How to Set Up & Calibrate a Turntable to Reproduce & Record a Vinyl Disc

How to Set Up&

Calibrate a Turntable toReproduce

& Record a Vinyl Disc

Sergio Cabrera Hernandez14114

WORD COUNT: 3713

How to Set Up, Improve, Reproduce & Record a Vinyl Disc Sergio Cabrera Hernandez

Table Of Contents:

1 Abstract 3

2 Introduction 4

3 The Vinyl 5

3.1 A Bit Of History 53.2 The Making Of... 63.3 RIAA Equalization 83.4 Grading Vinyl... 93.5 Care and Store of Vinyl.. 9

4 The Turntable 12

4.1 Types of Turntables 134.2 Part of a Turntable 144.3 Cartridge & Types 154.4 Stylus & Types 174.5 Tonearm & Types 19

5 Things To Consider Before Start Recording 20

5.1 Johnson Noise 205.2 Calibrating The System 25

6 The Recording 287 Conclusion 318 Appendix 1 (Grading Records) 329 Appendix 2 (Audio Examples) 3310 Appendix 3 (Terminology) 3411 Bibliography 35

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1 Abstract

Being a DJ for over 15 years and all the progresses made in this field, from vinyl to cd and nowadays the mp3, it seems there is a need to transfer all those “Jewel Vinyls”which are very hard if not impossible to get onto the “Digital Domain” . But it is not as easy as it looks because you have to take into consideration a few factors before you even think about transferring it.

Many of these factors include mechanical as well as physical issues.

My main purpose for transferring was to get a very clean recording first and then once on the “Digital Domain” be able to restore it and get better sound quality.

I have to point out this entire writing is not about how to restore the sound or which program to use, in fact a free version of the well known Audacity can be used to transfer the vinyls.

I will discuss later many different types of turntables, tonearm, cartridges and stylus and the price range of a few of them.

Due to the orbital prices of many of them and my tight budget I have to make use of my well known cartridge but nevertheless you can get exceptional results taking a few things into consideration and setting up everything correctly before you hit record.

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2 Introduction

The main scope of this writing is just to give an idea on all the facts involved in the reproduction of a vinyl record, either mechanical or electrical and how to cope and improve them for the purpose of recording or transfer to a digital medium.

No restoration has been used in this entire writing as this is based entirely on how to get a right and good sound recording without the use of digital programs.

Another factor would be the different selection of Cartridges, Stylus and Tonearms and the advantages and inconvenience of each one of them.

The main idea behind the transfer would be for Mastering purposes as well as Archiving or even in the unfortunate event that the original tapes do not exist anymore are lost or very hard to get hold of and the only remaining format is on Vinyl.

I believe there are many people who are still unaware of the process carried out to cut a vinyl lacquer and all the work behind this delicate art in which there is too many physical limits.

I will give a brief and small history on materials used, ways of cutting etc that would give a better understanding on the way vinyls are played and hopefully make it clear the limits of this format.

Many state that vinyl is dead, but there are still people nowadays who collect and use vinyl everyday which shows vinyl is still very much alive

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3 The Vinyl

3.1 A Bit Of HistoryBefore 1940 records were cut onto hard wax 13 inches in diameterand 1-2 inches thick, followed by a very delicately polished surface and then put through an electro forming process to produce a copper master.

This procedure caused a problem when electroplating because the surface become very noisy and failed to improve standards at the time.

Then comes the solution with the Lacquer developed in the late 1930s changing the Copper master for Aluminium, with 14 inches in diameter and covered with a solution of cellulose nitrate.

Back to the era of the cylinders, the program was cut in the vertical planeknown as “Hill & Dale” recording. This method was followed by the lateral plane cut and improved by Alan Dower Blumlein who created the 45/45 cutting system patented in 19311 2making it possible for the cutting of stereo programs on theLacquer.3(fig. 1)

(fig. 1)The Cutting HeadThis method has it advantages,

1 Mono and Stereo players & disc become totally compatible2 The low frequency from the turntable is reduce d by 3 dB.

1 http://www.doramusic.com/patentdetails.htm2 Bobby Owsinski, (2000), pp 70-713. Nic Beer. (1999). pp 157

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3.2 The making Of..

