HOW THEORIES OF EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT AND ......HOW THEORIES OF EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT AND NON-VERBAL...

HOW THEORIES OF EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT AND NON-VERBALCOMMUNICATION CAN ENHANCE EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING AT

ALL LEVELS OF ENTERING BEHAVIOUR

BY

ANDREW MATHERSM. Mus Ed., B. Ed. (Sec), A. Mus A.

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree ofDoctor of Philosophy in Music

MONASH UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MUSIC – CONSERVATORIUM

SUBMITTED ON 16 JUNE 2008

Copyright Notices Notice 1 Under the Copyright Act 1968, this thesis must be used only under the normal conditions of scholarly fair dealing. In particular no results or conclusions should be extracted from it, nor should it be copied or closely paraphrased in whole or in part without the written consent of the author. Proper written acknowledgement should be made for any assistance obtained from this thesis. Notice 2 I certify that I have made all reasonable efforts to secure copyright permissions for third-party content included in this thesis and have not knowingly added copyright content to my work without the owner's permission.

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TABLE OF CONTENTSTable of Contents ............................................................................................... iiList of Tables .................................................................................................... ivList of Figures.................................................................................................... vAbstract............................................................................................................. viOriginal Statement ...........................................................................................viiAcknowledgements .........................................................................................viiiCHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 1

Research Methodology................................................................................... 4CHAPTER TWO – REVIEW OF LITERATURE.............................................. 7

Review of the Literature on Expressive Movement Theories .......................... 7Review of the Literature on Non-Verbal Communication ............................. 11

CHAPTER THREE – AN EVALUATION OF THE KINAESTHETICAPPROACH TAKEN BY CONDUCTING TEXTBOOKS IDENTIFIED INTWO SURVEYS ............................................................................................. 13

Conducting Textbooks Selected for Examination ......................................... 15An Evaluation of the Kinaesthetic Approach taken by Conducting TextbooksAimed at Beginner Conductors or Conductor/Educators ............................... 20An Evaluation of the Kinaesthetic Approach Taken by Conducting MaterialsAimed at Conductors of All Levels............................................................... 38Summary and Conclusions ........................................................................... 49

CHAPTER FOUR – THE ROLE OF THE MIND-BODY CONNECTION,MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND PROPRIOCEPTION IN THEDEVELOPMENT OF KINAESTHETIC LEARNING..................................... 53

Developing Kinaesthetic Learning through Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence 57I Connecting Body and Mind .................................................................. 62

Alexander Influences on the Mind-Body Connection ............................ 63Philosophical Perspectives on the Mind-Body Connection .................... 66

II Motor Skill Development ..................................................................... 70III Proprioception and its Role in Conducting ............................................ 79Summary and Conclusions ........................................................................... 83

CHAPTER FIVE – FIVE EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT THEORIES, THEIRCOMMONALITIES, AND THEIR POTENTIAL USE IN THEENHANCEMENT OF EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING ................................... 86

Theories of Movement - Rudolf Laban ......................................................... 88Theories of Movement - Emile-Henri Jaques Dalcroze ................................. 92Theories of Movement - François Delsarte ................................................... 93Theories of Movement - F.M. Alexander...................................................... 96Theories of Movement - Moshe Feldenkrais................................................. 98Commonalities between Expressive Movement Theories.............................. 99Potential Use – Laban................................................................................. 118Potential Use – Dalcroze ............................................................................ 122Potential Use – Delsarte ............................................................................. 125Potential Use – Alexander .......................................................................... 127Potential Use - Feldenkrais ......................................................................... 129Summary and Conclusions ......................................................................... 131

CHAPTER SIX – THE USE OF NON-VERBAL SKILLS AND CONCEPTSTO ENHANCE EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING............................................ 134

Communicating the Expressive Elements in Conducting ............................ 136Categories and Coding of Non-Verbal Communication Used by Conductors

........................................................................................................... 140

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The Use of Kinesics to Facilitate Expressive Conducting............................147The Observation and Recording of Non-Verbal Conducting Behaviours .....158The Development of Emotional Expression in Conducting .........................167Emphasising the ‘Non-Verbal’ in Non-Verbal Communication in ExpressiveConducting .................................................................................................172The Use of Gestural Modes to Enhance Expressive Conducting..................175Summary and Conclusions..........................................................................179

CHAPTER SEVEN – SURVEY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................182Survey 1 – University Level Conducting Teachers......................................182Survey 1 – Discussion.................................................................................194Survey 2 – Secondary School Level Conductors Based Around theMelbourne Area..........................................................................................196Survey 2 – Discussion.................................................................................206Survey Findings Related to Main Research Questions.................................208

CHAPTER EIGHT – SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS ANDRECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................210

General Curriculum for Teaching Conducting Incorporating Theories ofExpressive Movement and Non-Verbal Communication .............................213

WORKS CITED.............................................................................................220APPENDIX A – SURVEY OF UNIVERSITY LEVEL CONDUCTINGTEACHERS ...................................................................................................234APPENDIX B – SURVEY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVELCONDUCTORS BASED AROUND THE MELBOURNE AREA .................279

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Conducting Textbooks Used by University Conducting Teachers ..... 15

Table 2 Conducting Textbooks Used by Experienced Melbourne SecondarySchool Conductors .................................................................... 16

Table 3 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of

Conducting Expressivity............................................................ 18Table 4 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of

Left Hand Use (Survey of Experienced Secondary SchoolConductors in Melbourne) ......................................................... 18

Table 5 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of

Expressive Gestures (Survey of Experienced Secondary SchoolConductors in Melbourne) ......................................................... 19

Table 6 Skills a Beginner Conductor Should Already Possess........................ 55

Table 7 Skills a Beginner Conductor Should Immediately Seek to Develop... 56Table 8 Impact of Sporting Activities on Conducting Improvement............... 73

Table 9 Impact of Movement Activities on Conducting Improvement ........... 73Table 10 Level of Difficulty Developing Beat Patterns ................................... 77

Table 11 Level of Difficulty Developing Left Hand Use ................................. 77

Table 12 Laban’s Effort Actions (see Miller 1988:35)..................................... 89Table 13 Important Attributes of an Effective Conductor .............................. 137

Table 14 Important Attributes of an Expressive Conductor ........................... 137Table 15 Important Non-Verbal Communication Skills for Conducting Student

Development ........................................................................... 153

Table 16 Methods for Developing Conducting Students’ Non-VerbalVocabulary.............................................................................. 158

Table 17 Prerequisites Required of Potential Conducting Students................ 170

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1 Four Planes of Conducting ...............................................................24

Fig. 2 Baton Use and Grip (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:4)...........................25Fig. 3 Dynamic Cone, Showing Possible Alterations in Size of Beat and

Sagittal Motion (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:55) .........................25

Fig. 4 Diagram of the Left Hand Rest Position ...........................................30Fig. 5 Structure of the Upper Arm, Showing the Alignment of the Radius and

the Ulna (Calais-Germain 1993:144)..........................................32Fig. 6 Altering Size of the Conducting to Teach Dynamics.........................33

Fig. 7 Conductor’s Basic Arm Position.......................................................36

Fig. 8a Rudolf’s Neutral-Legato 4-Beat Patterns (Rudolf 1995:3) ................42Fig. 8b Rudolf’s Expressive-Legato 4-Beat Patterns (Rudolf 1995:22) .........42

Fig. 9 Farberman’s Pitch Registration Levels (Farberman 1997a:81) ..........46

Fig. 10 Farberman’s Pattern Cube (Farberman 1997a:101)...........................47Fig. 11 The Central and Peripheral Nervous System (Kröschlová 2000:8) ....71

Fig. 12 Two Nerve Cells (Kröschlová 2000:10)............................................72Fig. 13 Laban’s Concept of the Dynamosphere – with Effort Actions (see

Newlove and Dalby 2004:141)...................................................90

Fig. 14 Delsarte’s Ninefold Accord (Shawn 1974:30)...................................94Fig. 15 Example of an ‘Including’ Left Hand Pre-Conducting Behaviour .....95

Fig. 16 Dalcroze’s Beat Pattern for 3/4 Time (Jaques-Dalcroze 1920:31) ...105Fig. 17 Dalcroze’s Beat Pattern for 4/4 Time (Jaques-Dalcroze 1920:43) ...105

Fig. 18 Delsarte’s Chart for the Head (see Shawn 1974:37) ........................106

Fig. 19 Low, Purposeful Centred Gesture ...................................................115Fig. 20 Opening bars of Egmont Overture (Beethoven 1985:239)...............115

Fig. 21 Quick Frivolous Gestures ...............................................................116Fig. 22 Opening bars of the third movement of Symphony No.4 (Tchaikovsky

1979:82) ..................................................................................116

Fig. 23 Interpretations of ‘the Ring’ Gesture Throughout Europe (Morris et al.1979:116-117) .........................................................................144

Fig. 24 Non-Verbal Communication Sheet (mouth & eyebrows) ................156Fig. 25 Conductor Non-Verbal Observation Form (Roshong 1978:87) .......161

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ABSTRACTIn this thesis, my main research question is whether bodily-kinaesthetic skills,expressive movement, and non-verbal communication can enhance methodstowards expressive conducting. I investigate the aspects of bodily-kinaestheticlearning that are being used in conducting textbooks, the role of the mind-bodyconnection, motor skill development, and proprioception in the development ofkinaesthetic learning. I also investigate how the movement theories of Laban,Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais, and the use of non-verbalcommunication skills and concepts, can be used to enhance expressiveconducting.

I discuss how conducting textbooks identified in my two surveys teachexpressive gestures and the use of the left hand, which are two areas that havebeen identified by experienced secondary school conductors in Melbourne asongoing weaknesses in their conducting vocabularies, noting how each textbookapproaches conducting instruction from a kinaesthetic standpoint. A priority forthe training of conductors at all levels of entering behaviour is to facilitateinstruction in the bodily-kinaesthetic domain, as too much instruction can oftenoccur in verbal and written form. The significance of proprioception toexpressive conducting is the relationship proprioception stimulates betweenmovement and sensory awareness, including its influence on the development offine motor skills and non-verbal communication.

I explore how the use of the expressive movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze,Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais can enhance expressive conducting at alllevels of entering behaviour, and examine commonalities of these five expressivemovement theories. Firstly, all five are strongly in favour of the integrationbetween body and mind, which is vitally important for conductors, whosegestures must reflect the music and thought processes happening in their brain.Secondly, all five represent an educational process, and as such, are highlyrelevant to the teaching of expressive conducting, particularly in the early stages.Thirdly, all five are learnable by anyone, not just those with high enteringbehaviour. Being learnable, they should be employed in the earliest stages ofconductor training. Finally, the importance of proprioception is acknowledged inall five of the expressive movement theories.

Conductors can enhance expressive conducting through an examination of thecategories of non-verbal communication, such as emblems, illustrators, affectdisplays, regulators, and adaptors, and the coding of non-verbal communication,particularly kinesics. Although corrective mode gestures and universallyunderstood emblems are important for conductors to be taught, as they emphasiseclarity and precision, I believe that more use could be made of illustrators andaffect displays by conducting teachers in order to access the declamatory mode.Furthermore, more use could be made of regulators and affect displays byconducting teachers in order to access the narrative mode.

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ORIGINAL STATEMENT

This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any

other degree or diploma in any university or other institution and affirms that, tothe best of the candidate’s knowledge, the thesis contains no material previously

published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in

the text of the thesis.

______________________________Andrew Mathers

______________________________Date

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As author of this thesis, I would like to acknowledge the excellent support and

assistance provided by the staff of the School of Music – Conservatorium atMonash University throughout the progress of my research. In particular, I would

like to acknowledge the wonderful support and advice provided by my two

supervisors, Margaret Kartomi and Joel Crotty.I would also like to thank the university conducting teachers and secondary

school conductors who participated in my surveys, providing a valuable snapshotinto the work of conducting teachers and music educator/conductors.

I would finally like to thank my wife Jenny, and children Gregory, Stephen, and

Joanna for their love and support, and for allowing me to be absent from familylife for extended periods during the course of this thesis.

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CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION

Expressive conducting is the movements or gestures made by conductors

intended to invoke an ensemble of musicians to respond by reproducing the‘musical message’ of a score (Yontz 2001:10). This form of conducting also

aims to communicate the interpretation of a work to the musicians. Expression

can be communicated via movement of any part of a conductor’s body, facialexpression, and eye contact. For the purposes of this thesis, it is assumed that the

ensemble members have a basic understanding of the notes and rhythms of themusic, and will respond to the conductor’s performance direction. My main

research question is whether bodily-kinaesthetic skills, expressive movement,

and non-verbal communication can enhance methods of expressive conducting.An expressive conductor uses various types of movements of the hands, arms,

face and body as part of the process of conducting, depending on the skill level

of the ensemble, the level of experience the ensemble has of the work at hand,and the requirements of the music. Three gestural modes may be used:

declamatory, corrective, and narrative (Koch 2003:136-140). In the declamatorymode, the conductor’s musical conception is demonstrated as clearly as possible

through symbolic gesture. In corrective mode, the conducting gesture aims to

achieve performance accuracy and precision of tempo, dynamics andarticulation, the main focus being on preventing errors. In narrative mode, the

conductor grants greater autonomy to the ensemble with the expectation that itwill perform with accuracy and sensitivity. A conductor’s role in narrative mode

is to highlight desired features of the interpretation for the ensemble to bring out

in its performance.

The literature to date has not covered the enhancement of expressive conductingat differing levels of entering behaviour. The term ‘entering behaviour’ will be

used throughout this thesis, as defined by John De Cecco to mean: ‘the present

status of the student’s knowledge and skill in reference to a future status theteacher wants him to attain’ (De Cecco 1968:59). High entering behaviour

therefore implies that there is a high degree of initial competency beforeinstruction has been undertaken, while low entering behaviour means there is a

low, or negligible, degree. A learner’s entering behaviour can be influenced by

prior experiences and ability to acquire new knowledge or skills in a certain area.

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In this thesis, discussion of entering behaviour is limited mainly to learners’

starting ability in terms of expressive movement. I will show how expressiveconducting can be enhanced at all levels of entering behaviour by theories of

movement and non-verbal communication.

Expressive movements communicate an idea, thought, or expression to an

individual or group. Movements may be large or small, quick or slow, jagged orflowing, light or heavy. Contrasting movements communicate a variety of non-

verbal information to receivers. Conductors’ level of skill in expressivemovement is a determining factor in their ability to conduct expressively.

By theories of movement are meant sets of beliefs or philosophies intended toexplain a particular position regarding movement. In this thesis, such theories are

limited to those of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais.

Others, including tai chi, yoga and Pilates, will not be examined as part of thisstudy, as there is currently a lack of suitable theoretical literature on them. The

five theories were selected because they are able to support expressivemovements, an important form of non-verbal communication available to

conductors.

Sometimes a sender communicates non-verbally by intention, at other times

unintentionally. Non-verbal communication may occur through one’s posture,gesture, or facial movements and expressions, where posture means the

coordinated positioning of all parts of the body, while gesture means coordinated

movements expressive of thought or feeling, involving only a part, or parts, ofthe body. Five categories of non-verbal communication1 will be discussed in this

thesis, each having a different communicative function in conducting: emblems,meaning non-verbal acts that can be defined in a word or simple phrase (such as

raising a hand to indicate ‘stop’); illustrators, meaning movements that are

directly tied to speech and illustrate what is being said verbally; affect displays,meaning muscle movements, generally facial, associated with a display of

emotion; regulators, meaning acts that maintain and regulate the back-and-forthnature of speaking and listening between two parties; and adaptors, meaning

habitual behaviours often learned in childhood (Ekman and Friesen 1969:63-84). 1 Ekman and Friesen (1969) initially defined these categories of non-verbal communication.

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In addition, I contend that non-verbal communication consists of seven different

codes or transmission media: kinesics, vocalics, proxemics, physical appearance,haptics, chronemics, and artifact use. Kinesics is the study of body motion as

related to the non-verbal aspects of inter-personal communication (Birdwhistell1952:3). While the other six codes have limited applications to expressive

conducting (worthy of consideration in future studies), only kinesics will be

examined as part of this thesis. Kinesics is the coding that is most relevant to theenhancement of expressive conducting, as it relates to posture, gesture, and facial

communication, including eye contact.

I shall also use the term bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, meaning the ability to

use the body in highly differentiated and skilled ways (Gardner 1993b:207). Oneof the most important elements of the kinaesthetic sense for conductors is

proprioception, defined by Sir Charles Sherrington as ‘the stimuli given by the

organism itself to the receptors2’ (Sherrington 2000:130). Proprioception is thesense of the positioning of parts of the body relative to other parts.

Early in my thesis research I conducted two exploratory surveys of university-

level conducting teachers and experienced Melbourne secondary school

conductors, presented in Appendix A and B. The results of these surveys, whichare presented in Chapter Seven, provide data on expressive movement theories

and non-verbal communication and their usage by those surveyed. Althoughconsiderable other data was collected in the surveys, only that which I considered

to be relevant to expressive movement, non-verbal communication, and

expressive conducting is discussed in this thesis.

In this thesis I shall discuss the available literature about the five expressivemovement theories, the factors of non-verbal communication and the bodily-

kinaesthetic domain. In the main textbooks I examined on conducting, I sought

answers to the following questions about aspects of bodily-kinaesthetic learning:What is the role of the mind-body connection, motor skill development, and

proprioception in the development of kinaesthetic learning? How can the

2 Kinaesthetic sensory receptors are located in the skin, muscles, tendons and ligaments. Theydetect changes in the state of the musculo-sceletal system, and transmit this information to thebrain (Kröschlová 2000:8).

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movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais be

used to enhance expressive conducting? How can the use of non-verbalcommunication skills and concepts enhance expressive conducting?

The skills required of a conductor are indeed numerous, acquired through aural

and general music training, including score study, experience in interpretation,

and rehearsal techniques. This thesis will not examine the general music trainingor background required of a conductor, nor the individual disciplines that form

part of a conductor’s training. Many of the skills prized in conducting are thoseof skilled teachers. Conductors require the capacity to diagnose problems, offer

immediate solutions, and instruct musicians as to how chosen works should be

performed. These matters, however, lie outside the scope of this thesis, which isnot intended to serve as a ‘how to’ conducting manual.

Research Methodology

The information contained in this thesis has been gathered from existingpublished material on conducting, expressive movements theories, non-verbal

communication, and bodily-kinaesthetic learning, as well as original material

collected from two surveys that I administered. The first survey, which is shownin full in Appendix A, is of eighty-eight university-level conducting teachers.

The second survey, which is shown in full in Appendix B, is of forty-twosecondary school level conductors based around the Melbourne (Australia) area.

The surveys were needed for this thesis to collect information on the current

level of use of expressive movement activities by the survey respondents, and thetypes and methods of non-verbal communication being taught by university

conducting teachers.

The survey questions were directed to gather information on the numbers of

students, their musical backgrounds, and the teaching priorities of the university-level conducting teachers. Of the secondary school conductors, I asked about

their family musical background, musical experience, sporting participation, andexperiences learning conducting. Due to the broad exploratory nature of some of

these questions, not all may prove relevant to expressive conducting at the end

point of this thesis.

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Responses to the questions on the expressive movement activities, however,convinced me to focus my investigation on five expressive movement theories,

those of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais, these theoriesbeing selected not necessarily for being the most popular, but for providing the

strongest frameworks in terms of movement theories and principles that could be

applied to expressive conducting. The mind-body connection, motor skilldevelopment, proprioception, and bodily kinaesthetic learning were not

originally part of the plan for this thesis, but as I researched the movementtheories and non-verbal communication, I became convinced that this was an

important aspect of expressive conducting and an under-researched one. I also

received indications from the surveys that body presence was important forexpressive conductors to develop, but that conducting teachers were unsure how

to go about teaching it.

With regard to selection of participants within the two surveys, all participants

were invited to respond to internet-based surveys, making completion andcollection of the surveys relatively straightforward, and responses completely

anonymous. As the number of university-level conducting positions in Australia

is relatively low, I contacted each of the departments of Australian universitieswith music programs and invited conducting teachers to participate. A large

number of conducting teachers (over 2,000) were invited via the College BandDirectors National Association (CBDNA) website bulletin board.

Ninety-two secondary school level conductors around the Melbourne area were

invited to participate mainly through the assistance of the Victorian branches ofthe Australian Band and Orchestra Directors Association (ABODA) and the

Australian National Choral Association (ANCA). Of these ninety-two, forty-two(46%) responded to the survey.

On the basis of my initial research, I developed three main questions:1. Are the movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and

Feldenkrais relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting?2. Can the use of non-verbal communication skills and concepts enhance

expressive conducting?

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3. Does the mind-body connection, motor skill development, and

proprioception play a part in the development of bodily-kinaesthetic learning?

