Barrows,13,14Beehive,15,99CæciliaMetella,of,173Cassandra,of,100Cathedrals,in,299Constanza,of,198Cyrus,of,81DariusI,of,82-4DariusII,of,76,82Dolmen,14EgyptianMiddleEmpire,of,42Escoriál,ofthe,403Etruscan,155GallaPlacidia,Rome,201HenryVII,Westminster,of,411Lycia,in,99,130MahmudBijapur,of,230Mastabas,41Midas,of,130Minoan,90Muhammedan,217,222Mycenæan,99Myra,at,99Pasargadæ,at,75,81Persepolis,at,76,82Phrygia,at,99Primitive,14QueenHatasu,of,45RamesesIII,of,45Ramesseum,The,45S.Sebald,of,391SheikOmar,of,222

SuleimanandRoxelana,of,228TajMahal,the,217,230ThebanEmpire,of,42Tholos,the,99Wolsey,Cardinal,of,411Wren,SirChristopher,of,423Xerxes,of,82

Torus(Gloss.),pl.Tori,47Cnossus,infrescoat,123Corinthian,164Doric,124Ionic,129

Tours,Schoolof,376Towers:Anglo-Saxon,254Angoulême,at,253AntwerpCathedral,308Babel,62Babylon,61CathedraldelPillar,401Châteaux,378deBlois,380deChambord,381

ChurchofApostles,Cologne,259CologneCathedral,303Diocletian’sPalace,180DurhamCathedral,256Earl’sBartonChurch,255Escoriál,the,404Giralda,The,225Gothic,English,274,289,298Netherlandish,307

HousesofParliament,451LayerMarney,Essex,411MadisonSquareGarden,NewYork,226MalinesCathedral,408NôtreDame,Paris,282PalazzoVecchio,359Renaissance,English,414Renaissance,German,392RheimsCathedral,282Romanesque,244S.Ouen’s,286S.Paul’s,421Saragossa,LaSeo,401Sargon’sCastle,67-8TownHall,Brussels,307

TurmaninChurch,200Wind,ofthe,Athens,121WoolworthBuilding,476WormsCathedral,258Wren’sChurches,423

Trabeated(Gloss.),8Tracery(Gloss.):Branch,305Double,304EarlyEnglish,290,291Gothic,German,303,304Italian,310,312Netherlandish,307

Milan,in,314Plate,274-5Renaissance,French,378

Transepts(Gloss.):Cathedrals,English,289,298CologneCathedral,303Cologne,ChurchofApostles,259EarlyChristianChurches,194Milan,S.MariadellaGrazie,346NorwichCathedral,246NôtreDame,Paris,281S.Paul’sCathedral,420-1Pisa,Cathedral,247RomanesqueChurches,241,244SantiagodeCompostello,260Tournai,Cathedral,307WormsCathedral,258

Transoms(Gloss.),290ChâteaudeBlois,380EnglishRenaissance,414

Transversebeams(Gloss.),8Travertine(Gloss.),useof,154,175,362“TreatiseonCivilArchitecture,”(SirWilliamChambers),427Trefoils,290,316Triada,Palaceat,98Triclinium(Gloss.),181Triforium(Gloss.),290,299,304,314Triglyphs(Gloss.):Coloured,136Doricentablature,in,126Roman,164

TriumphantArches,seeArchTroubadours,238,331Truss,296

TudorGothic,288Tufa(Gloss.),154,seeconcreteTumuli(Gloss.),13,17TurkishArchitecture,227Turrets,Gothic,Italian,312ChâteaudeChambord,381HousesofParliament,451Renaissance,French,378German,392Holland,409

Romanesque,Spanish,260S.Sulpice,Churchof,389

TuscanOrders,155,174Tympanum(Gloss.),135,171

UUffizi,354UnitedStates,The:BeauxArtsTraining,influence,463,464Capitol,Washington,446ChicagoExposition,influenceof,465ChristChurch,Philadelphia,430Classicalrevival,445Colonialarchitecture,423,429,431CraigieHouse,431DomesticArchitecture,468-9Engineeringproblems,477Englishinfluence,430Frenchinfluence,441,445GothicRevival,452-3Imitativetendency,466-8OfficeBuildings,469,475OldSouthChurch,430S.Paul’s,NewYork,430SherburnHouse,431SteelConstruction,461,470-7TrinityChurch,NewYork,452WhiteHouse,The,446WoolworthBuilding,471,476