The process of cutting a vinyl ( Or properly named Lacquer) starts with the Stereo Tape Master, this master feeds the amplifiers and then the Cutting Head behaving like a transducer, transforming electrical power into mechanical movement onto the Cutter Head (The cutter head is fed with 2 loudspeakers but instead of cones has cantilevers connected to the cutting stylus normally made of Sapphire running power of even 500 W per channel)4.This Cutter Head is part of a Lathe (or recording vinyl),(see fig 2-3)

(Fig 2) Neumann VMS66

(Fig 3) Neumann VMS70the Lacquer (Or Acetate commonly known) is then place on the platter of the Lathe for the cutting process.The cutting Head is mounted on a Linear tonearm so follows a perpendicular line of 90 degrees from the centre spindle while it is cutting.4. Nic Beer. (1999). pp 158

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The Stylus is pre-heated to make the cut more clean.This cut creates a residue commonly named Swarf, very volatile and flammable which is removed by suction through a pump connected near the stylus.

Once the Acetate is cut itis put in bath called electro-forming, where it is electroplated with silver and grown with a thick layer of nickel.

Once it is dry this layer is carefully separated from the lacquer (The lacquer ends its life in here) this metal is called Mother and is the negative of the final vinyl.Basically it needs 2 mothers, one for each side to Stamp the final vinyl and in the cases of big productions multiple mothers are necessary. (Fig 4-5)

(Fig 4) Electro Forming Bath

(fig 5) Separating the lacquer from the Mother

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3.3 RIAA Equalization

One of the problems with this type of process was the big excursion created by the low frequencies on the acetate taking too much land.On the other hand, high frequencies create very small amplitudes nearly scratching just the surface, that can be due to mistracking on playback mode.

To solve this problem it would need an equalization to reduce the big excursions of the low frequencies and save space in the vinyl and to emphasise the high frequencies so it can be cut deeper avoiding mistracking and acting as noise reduction.

This is know as the RIAA5 curve or RIAA Equalization (Fig 6)and is called as RIAA In Pre-Emphasis just used to record onto acetate.

(Fig 6) RIAA Curve in Pre-Emphasis

At the time of reproduce this vinyl is needed a inverse RIAA Curve to restore the “Flat “ frequency amplitude, so it can be reproduce on a system(fig 7)

5 Glenn D. White & Gary J. Louie (2005) pp 332

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This is called RIAA In De-Emphasis used to playback the vinyls.

(Fig 7) RIAA Curve in De-Emphasis

3.4 Grading Vinyl

Before considering making a recording or buying any piece of vinyl with the purpose of recording or collecting, there is a way to grade the vinyl and this is as follows:6 (Check Appendix 1 )

3.5 Care and Store Vinyl

1. Avoid touching the surface of the vinyl with the hand.2. Always handle from the outer edge and the label.

6 Courtesy of http://www.jazzmanrecords.com/recordratings.html

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3. Always clean the disc before and after playing it.

4. Never place the vinyl on other surface without the protective sleeve.

5. There are many products on the market to clean vinyls but a good cleaner can be home made with distilled water and 20% of isopropyl alcohol and a soft clean cloth would be more than enough.

6. Place the cloth flat onto the surface then apply the cleaning liquid

working on circular motion following the grooves direction.7. It is advisable to avoid using the cloth for to long as this would

create static which would attract more dust.8. In case of static there is a special anti-static brush for this purpose.

Just use it in the same way as the cloth after the vinyl is clean so it would discharge it.