Following a review focusing on the literature relating to the five expressivemovement theories and non-verbal communication in the next chapter, Chapter

Three will evaluate the kinaesthetic approach taken by conducting textbooks in

my two surveys. Chapter Four will examine the role of the mind-bodyconnection, motor skill development, and proprioception in the development of

kinaesthetic learning. I aim to show in these chapters that this development isvital for expressive conducting at all levels of entering behaviour. Chapter Five

will present five expressive movement theories, their commonalities, and their

potential use in the enhancement of expressive conducting, while Chapter Sixwill use non-verbal communication skills to enhance expressive conducting,

including the debate between universal and culturally specific emotional

expression in non-verbal communication, and the use of three gestural modes.Chapter Seven will present the results and discussion from my two surveys.

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CHAPTER TWO – REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter reviews the literature on the expressive movement theories of

Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais, and the literature relatingto non-verbal communication. These theories, the commonalities between them,

their potential use in the enhancement of expressive conducting, and the use of

non-verbal communication skills to enhance expressive conducting are central tothis thesis.

I will reserve discussing the literature on the mind-body connection, motor skilldevelopment, and proprioception until Chapter Four.

Review of the Literature on Expressive Movement Theories

Previous conducting studies have not examined and compared the five selected

expressive movement theories. However, theses by Hecht (1971) and Schreiber(1980) have compared the theories of Laban, Dalcroze, and Delsarte. Both

focused on movement training for actors rather than conductors, but theirmethods of comparison and background research made both valuable

comparative studies for mine.

Hodgson (2001), Newlove and Dalby (2004), and Davies (2006) have

contributed useful general books about Laban’s theories. Hodgson provided aninsightful evaluation of Laban’s life and work, Newlove and Dalby provided

practical applications of Laban’s theories in everyday life and Davies discussed

the ongoing legacy of Laban’s principles, giving an overview of the developmentof Laban Movement Analysis.

Laban wrote numerous books in English or German on dance and movement.Most useful to conductors is Laban’s Effort (1974), in which he introduced the

concepts of ‘weight’, ‘space’, ‘time’, and ‘flow’, and ‘effort actions’3. Also

useful is Choreutics (1966), in which Laban introduced his concept of the

kinesphere, by which he meant the area of space available to the body formovement. Both The Mastery of Movement (1980) and Modern Educational

3 These terms will be explained further in Chapter Five.

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Dance (1980) contain valuable concepts of movement for expressive conducting.

However, the former book is directed to actors and the latter to dance educators.Numerous studies have applied Laban principles to conducting, including those

by Bartee (1977), Poch (1982), Miller (1988), Holt (1992) , Benge (1996),Hayslett (1996), Billingham (2001), Yontz (2001), Neidlinger (2003), and

Gambetta (2005). Of these, the most influential for my research was Bartee’s

thesis, which is a seminal work in the development of a theoretical position onconducting on the basis of Laban’s principles. It provided an incentive for others

to make further studies on the application of Laban to conducting. Poch’s paperhighlighted the usefulness of Laban for conducting students who do not possess

an innate flair or a natural inclination for conducting. Miller provided evidence

that the use of Laban’s theories were effective for conductors at all levels ofentering behaviour, Neidlinger advocated Laban’s method for the promotion of

expressiveness in student conductors, Gambetta found that Laban Movement

Analysis provided a more effective alternative to teaching conductors in the earlystages than beat patterns.

Spector (1990) presented a biography of Dalcroze and an evaluation of his work

and influence. Mead (1996) and Farber and Parker (1987) wrote effective articles

that summarised Dalcroze’s training method as well as providing examples of thetypes of activities used in eurhythmics classes. Although not intended

specifically to teach expressive conducting, Schnebly-Black and Moore (1997)provided excellent exercises that can be used by conductors, highlighting the

potential benefits of using Dalcroze as part of conductor training.

Dalcroze’s books Eurhythmics, Art and Education (2003) and Rhythm, Music

and Education (2002) consist of essays on Dalcroze’s pedagogical ideas. Of the

two, Eurhythmics, Art and Education is the more practical guide for conductorsas it contained two chapters that presented exercises that could assist in the

teaching of expressive conducting. Although Rhythm, Music and Education also

contained exercises that could be used by conductors, the main value of this bookwas to show how eurhythmics, solfege, and improvisation, the three elements of

Dalcroze’s theory, could work together to enhance musicianship. Another bookby Dalcroze that contained appropriate eurhythmics exercises, as well as

examples of Dalcroze’s original conducting patterns, is Rhythmic Movement

(1920). The only studies that specifically apply Dalcroze’s theories to conducting

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are those by Pfrimmer (1926), Dickson (1992), and McCoy (1994). Both

Pfrimmer and Dickson advocated the benefits of eurhythmics on thedevelopment of musicianship for conductors, including the enhancement of the

mind-body connection. McCoy provided the clearest and most effectiveexamples of the use of Dalcroze in the training of conductors.

Although Delsarte’s own writing is of interest as a primary source4, it does notrepresent a clear statement of his theories, as they are not sequentially presented

and are obviously not intended for publication (Delsarte never published any ofhis work). The clearest statement is found in Ted Shawn’s book Every Little

Movement (1974), which included Delsarte’s laws and many of his charts, as

well as explanations on how they should be interpreted. Shawn also extensivelyreviewed and evaluated the published literature on Delsarte.

The only study that linked Delsarte’s theories to conducting is by Lyne (1979),

who advocated the use of Delsarte’s charts by conductors, finding thatconductors who observed Delsarte’s laws of expression were the most effective

non-verbal communicators.

Gelb (1994) and Jones (1997) provided the clearest general statements on the

Alexander Technique. Gelb clearly discussed the main Alexander concepts, suchas ‘inhibition’, ‘end-gaining’, and the ‘means-whereby’ principle5, and he

provided an effective bibliography of Alexander materials. The main significanceof Jones’ writing is his discussion of the influence of Alexander on major writers

and thinkers of his time, including John Dewey and Aldous Huxley.

Alexander’s The Use of the Self (2001) is most useful for conductors, as itconcisely introduces his theories, as well as describing the discovery and

application of the ‘Primary Control.’Other studies that have applied the Alexander Technique to music include

Mayers and Babits (1987), De Alcantara (1997), Knaub (1999), and Conable and

Conable (2000). While Mayers and Babits provided a short, general introductionto the Alexander Technique, De Alcantara provided a more detailed and practical

resource for musicians. He gives examples of ways in which the Alexander

4 Delsarte’s theories appear in the book The Delsarte System of Oratory (1893), which contains asection entitled ‘The Literary Remains of François Delsarte.’5 These Alexander concepts will be discussed in Chapter Five.

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Technique could benefit all musicians, although he does not mention expressive

conducting specifically. Conable and Conable, along with Knaub, discussedBody Mapping, which is the name given to a specific application of the

Alexander Technique for musicians. While Conable and Conable’s book containsclear and concise anatomical diagrams, Knaub’s thesis is more detailed in its

examination of Body Mapping as a teaching and diagnostic tool.

Currently, the only publication to apply either the Alexander Technique or BodyMapping to conducting is a videocassette by Jordan and Buchanan (2002), which

shows the use of Body Mapping in a conducting class. The video corrects mis-conceptions about how conductors should use the right hand, thereby alleviating

right hand tension.

To date, there have been no studies applying the Feldenkrais Method to

conducting. Two resources that provide a concise explanation of the Feldenkrais

Method are Frequently asked questions about the method, published by theAustralian Feldenkrais Guild (n.d.), and Awareness Heals by Shafarman (1997).

While the former contained a brief overview of the method, Shafarman provideda more detailed account of Moshe Feldenkrais, as well as examples of six

‘Awareness Through Movement’ lessons that could be used in a conducting

class.Of Feldenkrais’s books, the clearest and most useful for expressive conducting is

Awareness Through Movement (1990) in which Feldenkrais discusses thedevelopment of self-image, an important aspect of Feldenkrais’s concept of

awareness, consisting of four components – movement, sensation, feeling and

thought. The book also contains twelve practical lessons designed to bring aboutchange to an individual’s self-image.

The only article to discuss the application of the Feldenkrais Method to music isone by Weinberger (1999). This article gave examples of students at all levels of

entering behaviour learning movement, reinforcing an important argument of this

thesis.

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Review of the Literature on Non-Verbal Communication

Numerous researchers have linked non-verbal communication to conducting,

including Ostling (1977), Grechesky (1985), Stauch (1986), Julian (1989), Sousa(1989), Durrant (1994), McClung (1996) and (2005), Ford (2001), and Van

Weelden (2002). Of these studies, Durrant, McClung, and Van Weelden are

significant in the importance they place on the role of non-verbal communicationin the training of conductors, while Grechesky found that conductors who

sharpen their non-verbal communication skills can have a very positive effect ontheir groups’ musical performance.

Ekman and Friesen (1969) provided a major contribution to the understanding ofthe categories of non-verbal behaviour, emblems, illustrators, affect displays,

regulators, and adaptors. Conductors can enhance expressive conducting through

an examination of these categories, as well as the coding, particularly kinesics.Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall (1996), although covering the broadest range of

non-verbal communication, provided the clearest and most concise of thesurveyed books on coding.

The use of facial expression and eye contact is a particularly important aspect ofnon-verbal communication of relevance to expressive conducting. Ekman and

Friesen (2003) and Beebe (1974) provided valuable studies on the use of thefacial channel and eye contact. Beebe linked the level of eye contact with

presenter credibility, while Ekman and Friesen described in detail and showed

the facial characteristics of the primary emotions: surprise, fear, disgust, anger,happiness, and sadness, including various blends of the primary emotions.

As university conducting teachers in my survey acknowledged self observation

and observation of other conductors as important methods for developing non-

verbal communication techniques in student conductors, an effective means ofobserving and analysing conductors is needed. However, an ongoing problem has

been to find an effective way to observe and record expressive non-verbalcommunication behaviours. Researchers who have attempted to do this have

included Leyden (1968), Roshong (1978), Berz (1983), Silkebakken (1988),

Marrin (1996), Marrin Nakra (2000), Bräm and Braem (2001), and Kun (2004).

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Bräm and Braem’s paper is one of the few studies to analyse conductors’ use of

the left hand. Kun’s thesis was the first study to employ motion capturetechnology to record conducting movements, although facial gestures were not

measured as part of this study, removing the ability to analyse this area.

Highlighted by the difficulties with observing and recording the expression of

emotions by conductors, learning conducting via the bodily-kinaesthetic domainis particularly effective for conductors at all levels of entering behaviour due to

the physical and mental connections that conductors can make while developingtheir gestural communication technique. In the following chapter, I will discuss

the kinaesthetic approach taken in conducting textbooks used by the university

conducting teachers and practising conductors who responded to my twosurveys.

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CHAPTER THREE – AN EVALUATION OF THE KINAESTHETICAPPROACH TAKEN BY CONDUCTING TEXTBOOKS IDENTIFIED IN

TWO SURVEYS

Over the past fifty years, textbooks on conducting have provided musicians and

intending conductors with the most accessible information on learning to

conduct. Even in current situations where beginning conductors have access to aconducting class or a private conducting tutor, the class or individual instructor

will often use one or more conducting textbooks, as shown by my survey ofeighty-eight university conducting teachers across five countries6, where 81%

used conducting textbooks.

The primary aim of this chapter is to evaluate the kinaesthetic approach used byconducting textbooks identified in the university conducting teacher survey, as

well as in my survey of forty-two experienced secondary school conductors in

Melbourne7, in order to determine which conducting textbooks most effectivelyconveyed elements of expressive conducting through the bodily-kinaesthetic

domain, including the use of the left hand, expressive body movement, bodyattitude, facial expression and eye contact. I will examine the way each textbook

discusses conducting gestures, the order of concepts covered, and when and how

the use of the left hand is introduced. My review of conducting textbooks isunique in that it evaluates the kinaesthetic approach taken in the identified

conducting textbooks, therefore accounting for the descriptive content within thischapter.

The number of available conducting textbooks has grown significantly over the

last fifty years8 as conductors Hermann Scherchen and Max Rudolf discovered

that conducting was both learnable and teachable. Textbooks by Donald

Hunsberger and Roy Ernst (1992), and Robert Demaree and Don Moses (1995),are aimed at beginner conductors or conductor/educators, particularly those in

university conducting programs, in which case the textbook often serves as a

6 The full survey can be found in Appendix A.7 The full survey can be found in Appendix B.8 There are currently over fifty different conducting textbooks available in Victorian libraries,according to the National Library of Australia database, located athttp://www.nla.gov.au/librariesaustralia.

14

complete unit of study. Other textbooks by Rudolf (1995) and Elizabeth Green

(Green and Gibson 2004) are intended as all-encompassing conducting manuals,often written by professional conductors passing on their particular ‘method.’ A

third category of textbook by Frederik Prausnitz (1983) is intended for theexperienced conductor endeavouring to take their conducting skills to the next

level.

Although different textbooks have different emphases, conducting instruction in

most textbooks can be divided into five main areas; beat patterns, left hand use9,

rehearsal techniques, score study, and expressive gestures10. The textbooks from

the surveys by James Jordan (1996), and Robert Garofalo and Frank Battisti(2005) I found to be successful in covering left hand use and expressive gestures,

as these books made more effective use of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain

through the effective use of breathing, movement awareness, and imagery thanmonographs that attempted only linguistic explanations. By the employment of

movement awareness, these textbooks aim to increase the reader’s comfort withbody positioning and movement as a first step, before introducing the conducting

gestures.

In examining the textbooks themselves, those that focus primarily on thebeginning aspects of conducting are considered first, followed by the manual-

type books, aimed at all levels of conductors. In each of these categories, thetextbooks are examined in order, starting with what I have determined to be the

most successful in terms of kinaesthetic instruction, finishing with the least

successful.

9 Although the use of the left hand is ultimately an expressive gesture, it is separated in this thesisinto its own category given its ‘stand-alone’ treatment in most conducting textbooks.10 This is a very broad area, encompassing all aspects of non-verbal communication includingexpressive body movement, body attitude, facial expression and eye contact.

15

Conducting Textbooks Selected for Examination

In my survey of eighty-eight university conducting teachers across five countries,the teachers were asked about the background of their students, and their

teaching methodologies and priorities. They were also asked to list theconducting textbooks that they use (Table 1):Author Title Date Edition Number PercentageBattisti/Garofalo Guide to Score Study 1990 1st 7 8%Curtis/Kuehn Guide to Successful Instrumental

Conducting1992 1st 1 1%

Demaree/Moses The Complete Conductor 1995 1st 2 2%Garofalo/Battisti Lead and Inspire 2005 1st 1 1%Green/Gibson The Modern Conductor 2004 7th 37 42%Hunsberger/Ernst The Art of Conducting 1992 2nd 21 24%Jordan Evoking Sound 1996 1st 2 2%Kohut/Grant Learning to Conduct and

Rehearse1990 1st 1 1%

Kuijpers The Art of Conducting - - 1 1%Labuta Basic Conducting Techniques 2004 5th 13 15%Leinsdorf The Composer’s Advocate 1981 1st 1 1%Long The Conductor’s Workshop 1977 2nd 1 1%Maiello Conducting, A Hands-On

Approach1996 1st 7 8%

McBeth Effective Performance of BandMusic

1972 1st 1 1%

McElheran Conducting Technique 1989 2nd 2 2%McMurray Conducting from the Inside Out

(DVD)2003 1st 1 1%

Nowak/Nowak Conducting the Music, Not theMusicians

2002 1st 5 6%

Phillips Basic Techniques of Conducting 1997 1st 3 3%Prausnitz Score and Podium 1983 1st 3 3%Rudolf The Grammar of Conducting 1995 3rd 4 5%Saito The Saito Conducting Method 1988 1st 1 1%Scherchen Handbook of Conducting 1933 1st 1 1%Schuller The Compleat Conductor 1997 1st 4 5%

Instrumentalist – ConductorsAnthology

1993 2nd 1 1%

Own Textbooks 2 2%Own Exercises 8 9%Various 2 2%None Indicated 17 19%

Table 1 Conducting Textbooks Used by University Conducting Teachers

Seventeen respondents (19%) indicated that they used no conducting textbooks.

Of those remaining, thirty-seven used one book only (52%), nineteen used twobooks (27%), and fifteen (21%) used three or more books (one respondent used

seven conducting textbooks). The most popular conducting textbook used was

The Modern Conductor by Elizabeth Green, used by thirty-seven respondents(42%). The second most popular textbook mentioned was The Art of Conducting

by Donald Hunsberger and Roy Ernst (24%). None of the respondents who used

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their own textbooks used other textbooks, while 75% of respondents who used

their own exercises used other textbooks.

In my survey of forty-two experienced secondary school conductors inMelbourne, the conductors were asked to comment on their own backgrounds

and experiences, and any difficulties they had with learning to conduct. They

were also asked to list the conducting textbooks that they had used (Table 2):Author Title Date Edition Number PercentageBattisti/Garofalo Guide to Score Study 1990 1st 2 5%Berlioz The Art of the Conductor - - 1 2%Curtis/Kuehn Guide to Successful Instrumental

Conducting1992 1st 1 2%

Green The Conductor’s Score 1985 2nd 1 2%Green/Gibson The Modern Conductor 2004 7th 10 24%Hunsberger/Ernst The Art of Conducting 1992 2nd 1 2%Jordan Evoking Sound 1996 1st 1 2%Labuta Basic Conducting Techniques 2004 5th 1 2%Lisk Alternative Rehearsal Techniques 1987 1st 4 10%Maiello Conducting, A Hands-On

Approach1996 1st 2 5%

McBeth Effective Performance of BandMusic

1972 1st 1 2%

Miles (ed.) Teaching Music ThroughPerformance Series

Var. 1st 1 2%

Nowak/Nowak Conducting the Music, Not theMusicians

2002 1st 2 5%

Rudolf The Grammar of Conducting 1995 3rd 1 2%Saito The Saito Conducting Method 1988 1st 1 2%

ABODA Conducting CourseNotes

2 5%

None Indicated 22 52%Table 2 Conducting Textbooks Used by Experienced Melbourne

Secondary School Conductors

Twenty-two respondents indicated that they used no conducting textbooks. Of

those remaining, fifteen used one book only (36%), three used two books (7%),and two (5%) used four or more books (one respondent used six conducting

textbooks). The most common conducting textbook used was The Modern

Conductor by Elizabeth Green, used by ten respondents (24%). No othertextbooks came close to this result. The second most popular textbook mentioned

(Alternative Rehearsal Techniques by Ed Lisk, used by 10% of respondents) isnot a true conducting textbook, as it only covers rehearsal techniques.

In selecting the conducting textbooks for this review, I used the published

textbooks identified in the two surveys as my guide as to what people wereusing. Out of these textbooks, I only focused on those that contained a substantial

section on conducting gestures, rejecting identified textbooks that focused solely

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on repertoire (Teaching Music Through Performance series), rehearsal

techniques (Alternative Rehearsal Techniques and Effective Performance of

Band Music), score study (The Conductor’s Score and Guide to Score Study),

and personal theories on the art of conducting (Berlioz’ The Art of the

Conductor, Leinsdorf’s The Composer’s Advocate and Schuller’s The Compleat

Conductor). This left eighteen textbooks and one DVD from the surveys, with

twelve textbooks aimed at beginner conductors or conductor/educators, fivecomplete conducting manuals, one DVD, and one textbook aimed at advanced

conductors11. Following my examination of the kinaesthetic approach taken by

these materials, I further rejected three textbooks aimed at beginner conductors

or conductor/educators by Phillips (1997), Labuta (2004), and Long (1977); threecomplete conducting manuals by Saito (1988), Scherchen (1933), and McElheran

(1989); and the textbook aimed at advanced conductors by Prausnitz, as all being

kinaesthetically ineffective, due to the lack of kinaesthetic imagery employed,and the over reliance on written instructions.

I took the liberty of adding two other textbooks that were not identified in thesurveys; The Art of Conducting Technique by Harold Farberman (1997), and

Choral Conducting: Philosophy and Practice by Colin Durrant (2003), as I

believe that these textbooks contribute a kinaesthetic approach to the teaching ofconducting gesture, and deserve to be more widely known.

As part of my survey of university conducting teachers, I asked them to rank in

order of importance eight methods that may be used by their students to develop

conducting expressivity (Table 3):

11 I was subsequently forced to reject the elusive textbook The Art of Conducting by PierreKuijpers, as I was unable to locate a copy. As only one person out of both surveys identified thistextbook, I saw the overall effects of its omission as minimal.

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Rank Order Number of 1st Pref PercentagePractice away from Ensemble 3 11 13%Observation of Other Conductors 2 13 15%Self Observation (Mirror, Video) 1 28 32%Discussion with Teachers/Other Students 5 4 5%Conducting Class/Course/Workshop 4 23 26%Conducting Textbook 7 2 2%Expressive Movement Activity 6 7 8%Just Improved Over Time 8 1 1%None of These 9 0Table 3 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development

of Conducting Expressivity

As can be seen from this table, only 2% of conducting teachers rated textbooksas the main method for assisting the development of conducting expressivity. As

conducting teachers did not rate conducting textbooks highly as a method for

developing conducting expressivity, I asked experienced Melbourne secondaryschool conductors in another survey to rank the methods that had assisted them

in the development of left hand use (Table 4) and expressive gestures (Table 5)to find out whether the secondary school conductors had found conducting

textbooks any more helpful. These questions were not asked of the university

conducting teachers, as in their survey, I was primarily focssed on their teachingmethodology and student background.