Unityofdesign(Gloss.),11,174,209,245“UniversalMirror,”see“SpeculumUniversale”Universities:Augsburg,328Basel,328Cambridge,290,295,299Constantinople,266Leyden,334

London,438Nuremburg,328Oxford,257,288,293,295,299Salamanca,399Strasburg,328Virginia,448

Urbino,346Urn,Burial,155Usertesen,Obeliskof,43

VVases,Minoan,90,91,97Mycenæan,89Vatican:BorgiaApartments,97Museum,198SistineChapel,374StanzeApartments,374

Vault(Gloss.),Vaulting:Amiens,at,281,284Asymmetriesin,69,70Barrelvaults,42,70-1,209,242,253,260,373Basilicas,in,177Byzantineuseof,204,208Certosa,The,in,313Chaldæan,71CrossGroined,167,178,242,250,253,271-2Decorated,168Domeorsemidome,167Egyptianuseof,53Escoriál,in,404FanVaults,295Gothic,270English,287,293,298French,252German,304Italian,314Lombard,310Spanish,309

Groin,178,242,250,253Hinduuseof,230Liernes,294Madeleine,inthe,443Muhammedanuseof,222,229Normanuseof,256NôtreDame,281PalaisdeJustice,Liège,406

PendentiveVaults,295Persianuseof,229PointedGroinVault,253Renaissance,Spanish,401Ribandpanel,294RibVault,243,249,272Romanesque,241-2Rhenish,259Spanish,260

Romanuseof,166-7,173,175Rudimentary,15S.Andrea,Mantua,345,368S.Lorenzo,Florence,343S.Mark’s,Venice,209S.Spirito,Florence,367SainteChapelle,in,285Semicylindrical,vaulting,167Sexpartite,254SkewVault,254Stellarvaulting,294TempleofDiana,Nîmes,170Tiercerons,294

Vaults:FoundationsofAdelphiTerrace,428S.Francisco,Rimini,in,345

Vega,Lopede,330Velarium,174,176Veneer:Byzantineuseof,203ItalianGothicexterior,in,311Muhammedanuseof,222Romanuseof,168S.StefanoRotondo,in,199SphinxTemple,in,41TurkishMosques,in,228

Venice:ByzantineInfluencein,352Cad’Oro,360CornaroPalace,354Doge’sPalace,210,315Gothicarchitecture,315-16GvimanePalace,355IlRedentore,Churchof,352LibraryofSanGiorgio,344LibraryofSanMarco,354,365Lido,Fortificationsat,355Renaissancein,352-6

S.GiorgiodeiGreci,354S.GiorgioMaggiore,352S.MariadellaSalute,356S.MariadeiMiracoli,353S.Mark’s,209,210,248,252S.Zaccaria,353ScuolodiS.Marco,354Tradecentre,a,265,353VendraminiPalace,354,360Zecca,The,354

Verandah,432Verona:BevilacquaPalace,355CanossaPalace,355PompeiiPalace,355

Vesta,Templeof,160Vestibules(Gloss.),101,102,120Vicenza,351MediævalBasilica,352PalazzoBarbarano,352PalazzoCapitania,352

VillaRotonda,352Villas:ChiswickonThames,352,426Farnesina,the,347HouseofPansa,181Pompeii,at,181PopeJuliusIII,of,348RomanVillas,181,400VillaCapra,426VillaMadama,347VillaofHadrian,Tivoli,180VillaRotonda,352

VincentofBeauvais,writingsof,266,312Virgil,436Vitruvius,descriptionsof,122,144,155,182,351,352Vogüé,Marquisof,ExplorationsinSyria,199Volutes(Gloss.),131Assyrianornament,in,131Ionicornament,in,130