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9. The opening of the inner record sleeve should always lie inside

the outer sleeve to avoid dust contamination.10.Whenever possible use an extra outer plastic sleeve for more

protection and keep away the dust.

11.Store them upright, never pile them on the side.

12.Keep them away from heat source.13.keep them away from humidity.

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4 The Turntable

The turntable put in a simple sentence would be defined as a unit composed for tonearm with a cartridge and stylus and a rotor moving a platter where the records are placed to be reproduced. (Fig 8)

(Fig 8) Typical Hi Fi turntable

Very simplistic definition for a turntable can be a mixture of electric and mechanical forces which move and “decode” or reproduce the tiny grooves already cut on a vinyl.

The turntable should have a very stable speed to avoid speed variations giving changes in frequencies and at the same time very sturdy and heavy and as insulated as possible to avoid external vibrations passing onto the cartridge and creating a rumble7.

The reproduction on the stylus should be equally loud for this reason and a few more it is necessary to set up the whole unit correctly for optimum performance,minimum rumble and many other issues (Check Appendix 3) and how to deal with it.

7 Peter Copeland, (2008) pp 43

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4.1 Types Of Turntables8

There are many types of turntables to suit any ones budget, but taking in to consideration that it is needed to transfer music it will not come cheap.

But having a few ideas on how to deal with some issues, exceptional results can be achieved with little money.

Turntables can work driven by a belt connecting the platter with a small rotor called Belt Drive Turntable.(Fig 9)

(Fig 9) Gyro SE 2 driven by a belt

There are turntables that use direct action of the rotor underneath the platter that are called Direct Drive Turntable.(Fig 10)

(Fig 10) Underneath a direct drive turntable platter

There is also an Idler Drive Turntable (Fig 11) but this is less common than the first two, even variations of the belt drive driven by 2 rotors.

8 Ian R Sinclair (2000) pp 166

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(Fig 11) An Idler Drive Turntable4.2 Parts of a Turntable

Lets have a look at the parts of a turntable and the function of each of them.

• The Plinth : This is the main body of the turntable where all the electrical components are enclosed (you may also find the rotor in the case of the Direct Drive Type) even mechanical are found inside ( Belt, stop mechanism etc for Belt Drive Type).

• The Platter : Normally placed in the centre of the plinth can be Belt or Direct Drive and serves as a base to place the Vinyl, many times the use of a special Thick Matt between platter and Vinyl can make the whole platter steady and absorbs vibrations.

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• The Tonearm : This is a very important mechanical part of the whole unit as is main duty is to “Drive” the cartridge and stylus through the groove in a correct manner. This has to be very sturdy to avoid external vibrations and at the same time very smooth or with low friction on the bearings so can follow the groove and avoid making the styli jump. Here is found the counterweight which is used to balance the weight applied to the groove. At the base of the Tonearm next to the pivot is the anti-skating mechanism which principal duty is to force the arm towards the outer edge of the vinyl which counteracts the skating force forcing the arm toward the center.

• The Headshell : At one extreme of the tonearm is found the headshell which main function is to hold the cartridge

• The Cartridge : This is the small friend which the main job is to transduce mechanical movement into electrical signal.Exists a few types of cartridges which will be mentioned later on.

• The Stylus : At the very end of the of the cartridge is found the the stylus mounted on a cantilever which is normally in charge of “ride” or transduce the grooves and pick -up the information available.Many different types of stylus exist and a few of them will also be named later on.

4.3 Cartridges and Types

Since the beginning of reproduction of vinyl many different types of cartridges have been made, but the most common ones are Magnetics Cartridges and in particular two models:

• Moving Magnet (MM) Cartridges9 (Fig 12): These are the most common of the two.This one has a small magnet attached at the end of the cantilever, this magnet is place between two fixed coils (If Stereo) creating a small electromagnetic generator, as the stylus moves, the grooves

9 Nic Beer (1999) pp 126

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induce tiny current on the coils.