Rank Order Number of 1st Pref. PercentagePractice away from Ensemble 4 8 19%Observation of Other Conductors 1 10 24%Self Observation (Mirror, Video) 3 6 14%Discussion with Mentor/Teacher 5 2 5%Conducting Class/Course/Workshop 2 13 31%Conducting Textbook 7 0Just Improved Over Time 6 1 2%None of These 8 1 2%Table 4 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development

of Left Hand Use (Survey of Experienced Secondary SchoolConductors in Melbourne)

The overall rank order to assist the development of the left hand differed from

the number of first preferences among respondents, as some methods rankedhigher on second and third preferences than others. Although observation of

other conductors received a higher rank order than conducting classes, courses orworkshops, more respondents gave conducting classes, courses and workshops

their first preference (thirteen compared to ten for observation of other

conductors). Other discrepancies between the overall rank order and the number

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of first preferences occurred in self-observation (ranked third, but six first

preferences) and practice away from the ensemble (ranked fourth, but eight firstpreferences). Conducting textbooks were down in the list of assistants important

to the development of the left hand (ranked seventh, only one first preference).Rank Order Number of 1st Pref. Percentage

Practise away from Ensemble 5 3 7%Observation of Other Conductors 1 17 40%Self Observation (Mirror, Video) 2 9 21%Discussion with Mentor/Teacher 3 3 7%Conducting Class/Course/Workshop 4 6 14%Conducting Textbook 7 0Just Improved Over Time 6 2 5%None of These 8 2 5%Table 5 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development

of Expressive Gestures (Survey of Experienced Secondary SchoolConductors in Melbourne)

The observation of other conductors was clearly the most popular method fordeveloping expressive gestures among the respondents, both in terms of overall

rank order and number of first preferences (40%). Self-observation was a clearsecond choice, receiving its highest ranking as a method for expressive gestures.

Nine respondents (21%) chose self-observation via a mirror or video as their first

preference. Discussion with a mentor or teacher was ranked marginally higher(third) than conducting classes, courses or workshops (fourth), although classes

received twice as many first preferences (six – 14%) as discussion (three – 7%).Few respondents believed that expressive gestures would just improve over time.

This method was ranked sixth, with only two respondents (5%) allocating it a

first preference. Conducting textbooks received even less support, rankingseventh in order, and receiving no first preferences from respondents. The

highest preference conducting textbooks received for expressive gestures wasthird preference from two respondents.

The implications from the survey of experienced Melbourne secondary school

conductors are that either they did not find conducting textbooks of much value,with less than 50% admitting to using them, or they were ignorant of the

conducting textbooks available. The survey also indicated that experienced

Melbourne secondary school conductors preferred practical forms of training,including specific conducting courses (55% of respondents had attended them),

or learning through observation of a colleague or mentor (64% or respondents).

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Nevertheless, 81% of university conducting teachers continue to use conducting

textbooks, indicating that university conducting teachers continue to valueconducting textbooks, if not for the development of conducting expressivity, then

possibly for the way the textbooks model a complete method of conductinginstruction than can easily be implemented by university conducting teachers, as

in textbooks by Labuta (2004), Hunsberger and Ernst (1992), and Phillips (1997),

which all begin with beat pattern instruction. As over half the textbooks areintended for use with beginner conductors or conductor/educators, often in

classes taken by these university conducting teachers, this is the area firstexamined.

An Evaluation of the Kinaesthetic Approach taken by Conducting TextbooksAimed at Beginner Conductors or Conductor/Educators

In this section, I will examine the way each textbook discusses conducting

gestures, the order of concepts covered, and when and how the use of the lefthand is introduced.

Two university conducting teachers and one experienced Melbourne secondaryschool conductor identified James Jordan’s Evoking Sound (1996)(1st edition) in

the surveys. Intended specifically for the choral conductor, Jordan articulates his

approach to the teaching of conducting early in the book, emphasising theimportant relationship between gesture and sound, feeling that this area has been

ignored by mainstream conducting pedagogy. In Jordan’s opinion, it is easierinstead to write about standard conducting technique, so this is what the majority

of books on conducting do. He suggests that readers refer to other books for

more technical information on conducting, while acknowledging the importanceof technique (Jordan 1996:xiii). Jordan is a strong advocate for conducting

students seeking an understanding of the body and movement, his book being theonly one to refer to both Laban12 and Alexander13.

12 The work of the Hungarian-born movement theorist Rudolf Laban will be addressed in ChapterFive.13 The work of F.M. Alexander, who pioneered theories of efficient body use, is discussed inChapter Five.

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This is the most kinaesthetically-focused textbook available. The first part,

entitled ‘Building a Relationship of Gesture to Sound,’ begins with the conceptof alignment, introducing the Alexander Technique as a method of creating inner

space within the body for the breath. Jordan justifies his use of the AlexanderTechnique in the teaching of conducting:

Much of what we do as conductors is highly influenced by our body attitude. Asconductors, our bodies must reflect what is necessary to produce a healthy, open, andfree vocal sound, regardless of the level of the singers with which we work. Many newand experienced conductors underestimate the impact that correct alignment can haveupon the ensemble that they conduct and the effects that poor and misalignment haveupon their own performance as conductors (Jordan 1996:12).

Jordan therefore uses the Alexander Technique as a way to increase body

awareness in conducting, through having student conductors monitor their body

alignment as an influencing factor in both their own and their ensemble’sperformance.

From here, Jordan examines the movement potential of conductors via the workof Laban, including an introduction to the effort actions14 and exploratory

exercises using efforts in combination15, including practical examples of the

effort actions for conductors to practise, such as tracing a picture with a pencilfor a floating gesture, and reaching to shake hands for a gliding gesture (Jordan

1996:33-41). In his thesis on using the principle of Laban Movement Analysis tocreate a fresh approach to conducting gesture, Charles Gambetta describes

Jordan’s book as: ‘An important addition to conducting literature because of his

decision to include Laban’s effort descriptions as part of his recommendedmethodology’ (Gambetta 2005:15).

The author consistently emphasises the importance of the breath in the art ofconducting in the early stages of the book:

Breath is the core of all conducting gesture, all music making. The breath of theconductor and the breathing of the choir establishes the most important ingredient forspontaneous music making. The breath of the conductor establishes tempo, colour, andaffect of the piece. Remarkably, breath also allows the conductor to hear all of theelements of the score! There is a direct relationship between the ability to breathe andthe ability to hear (Jordan 1996:69).

Jordan’s correct insistence on the importance of breathing for conductors is

highly significant, as I have found through my experience of teaching conducting

14 Laban’s eight effort actions, punch, slash, press, wring, float, glide, dab, and flick, arecombinations of weight, space, and time. The effort actions are examined in Chapter Five.15 The efforts in combination are elements of weight, space, time, and flow.

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that breathing is the most kinaesthetically important aspect of conducting

gesture.Jordan teaches the use of both arms in conducting from the very beginning,

advising mirroring the right and left arm movements. He explains that this isdone ‘so that conducting students, from the beginning of their study, become

accustomed to breathing with and for the choir with a balanced gesture that will,

in turn, encourage a deep-seated breath from the choir’ (Jordan 1996:80). Thelinking of breathing to gesture, which Jordan employs throughout the book, is in

my opinion, also a particularly effective way to teach beginner conductors tobecome more comfortable with their conducting gestures.

Beat patterns are not discussed until midway through Chapter Eight, as in

Jordan’s opinion, correct I believe, the study of conducting has become toopattern focused:

With the advent of texts on conducting, it seemed helpful to diagram not only beatlocations, but to draw the path of the hand between those beat locations. While thisseems like a helpful idea, the advent of such pattern ‘maps’ made conductorsinadvertently rely on rigid patterns that were not able to spontaneously reflect therealities of music. More serious, however, conducting pedagogy and the learning ofconducting became a visual, rather than an aural, art. Conducting study became morepreoccupied with the correct pattern, rather than teaching students to listen and respondto their instincts (Jordan 1996:86).

Jordan’s comments indicate that in his opinion, conducting has become more

mechanical than kinaesthetic.

Instead of using the terms ‘preparation’ or ‘preparatory beat,’ Jordan calls thisgesture the ‘breath impulse’ (Jordan 1996:93). A departure from other books is

that Jordan appears to ask for a double gesture as a breath impulse prior to therelease of sound, which could be confusing for ensembles not trained to

recognise this.

In teaching dynamics, he effectively links the gesture with the breath, stating: ‘Itis the intensity of the breath and its corresponding gesture that imparts the

character of the dynamic to the singer. Dynamics are not merely a question of

volume; they are changes of intensity borne out of the breath’ (Jordan 1996:103).The lack of discussion on baton technique is understandable in a choral

conducting book as many choral conductors choose not to conduct with a baton,

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believing that the shape of the conducting hand affects the sound produced by the

choir16.Jordan’s textbook is a must for choral conductors, but should be considered by

all conductors, due to its kinaesthetic approach throughout.

The instrumental conducting textbook that comes closest to Jordan’s in its

kinaesthetic approach is Lead and Inspire (2005)(1st edition) by Robert Garofaloand Frank Battisti, used in the surveys by one university conducting teacher.

This book is one of the most recently written conducting textbooks, and it isdesigned to teach conductors the knowledge and skills needed to inspire

expressive musical performances. Garofalo and Battisti correctly claim that: ‘no

other conducting book provides as comprehensive a taxonomy of conductingskills and gestures’ (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:v). It is a companion book to the

earlier written Guide to Score Study for the Wind Band Conductor (Battisti and

Garofalo 1990), which was used by seven university conducting teachers and twoexperienced Melbourne secondary school conductors in the surveys.

The book is divided in three main parts, part 1 covering ‘The Craft of PodiumConducting,’ including parameters of body and space, characteristics of

conducting motion, body language, and facial expressions. The authors suggest

that this section could be used as a conducting class textbook, stressing that thechapters need not be introduced sequentially, but as determined by the individual

instructor. Part 2 contains music for class conducting and performance, and ismade up of flexibly orchestrated full scores. Instrumental parts can be obtained

from the publisher via their website (www.whirlwind-music.com). Part 3

provides students with opportunities to deal with numerous conductingchallenges using examples from the wind band and orchestra repertoire.

This textbook employs more kinaesthetic learning strategies than any otherinstrumental conducting method, such as excellent movement and spatial

exercises, including warm-up stretching and joint sensitivity exercises, which

relate to the size of conducting gestures using conducting frames17. These

16 An example of this occurs in Colin Durrant’s book Choral Conducting: Philosophy andPractice in which Durrant describes a gesture in which the palm is lifted as if gently pulling apuppet string: ‘The importance of this particular gesture is that the raising of the inside of thepalm reflects the raising of the soft palate, which is situated inside the mouth at the rear, which inturn will assist with tuning certain musical phrases or notes’ (Durrant 2003:147).17 Conducting frames are rectangular spaces into which conducting gestures fit, the size of whichare determined by dynamics; the louder the dynamic, the larger the frame.

24

exercises are ideal preparation for correctly employing the shoulder, elbow, wrist

and finger joints in the effective communication of dynamics, as the smallerjoints encourage smaller movements, leading to softer dynamics. The authors

teach four ‘planes’ of conducting height, the head, shoulders, chest, and waist,which are used to indicate expressive volume, to communicate with players

according to where they sit, and show the tessitura or contours of the music (Fig.

1)18. Garofalo and Battisti refer to the chest as the ‘power centre of conducting,’the location allowing the conductor’s gestures to be visible to musicians, but also

allowing the conductor’s face and eyes to be seen clearly, which the authorsemphasise are enormously important in conveying musical information19.

Fig. 1 Four Planes of Conducting(Garofalo and Battisti 2005:11)

They devote the entire third chapter to additional movement exercises linking

movement and musical expression, stating that: ‘Conducting motion and musical

expression are inextricably entwined. … There is a symbiotic relationshipbetween a conductor’s movements and the sounds he or she hopes to evoke from

the ensemble’ (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:16). Garofalo and Battisti identify four

characteristics of conducting motion: direction, design, velocity, and weight.They refer to Laban’s different terminology (weight, space, time, flow) for the

same characteristics, and introduce some effective exercises to allow conductorsto kinaesthetically experience these qualities of conducting motion.

The left hand is included in these early conducting exercises, allowing student

conductors to learn balanced, focused gestures. The authors also present acomprehensive chapter on left hand gestures, including a description and

evaluation of twenty different left hand signals and their potential usage inconducting (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:61-64), including diagrams and

photographs. No other conducting textbook presents as thorough an analysis of

18 The term ‘plateau’ is probably more accurate to describe these four conducting heights, so asnot to confuse students with the three planes of movement, vertical, horizontal, and sagittal(forward and back), advocated by Laban, and described in more detail in Chapter Five.19 The concept of the ‘power centre’ tends to be used more in choral conducting than ininstrumental conducting, although I would argue that the chest is too high for the power centre inchoral conducting, as the waist area would promote better breath support.

25

left hand gestures, enabling the left hand to be portrayed as a learnable element

of conducting.Baton use and grip is early and in a straightforward manner, with the following

clear instruction: ‘Place the base of the baton handle (the point near the shaft)between the thumb and first joint of the index finger then gently wrap the other

three fingers around the handle in a natural and comfortable way’ (Garofalo and

Battisti 2005:4). A clear diagram also supports these instructions (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Baton Use and Grip (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:4)

Dynamic expression, which was initially introduced in the opening exercises, is

re-visited in Chapter Seven, where the authors teach four clear ways to control

dynamics, often in combination: altering the size of the conducting frame, usingsagittal20 motion on the podium (forward is louder, backward is softer), using the

left hand, and employing facial expressions and body language (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Dynamic Cone, Showing Possible Alterations in Size of Beat and SagittalMotion (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:55)

Preparatory and release gestures are taught in Chapter Six, the authors clearly

outlining the necessary elements that an effective preparatory gesture must

20 Forward and backward

26

convey (tempo, dynamics and character) (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:50).

Although diagrams are provided for release gestures, a diagram would have beenhelpful and appropriate for the introduction of preparatory gestures as well.

This textbook offers excellent kinaesthetic instruction for conductors at all levels,but is particularly non-threatening for beginner conductors. Moreover, there is a

chapter on the non-verbal elements of conducting, which is an area that most

books avoid, seemingly unable to put this area into words, but is a mostimportant aspect of expressive conducting that I will develop further in Chapter

Six.

Although published nine years earlier than the Garofalo and Battisti textbook,

another instrumental conducting textbook with an excellent kinaestheticapproach is Anthony Maiello’s Conducting – A Hands-On Approach (1996)(1st

edition), used by seven university conducting teachers and two experienced

Melbourne secondary school conductors from the surveys.Maiello’s textbook has a great deal to offer from a kinaesthetic standpoint,

certainly in the early stages of the book, effectively linking movement toconducting communication in the introduction:

The study of acting, dance and mime will broaden the horizons of sensitivity in anyhuman being as they are all linked together in communicating a message. These three artforms should be considered essential for any conductor wishing to develop and improvetechnique. Conducting technique requires graceful movements of the body as used indance, combined facial and physical gestures as used in acting, and physicalpresentations ‘without speaking’ as used in mime (Maiello 1996a:7).

Unlike books on conducting by Hunsberger and Ernst, Phillips, and Labuta,

Maiello does not begin with teaching the beat patterns, emphasising instead theability to communicate in silence through gesture. Maiello places great

importance on the vertical and horizontal planes, and discusses an

extended/forward intensity plane, much along the lines of Laban21. AlthoughMaiello uses concepts similar to Laban, there is no indication that Laban was an

inspiration, unlike the textbooks by Jordan and Garofalo and Battisti, which

specifically refer to Laban. Instead it appears that Maiello’s exercises wereindependently developed, examples of which are Maiello’s opening spatially

oriented exercises, designed to create an awareness of space, time and flow(again, Laban concepts), although Maiello emphasises the importance of ‘travel,’

21 As already stated, Laban refers to the extended/forward intensity plane as the sagittal plane.

27

which he defines as ‘the movement of the baton/hands between beats’ (Maiello

1996a:12). Here Maiello’s is one of the only textbooks to teach the importance ofthe space between the beats at an early stage of conducting instruction. This is

significant because, as will be discussed in Chapter Six, the space between thebeats is one of the important characteristics of expressive conducting.

Maiello also rightly introduces the left hand at a much earlier stage than most

other textbooks, and has the left hand participate in the special exercises. Hisapproach is an excellent way to teach sensitivity and independence in the left

hand from the earliest stage, rather than tackling this later on.Maiello also teaches preparatory and release gestures prior to the introduction of

beat patterns. He emphasises the importance of breathing as a simultaneous part

of the process of delivery of the preparatory gesture, as does Jordan. WhenMaiello does introduce the patterns, he takes the approach of introducing each

beat at a time. He begins with a ‘1’ pattern in order to get conductors to simply

feel the delivery of a consistent, steady pulse, complete with practice exercises.Apart from providing a printed score that is flexible enough to be performed by

any combination of instruments, Maiello’s book comes complete with a CDcontaining recordings of every example in the book, plus an optional extra video.

Subsequent patterns of ‘2’, ‘3’, and ‘4’ are gradually introduced. He identifies a

problem that many conductors have with the ‘4’ pattern, when the second beattravels too close to the body, introducing a spatial exercise in front of a wall

maintaining the baton tip one inch from the wall through the whole pattern as aneffective solution to this problem. He teaches dynamics with clear and effective

imagery, relating the dynamic level to the size of the gestures.

Not all of the text is as clear and easy-to-use as the opening, as his chapter on‘The Anacrusis and Fractional Pick-ups’ is presented in a confusing manner, with

too many options given to deliver effective preparatory beats, rather thanallowing readers to achieve comfort with developing skills one at a time, and his

chapter on subdivision appears to be a bit rushed (although this becomes a little

clearer when observed on the companion video, which needs to be purchasedseparately! (Maiello 1996b)) Nevertheless, the early stages of the book live up to

the ‘hands-on’ billing of the title, making this textbook an effective resource.

Like Maiello, the early chapters of Daniel Kohut and Joe Grant’s Learning to

Conduct and Rehearse (1990)(1st edition) are kinaesthetically effective, due to

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effective range of motion exercises. One university conducting teacher in the

survey used this textbook. Kohut and Grant are respectively a successfuluniversity instrumental music educator and a successful university choral music

educator. This book was found to be highly usable for beginner conductors byJohn Hylton of the University of Missouri, who recommended it as ‘clearly

written and informative’ (Hylton 1991:90).

Both Kohut and Grant emphasise at the very outset a slow, patient process ofteaching skills one at a time, such as range of motion, ready position, preparatory

gestures, downbeats, and releasing gestures, and not proceeding until each skill islearned thoroughly, based on repetition.

Following an introduction to the role and function of the conductor, the authors

begin with an excellent series of exercises, exploring range of motion and planesof motion at conducting pivot points, which are the natural pivot points of the

shoulder, elbow, wrist, hand, and fingers. Kohut and Grant suggest performing

the exercises with eyes closed to heighten the kinaesthetic sense, stating:In the same way an actor or a mime explores the use of facial expressions, body posture,and gesture, conductors should investigate the range of motions possible at each pivotpoint. Isolate your sense of feeling and kinaesthetic awareness and focus on each of thepivot points, one at a time (Kohut and Grant 1990:3-4).

These ‘range of motion’ exercises are extremely worthwhile for conductors to

explore their own body use and increase kinaesthetic sensitivity.In teaching the preparatory and downbeat motions, they make it clear that the

textbook is designed for use in conjunction with a conducting instructor, creating

opportunities for observation and imitation. Imagery is regularly used as a meansof creating effective kinaesthetic connections, the authors suggesting moving

hands away from a warm stove to encourage the correct upward arm movementfor the preparatory motion, for example. They also suggest that conductors think

of throwing a ball toward the floor for the downbeat (Kohut and Grant 1990:9).

This use of imagery is applauded by conducting teacher Dale Lonis who states:‘The authors realise the difficulty of presenting skills through verbal language

and therefore attempt to avoid using step-by-step procedural language as much as

possible’ (Lonis 1993:39).All gestures learned in the first chapter involve both the left and right hands.

Most of the standard conducting gestures introduced in Chapter Two are for theright hand only, the left hand being further discussed at the end of the chapter.

All beat patterns are introduced at this point, initially without the use of a baton.

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A number of alternative patterns are presented, with the authors discussing the

strengths and weaknesses of each.According to the authors, there is no simple solution to the challenge of

coordinating right and left hands (Kohut and Grant 1990:39) except throughslow, repetitive practice, which is in contrast with the early focus on kinaesthetic

learning. A poor example is given when they introduce cueing, where they state:

‘In executing the preparatory gesture and downbeat for the left hand cue, think ofpointing and shooting a pistol’ (Kohut and Grant 1990:40-41). This particular

example lacks sensitivity to the different styles of cueing available to theconductor. The authors attempt to clarify their explanation in the following

chapter, in which they write: ‘this is appropriate mainly for marcato style music

performed at a soft dynamic’ (Kohut and Grant 1990:44), but it is to bewondered why they didn’t provide this clarification in the first place. Lonis also

criticises the textbook for lacking flow within sections, suggesting that some re-

organisation would strengthen its effectiveness (Lonis 1993:40).The book is not very well presented, with small print and very poor quality

photographs affecting the clarity of the examples of holding the baton.Nevertheless, this is a good starting textbook for teaching beginner conductors,

due to the kinaesthetic approach initially taken.