Persianornament,in,87Romanornament,in,164

Voussoirs(Gloss.):CloacaMaxima,in,156Concreteconstructioncompared,166DomeofCathedral,Florence,in,343MosqueofKaitBey,in,224

Vriendt,Corneliusde,bookofornament,393

WWainscots(Gloss.):Alhambra,in,227Colonialuse,432EnglishRenaissance,in,417MuséePlantin-Moretus,408

WallDecorationinmarble:Chaldæan,71-2EarlyChristianchurches,196Egyptian,41,48Florence,S.MariaNovella,345ItalianGothic,311,316Renaissanceuse,354,393Romanesqueuse,246,249Romanuse,168,172Turkish,228Venetianuse,354

WallPainting:Assyrianuseof,72Capitol,Washington,447Cnossus,at,93,96,97,102,123Egyptianuseof,45,48English-Norman,257Etruscan,155Hellenic,136Italian-Gothic,311Minoan,91OdeionofHerodesAtticus,146Panthéon,Paris,443PyramidofOnas,40Raphael’sStanze,Vatican,194,374Renaissance,in,339Romans,useby,168,181S.Paul’s-without-the-walls,197S.StefanoRotondo,in,199Tiryns,in,102

Walter,ThomasUstic,447Water,useof:

Assyrian,56EarlyChristianChurches,194Egyptian,30Minoan,93,97,98,101Muhammedan,217,218Persian,86Roman,176,181,182-3

WeighingHousesofHolland,409Winckelmann’scriticalstudies,436Windows:Alhambra,of,226-7Anglo-Saxon,254Angoulême,Cathedralof,253Arcadetype,362Assyria,70BlenheimCastle,of,426Cad’Oro,360Campanile,of,252Cancellaria,of,363CasaLonja,402ChâteaudeBlois,380ChâteaudeChambord,381Clerestory,49Colonial,431-2Crete,in,93Cyrus’sPalace,83Doge’sPalace,316DoricTemple,122,126Egyptianuse,47,50,55Escoriál,the,404Giralda,ofthe,225Gothic,274-276English,290,291German,304,316Italian,310,312Netherlandish,307

HôteldesInvalides,of,388IffleyChurch,of,257LanternofGallaPlacidia,201Louvre,ofthe,383,384,385MilanCathedral,in,313Modernnecessityfor,438Muhammedan,222Norman,255Ordertype,362Oriel,414PalaceofCharlesV,in,403

PalaceofDiocletian,in,196PalazzoRiccardi,in,359-60Vecchio,359-60Vendramini,360

Palladiandesign,370Perpendicularstyle,271Primitive,20QueenAnneStyle,424Renaissance,English,414,417French,378German,392-3,395-6Spanish,399,400

Romanesquetreatmentof,242,244,245Spanish,260

Romantreatmentof,172,178Roseorwheel,251,271S.Peter’s,of,372S.Sophia’s,of,208SainteChapelle,of,285Sky-scrapers,of,475TampuTocco,at,19Tiryns,at,101VenetianRenaissance,of,362WhitehallPalace,of,418Worms,Cathedral,of,258Xerxes,Palace,of,86YorkMinster,of,298

Wings:Capitol,Washington,in,446-7EnglishRenaissancehouses,in,414Friedrichsbau,in,394Heinrichsbau,in,394Louvre,ofthe,383,444Luxembourg,ofthe,387Whitehall,of,418

Wyatt,335Wycliffe,335

XXerxesI,ofPersia,76InvadesHellenicStates,108Palace,85etseq.Tent,inOdeionofPericles,145

ZZecca(themint),Venice,354

Zeus,101,128Templeof,111,122

Ziggurat(Gloss.),66-67,73Zoroaster,78Zoroastrianism,78,81

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL.

Cummings, CharlesA.History ofArchitecture in Italy. Boston:Houghton,Mifflin&Co.1901.2vols.

Fergusson,James.HistoryofModernArchitecture.1873.Fletcher,Bannister.AHistoryofArchitecture.London.Hamlin,A.D.F.TextBookoftheHistoryofArchitecture.1898.Longmans,Green&Co.Joseph,Dr.D.GeschichtederBaukunst.Berlin:BrunoHessling.4v.1902-09.Simpson,F.M.AHistoryofArchitecturalDevelopment.London:Longmans,Green&Co.