It generates normally an output of between 4mV and 7mV

• Moving Coil (MC) Cartridges10 (Fig 13): Same as MM Cartridges, these are electromagnetic generators but the main difference lays in the coil, in this case the coils are attached to the cantilever and the cantilever surrounds it by a magnetic field, these coils are more lighter than those on a MM Cartridge.These create a problem which is that an MC Cartridge creates lower voltage in comparison to MM Cartridges, cannot create the same output as in the MM, mainly because it would be too heavy for the groove. Being such sensitive machinery a step up pre-amp is needed to bring the output to normal levels, these cartridges are more expensive than the MM counterpart and in most cases the styli is already integrated on the design and many of them handcrafted, as oppose to the MM that can be easily replaced.

10 Nic Beer, (1999) pp 127

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(Fig 12):Moving Magnet Cartridge, Notice the replaceable Styli

(Fig 13): Moving Coil Cartridge already with the Styli integrated

4.4 Stylus and types

Here comes one of the most critical parts of the the whole unit if it is wrongly set up or in bad shape it cannot produce an optimum sound, furthermore it can give and indeed does give distortion.

Stylus are in charge of “read” or decode the grooves, moving

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accordingly .As the cartridges there is a different types of stylus, the common ones being the spherical and elliptical11.

• Spherical or Conical: These are the most common styli wisely use and its name suggests it has spherical or conical shape on the tip.

• Elliptical: These stylus' gives a better performance as they can go deeper into the groove so can give more information to the cartridge.

• Micro-Line: These stylus gives a better performance than any of those before, due to the high degree to which it is polished it can get as much information as possible from the groove.Tend to be very expensive stylus.

11 Peter Coperland (2008) pp 59-61

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4.5 Tonearms And types

When an Acetate is cut normally it is done perpendicular to the centre spindle 90 degrees to be precise and uses a linear tonearm for this purpose. However, when a vinyl is played back it normally uses a pivot tonearm, which can create phase problems, so a good design is necessary to keep this problem to a minimum.There is different kind of tonearm for the purposes of playback and to avoid the phase problem12.

• Straight Tonearm : This type of tonearm as the name indicates is of straight shape but with an offset at the headshell so will meet nearly perpendicular to the groove.

• J-Shaped Tonearm : With a J-Shaped, this tonearm reduces the offset in comparison with the Straight tonearm.

• S-Shaped tonearm : This one has the higher offset of the three.

12 Ian R Sinclair. (2000) pp 165-167

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• Linear Tracking Tonearm : This kind of tonearms eliminate a problem that the other three encounter and is the phase problem.Following the same path as the cutter does, a line.

5 Things To Consider Before Recording

5.1 Johnson Noise

Before pressing the record button, it is necessary to consider limitations of some vinyls so it is possible to get the best SNR from the recordings.

• First the self noise from the turntable, also known as Johnson Noise which is the minimum noise of any internal circuit can attain13.

For the purposes of recording is use a well known turntable the Technics SL-1210MK2 which is widely used by DJs and Clubs around the globe and for the digitization of vinyl purpose is more than acceptable, as long as all the issues are considered and are deal with.

Measuring the Johnson Noise is one of the preliminary steps to dealing with SNR.

After connecting the turntable to the mixer (Mackie D.2) which uses a RIAA Eq for the purpose of playback, take the output and put on the input on the sound card (Digidesign M-box 2 Mini), launch Audioexplorer to measure the Noise.These are the results:

13 Glenn D. White & Gary J. Loiue (2005) pp 206

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• The mixer at unity gains Low, Mid and High Fq consecutively:

Notice the peaks at 50Hz reaching 126 microVolts and the harmonics at 150Hz, 250Hz, 350Hz, etc

Same is shown here at 1kHz peaking at nearly 138 microVolts, and consecutively harmonics at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6kHz and so on. Notice the nibbles surrounding the affected Fq.

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Not very much from 10kHz and above .