In contrast to previously discussed textbooks, Jerry and Henry Nowak’s

Conducting the Music, Not the Musicians (2002)(1st edition) focuses on teachingthe expressive aspects of performing, which the Nowak brothers claim ‘has long

been largely ignored in most conducting, instrumental and vocal pedagogical

texts’ (Nowak and Nowak 2002:xiii). The primary philosophy of the Nowakbrothers with regard to conducting teaching is that the gestures used are an

expression of the conductor’s internal imagery of the music, which stimulatesbody movements. Paraphrasing the authors, if this internal imagery is allowed to

dominate physical gestures, then understanding of the music will be expressed in

the conductor’s movements (Nowak and Nowak 2002:1). Intended for use bothby conducting classes, and by individuals interested in the study of conducting,

this textbook was used by five university conducting teachers and twoexperienced Melbourne secondary school conductors from the surveys.

Nowak and Nowak prefer to teach new concepts along with the supplied musical

examples, giving plenty of opportunities to apply the new concepts, although the

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shortage of pictures and reliance on descriptive language (save for a few

diagrams in the early pages of the book) means that student conductors lack aphysical model of how the skill should look, reducing kinaesthetic effectiveness,

unlike the numerous diagrams and photographs used by Garofalo and Battisti inLead and Inspire. Release gestures and dynamics, while adequately explained,

would benefit from clarifying early diagrams. The use of the baton is introduced

early and effectively and does include a diagram. Another excellent feature is anearly diagram and description of the left hand rest position, frequently neglected

in textbooks (Fig. 4):

Fig. 4 Diagram of the Left Hand Rest Position(Nowak and Nowak 2002:5)

Throughout the textbook, the method of describing the delivery of thepreparatory gesture is confusing, in that although breathing is admirably

encouraged throughout, the breath and the preparatory motion seem

disconnected, the authors stating: ‘Breathe as though you were going to play orsing before the preparation gesture’ (Nowak and Nowak 2002:14). Explanations

in textbooks by Jordan and Maiello emphasise the connection between breathingand the preparatory gesture. Disconnecting the two can result in rigid, stiff

preparatory gestures, a drawback in an otherwise superbly musical textbook.

While the Nowak brothers emphasise phrasing and expression in their textbook,

The Complete Conductor (1995)(1st edition) by Robert Demaree and Don Moses,

used by two university conducting teachers in the surveys, is a useful addition tothe conductor’s library due to informative chapters on style, interpretation and

specific performance techniques. The major goal of the book is to equip theconductor with the most comprehensive knowledge base possible. By

comparison, the information and instruction on the physical conducting gestures

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is less thorough. Less than a quarter of the book is spent on the physical

technique of conducting.This textbook is intended for use by a choral or instrumental conducting class as

part of a structured course. According to the authors, the movements within thecomplex gestures made by the conductor can be isolated, examined, studied, and

adjusted one by one. Efficiency and effectiveness can be enhanced by work on

the detailed physical aspects of this discipline (Demaree and Moses 1995:2).Although this is true to a point, I believe efficiency and effectiveness is only

achieved if the detailed physical aspects are integrated, allowing conductingstudents to develop a kinaesthetic connection to the gestures.

In the second chapter, ‘The Physical Basis,’ the authors correctly state the

importance of good posture for conductors:For conductors, good posture is not just a goal in itself. The purpose behind everyphysical act is effective and efficient communication, and anything that detracts fromclear and accurate communication is a fault. … A great conductor is (among many otherthings) a fine actor. You must use your whole body – not just your face and eyes – toestablish a mood and convey meaning (Demaree and Moses 1995:13-14).

Demaree and Moses’ discussion of the importance of the total body use of

conductors emphasises the importance of the body in non-verbal communication,

which will be discussed in Chapter Six. Suggestions on how to teach the batongrip, however, are needlessly complicated and overly wordy, particularly in

comparison with the earlier stated method of Garofalo and Battisti:Your fingers should be curled slightly around the handle, the stick held lightly betweenthe thumb and either the middle or the index finger; in any case, the index finger shouldrest on one side or the other (for if you keep it on top of the baton it will restrict thefreedom of the stick). The base of the handle probably should touch (but not pressagainst) the palm of the hand. The point of the baton should aim straight out from thehand and should not project at an angle (slightly to the left, for example). The thrust ofthe arm and the stick together should be slightly upward (Demaree and Moses 1995:19).

The suggestion that the point of the baton should be aimed straight out from the

hand causes unnatural tension in the upper arm and wrist and goes againstanatomical principles advocated by movement therapist Blandine Calais-

Germain, who found that such a wrist position causes improper alignmentbetween two bones in the arm, the ulna and the radius (Fig. 5).

A preferred grip allows the baton a small amount of a point towards the left, as

shown in the earlier diagram of Garofalo and Battisti (see Fig. 2).

32

Fig. 5 Structure of the Upper Arm, Showing the Alignment of theRadius and the Ulna (Calais-Germain 1993:144)

The use of conducting frames to teach different dynamics is well introduced,allowing students to easily equate the size of gestures to the resulting dynamics,

in a manner similar to that employed by Garofalo and Battisti. As the dynamiclevel gets softer, so the size of the selected frame reduces, which is shown by an

effective diagram (Fig. 6):

33

Fig. 6 Altering Size of the Conducting to Teach Dynamics(Demaree and Moses 1995:24)

The explanation of the preparatory gesture and the various beat patterns are

introduced early and clearly explained. The release gesture is also clearlyexplained but not introduced until Chapter Six. A lot of right hand instruction is

covered before the proper introduction of any left hand gestures, which does notoccur until Chapter Seven (beginning at page 82). Demaree and Moses’ entire

approach revolves around the internalisation of the right hand gestures so that

they can be delivered without conscious effort.In the meantime however, there is a perception created that using the left hand is

enormously difficult, which does not explain why the left hand instruction is leftso long:

The left hand is a bête noire, a formidable and troublesome problem for manyinexperienced conductors. You might assume that is because most people are right-handed, but that really has nothing to do with the matter. Even conductors who arethemselves left-handed find difficulty here, for skill with the “other hand” is notprimarily a question of dexterity; rather, you must develop the independence of your lefthand and a clear concept of that hand’s unique function within your conductingtechnique (Demaree and Moses 1995:82).

A far more effective kinaesthetic teaching approach to left hand instruction is

employed by the textbooks by Jordan, Garofalo and Battisti, and Maiello to

involve the left hand right at the beginning.Although there is some excellent background stylistic material for developing

conductors, this book presents difficulties for the teaching of beginnerconductors attempting to develop greater kinaesthetic awareness, caused by the

over-use of language, the lack of imagery, and the late introduction of the left

hand.

Like the textbook by Kohut and Grant, A Guide to Successful Instrumental

Conducting (1992)(1st edition) by Larry Curtis and David Kuehn, used by one

34

university conducting teacher and one experienced Melbourne secondary school

conductor from the surveys, is intended for the beginning university conductingclass. While it contains good ideas, such as flexibility exercises, the important

concepts of release and left hand gestures are taught in rather scant detail. Curtisand Kuehn’s textbook begins with three pages of errata – hardly a promising

introduction to a conducting method. The authors recommend the use of

conducting exercises that can be used by small groups of conducting students,claiming that the total education required of a conductor should include practical

conducting of musical examples. The book uses specially composed conductingetudes, which can be used by ‘almost any combination and number of wind and

string instruments’ (Curtis and Kuehn 1992:xi).

The first chapter outlines a very brief history of conducting, presented mainly toshow how the non-verbal communication aspect of conducting has developed.

The second chapter entitled ‘Basic Techniques of Conducting,’ begins by

teaching some very good flexibility exercises, which are particularly effective inthat they involve not only the whole body, but also work both right and left hands

equally, much along the same lines as Maiello’s exercises, which are even moreeffective. Although both hands tend to be operating at the same time and at the

same speed in Curtis and Kuehn’s exercises, left hand independence is

encouraged through the left hand travelling in a different direction to the right, oron a different plane.

Most conducting books teach a ‘palm down’ position for the right hand whenconducting. Some other conducting teachers instead favour the ‘Nikisch’ grip22,

which places the right thumb on top. This textbook is unique in suggesting a

midway position between the two, with the justification that ‘in this way, thewrist can move up and down and side to side with equal ease’ (Curtis and Kuehn

1992:14). This method is used in an effective way to introduce the baton grip.The teaching of dynamics is well covered by Curtis and Kuehn, with clear and

effective diagrams linking the overall size of conducting gestures to dynamic

range. The introduction of preparatory and cut-off gestures, however, is not donein a clear manner, with release gestures in particular being needlessly

complicated in the early stages, differentiating between breath releases, releasesinto rests, and caesura releases while still in the relatively early stages of

22 Named after the Hungarian-born conductor, Arthur Nikisch, who popularised this baton grip.

35

conducting instruction and before the conducting student can achieve comfort

with the various types of release (Curtis and Kuehn 1992:32-36).Although initial warm-up exercises, such as basic arm and wrist movements,

holding the baton and the conducting frame are good, discussion of left handtechnique, including the importance of independence of hands, relaxed wrist and

finger position (albeit with clear photographs), and an effective ‘at rest’ position,

is limited, and just when some helpful assistance is anticipated, Curtis and Kuehnstate: ‘Gestures utilising the left hand will be presented in the (following) etudes

in response to specific musical needs and problems’ (Curtis and Kuehn 1992:21).Over seventy pages follow before the etudes are reached towards the end of the

book. At this stage, it is true, there is some brief reference to the left hand, but

without the assistance of any diagrams or photographs, and without any realteaching of left hand use, the authors simply stating: ‘The left hand may be

brought into action on accents, thus leaving the baton simply to continue pulse. If

the left hand is used, it must prepare the accent on the preceding half pulse’(Curtis and Kuehn 1992:93).

One of the major problems with using this book in the teaching of conductors isthat important concepts of the left hand and cueing are briefly mentioned in the

early sections and left to be more fully covered in the etudes. The fact that these

skills and techniques are mainly taught in the etudes makes it difficult forbeginner conductors to develop confidence and kinaesthetic awareness before

they are swamped with a range of conducting problems, reducing theeffectiveness of this book.

In a similar manner to the Curtis and Kuehn textbook, The Art of Conducting

(1992)(2nd edition) by Donald Hunsberger and Roy Ernst is intended for use in

university level conducting classes, particularly in the training ofeducator/conductors, the authors suggesting that the musical excerpts for the

earlier chapters ‘be sung and conducted by the class in unison with the instructor.

This enables the class to learn and practise each technique before individualstudents conduct – an efficient procedure that makes it possible for the class to

learn the fundamentals of technique very quickly’ (Hunsberger and Ernst1992:xviii). This was the second most used textbook among university

conducting teachers surveyed, with twenty-one users, also used by one

experienced Melbourne secondary school conductor from the survey. The

36

reasons for the popularity of this textbook among music educator/conductors

could be due to the reputation of Hunsberger and his work with the EastmanWind Ensemble, and for the clarity and ease of use of the book’s layout.

The authors’ philosophies on conducting are to teach skills one at a time, likeDemaree and Moses, and internalise those skills over time, rather than develop a

feel for the gestures at the outset. Their main focus in the textbook is on

conducting technique, score reading, score analysis and general rehearsalprocedures, with the goal being to increase the effectiveness of the limited

amount of university-level conducting instruction received.Chapter One begins with an examination of the posture of a conductor, mostly

delivered as a series of unclear verbal instructions, although the information on

developing a basic arm position is well conveyed by means of visualising thenumbers on a clock face and a clear diagram (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7 Conductor’s Basic Arm Position(Hunsberger and Ernst 1992:4)

Lonis also rightly criticises this textbook for over-using ‘descriptive language to

enhance the understanding of a skill,’ Lonis finding the resulting language

‘wordy and difficult to comprehend’ (Lonis 1993:31).

37

Preparatory gestures and downbeats are then introduced, including release

gestures, although only a very short paragraph is devoted to the latter. Basic beatpatterns are introduced early in the book. The only real reference to the

kinaesthetic element of developing gestural feel occurs at the very end of the firstchapter in the ‘Additional Exercises’ section, where under the label of ‘Muscle

Conditioning,’ Hunsberger and Ernst make the following statement on posture

and skeletal muscle function:Good posture and a general knowledge of how the main areas of skeletal musclesfunction will help you to develop a conducting technique free of unnecessary tensionand unnecessarily restricted movement. The following exercises will help to acquaintyou with muscle locations. Do them by tightening and releasing each muscle area in turn(Hunsberger and Ernst 1992:17).

The authors give four exercises that involve contracting and releasing calf and

thigh muscles, biceps, shoulders, and back muscles, and fist clenching, although

these are not really adequate in terms of an examination of skeletal musclefunction, particularly when compared with exercises used in textbooks by Jordan,

Garofalo and Battisti, and Maiello.Both dynamics and baton grip are clearly and effectively introduced in the first

three chapters. The only mention of the left hand in the first two chapters occurs

when the authors make the following statement in reference to ‘ambidextrousconducting’: ‘The ability to conduct equally well with both hands should be

acquired during the early stages. This will develop flexibility and coordination,

which will reduce awkwardness later when both hands are needed for cues,dynamic indications, and separate patterns’ (Hunsberger and Ernst 1992:22).

Although this is a sensible way to introduce the left hand, some specific exercisesas shown by Maiello, would have been helpful, Maiello’s approach being to

introduce spatial exercises involving left and right hands independently then

together at the very start.Hunsberger and Ernst specifically introduce the left hand at the end of Chapter

Three and cueing is discussed as part of Chapter Four. The authors state that theuse of the left hand should be easier if exercises previously introduced in the

book have been practised using both hands. Nevertheless, a large amount of

conducting instruction has taken place before this important stage is reached.

Apart from textbooks aimed at beginner conductors or conductor/educators,materials by Green (Green and Gibson 2004), Rudolf (1995), McMurray (2003),

38

Farberman (1997), and Durrant (2003), are intended as more general conducting

resources, and these are the next series that will be examined.

An Evaluation of the Kinaesthetic Approach Taken by Conducting MaterialsAimed at Conductors of All Levels

Professional conductors (McElheran, Rudolf, Saito, and Scherchen) wrote fourout of the five textbooks initially examined in this section. Elizabeth Green, who

for many years was the conducting teacher at the University of Michigan, wrotethe fifth, based on a conducting textbook, The Conductor and His Baton (1950),

by her mentor, Russian conductor Nicolai Malko. As each of these textbooks is

presented as the ‘method’ of these professional conductors, it is noteworthy thatthe primary focus throughout these textbooks is more or less on baton technique,

rather than achieving physical comfort with the gestures. Presumably none of the

authors had any difficulties being comfortable with the gestures, as they wouldno doubt have exhibited high entering behaviour for conducting. All of these

textbooks were written earlier than the textbooks aimed at beginner conductors inthe previous section, at a time when the teachability of conducting was gradually

gaining acceptance, the Scherchen being written in 1929 (in German), the Rudolf

first edition in 1950, the Saito in 1956 (in Japanese), the Green first edition in1961, and the McElheran in 1964. Taken in the context of when they were

written, it is only to be expected that these books were written with a lower levelkinaesthetic approach than the more recent (and more educationally focused)

textbooks from the previous section. The professional conductors mainly wrote

about what they regarded as the easiest conducting skills to teach – the manualtechnique, as shown by the layout of these textbooks. These five textbooks

almost totally ignore the left hand until the right hand has acquired a reasonablysecure technique. The longer it takes a beginning conductor to acquire a secure

right hand technique, the longer it takes for the left hand to be introduced.

Conductors with a high entering behaviour for expressive movement are at agreat advantage in this situation, and consequently, will progress much faster.

For this reason, following my initial examination of these textbooks, as statedearlier, the textbooks by Saito, Scherchen, and McElheran were rejected from

this chapter as being kinaesthetically ineffective.

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Elizabeth Green and Mark Gibson’s The Modern Conductor (2004)(7th edition)

was overwhelmingly the most used textbook from the surveys, used by thirty-seven university conducting teachers (42%) and ten experienced Melbourne

secondary school conductors (24%). The reasons for its popularity could be acombination of familiarity, tradition of usage, and the clear format, although the

fact that other textbooks by Jordan, Garofalo and Battisti, and Maiello are more

kinaesthetically effective, indicates that expressive conducting instruction, as willbe shown, continues to be dominated by traditional methods based on technique

over kinaesthetic comfort. The previous six editions of this textbook had beenauthored by Green alone, but following her death in 1995, Gibson included

‘expanded sections devoted to score study, opera conducting, rehearsing, dealing

with new scores and composers, and advice on establishing a professional career.… Some references to conductors of the past have been replaced by more timely

examples’ (Green and Gibson 2004:xvii).

In an article in the Music Educators Journal Elizabeth Green states that thehuman response to gesture is a psychological one, and that when the gesture is

correct, the musicians can understand and respond to it. Teaching conducting,like any other activity requiring muscular skill, is a matter fundamentally of

understanding what good technique is, of knowing how to acquire it, and then of

correct practice and plenty of it (Green 1961:55).The Modern Conductor is one of the clearest and easiest to follow textbooks in

terms of basic technique, although it is rightly criticised by Lonis for attemptingto teach physical skills through conceptual wording:

Teaching a skill through the use of written language is difficult. A videotape, or the useof visual imagery would be helpful to get the ideas across. … The book makesconducting seem more complicated than it need be for the beginning conductor eventhough some of the exercises are very helpful. Green has some interesting ideas onconducting, despite the fact that everything she meant to say is not clearly conveyedthrough the written word, and perhaps cannot be (Lonis 1993:28-29).

Chapter One entitled ‘So You Want to Be a Conductor?’ contains useful

information about the brain and sharpening the physical tools for conducting,

Green stating: ‘The more you reinforce a pattern by repetition (practice!), themore powerful it becomes. After a while it works automatically, and it is at your

service thereafter’ (Green and Gibson 2004:1-2). Green introduces good physicaltraining exercises throughout the book, initially to train the arms by experiencing

relaxation and tension, but these exercises fail to have any connection with

40

imagery or any music, also lacking diagrams or pictures23. The exercises of

Jordan, Garofalo and Battisti, and Maiello are better for teaching conductors tokinaesthetically experience physical movement.

Although Green’s introductory exercises involve the left hand, it is notmentioned again until Chapter Seven, by which time a great deal of right hand

technique has been covered. No mention is made in the interim of a neutral

position for the left hand, which I consider to be a serious flaw, as no guidance isgiven throughout all of the right hand teaching what the left hand should be

doing, unlike the Nowak textbook, which contains an effective diagram of aneutral left hand position (see Fig. 4).

Preparatory and release gestures, while introduced early in the book, are made

initially complicated by presenting too many options too soon, Green discussingpreparatory and release gestures on all beats, rather than allowing beginning

conductors to develop confidence with just beat ‘1.’ The diagrams supplied only

add to the confusion (Green and Gibson 2004:13-14). The baton grip isintroduced with clear and effective photographs although Green, like Demaree

and Moses, incorrectly insists on the baton pointing forward, creating excessivewrist tension (Green and Gibson 2004:22-23).

Throughout the book, Green does not clearly teach the link between dynamics

and size of gestures, not allowing beginner conductors to develop a kinaestheticconnection with the gestures. Garofalo and Battisti, Demaree and Moses, and

Curtis and Kuehn better handle this, all employing conducting frames to linkdynamics to size of gestures.

23 The training exercises were originally introduced by Green’s teacher, Russian conductorNicolai Malko, in his book The Conductor and His Baton. In this book, Malko provided diagramsto accompany the training exercises (Malko 1950:40-56), which for some reason were notincluded or replicated in Green’s book.

41

Not until page 124 is the gesture/communication side of conducting discussed in

a section entitled ‘The Shift from Technique to Music Making’:As one’s skills mature, the young conductor finds that concentration on technique isgradually replaced by a personal response to the score itself, influencing his or hergestures. … It will reveal itself differently in every conductor for physical reasons aswell. … No two mature conductors conduct exactly alike (Green and Gibson 2004:124).

Green’s assumption throughout the textbook is that with experience and

musicianship, conductors will naturally become expressive. As shown earlier in

the chapter, most university conducting teachers in the survey do not support thisview, with ‘just improving over time’ ranked last in order of importance of

methods to assist the development of conducting expressivity (see Table 3).Despite the popularity and clarity of this textbook, it lacks some of the

kinaesthetic elements of textbooks by Jordan, Garofalo and Battisti, and Maiello,

particularly in the approach taken to teaching left hand use and the developmentof expressive gestures.