1905.3vols.Stratham,H.Heathcote.A Short CriticalHistory ofArchitecture. London:B. T. Batsford.

1912.Sturgis,Russell.AHistoryofArchitecture.NewYork:Doubleday,PageCo.1906-1915.4

vols.Sturgis, Russell. European Architecture. A historical study. New York: Macmillan & Co.

1896.Wallis,FrankE.HowtoKnowArchitecture.NewYork:Harper&Bros.1910.

EGYPTIAN.

Bell,Edward.TheArchitectureofAncientEgypt.London:G.Bell&Sons.1915.King, L. W. and H. R. Hall. Egypt andWestern Asia: in the light of recent discoveries.

London:Soc.forPromotingChristianKnowledge.1907.

BABYLONIANANDASSYRIAN.

Handcock, Percy S. P. Mesopotamian Archæology; an introduction to the archæology ofBabyloniaandAssyria.London:Macmillan&Co.1912.

Koldewey, Robert. The excavations at Babylon. Translated by A. S. Johns. London:Macmillan&Co.1914.

MUHAMMEDAN.

Saladin,H.L’architecture.Paris:A.Picard&Fils.1907.(Manueld’artmusulman.)

GOTHIC.

Bond,Francis.GothicArchitectureinEngland.London:B.T.Batsford.1905.Bumpus,T.Francis.GuidetoGothicArchitecture.NewYork:DoddMeadCo.1914.Cram,RalphA.TheGothicQuest.Gonse,Lewis.L’ArtGothique.Paris:MaisonQuantin.(1890.)Jackson,T.G.GothicArchitectureinFrance,EnglandandItaly.CambridgeUniversityPress.

2v.1915.

West,G.H.GothicArchitectureinEnglandandFrance.London:G.BellandSon.1911.

RENAISSANCE.

Anderson,Wm.J.ArchitectureoftheRenaissanceinItaly.London:B.T.Batsford.1896.Gotch,J.Alfred.EarlyRenaissanceArchitectureinEngland.London:B.T.Batsford.1914.Moore,C.H.CharacterofRenaissanceArchitecture.NewYork:Macmillan&Co.1905.

ORNAMENT.

Goodyear, William H. The Grammar of the Lotus. Sampson Low. London. 1891.ArchitecturalRecord(articlesin),Vol.II,No.4;Vol.III,Nos.2,3,4.

Hamlin,A.D.F.TheHistoryofOrnament:CenturyCo.1916.

ASYMMETRIES.

Goodyear,WilliamH.GreekRefinements.YaleUniversityPress.1912.ArchitecturalRecord(articlesin),Vol.VI,Nos.1,2,3,4;Vol.VII,Nos.1,2,3;Vol.XVI,Nos.2,5,6;Vol.XVII,No.1.AmericanArchitect (articles in),1909,1910,1911.AmericanJournalofArchæology(articlesin),Vol.XIV,No.4;Vol.XV,No.3.YaleQuarterlyReview,1912,April.

FOOTNOTES:[1]AnexceptionoccursinatempleatAssos,wherethearchitraveisdecorated.

[2]ItwassometimesusedinconnectionwiththeDoricorder,asinthecaseoftheTholosatEpidauros,wheretheinternalcircleofcolumnsisoftheCorinthianorder.

[3]AcorrespondingcurvatureinplanhasalsobeendiscoveredinEgyptianarchitecture,forexample,intheSecondTempleCourtatMedinctAbou.

[4]ErectedeightyyearsafterthedeathofEuripides,whoseplays,likethoseofÆschylusandSophocles,wereperformedintemporarytheatres.

[5]NotethesimilarityofthisporticototheprojectionfromthebackofanElizabethanstage.

[6]Thereadermayberemindedthatlongitudinalisinthedirectionofthenavefromwesttoeast,transverse,acrossthenave,atrightangles,whilethe“diagonals”spanthebayobliquely.

[7]TheabovewaswrittenbeforetherevoltingdesecrationofBelgiumbytheGermaninvasion.

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