Obviously the sound card has its own Johnson Noise. The way to compare this is with the fader at minus infinite so is measure the Self Noise from the soundcard

• The mixer at minus infinite for Low, Mid and High Fq consecutively.

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Notice now at 50Hz peaking 9microVolts and at 150Hz peaking at 15 microVolts.

Here it would remain more or less the same with the only difference of no nibbles surrounding the affected Fq.

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Here it would remain more or less the same as with the fader on unity.

• It looks like very big amounts of noise but considering that the turntable is connected onto the mixer and from there into the soundcard. The biggest peak would be with the mixer at unity gain peaking at 138 microVolts on the 1kHz band from here we can set our SNR.

138 mV*10^(-6) = 0.000138 Volts 20Log(0.000138/0.775) = -74.99 dBu//

• This sets already the Dynamic Range possible available.

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5.2 Calibrating the system

This part takes deals with the whole process of calibration of the whole turntable so it can be played with optimum performance and the least amount of distortion can be achieved14 15.

1. It is advisable to level the surface of the turntable before even starting to calibrate, for that reason a spirit level is needed.

2. Now is the turn of the tonearm with the headshell on unlock the cueing lever so it will be free, then the counterweight is unscrewed until the tonearm starts to float and makes a parallel horizontal

line, adjusting the height of the ring to the one specifically for the cartridge in this case 0, avoiding Scrubbing Motion (Check Appendix 3) to happens.

14 Ian R. Sinclair (2000) pp 16315 Nic Beer (1999) pp 127-128, 132

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3. The counterweight is set to 0, this will mark the grams added on the stylus for tracking force.

4. The protractor16 is used to check the geometry of the headshell and cartridge, so the Tracking Error is kept to a minimum.

5. Place the Test Record on the platter to start the calibration. The record is recommended to start with the maximum weight for the cartridge (5 grams17) so it set at 4.5 grams on the counterweight (Max allow on this case) turning clockwise until it reaches 4.5.

16 Courtesy of EnjoyTheMusic.com17 http://www.stantondj.com/v2/discon_gmaster_tech.asp

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6. First test would be the channel identification to see if the channels are correctly placed.

7. Second goes a Phasing test, a voice sound through the speakers to check that the polarity is correct.

8. Third a channel balance, a pink noise material is play and it should appears to sound evenly in the stereo image

9. The next test is to adjust the anti-skate settings so a 300Hz tone is play at 12dB, then at 14dB, 16dB and finally at 18dB.It should sound a smooth tone all the way but if not then the ant-skating setting should be adjusted accordingly.

10.Other tests to check what resonance the tonearm and cartridge have together and see how it handles the rumble ( The resonance in this case was between 11Hz and 13Hz).

There is many more issues to take into consideration. (Check Appendix for more Info)

With this last test concludes all preparations for the recording.

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6 The Recording

Having everything set up all that remains is to start recording following all the steps mentioned. Placing the vinyl on the platter, cleaning and passing the anti-static brush, lift the tonearm with the cueing lever and place at the beginning of the song.Meanwhile Logic is launched for the recording, set with two channels one for the input with a Channel EQ to reduce those peak seen earlier on the table. The ones to consider are 50Hz and 1kHz (Check CD for Audio demos), so is cut those two Frequency and then send to a second channel to be recorded.

At the time of recording the signal is boosted so it is possible to get all the noise boost to be able to hear it when it is cut (see Appendix 2, Tracks 1,2 & 3).

At the top of the second channel is a Limiter, very gentle so it will reduce the occasional peak to avoid clipping, follow by another Channel EQ to analyse the input onto the channel.

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Everything is set to record, lower the cueing lever of the turntable for the song to start and check the levels on Logic.Once the level is good and without clipping, lift the tonearm again and put it from the beginning again.

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Now press record and lower the cueing lever so the song can start recording.

Once it is finished press stop then check the audio signal. This is the final audio signal for this recording (see Appendix 2, Track 4).