Apart from Green’s book, another well-established conducting textbook is Max

Rudolf’s The Grammar of Conducting (1995)(3rd edition), which was used by

four university conducting teachers and one experienced Melbourne secondaryschool conductor.

At the very opening of his textbook Rudolf states his belief that to obtain anartistic result the conductor must be able to communicate nuances in dynamics,

phrasing, articulation and general expression not through mere time beating, but

through appropriate gestures. It is through technical control that artistic masteryis achieved (Rudolf 1995:xv). Rudolf’s method, while incredibly detailed, is

difficult for conducting students lacking a high entering behaviour forkinaesthetic awareness, as at no stage is any attempt made to develop a ‘feel’ for

the gestures.

In teaching the use of the baton (without a diagram), Rudolf vaguely writes:The choice of a baton with or without a handle depends upon the individual. You mustalso decide for yourself which grip is the most convenient. You must be able to controlthe baton completely and feel perfectly at ease; this is the test of a good grip. The mostadvisable way to hold the baton is with the thumb, the first and second fingers, and withthe butt against the palm of the hand. You will feel more secure in the energetic beats ifyou use a fuller grip (Rudolf 1995:xvi).

In comparison with Garofalo and Battisti’s instructions and diagram (see Fig. 2),

Rudolf’s explanation leaves a lot to chance. Lonis also finds the level of detail

42

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employed by Rudolf inconsistent, stating: ‘At times the author discusses a

concept or skill in extreme detail while, at other times, glossing over importantconcepts or skills’ (Lonis 1993:33).

In this book, every technical conducting problem is covered, complete withexamples from the orchestral repertoire in piano score. Rudolf introduces the

beat patterns in a ‘neutral-legato’ form (Fig. 8a), before introducing an

‘expressive-legato’ two chapters later (Fig. 8b):

Fig. 8a Rudolf’s Neutral-Legato 4-Beat Patterns (Rudolf 1995:3)

Fig. 8b Rudolf’s Expressive-Legato 4-Beat Patterns (Rudolf 1995:22)

43

Not until Chapter Twenty-Five is the problem of ‘Achieving Complete Physical

Control’ mentioned, which seems very late compared with textbooks by Maiello,Jordan, and Garofalo and Battisti:

On the podium you need freedom of motion more than other musicians, becauseconducting consists of musical expression directly by gestures. Like other performers, aconductor must find a happy medium between tension and relaxation; you will show thisin the way you mount the podium and face the players – and indeed in every gesture youmake (Rudolf 1995:307).

While stressing the importance of achieving gestural control, Rudolf’s only

solution to achieving this is through practice, ease of movement being a desirablegoal without a method of teaching. Rudolf believes that ease of movement will

occur over time, which, as shown in the survey of university conducting teachersfrom earlier in the chapter, is not supported by the majority of university

conducting teachers.

Rudolf advocates learning the conducting patterns with the left arm, as well asthe right, as an ideal way to learn true left arm independence:

The most rigid way to test brachial independence is the ability to perform all conductingpatterns with the left arm, not in reverse motion, but in strict conformance to themovements that are normally assigned to the right arm. Aside from the possibility thatan accident may put a conductor’s right arm out of action, the skill derived from suchexercise will make the effort worthwhile (Rudolf 1995:311).

This method has merit, in that the left arm is involved in conducting from the

early stages, as opposed to hanging there while the right arm gets all of the work.Rudolf introduces the preparatory beat early and effectively, with clear

instructions and a simple diagram, linking the gesture with lifting a bow or taking

a breath (Rudolf 1995:6). The chapter on dynamics also contains worthwhileexercises, and effectively links the size of gestures to the dynamics.

Although an excellent resource for experienced conductors, Rudolf’s book isdaunting for beginner conductors, with the overall emphasis placed on complex

technique to the detriment of developing a kinaesthetic connection with the

gestures.

Although also containing excellent material for experienced conductors, theDVD Conducting from the Inside Out (2003)(1st edition) by Allan McMurray, is

far less daunting for beginner conductors than the Rudolf textbook. One

university conducting teacher from the surveys used the McMurray DVD. Anadvantage of the DVD medium (or video) over written textbooks is that DVD

44

allows action footage of conductors and conducting concepts, allowing

conducting students to build visual images of total gestures, as opposed totextbooks, which use photographic snapshots or written descriptions of

movements. For this reason, it is curious that there are not more conductinginstructional materials to make use of the DVD or video formats.

According to McMurray, the study of instrumental conducting is the study of

movement to communicate music. This DVD employs a strongly kinaestheticapproach throughout, aided by excellent modeling by McMurray and effective

use of imagery.Although this DVD is aimed at experienced conductors, it could also be used

effectively by less experienced conductors. It contains an introduction and

thirteen chapters in which McMurray demonstrates concepts in front of thecamera and also works with other conductors in a masterclass situation.

McMurray states at the outset that good conducting begins with an awareness of

the body, so he starts with an exploration of conducting hinges, such as theshoulder, elbow, wrist and fingers, the focus being on developing a kinaesthetic

feel for the gestures, as conducting, according to McMurray, is based on leadingthrough gesture (McMurray 2003). McMurray links the quality of sound gained

by the conductor to the use of the conductor’s hinges.

Preparatory gestures are introduced early and effectively in Chapter One,McMurray emphasising the importance of the three elements of a beat, the

preparation, ictus, and rebound, and demonstrating how facial gesture and eveneyes can deliver these. The baton is introduced as another hinge, which through

the correct angle of the baton visibly communicates the energy of gestures at the

tip. The baton is used in combination with face and eyes, McMurray insistingthat the field of beating be placed below the level of eye contact to avoid

disruption of this line of communication (in a similar manner to Garofalo andBattisti). Eye contact is covered in Chapter Three, McMurray making effective

use of the DVD medium to demonstrate how eye contact engages the musicians,

enhancing communication.McMurray encourages conductors to get away from beat pattern conducting as

soon as possible to communicate the music, defining a conductor’s role as ‘tolook like the music’ (McMurray 2003). As earlier stated, he regards the control

of the left hand as one of the most subjective aspects of conducting, but through

visual demonstration and imagery manages to create a tangible left hand

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vocabulary. A particularly effective aspect of left hand communication that

McMurray introduces is the use of the sagittal plane to emphasise the importanceof the hands. If the left hand is projected forward of the right hand, then the left

hand gesture assumes prominence, and if the right hand is projected forward ofthe left, then the right hand gesture assumes prominence. This simple gestural

concept is not covered as effectively in any of the conducting textbooks.

McMurray’s DVD is one of the most kinaesthetically effective materialsavailable for conductors, no doubt enhanced by the possibilities of the DVD

format, giving an insight into the possibilities of the medium for conductinginstruction into the twenty-first century.

One instrumental conducting textbook that was not identified inexplicably in thesurveys needs to be covered as part of this review, as Harold Farberman in The

Art of Conducting Technique (1997)(1st edition) proposes a completely new

system of teaching conducting technique.A respected conductor and conducting teacher, Farberman takes a completely

new approach to the acquisition of expressive conducting technique in thistextbook, articulating his approach to the teaching of conducting in an article in

the Music Educators Journal:After continuous years of score study, why do we devote practically no time at all to thedelivery of the music? Basic patterns do not have musical content, yet we cling to them.Remarkably, we use patterns that have remained unchanged for hundreds of years, whilemusic itself has undergone successive revolutions in orchestra size, instrumentation, andcompositional concepts. … Is there, in fact, conducting technique beyond patterns? Yes.The constantly changing physical movements drawn from the music itself createtechnique. But we conductors tend to do the opposite. We impose the same repetitive,nonmusical, metric patterns on every measure of every kind of music, despite itschanging content. In the cold light of day, this seems senseless (Farberman 2001:40).

As an alternative to traditional conducting textbooks, Farberman proposes a new

system whereby the conductor, through score study, selects gestures to use

appropriate to the music at the particular time. Farberman calls this new system‘Visual Score Study/Baton Placement.’ New gestures are created through pitch

registration (Fig. 9):

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Fig. 9 Farberman’s Pitch Registration Levels (Farberman 1997a:81)

Farberman advocates the use of a pattern cube to describe the physical

movements that create the patterns (Farberman 1997a:87). The pattern cubecontains five columns. The first column (far left) indicates the number of beats in

the bar (indicated from bottom to top). The second column indicates the pitch

registration levels described above for each beat. The third column indicates thethree dynamic registration zones for each beat (zone 1 – closest, zone 3 – farthest

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away). The fourth column indicates spatial registration, which can be either in

front of the body, on the right side of the body, or the left side of the body. Thefifth column indicates the movements of the left hand, except when the left hand

assumes the responsibility for maintaining pulse. Any switch in duties from rightto left hand is shown in the space at the bottom of the cube, called the

Information Box. Any important or

unusual physical movements are alsoshown in the information box. An

example of a pattern cube, with the fivecolumns and information box, is shown

(Fig. 10):

Fig. 10 Farberman’s Pattern Cube (Farberman 1997a:101)

Farberman’s textbook, available with an optional accompanying video

(Farberman 1997b), presents a refreshing and innovative approach to teaching

conducting gestures. Farberman begins in Chapter One with an identification andexploration of the conductor’s space or working area. Farberman defines the

dimensions of a conductor’s immediate space as determined by the length of the

arms at full extension, and the conductor’s extended space as being ‘theconnective tissue which binds orchestra to conductor’ (Farberman 1997a:1-2).

The entire stage area is part of the complete space. Farberman’s exercises forphysically describing the immediate space are not unlike exercises prescribed as

part of Laban’s movement theories, which will be discussed in Chapter Five.

Farberman’s instructions on baton use and grip, while detailed, are clear andaided by effective diagrams. This is the only textbook to acknowledge that

attempting to force the wrist into making a straight line with the baton causesmuscle tension (Farberman 1997a:19). Employing effective kinaesthetic

instruction, Farberman introduces preparatory gestures, with clear and simple

instructions to assist the communication of the initial tempo, dynamics, andarticulation.

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Although this is a system that could take time for beginner conductors to

assimilate and incorporate, Farberman’s textbook is a comprehensive departurefrom traditional beat pattern dominated instruction, as acknowledged by

conductor Leon Botstein, who writes in The Music Quarterly:Farberman’s approach is designed to provide the conductor with a highly varied andsubtle repertoire of physical gestures that can be adapted to the fresh ideas, talent, andintentions each individual conductor should bring to the score and podium. He hasanalysed the space the conductor occupies and the dynamics of gesture and created atextbook that can help an individual develop a command of the elaborate rituals ofpantomime that conducting must be, whose underlying grammar is recognised bymusicians the world over. He offers a way out of the trap of mere time beating so thatthe conductor can create sound, line, and musical meaning through physical motion(Botstein 1997:10).

The book incorporates effective kinaesthetic suggestions to re-define the

conductor’s space, linking expressive gesture to the demands of the music, andencouraging the music to create the conducting gestures.

In a similar manner to Farberman’s textbook, one choral conducting textbookthat was not identified in the surveys also needs to be covered as part of this

review, as Colin Durrant in Choral Conducting: Philosophy and Practice

(2003)(1st edition) takes a highly kinaesthetic approach to the learning of

conducting.

This book is essentially about communication. For this reason, although it isaimed at choral conductors, I believe that all instrumental conductors would find

it of value.The text is laid out in two sections: philosophy and practice, with the first six

chapters covering the philosophy of conducting, and the last five covering the

practice of conducting. There is no instruction at any stage on beat patterns, theauthor referring the reader to other books to find these (Durrant 2003:139).

Durrant describes two essential ingredients to a conductor’s gestures, the firstbeing a ‘literal’ element, such as time beating, pulse and cueing, while the second

element is described as ‘connotative’ gesture, creating the expressive character of

the music (Durrant 2003:138). It is the second element that Durrant isparticularly concerned about throughout the book.

Durrant describes kinaesthesia, or feeling through movement, as ‘an underusedand undervalued sense in Western classical musical culture’ (Durrant 2003:97).

Phenomenologist philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty outlines the benefits of

‘bodily experience’ to kinaesthetic learning in the next chapter of this thesis.

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In his observation of conducting students, Durrant astutely notes: ‘Many

conducting students are stuck in a physical modus operandi. This is especiallytrue of more experienced conductors, or at least those who have got into

particular and often inappropriate habits of posture, stance, or gestures’ (Durrant2003:167). This is a condition that F.M. Alexander describes in Chapter Five as

‘faulty sensory awareness.’ Durrant describes how students are required to

employ conscious correction through observation and kinaesthetic re-educationto correct these faults.

I regard Durrant’s textbook as being an important addition to the literature ofconducting, not only for the practical suggestions contained within (of which

there are many), but for its consistent emphasis on the importance of kinaesthetic

awareness and non-verbal communication in conducting.

Summary and Conclusions

As indicated in Tables 4 and 5, over half of the experienced secondary schoolconductors in the Melbourne area have a low opinion of the value of conducting

textbooks as an aid in learning conducting, indicating that any encounters orexperience with available conducting textbooks they may have had has not been

positive.

Nevertheless, 81% of university conducting teachers continue to use conductingtextbooks, indicating that university conducting teachers continue to value

conducting textbooks, if not for the development of conducting expressivity, thenpossibly for the way the textbooks model a complete method of conducting

instruction than can easily be implemented by university conducting teachers, as

in textbooks by Labuta (2004), Hunsberger and Ernst (1992), and Phillips (1997),which begin with beat pattern instruction.

Although most conducting textbooks contain a wealth of information on scorestudy, rehearsal techniques and beat patterns, I have focused in this chapter on

how the textbooks identified in the two surveys teach expressive gestures and the

use of the left hand, which are two areas that have been identified by experiencedsecondary school conductors in Melbourne as ongoing weaknesses in their

conducting vocabularies, noting how each textbook approaches conductinginstruction from a kinaesthetic standpoint.

Jordan’s (1996) book provides excellent kinaesthetic assistance to all conductors.

It also presents the most comprehensive material on the relationship between

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gesture and sound. Garofalo and Battisti’s (2005) book is the most

kinaesthetically effective of instrumental textbooks. The early chapters ofMaiello’s (1996a) textbook are also first rate, providing well-constructed

exercises for both the right and left hands. Both Jordan and Maiello place greatimportance on the link between breathing and gesture. Kohut and Grant (1990)

contain some very good initial exercises involving both right and left hands.

Effective imagery is used for these exercises. The Nowak brothers (2002) alsouse imagery, stressing that the music will influence the gesture, but they could

provide more basic information to aid the beginning conductor.At a more advanced level, McMurray’s (2003) DVD has the advantage of

presenting action footage of conductors and conducting concepts, allowing

conducting students to build visual images of total gestures, as opposed totextbooks, which use photographic snapshots or written descriptions of

movements.

Farberman’s (1997) textbook, although not identified by the surveys, provides arefreshing alternative by the way he advocates linking gesture to what the music

is actually doing, presenting opportunities for conducting gestures to effectivelycompliment the music and avoid routine time beating. Durrant (2003), also not

identified by the surveys, also provides excellent kinaesthetic suggestions for

conductors, including the importance of non-verbal communication.Textbooks by Curtis and Kuehn (1992), and Nowak and Nowak (2002), present

information in a way that requires the substantial assistance of a conductinginstructor, which, while in itself is not a bad thing, relies on the instructor’s

ability to be discerning in selecting which material to use and what to leave out.

In particular, the manner of left hand instruction leaves a lot to be desired fromthese books. Textbooks by Curtis and Kuehn, Demaree and Moses (1995), Green

(Green and Gibson 2004), and Hunsberger and Ernst, almost totally ignore theleft hand until the right hand has acquired a reasonably secure technique. The

longer it takes a beginning conductor to acquire a secure right hand technique,

the longer it takes for the left hand to be introduced. Conductors with a highentering behaviour for expressive movement are at a great advantage in this

situation, and consequently, will progress much faster.Beginning conductors using the Jordan, Garofalo and Battisti, Maiello, or Kohut

and Grant books, or the McMurray DVD, have the opportunity to learn

conducting on a more kinaesthetic level. Because some expressive movement

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exercises are built in to these textbooks, they give all beginner conductors a

chance to develop kinaesthetic feel for the gestures. Therefore these textbooksare recommended as effective resources and models for conducting ‘best

practice.’

In this review, two textbooks by Jordan (1996) and Durrant (2003) are intended

primarily for choral conductors. Although the basic conducting techniquerequired to conduct instrumentalists appears to be identical to that required to

conduct vocalists, an important fundamental difference is the impact thatconducting gesture has on the production of sound of those who sing. There are

generally few barriers such as instruments or music stands between the choral

conductor and the ensemble, so the lines of communication are more direct andopen to influence. As was demonstrated to me in a conducting class taken by

noted choral conductor Rodney Eichenberger in 1997, the conductor’s own ‘self-

use’ has a direct effect on the posture and resulting vocal health of the singers.This would explain the greater emphasis on the conductor’s self-usage in the

Jordan and Durrant books compared to the other textbooks. Nevertheless,instrumental conductors should also be aware of the message that is

communicated through posture and gesture, as there may be an effect on

intonation, tone quality and character of sound, particularly for wind players.

Kinaesthetic awareness plays an important role in a conductor being comfortablewith conducting gestures. American conductor Michael Tilson Thomas does not

believe that a conductor can really know a piece of music until they have

achieved a physical connection with the conducting gestures. He comments:In the conducting profession they say that you can have a piece in your head, but do youhave it in your arm yet? Having a piece in your arm is a different thing, because it meansthat you’ve actually moved through space and time with that piece of music, you canactually feel the plasticity of the notes within time, in your arm, your body, your face –everything becomes expressive of how you the mean the contour and the intensity of themusic to be played, to be heard (Tilson Thomas 1994:18).

The physical act of moving through a piece of music plays an important part ingetting to know the music, almost as if the movements and gestures promote an

understanding of the music at the cellular level. A student conductor should learnto maintain a connection between the body and the music to allow the body to

52

process the music with the gesture, which does not always occur, as noted by

conductors Larry Rachleff and James Hainlen:Rachleff noted: ‘So much of our conducting curriculum deals with only the physicalissue but not necessarily with the body’s comfort with the physical issue.’ Hainlenexplained: ‘How gesture is connected to the content of the piece of music is one of thehardest things to teach student teachers. There’s not a connection to the line of musicbecause they have no connection internally to their bodies’ (see Harris 2001:57).

Drawing on the statements above from Tilson Thomas, Rachleff and Hainlen,

and earlier from Durrant, developing a bodily connection is the key to bodily-

kinaesthetic learning, as double bassist and author of The Inner Game of Music

Barry Green shows in his work with dancers:I discovered that although choreographers do have a written notation for the variousmoves they want the dancers to perform, the dancers themselves seldom work from it.The instructor or choreographer demonstrates a series of movements while the dancerswatch. Then the dancers form a mental image of what they have seen and imagine theirown bodies recreating the movements. Finally, when they have both seen the moves and‘felt through them’ in their bodies, they are able to execute the moves on the dancefloor.Feeling the moves ‘in your body’ allows you to rehearse them before you ‘go throughthe motions’. Recent findings suggest that this style of kinaesthetic rehearsal actuallyprograms and makes use of those parts of the nervous system that will be involved inphysical execution.Using your body’s kinaesthetic memory in this way prepares the body for accurateperformance (Green 1987:72).

The same use of the body’s kinaesthetic memory that Green observed in dancers

can be applied to enhancing expressive conducting gestures, by encouragingconductors of all levels of entering behaviour to develop their own gestures

through observation and experimentation and by developing their bodily-

kinaesthetic intelligence.In the next chapter I will discuss the role of the mind-body connection, motor

skill development, and the kinaesthetic sense known as proprioception in thedevelopment of kinaesthetic learning.

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CHAPTER FOUR – THE ROLE OF THE MIND-BODY CONNECTION,MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND PROPRIOCEPTION IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF KINAESTHETIC LEARNING

As was shown in the previous chapter, I have come to regard the learning ofconducting via the bodily-kinaesthetic domain to be particularly effective for

conductors at all levels of entering behaviour, due to the personal and lasting

physical and mental connections that conductors can make while developingtheir gestural communication technique. As will be shown in Chapter Six, these

connections can be more reliable and have more meaning than instruction via

verbal, written, and even visual domains, as conductors must communicate withother musicians in performance via the medium of their bodies.

The aim of this chapter is to highlight the role of the mind-body connection,theories of motor skill development, and proprioception in the development of

movements and gestures appropriate for expressive conducting. The mind–body

connection is the integration between mind and body, which is regarded byeducational psychologist Howard Gardner (1993b) as an important aspect of

kinaesthetic learning. The discussion in this chapter emphasises the developmentof kinaesthetic learning which needs to take place before expressive conducting

can occur. Therefore, only passing references will be made to expressive

conducting in this chapter, before the presentation of expressive movementtheories and non-verbal communication concepts as ways to enhance expressive

conducting, which will be discussed in subsequent chapters.

In the first part of this chapter I will explore conducting as a form of bodily-

kinaesthetic intelligence, using examples of Inner Game24 principles, as shown inwritings by Barry Green (1987). I will also refer to Multiple Intelligence theory25,

as supported by writings of Howard Gardner (1993b), the unique physicalattributes of conductors, as argued by Schuller (1997) and Elizabeth Green

24 The object of Inner Game principles, first introduced in The Inner Game of Tennis by TimothyGallwey, is to quiet the mind of verbal instructions (Self 1), and allow the body to perform thetask at hand (Self 2). The Inner Game has also been applied by Gallwey to golf and skiing, andwith double bass player Barry Green, to music.25 Multiple Intelligence theory is initially introduced in Howard Gardner’s book Frames of Mind,in which Gardner originally proposed seven intelligences: logical-mathematical, linguistic,spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, inter-personal, and intra-personal. Since the publication ofthis book, Gardner has added an eighth intelligence, naturalist, and is considering two additionalintelligences, spiritual and existential.

54

(Green and Gibson 2004), and conducting as an expression of musical feeling, as

shown in writings by Harris (2001), to demonstrate how conducting can be seenas a form of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence.

In the second part of this chapter, I will present the work of contemporary andrecent writers and philosophers Aldous Huxley (1941), John Dewey (1896),

(1928) and (1958), Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1978), and Richard Shusterman

(1999) and (2000) to support the importance of the mind-body connection to thedevelopment of kinaesthetic learning, which I will show to be a vital aspect of a

conductor’s development.

Emphasising the continual interaction between the mind and the body, the

introduction of Dynamic Systems Theory in the 1980s allowed for non-linearself-organisation, influenced by the research of Russian physiologist Nicholas

Bernstein (1967) into the complexity and redundancy of motor skill

development, and I will explore this area in the third part of this chapter. Themost fundamental principle of Dynamic Systems Theory is that patterns of

behaviour can emerge spontaneously from the cooperation of multiplesubsystems or components. Detailed plans for new behaviours, therefore, are not

represented beforehand in the brain, nor do movement patterns, including

walking or talking, arise from an inevitable maturation of neural centres or fixedpattern generators.

In terms of the refinement of motor skills, these may be developed by

consciously interpreting the sensations arising in the musculo-skeletal system.

This perception of the position and state of movement of the parts of the body isknown as kinaesthetic awareness (Kröschlová 2000:8). The term given to this

kinaesthetic sense is proprioception. Proprioception is the sense of the position ofparts of the body, relative to other neighbouring parts of the body. I will examine

the role of proprioception in conducting in the fourth part of this chapter. The

significance of proprioception is the relationship it stimulates between movementand sensory awareness, including its influence on the development of fine motor

skills and non-verbal communication.I will argue that the development of proprioception is essential for all conductors

regardless of entering behaviour, as all conductors must have awareness of the

position of their bodies in space.

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In Conducting With Feeling, author Frederick Harris regards the ability tocommunicate expressively through the body as the key to expressive conducting

(Harris 2001:67). In my survey of university conducting teachers, I was initiallyinterested to know what skills the conducting teachers thought a beginner

conductor should possess (Table 6).

Analytical Skills 4 5%Aural Skills 24 27%Basic Left Hand Skills 3 3%Charisma 2 2%Clear Beat Patterns 8 9%Coordination 2 2%Desire to Learn 3 3%Ensemble Skills 3 3%Enthusiasm 1 1%Expressive Gestures 3 3%Facial Expressivity 1 1%Fundamental Baton Technique 6 7%General Knowledge 2 2%Harmonic Knowledge 2 2%Historical Knowledge 13 15%Instrumental Skills 20 23%Intellect 1 1%Kineasthetic Ability 2 2%Knowledge of Instruments 3 3%Leadership 3 3%Musicianship 26 30%Music Theory Knowledge 30 34%Personal Presentation 1 1%Piano Skills 8 9%Research Skills 1 1%Rehearsal Techniques 2 2%Score Reading Ability 15 17%Secure Pulse 7 8%Self Confidence 3 3%Self Discipline 2 2%Sight Singing Ability 2 2%Teaching Ability 3 3%Verbal Communication Skills 5 6%Table 6 Skills a Beginner Conductor Should Already Possess

The most popular responses to this question were music theory knowledge

(34%), musicianship (30%), aural skills (27%) and instrumental skills (23%).

Only two respondents indicated the importance of kinaesthetic ability in beginnerconductors. The results indicate that background musical and performance skills

are most highly valued in beginner conductors by conducting teachers, rather

than any particular entering behaviour for the bodily-kinaesthetic domain orexpressive movement.

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As a follow up, I was interested to know what skills the conducting teachers

thought a beginner conductor should immediately seek to develop (Table 7).

Skill No. of Responses Percentage +/- from Table 6Arranging Skills 1 1% +1Aural Skills 25 28% +1Awareness 4 5% +4Baton Technique 28 32% +28Beat Patterns 12 14% +4Clarity 5 6% +5Control of Movements 13 15% +13Debating Skills 1 1% +1Dynamic Control 1 1% +1Ensemble Balance 1 1% +1Ensemble Empathy 1 1% +1Expressive Gestures 13 15% +10Good Stance & Posture 5 6% +5Harmonic Knowledge 1 1% -1Historical Knowledge 2 2% -11Imagery 2 2% +2Instrumental Skills 2 2% -18Interpretation 8 9% +8Knowledge of Instruments 4 5% +1Knowledge of Repertoire 5 6% +5Leadership 4 5% +1Left Hand Independence 13 15% +10Musicianship 22 25% -4Music Theory Knowledge 2 2% -28Non-verbal Communication Skills 19 22% +19Piano Skills 2 2% -6Podium Presence 3 3% +3Rehearsal Techniques 12 14% +10Research Skills 2 2% +1Score Reading Skills 26 30% +11Self Confidence 4 5% +1Understanding of Style 4 5% +4Table 7 Skills a Beginner Conductor Should Immediately Seek to Develop

The most popular responses to this question were baton technique (32%), score

reading skills (30%), aural skills (28%), musicianship (25%), and non-verbalcommunication (22%). More respondents felt that the beginner conductor should

develop expressive gestures and left hand independence than already possess it.

From these results, some conducting teachers clearly believe that beginner

conductors can develop their bodily-kinaesthetic sense. I was interested to knowwhat methods conducting teachers regarded as being important to assist the

development of conducting expressivity within their students. This survey

question has already been shown in Table 3.

Among respondents, self-observation was clearly the most popular method fordeveloping conducting expressivity in students, both in terms of overall rank

order and number of first preferences (32%). Although the primary function of

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self-observation here is visual, I argue that an important aspect of self-

observation is also kinaesthetic. Conductors can learn a great deal aboutexpressive conducting by listening to their bodies.

Similarly, conducting teacher Craig Kirchhoff links the teaching of practical

expressive movement with the teaching of communication:If I lived in a perfect world and could redesign college conducting programs, I wouldprohibit students from learning patterns until they could demonstrate expressiveconducting with their faces and arms. I have always believed that the way someoneconducts directly influences the way students play. I’ve come to the conclusion thatstudents will breathe and move air in accordance with the way a conductor moves hisarms. These motions have a direct relationship to the quality of the sound produced (seeThomson 1994:12).

Kirchhoff stresses that having students develop their bodily-kinaesthetic

intelligence is more important than learning beat patterns in the early stages ofconductor training, and I will further discuss the development of kinaesthetic

learning through bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence in the next section.

Developing Kinaesthetic Learning through Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence

Author Barry Green captures the essence of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence and

its relationship to music when he writes:I feel there’s something almost unfair about trying to teach a skill by putting it intowords. We learn so much more when we learn through our senses and our experience.Maybe there are ‘information’ subjects where verbal instruction works best, but music issomething the body is going to have to perform and it’s best learned by the body that’sgoing to do the performing (Green 1987:147).

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Howard Gardner, who developed the concept of bodily-kinaesthetic

intelligence26 as being one of seven intelligences (logical-mathematical,

linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, inter-personal, and intra-personal) as part of his Multiple Intelligence theory, writes about dancer Martha

Graham’s bodily-kinaesthetic experimentations in his book Creating Minds:The crucial bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence was represented in the course of its ownexperimentation, its transformations and retransformations, rather than thought throughor encoded in a self-standing symbol system. As the dance historian Lynn Garafola putsit: ‘Graham was her body; she became who she was because of it and through thediscipline that made it strong, eloquent and beautiful. What it could and could not dodefined the limits of her invention and prompted the exercises that became the basis ofher technique.’ Regrettably, no records of Graham’s experiments-in-movement exist;one must rely on the recollections of individuals who danced with Martha Graham andon the descriptions of successive dances as they were created in the middle decades ofthe century. Those dances that were less successful, in particular, may be seen as draftsof later, more comprehensive and more effective works (Gardner 1993a:296).

Gardner regarded Graham’s bodily-kinaesthetic observations andexperimentation as crucial to her artistic and technical development. Conducting

teacher James Hainlen has used dance instructors to help his students achieve anunderstanding of physical movement, as Harris explains:

Hainlen also incorporates the practice and metaphorical use of physical motion in histeaching and conducting. He explained: ‘We bring in a dance instructor every year towork with the orchestra. I think (the students’) bodies should be able to create a musicalline by the way they move.’ This approach has proven to be a powerful tool for Hainlenand he described an example that illustrated how the students transferred some of thiswork to their musical performance. They were having trouble attaining the right feelingwith a particularly difficult passage in a Sibelius symphony, so he had them perform aphysical exercise jumping around chairs. This exertion caused them to pant, so he toldthe students, ‘Okay, when you play this passage you should be metaphorically panting atthe end.’ He explained: ‘I never had to conduct that passage again, because their bodieshad a physical emotion to go with it’ (Harris 2001:46-47).

Hainlen indicates that kinaesthetic learning has proved the most effective form of

learning with his conducting students.Schuller also believes that a conductor’s unique physical attributes profoundly

affect conducting ability, but that these can be trained through gesturalexperience (Schuller 1997:9-10). From my own observations of conductor

training programs, many of the movements for conducting are taught in a ‘one

size fits all’ manner. As conductors are built in a variety of shapes and sizes itseems illogical to teach all conductors the same way without taking into account

the variety of body types, as smaller built conductors will use gestures differentlyfrom larger built conductors. This is acknowledged by conducting teacher

26 For a detailed explanation of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, refer to Gardner’s chapter on thissubject in Frames of Mind (Gardner 1993b:206-237).

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Elizabeth Green, who wrote: ‘A 250-pound, 6’2’’ man will conduct differently

than a 130-pound, 5’6’’ woman, not better or worse, but differently. … No twomature conductors conduct exactly alike’ (Green and Gibson 2004:124). As will

be shown in the next chapter, knowledge and awareness of the AlexanderTechnique and Feldenkrais greatly assists conductors of all sizes. The recently

developed Alexander system of Body Mapping allows conductors to observe and

map their body structures, including discrepancies between their perceptions oftheir own physical structures, compared with the reality of how they are actually

structured. As movements are affected by mis-perceptions of physical structure,conductors can perform with greater efficiency and expression by aligning their

movements with how they are actually structured.

Jorge Mester saw his job as a conducting teacher to help his students freethemselves from physical tension so that music and energy could flow through

their bodies, describing the types of conducting problems his students were

having as having to do with: ‘The barriers they put up between their bodies andthe music. Almost every human being has some kind of muscular or motor

lockage at some point within their body that interferes with the delivery ofexpression’ (see Bradle 1982:17).

Conducting teacher Harry Begian encourages all conductors to work in a manner

that feels comfortable and natural, to never copy anyone else, and to bethemselves. He recommends that conductors watch themselves in a mirror to

evaluate their movements (see Ellis 2004:25-26). Kirchhoff agrees, adding: ‘Allconductors should have a distinctive body language. I have no interest in

changing students into carbon copies of me. I take their gestures and clarify

them’ (see Thomson 1994:10).

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Noted Russian conducting teacher Ilya Musin, who was at the St. Petersburg

Conservatory for many years, required his students to develop a physicalrelationship with the music as if sculpting sound. One of his former students,

Russian conductor Semyon Bychkov, describes Musin’s teaching approach:He paid attention to everything, from your posture to the way your arms moved and howyour eyes looked. But the primary concern was the expression itself. … Musin woulddemonstrate various physical possibilities, explaining what each one would give interms of expression itself. So the two dimensions were always connected: the expressionand the way to achieve it. … It was fascinating for everybody to observe how Musindealt with these two subjects: firstly, the music itself – its expression; secondly, how totranslate this expression through physical application of a conductor’s arms, body, eyes,and mind. This is of course something that transcends the purely physical aspect ofconducting (see Leach 2004:23-24).

Musin regarded these expressive elements as learnable by his conducting

students.A priority for the training of conductors at all levels of entering behaviour is to

facilitate instruction in the bodily-kinaesthetic domain. In my survey of

university-level conducting teachers, they were asked how any movementactivities undertaken had helped their students improve their conducting. Among

the general responses to this question, five teachers believed that participation inmovement activities had helped students to develop improved body awareness.

Another five believed that improved self-awareness and confidence resulted. One

respondent felt that the development of the kinaesthetic element had occurred. Aspreviously stated by Barry Green, too much instruction can occur in verbal and

written form, words being imprecise and inadequate to describe the nature of

effective, expressive conducting, and just as poor at imparting it. Choralconductor Weston Noble, when doing a workshop for other conducting teachers,

discovered that the teachers present admitted that they taught throughknowledge-based instruction over 95% of the time, instead of allowing their

students to experience learning in a kinaesthetic manner (see Harris 2001:80-81).

Tennis coach Gallwey states: ‘In tennis there are only one or two elements to beaware of visually, but there are many things to feel. Expanding sensory

knowledge of your body will greatly speed the process of developing skill’(Gallwey 1974:113).

The term given to this kinaesthetic sensory knowledge is proprioception, which

is the sense of the position of parts of the body, relative to other neighbouringparts of the body. The significance of proprioception to expressive conducting is

the relationship proprioception stimulates between movement and sensory

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awareness, including its influence on the development of fine motor skills and

non-verbal communication. Through the influence of proprioception comesmusical feeling, which Harris defines as: ‘an internal conscious state involving

the mind, body, and spirit; it is a responsive act relying upon memory,imagination and introspection. Musical feeling is used to describe that which is

derived from a musical text or score; manifest through performing or listening

experiences. Or in other words, a person’s physical, mental, and spiritual reactionto musical sounds’ (Harris 2001:8). The next section examines ways to connect

the body and the mind in order to allow the communication of musical feeling tooccur.

Developing the mind-body connection contributes to enhanced expressive

movement and non-verbal communication in conductors, as supported byconductor Peter Paul Fuchs (1969). In The Psychology of Conducting, Fuchs

states that the conductor does not ‘make’ the sound, but his movements and

appearance ultimately determine the quality of sound achieved:We often resent ungainly stage mannerisms in a pianist or violinist. There they may bedistracting to the audience, but at least they are not likely to interfere with the quality ofthe music. With a conductor the situation is far more serious since he operates onlypartially through manual skill and mainly through skillful psychology. Therefore, nomatter how great a musician he may be, his gawkiness will somehow be reflected in thefinished product, the sounds that are produced by the orchestra (Fuchs 1969:61).

An important part of a conductor’s expressive art, therefore, is the way he or sheuses their body to communicate with the musicians. According to Fuchs’

statement above, skilled musicianship is insufficient. It must be connected toeffective body use.

I will now examine the contribution made by writers and philosophers Huxley,

Dewey, Merleau-Ponty and Shusterman to the mind-body connection debate.Although none of them wrote specifically about conducting, I believe their

comments are relevant to the development of expressive conducting, as they allcomment on the importance of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain as a most

important part of learning.

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I Connecting Body and Mind

In his well-known book on Multiple Intelligence Theory, Frames of Mind,

Howard Gardner describes the characteristics of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligenceas:

The ability to use one’s body in highly differentiated and skilled ways, for expressive aswell as goal-directed purposes. … The capacity to work skillfully with objects, boththose that involve the fine motor movements of one’s fingers and hands and those thatexploit gross motor movements of the body (Gardner 1993b:207).

Gardner’s definition, although aimed at bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, is also

an accurate definition of an expressive conductor, the ‘object’ in the abovepassage being a ‘sound-object’ that can be manipulated by an expressive

conductor.

Gardner goes on to describe a ‘radical disjunction’ in Western culture betweenthe activities of reasoning and the manifestly physical part of our nature, as

epitomised by our bodies. The divorce between the ‘mental’ and ‘physical’ hasoften undervalued what we do with our bodies in comparison with ‘relatively

abstract symbolic systems’, such as language and logic (Gardner 1993b:208).

Gardner however notes that: ‘Psychologists in recent years have discerned andstressed a close link between the use of the body and the deployment of other

cognitive powers’ (Gardner 1993b:209). As shown in statements made by writersHuxley, Dewey, Merleau-Ponty and Shusterman in the past eighty years, the

mind-body connection is becoming more valued in Western thought.

One of the difficulties of conducting is the combination of mental and physical

skills required. While conductors are located in the present in time, they mustgesture physically ahead of other musicians and the music, in order to influence

the music before it happens. Mentally, conductors must think ahead of the music

in order to anticipate the requirements of the musicians, while at the same timeanalysing the performance that has just occurred to determine if it fits their

conception of the music. This combination of physical and mental skills presents

great challenges to student conductors, who often resort to last minute gestures tomusicians, and become so caught up in the technique of conducting that they fail

to listen to the resulting performance, restricting their ability to analyse what hasoccurred and diagnose solutions. In the next chapter, I will show that

examination of the five expressive movement theories selected in this thesis

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(Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais) can greatly assist

conductors to integrate the physical and mental aspects of conducting.Alexander’s ideas, however, as will be shown, had a direct influence on the

writings of Huxley and Dewey.

Alexander Influences on the Mind-Body Connection

According to Alexander teacher and researcher Frank Pierce Jones (1997), writer

Aldous Huxley had daily lessons on the Alexander Technique from F.M.Alexander in 1935, helping to resolve a severe case of writer’s block and also

influencing Huxley’s ideas on mind-body connection (Jones 1997:56-57).

Grateful for Alexander’s assistance, he modelled a character in his book (Eyeless

in Gaza) on Alexander (Jones 1997:56). Huxley’s ideas on the mind-body

connection, expressed in Ends and Means of 1937 are similar to those of

Alexander, expressed only five years earlier in The Use of the Self. Huxley states:‘In the world as we know it, mind and body form a single organic whole. What

happens in the mind affects the body; what happens in the body affects the mind.Education must therefore be a process of physical as well as mental training’

(Huxley 1941:219).

Huxley goes on to advocate the Alexandrian concepts ‘means-whereby’ andinhibition27. He even cites Alexander by name (Huxley 1941:223). Discussing

body awareness and integration, he writes:The body must be trained to think. True, this happens every time we learn a manualskill; our bodies think when we draw, or play golf, or take a piano lesson. But all suchthinking is specialist thinking. What we need is an education for our bodies that shall be,on the bodily plane, liberal and not merely technical and narrowly specific. Theawareness that our bodies need is the knowledge of the proper way to apply thatprinciple in every phase of physical activity (Huxley 1941:221-222).

Huxley’s advice is certainly relevant for conductors, who must convey to othermusicians during performance their wishes via the bodily plane. I have observed

that conductors who have a high entering behaviour for expressive movement

have an enormous advantage over awkward or self-conscious conductors, whencommunicating with musicians in performance. It is possible that lower entering

behaviour conductors who are encouraged to explore the bodily plane will be

27 According to Alexander, the ‘means-whereby’ a reliable sensory appreciation can be developedand maintained is brought about not through subconscious, instinctive action, but throughconscious, reasoning guidance and control (Alexander 1985:150). Alexander used the term‘inhibition’ in the sense of meaning to stop, or consciously control an action.

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more successful with expressive movement than by engaging in ‘merely

technical and narrowly specific’ movement.

The philosopher John Dewey also studied the Alexander Technique with F.M.Alexander intermittently throughout the 1920s and 1930s (see Jones 1997:104).

Dewey had already indicated his opposition to dualist mind-body thinking in an

1896 article ‘The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology28.’ Dewey describes the

reflex arc, not as an organic unity, but as a ‘patchwork of disjointed parts.’ At thetime Dewey believed: ‘it is the movement which is primary, and the sensation

which is secondary, the movement of body, head and eye muscles determining

the quality of what is experienced’ (Dewey 1896:358). Dewey expresses hisdisdain for the contemporary view that the reflex arc was no more than a passive

stimulation of the organism provoking a physical response. In Dewey’s opinion,

the reflex arc sensation directly influences idea and action:The older dualism between sensation and idea is repeated in the current dualism ofperipheral and central structures and functions; the older dualism of body and soul findsa distinct echo in the current dualism of stimulus and response. Instead of interpretingthe character of sensation, idea and action from their place and function in the sensory-motor circuit, we still incline to interpret the latter from our preconceived and pre-formulated ideas of rigid distinctions between sensations, thoughts, and acts (Dewey1896:357-358).

At the time, Dewey believed that the greatest benefit of body movement washeightened experience. However, the greatest benefit Dewey received from his

Alexander lessons was the ability to stop and think before acting (inhibition) (seeJones 1997:97). It was this increased importance of sensory awareness that was

missing from Dewey’s Reflex Arc article.