One more recording was needed to compare with a totally wrong settingso is evident the importance of a good set up (see Appendix 2, Track 5)

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7 Conclusion

It takes more than just putting the stylus on the groove and hitting record.

The cutting stylus cuts on a linear way and we reproduce it in most of the cases with “pivot tonearm”.This problem is more noticeable the closer to the center of the record and is known as Phase distortion so a proper adjusting will keep this to a minimum. Using a Linear Tracking Tonearm would be the best answer as the Phase will disappear.

Keeping in mind that this entire project was done on a budget satisfactory results can be achieved and there is no need for five figure turntables to get this done.

I always thought the whole process would be more straight forward but I learnt that there are many limitations you should be aware of before you carry out the job.

I am not sure until what point was effective the reduction of the 50Hz and 1kHz but it can be appreciated on the recordings.

Obviously this is just the first step but I think the most important point is once it is already recorded there is not much you can do so it is better to get it right at the source.

I thoroughly enjoyed this project and look forward to further tests in this field as this is a topic that interests me very much.

Things to try in the future would be how to reduce the Johnson Noise from the turntable for example using an external PSU, using another Tonearm and probably build my own turntable from scratch.

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Appendix 1(Grading Records)18

Mint (M): Brand new vinyl, still wrapped .

Near Mint (NM or M+):A nearly perfect record. Should never have obvious signs of wear. Probably would have the wrap still but open, slight signs of been handled. Many Dealers won't give a higher grade than this considering that no record is ever truly perfect.

Very Good Plus (VG+): Generally worth 50 percent of the Near Mint value. A record that falls in this category will show some signs that it was played and handled with good care.Slightly warps and some signs of wear and probably very light scratches but does not affect the listening experience. Label would have some signs of discolouration or ring wear but it should be barely noticeable.

Very Good (VG): Generally worth 25 percent of Near Mint value. Many of the defects found in a VG+ record will be more pronounced in a VG disc. Surface noise would be evident upon playing, especially in soft passages and during a song's intro and fade, will not overpower the music otherwise.Groove wear would start to be noticeable as with scratches (deep enough to feel with a fingernail) that will affect the sound.Stickers or tape can be found on the label that can be marred, same for the sleeve, however it will not have all this problems at the same time, only two or three of them.

Good (G), Good Plus (G+): Generally worth 10-15 percent of a Near Mint value.Good does not mean bad! A record in Good or Good Plus condition can be put on a turntable and will play through without skipping, but it will have significant noise and scratches and visible groove wear. A cover or sleeve will have seam splits, especially at the bottom or on the spine. Tape, writing, ring wear or other defects will start to overwhelm the object.

Poor (P), Fair (F):Generally worth 0-5 percent of the Near Mint price.The record is cracked, badly warped, and will not play through without skipping or repeating. Picture sleeve is water damaged, split on all three seams and heavily marred by wear and writing.The LP cover barely keeps the LP inside it.

18 Courtesy of Jazzman Records at http://www.jazzmanrecords.com/recordratings.html

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Appendix 2 (Audio Examples)

Here is an Audio Examples:

Track 1: Soundcard Input on Logic Boost by +25/30 dBwith -24 dB cuts on 50Hz and 1kHz going on/off. (50Hz can be check on a good system or good pair of headphones)

Track 2: Same as above but with 1kHz only.

Track 3: Same as Track 1 but with 50Hz only (check on a good system to notice the difference)

Track 4: First recording with the correct settings and calibrated.

Track 5: Second recording with just 0.5 grams of tracking, 0 anti-skating and height of the ring set to 6 mm, notice the left channel distortion and the stereo image is wrong.

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Appendix 3 19(Terminology)

Acetate: When records need to be made, the first is called acetate which is a metal disc cover on a thick layer of cellulose nitrate and some castor oil as a plasticizer.Anti skating Device: When a record is play a force move the tonearm toward the inner of the disc, with device with counteract this effect.Cantilever: The small piece of metal which supports the stylus, has to be very sturdy yet very light.Cartridge: Transducer that convert the motion of the stylus into electrical voltageCutterhead: Small chisel-shaped stylus used to cut the groove on the acetateDe-Emphasis: When a vinyl needs to be reproduce this is called RIAA EQ is a De-EmphasisFlutter: Speed variation of around 5Hz are called flutter, normally much lower on turntables.Hum: A 60Hz or 120Hz frequency(50 and 100Hz in Europe) component in an audio signal. Typical type of noise found on audio system and very difficult sometime to reduce.Johnson Noise: Also known as Thermal noise, and is the limiting minimum noise any circuit can attain.Lathe: Machine design to cut the grooves on the acetate provided with a CutterheadPhase Distortion: The relative shift in audio between various frequencies of a signal. Can cause transients to change in shape.Pinch Effect: Acetate are cut with a chisel-shaped cutting stylus, playback stylus are finite and tend to be squeezed upward creating harmonic distortion.Pre-Emphasis: RIAA Equalization needed to record a acetate.RIAA: Recording Industry Association of AmericaScrubbing Motion: Back and forth movement along the groove created by a warp record, causing frequency variations.Skating Force: Force on the stylus of a record that cause the tonearm to move toward the center of the record.Stylus: Formed by the cantilever and the stylus tip which make contact with the record groove.Swarf: Chip of acetate.Tonearm Resonance: The stylus is connected to a spring cantilever and the cartridge has mass. The stiffness of the cantilever is directly proportional to the resonance frequency.Tracking Distortion:Tracking Error: Because the tonearm of a turntable is pivoted, meeting the groove in a ever changing angle while the linear tonearm of the lathe cuts on a straight line, this condition is called Tracking error.Wow: Relatively slow variations in frequency.

19 Glenn D. White & Gary J.Louie pp 7-24-155-189-209-287-333-354-377-382

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11 Bibliography

Books:

• Ian R Sinclair. (2000). Audio & Hi-Fi Handbook Revised Third Ed. ISBN 0750649755

• Glenn D. White & Gary J. Louie. (2005). Audio Dictionary, The. University of Washington Press

• Bobby Owsinski. (2000). Mastering Engineer's Handbook, The. ISBN 0-87288-741-3

• Nic Beer. (1999). Servicing Audio & Hi-Fi Equipment. ISBN 0750642378

Journals:

• Peter Copeland. (2008). Manual of Analogue Sound Restoration. The british library online.

• Simon J. Godsill & Peter J.W. Rayner. (1998). Digital Audio Restoration-a statistical model based approach. The British Library online.

• J. F. R. Bugge. (1980). The Design & Evaluation of a Production Prototype High Performance Gramophone Record Player. The British Library online.

Websites:

• Excerpts from the book Hi-Fi All-New 1958 Edition. http://www.enjoythemusic.com/cartridgehistory.htm

• Geoff Husband. (1999).http://www.tnt-audio.com/accessories/hfnrrdisc_e.html

• Leif Häggmark. (2002). http://www.airtangent.net/main.html• http://www.stantondj.com/v2/discon_gmaster_tech.asp

Discography:

• The Beatles, 1995, Anthology, EMI Records/Northern Songs, PCSP 727

• Len Gregory, 2002, Hi-Fi News, Analogue Test LP, HFN 002

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http://www.enjoythemusic.com/cartridgehistory.htm

http://www.airtangent.net/main.html

http://www.tnt-audio.com/accessories/hfnrrdisc_e.html

http://www.tnt-audio.com/accessories/hfnrrdisc_e.html

How to Set Up & Calibrate a Turntable to Reproduce & Record a Vinyl Disc

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Transcript of How to Set Up & Calibrate a Turntable to Reproduce & Record a Vinyl Disc