According to both Jones and a 1958 thesis by Eric McCormack, Dewey’s workwith Alexander influenced Dewey’s subsequent ideas on the importance of

sensory awareness. Although Dewey provided an introduction to three of

Alexander’s books29, Alexandrian concepts began to appear in some of Dewey’s

own writings30, as highlighted in McCormack’s thesis. In a 1928 talk to the New

28 A reflex arc is the simplest arrangement of receptor-adjustor-effector units. Sensory cells carryafferent impulses to a central interneuron, which makes contact with a motor neuron. The motorneuron carries efferent impulses to the effector, which produces the response (Nervous system. InEncyclopaedia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online [cited 9 January 2006].Available from http://search.eb.com/eb/article-75816)29 Man’s Supreme Inheritance (1910), Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual (1923),and The Use of the Self (1932).30 Human Nature and Conduct (1922) and Experience and Nature (1925)

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York Academy of Medicine, Dewey again testifies to the necessity of seeing the

mind and body as an integral whole:The question of integration of mind-body in action is the most practical question we canask of our civilisation. It is not just a speculative question, it is a demand – a demandthat the labour of multitudes now too predominantly physical in character to beinspirited by purpose and emotion and informed by knowledge and understanding. It is ademand that what now pass for highly intellectual and spiritual functions shall beintegrated with the ultimate conditions and means of all achievement, namely thephysical, and thereby accomplish something beyond themselves. Until this integration iseffected in the only place where it can be carried out, in action itself, we shall continueto live in a society in which a soulless and heartless materialism is compensated for bysoulful but futile idealism and spiritualism (Dewey 1928).

At the very start of his talk, Dewey discusses the prevalent divide between body

and mind. According to Dewey, part of the problem is that there is no one wordto name the mind-body unity. In attempting to establish this unity, we have a

tendency to perpetuate the division, by speaking of body and mind (Dewey1928).

McCormack claims that from Dewey’s output, his book Experience and Nature

‘is the one in which Alexander’s principles stand out most clearly and havepenetrated most deeply’ (McCormack 1959). In this book, Dewey presents a

chapter on ‘Nature, Life and Body-Mind’. He introduces the term ‘psycho-physical’ to indicate a level of organisation pervading activity, as a distinction

with purely ‘physical’, which Dewey regards as inanimate (Dewey 1958:253-

255). Central to Dewey’s argument in this chapter is that mind and body (matter)form an interconnected ‘whole,’ a concept that, in Dewey’s opinion, fails to be

understood by mind-body dualists:The idea that matter, life and mind represent separate kinds of Being is a doctrine thatsprings, as so many philosophic errors have sprung, from a substantiation of eventualfunctions. The fallacy converts consequences of interaction of events into causes of theoccurrence of these consequences – a reduplication which is significant as to theimportance of the functions, but which hopelessly confuses understanding of them(Dewey 1958:261-262).

‘Psycho-physical’ is a term that was earlier used by Alexander in his bookConstructive Conscious Control of the Individual (Alexander 1985:31). Dewey

blames what he terms ‘early Christian ideals and teachings’ for the mind-body

division: ‘The Body is earthly, fleshly, lustful and passionate; Spirit is Godlike,everlasting; flesh is corruptible, spirit incorruptible’ (Dewey 1958:249). Dewey’s

criticism is directed at the Christian Church’s mistrust and rejection of bodilyexperience and pleasure and the subsequent emphasis and teaching of spiritual

thought, as exemplified by the writings of René Descartes.

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Philosophical Perspectives on the Mind-Body Connection

The philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty blames Descartes for the last fewhundred years of division between mind and body, due to Descartes’

objectification of the body. Appearing first in Descartes’ fourth Discourse on

Method of 1637, his statement ‘I think therefore I am’ firmly emphasised themind over the body. Referring to the potential for the mind to exist outside the

body, Descartes writes:I thereby concluded that I was a substance, of which the whole essence of natureconsists in thinking, and which, in order to exist, needs no place and depends on nomaterial thing; so that this ‘I’, that is to say, the mind, by which I am what I am, isentirely distinct from the body, and even that it is easier to know than the body, andmoreover, that even if the body were not, it would not cease to be all that it is (Descartes1979:54).

Descartes therefore entirely rejects the body as a vehicle for knowing and

experiencing. In his Sixth Meditation, published four years after the Discourses,Descartes also refers to the division between mind and body when he writes:

‘There is a great difference between mind and body, in that body, by its nature, isalways divisible and mind is indivisible’ (Descartes 1979:164).

In the years that followed, human thought dominated action. The body was

viewed as a shell or casing for the mind. Intellectual rigour triumphed overbodily ‘experience.’ In the development of conductors, the equivalent would be

to limit the study of conducting to score study only.

Rejecting this mind-body dualism, phenomenologist Merleau-Ponty in the 1950s

argued that the body plays a significant role in our experience and understandingof the world. He criticises mainstream philosophy, particularly Cartesian

philosophy with its focus on objectifying the body:The psycho-physical event can no longer be conceived after the model of Cartesianphysiology and as the juxtaposition of a process in itself and a cogitatio. The union ofsoul and body is not an amalgamation between two mutually external terms, subject andobject, brought about by arbitrary decree. It is enacted at every instant in the movementof existence (Merleau-Ponty 1978:88-89).

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Merleau-Ponty argues in favour of the continual kinaesthetic feedback provided

by the body, including an image of the body’s movement and positioning inspace:

‘Body image’ was at first understood to mean a compendium of our bodily experience,capable of giving a commentary and meaning to the internal impressions and impressionof possessing a body at any moment. It was supposed to register for me the positionalchanges of the parts of my body for each movement of one of them, the position of eachlocal stimulus in the body as a whole, an account of the movements performed at everyinstant during a complex gesture, in short a continual translation into visual language ofthe kinaesthetic and articular impressions of the moment (Merleau-Ponty 1978:98-99).

According to Merleau-Ponty, the body is central to the learning process.

Movement is the vehicle of that learning:A movement is learned when the body has understood it, that is, when it hasincorporated it into its ‘world’, and to move one’s body is to aim at things through it; itis to allow oneself to respond to their call, which is made upon it independently of anyrepresentation (Merleau-Ponty 1978:139).

An example of a conducting movement that the body is required to learn andunderstand in order for it to be effective is a preparatory gesture. In order for the

tempo to be consistent every time for a given passage, the conductor must have akinaesthetic image of the body experiencing that tempo prior to actually making

the preparatory movement. Otherwise the tempo is unlikely to be consistent or

delivered with conviction.

To further emphasise the mind-body connection, American philosopher RichardShusterman in 1999 proposed a new discipline in the field of philosophical

aesthetics, a discipline that Shusterman calls ‘somaesthetics31.’ Influenced by

Baumgarten’s eighteenth century Aesthetica, Shusterman’s goals in proposing

this new discipline were to revive Baumgarten’s idea of aesthetics as a life-improving cognitive discipline; to end the neglect of the body that Baumgarten

introduced into aesthetics; and to propose an enlarged, somatically centred field

(somaesthetics) that ‘can contribute to many crucial philosophical concerns, thusenabling philosophy to more successfully redeem its original role as an art of the

living’ (Shusterman 1999:301-302). The goal of somaesthetics is to correct the

functional performance of our sensory perception by an improved direction of

31 Shusterman defines somaesthetics as ‘the critical, meliorative study of the experience and useof one’s body as a locus of sensory-aesthetic appreciation and creative self-fashioning’(Shusterman 1999:302).

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one’s body, since the senses belong to and are conditioned by the soma32. This

goal is supported by Alexander’s observation and description of the condition

that he called ‘faulty kinaesthetic awareness.’ Alexander writes: ‘Speakinggenerally, it will be found that the pupil is quite unable to analyse his own

actions. … The imperfectly poised person has not a correct apprehension of what

he is really doing’ (Alexander 2005:213). Faulty kinaesthetic awareness is animportant concept for conductors to consider, as I have often observed a

difference between the action conductors think they are performing and theactual resultant action.

Shusterman acknowledges the somatic benefits of yoga, Zen meditation and tai

chi, as well as Western body disciplines such as the Alexander Technique, the

Feldenkrais Method, and Bioenergetics33. He claims that experiential

somaesthetics ‘works at improving awareness of our bodily states and feelings,thus providing greater insight into both our passing moods and lasting attitudes.

It can therefore reveal and improve somatic malfunctionings that normally goundetected even though they impair our well-being and performance’

(Shusterman 1999:302-303).

In Performing Live – Aesthetic Alternatives for the Ends of Art, Shustermanmakes a distinction between experiential somaesthetics and what he calls

‘representational’ somaesthetics, which exteriorises the body as a mechanicalinstrument and dominates our culture, entrenching the division of mind and spirit

and serving the aims of what Shusterman calls ‘capitalist consumerism,’ in that

the body serves as an object for billboard-style advertising and magazines.Experiential somaesthetics, in comparison, focuses not on the external body but

on bodily consciousness and agency, on embodied spirit (Shusterman 2000:161).Somaesthetics, while still a relatively new discipline, reinforces the importance

of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain as a form of intelligence. Its potential

application to conducting deserves to be further investigated in future.

Music education philosopher David Elliott in 1995 described his musical

philosophy as a particular form of musical action that is purposeful and situated,

32 The soma is defined by Thomas Hanna as ‘the body experienced from within’ (Hanna 1990).33 Bioenergetics, invented by Alexander Lowen, incorporates violent movements and shaking.Bioenergetics sees life as movement of feeling (Shusterman 2000:174-175). Due to potentialmovements injurious to the body in bioenergetics, this system will not be studied as part of thisthesis.

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and assigns it the term ‘praxial34.’ Elliott advocates the development of

musicianship as embodied action:An unfortunate legacy of dualistic thinking is the false belief that to really possessmusical understanding one must possess a storehouse of verbal information aboutmusical works. The corollary of this belief is that pencil-and-paper tests of verbalconcepts are measures of musicianship. This is also false.… What I am urging, however, is that a musical performance ought to be valued forwhat it is: an embodiment of a student’s musical understanding of a given work and itsrelated practice (Elliott 1995:75-76).

Elliott’s musical philosophy stated here is clearly in support of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence for performing musicians, instead of the ‘verbal

concepts’ of logical-mathematical intelligence.

As will be shown in Chapter Six on the significance of non-verbal

communication in conducting, many musicians have found the description ofmusical experiences to be difficult to put into words.

Using movement and sensation gives musicians the opportunity to express

feelings and emotions aroused by these experiences. The neurologist AntonioDamasio (1994) supports these expressions. Operating from the premise that

feeling is an integral component of the machinery of reason, Damasio does notaccept that emotions or feelings are intangible. Instead, he insists that emotions

and feelings can be medically explained:I do not see emotions and feelings as the intangible and vaporous qualities that manypresume them to be. Their subject matter is concrete, and they can be related to specificsystems in body and brain, no less so than vision or speech. Nor are the responsiblebrain systems confined to the subcortical sector. Brain core and cerebral cortex worktogether to construct emotion and feeling, no less so than in vision (Damasio 1994:164).

Damasio proposes that critical networks on which feelings rely include not onlythe limbic system, but also pre-frontal cortices and sectors that map and integrate

bodily signals35. This collection of systems holds both innate and acquired

knowledge about the body proper, the outside world, and the brain itself as it

interacts with the body and the outside world. This knowledge is used to deployand manipulate the images that constitute our thoughts, stored in the in-between

brain sectors. Biological regulation, memory of previous states, and planning of

future actions result from cooperative activity not just in early sensory and motor 34 From praxis, meaning action that is embedded in, responsive to, and reflective of a specificcontent of effort (Elliott 1995:14).35 In between the brain’s five main sensory input sectors and three main output sectors lie theassociation cortices, the basal ganglia, the thalamus, the limbic system cortices and limbic nuclei,and the brain stem and cerebellum (Damasio 1994:93-94).

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cortices but also in the in-between sectors. There is no single region in the human

brain equipped to process representations from all the sensory modalities(Damasio 1994:93-95). In conclusion, Damasio sees the brain as a dynamically

evolving structure, in cooperation with the body:This dynamic map of the overall organism anchored in body schema and body boundarywould not be achieved in one brain area alone but rather in several areas by means oftemporally coordinated patterns of neural activity. … The sensory representation of allparts with a potential for movement would be connected to various sites and levels ofthe motor system whose activity can cause muscular activity. In other words, thedynamic system of maps I have in mind is ‘somato-motor’ (Damasio 1994:231).

Damasio as a neurologist supports the mind-body connection, and thereforerejects Descartes’ dualist ideas. Furthermore, Damasio supports the role of

movement in learning, which seems to allow for a more flexible approach to

motor skill development, due to differences in body type and entering behaviour.

In the next section, I will discuss the role of motor skill development in theenhancement of kinaesthetic learning.

II Motor Skill Development

As stated earlier in the chapter, I have observed that many of the movements forconducting are taught in a ‘one size fits all’ manner. As conductors are built in a

variety of shapes and sizes it seems illogical to teach all conductors the same way

without taking into account the variety of body types, as smaller built conductorswill use gestures differently to larger built conductors. A dancer and movement

teacher, Jarmila Kröschlová, also argues for knowledge of anatomy for all thoseinvolved in teaching live movement:

The usual method of teaching anatomy in schools is detached from live movement. Iconsider it essential that these two subjects be tied together as closely as possible. I buildmy analysis on mutual interweaving of these two standpoints. The prospective teacher ofmovement should have regular opportunity to compare their own theoretical knowledgewith the live movement of practical sessions. It is essential to have anatomicalknowledge of the movement mechanics of the human body, in order to understandmovement and its analysis (Kröschlová 2000:16).

For conducting teachers, knowledge of anatomy is also important to assist theirstudents to correct inaccurate perceptions of the way their bodies are structured,

which interferes with functioning. An example of this occurs in the instructionalvideo of Body Mapping, in which choral conducting teacher Heather Buchanan

alerts her students to the correct structure of the shoulder joint, enabling an

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enhanced range of shoulder movement from popular misconceptions of shoulder

structure (Jordan and Buchanan 2002). Knowledge of anatomy for conductingteachers should also extend to the nervous system. The nervous system consists

of the brain and the spinal cord, which together make up the central nervoussystem, and the free running nerves supplying all parts of the body, which make

up the peripheral nervous system (Fig. 11).

A - CerebrumB – CerebellumC – Spinal CordD – Peripheral nerves supplying structures on theleft side of the neckD1 – Peripheral nerves supplying structure to theleft side of thorax and abdomenE and F – Peripheral nerves to upper and lowerlimbs respectively

Fig. 11 The Central and Peripheral Nervous System (Kröschlová 2000:8)

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Nerve cells have a nucleus, several small branches called dendrites for the

reception of messages, and normally one branch, the axon or nerve fibre, formessage transmission (Fig. 12). A nerve cell with its branches forms the basic

unit of the nervous system and is called a neurone.

A – AxonsB – DendritesInset – the meeting betweenaxons and dendrites, showingthe contact but anatomicalseparateness (synapse)

Fig. 12 Two Nerve Cells (Kröschlová 2000:10)

The characteristic function of nervous tissue is the carrying of nervous impulses.Kinaesthetic awareness occurs at the moment when the cerebellum receives and

interprets information from the kinaesthetic receptors via the sensory nerves.Without this information, expressive, refined and economical movement is

impossible. Technique becomes purely mechanical (Kröschlová 2000:9-10).

Kröschlová describes three stages of refining kinaesthetic awareness. Firstly,kinaesthetic sensory receptors, located in the skin, muscles, tendons and

ligaments, need to be intact. These detect and transmit information about changesof state of the musculo-skeletal system. Secondly, the brain must be in a

condition to receive and interpret this information from the periphery. Thirdly,

the brain sends a response back to the muscles concerned, via the motor nerves.In this way the brain conveys a more precise set of messages back to the

musculo-skeletal system, resulting in more finely differentiated and coordinated

movements (Kröschlová 2000:8). As conductors are required to make finelydifferentiated and coordinated movements as part of conducting expressively, the

importance of the back-and-forth nature of the kinaesthetic information sent andreceived by brain and receptors is reinforced.

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In my survey of secondary school conductors in Melbourne, I was initially

interested to discover if the participants had related any improvement in theirconducting to sporting participation. I thought that sporting participation may

have improved kinaesthetic awareness (Table 8).No Impact 30 71%Improved Timing 1 2%Improved Self Awareness 1 2%Physical Preparation 1 2%Improved Fitness 6 14%Improved Coordination 3 7%Development of Natural Arm Motions 2 5%Develop Sporting Analogies 2 5%Table 8 Impact of Sporting Activities on Conducting Improvement

However, 71% of respondents reported no impact. Six respondents (14%)

reported improved fitness and three respondents reported improved coordination.

Although there may be a relationship between sporting activities and expressiveconducting, it has not been found in this thesis.

On the surface it would appear that the majority of respondents also failed to

acknowledge any link between their participation in movement activities andtheir conducting (Table 9).No Impact 29 69%Relaxes Body & Mind 3 7%Improved Fitness 1 2%Focus on Specific Parts of Body 2 5%Improved Well-Being 1 2%Enhanced Control of Movements 1 2%Enhanced Freedom of Hands/Arms 1 2%Natural Flow of Energy 1 2%Improved Coordination 1 2%Understanding of Human Movement 1 2%Dalcroze and Alexander 3 7%Table 9 Impact of Movement Activities on Conducting Improvement

However, the majority of those who indicated ‘No Impact’ had not participated

in any movement activities (86%). Of those who had participated in movement

activities, over 73% found some benefit toward their conducting. Despite the lowlevel of participation, there was an indication that kinaesthetic awareness could

be promoted.

In the 1940s the Russian physiologist Nicholas Bernstein was the first to argue

that motor acts cannot be controlled by explicit one-to-one mappings between

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neural commands and movement trajectories. Bernstein explains the significance

of his findings in his book The Coordination and Regulation of Movements:It appeared important to me to demonstrate that a movement could not be understood interms of some nuance in operation of a single impulse, but that it is the result of thesimultaneous cooperative operation of whole systems of impulses, while the structure ofthis system – its structural schema – is important for the understanding of the result. It isonly a short step from this to the central argument in this report, that the innervation andlocalisation of this structure is in reality not only contradictory to the observablestructure of the movements of the organism but is necessarily an exact representation ofthe latter (Bernstein 1967:36).

He recognised that controlling each body component (muscles or joints)separately could very quickly become an impossibly unwieldy endeavor. He

refers to this complexity and redundancy as ‘the degree of freedom problem’:Like every other form of nervous activity which is structured to meet particularsituations, motor coordination develops slowly as a result of experiment and exercise. …When someone who is a novice at a sport, at playing a musical instrument or at anindustrial process first attempts to master the new coordination, he is rigidly, spasticallyfixed and holds the limb involved, or even his whole body, in such a way as to reducethe number of kinematic degrees of freedom which he is required to control (Bernstein1967:107-108).

His solution was that we learn to constrain muscle groupings to act as interactive

units, which he called coordinative structures. These structures interacted withthe brain in a continual dialogue. In assessing the influence of Bernstein on the

development of human motor actions, Requin, Semjen and Bonnet state:In Bernstein’s view, the complete mastery of coordination consists in a judicialutilisation of reactive forces, i.e., the introduction of the necessary impulse at the propertime. Such a skill certainly could not be exerted without the permanent and powerfulintervention of the processes of anticipation of the spatio-temporal characteristics ofevents. The circular and uninterrupted flow of information between the periphery andthe centre, whose importance was stressed by Bernstein, is the immediate condition aswell as the consequence and the subsequent expression of coordination (Requin,Semjen, and Bonnet 1984:495).

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Bernstein believes that it is this interaction between the periphery and the centre

that allows the coordination of expressive movement to occur. Commenting onthe use of practice to solve motor skill problems, Bernstein states that the

solution is not in the repetition, but in the perfection of techniques required toimprove:

… Even in the case of such uniformly repetitive acts the variability in the motor pictureand in the range of initial conditions may at first be very great, and a more or less fixedprogram develops depending on the extent to which a motion is practised, and by nomeans at the first attempt. The process of practice continues towards the achievement ofnew motor habits essentially consists in the gradual success of a search for optimalmotor solutions to the appropriate problems. Because of this, practice, when properlyundertaken, does not consist in repeating the means of solution of a motor problem timeafter time, but in the process of solving this problem again and again by techniqueswhich we changed and perfected from repetition to repetition (Bernstein 1967:134).

Bernstein noticed that when practice was effective, subsequent repetitionsstripped away inefficient and redundant movements. From this statement, an

important consideration for conductors is that blind repetition will not facilitate

expressive movement without some form of modification occurring fromrepetition to repetition. Without this modification, no improvement in expressive

movement can be made.As movement pathways are developed and practised, a refinement of fine motor

skills needs to occur. Maintenance of awareness between the mind and the body

is essential for this to happen, so that the body does not engage in ‘mindless’repetition.

Additionally, in a 1984 reassessment of Bernstein’s work which supportsBernstein’s criticism of Descartes’ theory, Turvey and Kugler criticise the

Cartesian influence on scientific thinking, claiming that the Cartesian program ‘is

not a scientifically tractable program’:We believe that the Cartesian program must be abandoned if a scientifically acceptableaccount is to be provided of the perceptual objectivity that Bernstein regards as the sinequa non of action. To ease the break with tradition, it may help to remember thatDescartes built his perceptual theory around thought, not action (Turvey and Kugler1984:381).

The essence of Bernstein’s theory is therefore that dynamic kinaesthetic

movement, involving both mind and body, is the optimum vehicle for learning

coordinated expressive movement.The work of Bernstein provided an important step in the study of motor skills as

the motor behaviourist Beverley Ulrich (1997) began to adopt a dynamic systemsapproach, and by the early 1980s she began to recognise that human organisms

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demonstrate the basic properties common to all dynamic systems. The basic

criterion for a dynamic system is that it changes over time, and change oftenoccurs as a nonlinear shift from one pattern of organisation to another.

Ulrich summarises the advantages of adopting a dynamic systems approach:Dynamic Systems Theory proposes … that there are no rules of development. There iscomplexity and there are relations among subsystems in open, thermodynamic andactive systems. There is real-time heterarchical cooperation among the organism’sintrinsic dynamics, the goal and the context. Solutions arise from the constraintsinherent in the context and the task, given the many solutions available to complexhuman organisms. From the continuous process of multimodal and multilevel perceptionand action, infants and children discover the fit between their capabilities and their goalsand acquire stable and functional motor behaviours (Ulrich 1997:341-342).

Although more research in this area is needed, I believe that Dynamic Systems

Theory may also be applicable to conducting, as conducting movements have theability to self-organise, consist of patterned movements, require destabilisation to

change habitual gestures, and serve as a continual interaction between theperception and action subsystems. In dynamic systems terms, conductors can

develop skills via multiple pathways, catering more for varieties of body type

and entering behaviour.As a form of comparison, Maturation Theory states that motor development

occurs as part of a pre-determined, pre-programmed design. Over time, thenervous system would inevitably mature, as defined stages in development were

reached. Maturation Theory developed largely due to the work of psychologist

Arnold Gesell in the 1930s, 40s and 50s. It was Gesell’s belief that physicalstructure must be present and developed before function can occur and behaviour

is not possible until the necessary structures are developed (see Salkind 1981:43).

As can be seen from my examination of the kinaesthetic effectiveness of selected

conducting textbooks earlier in this thesis, textbooks by Phillips (1997), Labuta(2004), Long (1977), Saito (1988), Scherchen (1933), McElheran (1989), and

Prausnitz (1983) that do not incorporate a kinaesthetic approach appear to follow

the maturationist view to motor skill development in conducting, incorrectly inmy view. It is simply assumed that by following a pre-ordained process, a

conductor’s gestures will inevitably become expressive. A great deal ofinstructional material is separated into ‘physical’ or ‘mental’ categories. Physical

skills are introduced one-by-one, and new skills are not introduced until earlier

skills are mastered. An example of this is right hand technique, which is

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generally introduced as a beat pattern, and repeated until some form of mastery is

reached. It is not until this time that other skills such as left hand technique areintroduced, ensuring that subsequent skills are developmentally far behind the

initially introduced right hand technique. This appears to be confirmed by mysurvey of secondary school conductors in Melbourne, who were asked to

determine the difficulty they had in developing a range of skill areas, including

beat patterns, left hand use, and expressive gestures. The results for beat patternsare shown in Table 10.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative PercentValid No Response 1 2.4 2.4 2.4

Slightly Difficult 4 9.5 9.5 11.9Slightly Easy 18 42.9 42.9 54.8Very Easy 19 45.2 45.2 100.0Total 42 100.0 100.0

Table 10 Level of Difficulty Developing Beat Patterns

The overwhelming majority of respondents found the beat patterns easy to learn.

Only four respondents (just under 10%) found the beat patterns slightly difficult.

None found the beat patterns very difficult, or were still uncomfortable withthem. The results for left hand use are quite different, however (Table 11).

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative PercentValid Still not Comfortable 4 9.5 9.5 9.5

Very Difficult 4 9.5 9.5 19.0Slightly Difficult 19 45.2 45.2 64.3Undecided 4 9.5 9.5 73.8Slightly Easy 9 21.4 21.4 95.2Very Easy 2 4.8 4.8 100.0Total 42 100.0 100.0

Table 11 Level of Difficulty Developing Left Hand Use

64% of respondents found the use of the left hand in conducting difficult. Indeed,

just fewer than 10% of respondents stated that they were still not comfortablewith using their left hands. Just fewer than 10% of respondents were undecided.

Nineteen respondents (45%) found the left hand slightly difficult to use. Only26% of respondents found the left hand in any way easy to use.

As an alternative, knowledge of and instruction in expressive movement allowsfor the possibility of nonlinear development of gestural skill, because viewing

expressive gestural development in conducting as a dynamic system recognises

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the contribution of expressive movement to the ability of multiple subsystems to

self-organise. A dynamic systems approach to conducting also allows for themind-body connection and individual differences, permitting conductors to

engage in the process of learning conducting, instead of conforming to astereotyped end product.

There are multiple possible solutions to many conducting problems. In

combination with developing technique, all conductors would benefit morethrough ‘listening to their bodies’ and developing gestures through a kinaesthetic

approach. Conducting consists of patterned movements (attractors36). Alteringhabitual gestures and mannerisms requires perturbation of previous patterns to

allow the body to explore the kinesphere. As all bodies and body types are

different, so are all conductors different. Conductors have differing enteringbehaviours, differing reactions to situations, and differing rates of improvement.

Working with expressive movement allows all conductors the opportunity to

self-organise their own movement patterns. Developing expressive non-verbalgestures as a means of communication with the musicians serves as a continual

interaction between the perception and action subsystems.Further experimental research in this area is required. For this to be undertaken,

more specific knowledge of bio-mechanics, psychology and physiology is

needed. Therefore, beyond the presentation of a hypothesis and rationale ondynamic systems, no supporting research will be undertaken as part of this thesis.

As Kröschlová has already noted, more refined motor skills may be developed by

consciously interpreting the sensations arising in the musculo-skeletal system.

This perception of the position and state of movement of the parts of the body isknown as kinaesthetic awareness (Kröschlová 2000:8). The term given to this

kinaesthetic sense is proprioception. I will now expand upon the importance ofproprioception, as all conductors must develop a kinaesthetic awareness of the

position of their bodies in space in order to communicate effectively with their

ensembles through gesture.

36 Attractors are behavioural states that assemble into preferred patterns (Buchanan and Ulrich2001:317).

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III Proprioception and its Role in Conducting

Proprioception, which is the sense of the position of parts of the body relative to

other neighbouring parts, provides feedback solely on the body’s internal status.Based on my experience working with conductors, I have observed that some

conductors are naturally gifted proprioceptively, but others, independent of their

musical abilities, lack awareness of the positions of their bodies in space. Asnoted earlier in the thesis, in some conducting textbooks, so much early work is

put into right hand technique, that the left hand, body, and face are left farbehind. Many conductors lack awareness of the position or expression of the left

hand, body, and face, and express surprise at their appearance during a video

review of their conducting. The left hand, body, and face are very important inthe communication of the conductor’s wishes, and should be effectively taught as

part of conductor training. As has been shown, the beat pattern, representing a

mechanically repeated task, is easy to learn and implement. Left hand use andexpressive gestures, on the other hand, require a level of proprioceptive

sensitivity present in high entering behaviour conductors. Proprioception,therefore, has a major role in expressive conducting, but can all levels of entering

behaviour develop it?

Sir Charles Sherrington, one of the pioneers in the field of neuroscience, wrote a

paper in 1906 on ‘the Proprio-Ceptive System’ that assigned the term‘proprioception’ to the deep field37 wherein the stimuli to the receptors are

delivered by the organism itself (Sherrington 1906:472). An important

characteristic that Sherrington noted of the deep receptors in the proprioceptivefield was ‘their tendency to induce and maintain tonic reactions in the skeletal

musculature’ (Sherrington 1906:473). Sherrington concluded: ‘Though of manyreflex reactions the outcome is movement and the muscles reacting are thus used

as organs of motion, much of the reflex reaction expressed by the skeletal

musculature is not motile, but postural, and has as its result not a movement, butthe steady maintenance of an attitude’ (Sherrington 1906:474). This is a feature

37 Sherrington made the distinction between the surface field of the body, rich in receptive organs,which he termed ‘extero-ceptive’, and the deeper, internal receptive organs, which he termed‘intero-ceptive’ (Sherrington 1906:468-471).

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of proprioception that was later also noted by Feldenkrais (see the following

chapter).

The combination of both muscle and joint receptors forms an integral componentof a complex sensory-motor system that plays a role in the proprioceptive

mechanism. The proprioceptive mechanism is part of a system initiated by the

activation of mechanoreceptors38. The sensory (afferent) input from themechanoreceptors is relayed by the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to the

central nervous system (CNS). The CNS responds to the afferent stimulus bydischarging a motor (efferent) signal that modulates muscle function by

controlling joint motion and/or position. The afferent and efferent pathways

involved with this complex system mediate proprioception at three distinct levelswithin the CNS. At the spinal level, proprioception operates unconsciously with

reflexes subserving movement patterns that are received from higher levels of the

nervous system. The second level of motor control is at the brain stem, connectedto the cerebellum, where joint afference is relayed to maintain posture and

balance of the body. The input to the cerebellum about this information emanatesfrom the joint and muscle proprioceptors, the vestibular centres in the ears, and

from the eyes.

The final aspect of motor control includes the highest level of CNS function, themotor cortex, located within the back portion of the frontal lobe of the cerebrum

(see Fig. 11), and is mediated by cognitive awareness of body position andmotion. Proprioception at this level functions consciously, and is essential for

proper muscle and joint function in sports (music), activities of daily living, and

occupational tasks (see Lephart and Borsa 2005:5-6). Proprioception is anotherexample of the mind-body connection, as the combination of brain, nervous

system, muscles and joints communicates spatial position and facilitatesexpressive movement.

38 Mechanoreceptors signal mechanical deformation of soft tissue (Lephart and Borsa 2005:3).

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Researchers Silow (2002), Herman (1983), and Barr and Lewin (1994) have

investigated proprioception in learning. In 2002 Theresa Silow completed athesis on the importance of the kinaesthetic sense in the exploration of sensation,

in which she particularly advocates the use of proprioception (which she termed‘kinesthesia’) as a research tool:

The term kinesthesis was coined at a time when research was based on introspectiverather than experimental procedures. Today, even after enormous advances inneuroscience, I still regard introspection as the major source for insight into the innerexperience. No technology can actually relay the experience itself. There is immenseknowledge to be gained by simply listening to the subtleties of the body, regardless ofany quantifiable measure or statistical significance. Kinesthesia thus implies value forthe ‘holistic’ experience and a holistic mode of enquiry (Silow 2002:26).

Similarly, I maintain that no book or description of conducting can replace the

value of kinaesthetic movement as a vehicle towards expressive conducting.

Silow links movement with the development of sensory abilities. Beginning frombirth, our organism learns and develops through movement and consequent

sensory awareness. Through the course of extensive non-linear movement and

sensory development (supported by Dynamic Systems Theory), the sensorysystem becomes enormously complex, even at toddler stage, and continues to

expand from there. Furthermore, Silow links this movement and sensorydevelopment with an emerging sense of self, and personal identity (Silow

2002:27-30).

Another important link that Silow makes is the link between stress and sensory-motor amnesia39 (Silow 2002:60). From a physiological point, one of the greatest

manifestations of stress for young conductors is the loss of connection withbreathing, which in turn affects communication. The breath, as part of the

preparatory gesture for conducting, communicates vital information about the

character, tempo, and dynamic of the music.As part of her findings, Silow concludes that sensory-motor amnesia results in

progressive changes in the functioning of our nervous systems, which becomeaccepted by individuals as natural, diminishing our sense of self and ability to

experience fully. This is the phenomenon which Alexander calls ‘faulty sensory

awareness.’ Silow finishes by attacking the pervading dualistic body/mind

39 According to Thomas Hanna, the founder of Somatic Education, as many as fifty percent of thecases of chronic pain suffered by humans are caused by a condition that he calls ‘sensory-motoramnesia’ (or SMA), a condition in which the sensory-motor neurons of the voluntary cortex havelost some portion of their ability to control all or some of the muscles of the body (Hanna 1990).

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paradigm as devaluing bodily experience and fostering the neglect of kinaesthetic

awareness (Silow 2002:206).

The writers Herman, and Barr and Lewin concur with Silow. P.J. Herman in1983, for example, linked the lack of integration between movement and sensory

awareness with children’s learning difficulties (Herman 1983:167). Herman also

links the kinaesthetic system and visual perception, maintaining that thecooperation of the two ‘aid the development of laterality into directionality and

mediate elementary locomotor skills’ (Herman 1983). In terms of expressiveperformance, Barr and Lewin in 1994 investigated the integration of the

kinaesthetic sense with cognitive skills in relation to dance. They criticise

traditional teaching through imitation and command, finding that movement, tobe understood, must be appropriated kinaesthetically. They maintain that

traditional teaching values the end goal over the process (Barr and Lewin

1994:84). For conductors, kinaesthetic movement can maintain awareness in theprocess and ‘feel’ of the movement (Alexander refers to this as the ‘means-

whereby’ principle), while imitation and verbal instruction can lead to an over-emphasis on the final product, or ‘look’ of the movement, which Alexander

refers to as ‘end-gaining.’

There have been cases described by Oliver Sacks (1986) and Beth Azar (1998)

where people have lost their proprioceptive sense. Sacks described the case ofChristina, who lost all proprioception due to acute polyneuritis. She became

‘disembodied,’ only able to control her movements and position in space through

vision alone:She continues to feel, with the continuing loss of proprioception, that her body is dead,not real, not hers – she cannot appropriate it to herself. She can find no words for thisstate, and can only use analogies derived from other senses: ‘I feel my body is blind anddeaf to itself … it has no sense of itself’ (Sacks 1986:49).

Another case, described by Azar, was of Ian Waterman, who had his

proprioceptive nerves destroyed by a viral infection in 1972. Waterman lost all

feeling below his neck, and was unable to tell without looking how his body ispositioned:

Cases like Waterman’s are remarkable in the precision of the damage: Waterman lostnone of the nerves that control muscle movement and he is still able to feel temperature,pain, deep pressure and muscle fatigue. He has lost all of the cutaneous nerves thatprovide the skin with the sense of touch and all of the nerves attached to muscles andtendons that provide a sense of joint and limb position (Azar 1998).

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In both cases, the patients managed to regain some form of recovered movement,via conscious control and observation of what they were doing. If something

distracted their attention, however, or they were unable to observe theirmovements, they both crumpled like rag dolls.

As has already been stated, it is vital for all conductors to develop the sense ofproprioception. Conductors must be able to sense the position of their limbs and

bodies in space. Such proprioceptive sensitivity also includes facial expression,which, as will be determined in Chapter Six, communicatively is one of the last

frontiers for conductors.


In this chapter, I have examined the development of kinaesthetic learningthrough bodily-kinaesthetic interlligence. Educational psychologist Howard

Gardner (1993b) describes the devaluation in Western culture of bodilyexperience and knowing, caused by the separation of mind and body. Gardner,

however, acknowledges that psychologists in recent years have appreciated the

integration of mind and body, which constitutes an important part of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence.

Many of the skills requiring mastery by conductors can be separated intophysical or mental categories. The beat patterns, starts and stops, the use of the

baton, the left hand, and cueing are physical. Rehearsal techniques, score study,

and interpretation are mental. The separated physical and mental categories arethe easiest to teach to conductors. The physical skills can be developed and

internalised through diligent practice. The mental skills can be honed throughstudy, research, and experience.

With regard to motor skill development, knowledge of and instruction inexpressive movement appears to allow for the possibility of nonlinear

development of gestural skill. Viewing expressive gestural development inconducting as a dynamic system recognises the contribution of expressive

movement to the ability of multiple subsystems to self-organise.

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Proprioception, which is the sense of the position of parts of the body relative to

other neighbouring parts, provides feedback solely on the body’s internal status.Beginning from birth, our organism learns and develops through movement and

consequent sensory awareness. Yet according to Barr and Lewin (1994),traditional teaching through imitation and command continues to devalue

kinaesthetic learning.

Skills such as body presence, facial communication, and expressive gestures,

involving the development of a combination of mental and physical aspects,present difficulties for all conductors, as will be discussed in the next chapter.

Even high entering behaviour and experienced conductors may have difficulty

with one or more of these areas. Body presence constitutes far more than merelyassuming a posture. The movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte,

Alexander, and Feldenkrais show that the body requires alertness and a dynamic

quality of movement that is both active and reactive. Research into non-verbalcommunication, which will be discussed in Chapter Six, shows that the face

requires a plasticity of expression (particularly eyebrows and mouth) that isunforced, natural, and communicative, and that eye contact is paramount in facial

communication. Expressive hand and arm gestures consist of elements of weight,

space, and time, reflecting the theories of Laban. The weight of a gestureconveys the musical style. The space of a gesture conveys the dynamics and

intensity, and the time of a gesture conveys the tempo of the music. All of theseskills go together to create a total package, a combination of mind and body.

Based on my experience in teaching conductors, I believe that one of the mosteffective ways to enhance expressive conducting is through theories of

expressive movement, which I will discuss in the following chapter. Suchteaching benefits all conductors, regardless of entering behaviour. Fennell

(1978:16) correctly states that the body is the conductor’s instrument, and I

maintain that this instrument must be expressively trained. Even thoughexpressive movement activities ranked low (sixth) in order of importance of

methods to assist the development of conducting expressivity in my survey ofuniversity conducting teachers shown in the previous chapter (see Table 3), one

aspect that came through clearly from my survey, as stated earlier in the chapter,

was that that most teachers who did use movement activities found them to be

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effective with their conducting students in the very areas that the teachers

themselves assigned most importance in their conducting priorities (bodyawareness, confidence, independence of hands, and non-verbal communication).

In order to understand the importance of a kinaesthetic approach to conducting, Iwill investigate in the next chapter the influence of the five expressive movement

theorists who have greatly influenced this thesis. Rudolf Laban, Emile Jaques-

Dalcroze, François Delsarte, F.M. Alexander and Moshe Feldenkrais havedeveloped commonalties within their expressive movement theories relevant to

the enhancement of expressive conducting.

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CHAPTER FIVE – FIVE EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT THEORIES,THEIR COMMONALITIES, AND THEIR POTENTIAL USE IN THE

ENHANCEMENT OF EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING

In this chapter, the aims are to explore how the use of the five expressive

movement theories selected (Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and

Feldenkrais) can enhance expressive conducting to all levels of enteringbehaviour, and to examine commonalities of these five expressive movement

theories. Taking into consideration the data received from both of my surveysshown in Appendices A and B, I have selected Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte,

Alexander, and Feldenkrais, not necessarily for being the most popular

movement activities, but for providing the strongest frameworks in terms ofmovement theories and principles that could be applied to expressive conducting.

In the first part of this chapter, I will briefly introduce the theories of each of thefive movement activities. As other writers have written extensively on each of

the theories, including the theorists themselves, I will make reference to thesesources and only discuss the theories in broad terms myself.

In the second part of this chapter, I will examine each commonality in depth, the

commonalities being a strong emphasis on the mind-body integration, theemphasis on an educational process as part of the theory, the fact that they are

usable by and teachable to anyone, and the importance of the sixth kinaestheticsense known as proprioception. The significance of the mind-body integration

and proprioception to the development of bodily-kinaesthetic learning was

discussed in the previous chapter.

In the third part of this chapter, I will present an overview of the researchundertaken into each theory relevant to the enhancement of expressive

conducting, and examine ways that conductors at all levels of entering behaviour

could potentially use each of the theories.

Although acting has been used by a majority of university conducting teachers,as indicated by my survey, other movement activities have failed to achieve

general support. However, most teachers who have used movement activities

have found them to be effective with their conducting students.

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Although acting and dance were both popular among conducting teachers, the

very broadness of both areas made them unsuitable for a comparative study suchas this. Each area of acting and dance is worthy of further study on its own.

Similarly, Pilates, tai chi and yoga are worthy of examination as individualstudies, but there is currently a lack of theoretical literature suitable for this

present study. Another movement activity worthy of further study is mime,

which was identified in the survey of university conducting teachers as beingused by 10% of respondents.

I was further influenced by previous theses on movement training for actors by

Patsy Hecht (Hecht 1971) and Lesley Schreiber (Schreiber 1980) that used

Delsarte, Dalcroze and Laban for comparison. Although no theses had usedAlexander and Feldenkrais as part of a comparative study, I found that their

theories were compatible with the other three for this present study, due to the

presence of the four commonalities (mind-body integration, educational process,teachable to all, importance of proprioception).

The first section will briefly introduce each of the five theories of movement,

which are further developed in the later section on commonalities40. I will not be

discussing the biographies of the theorists, as these have already been discussed

in the listed publications. Instead I will discuss the essence of each theory andwhy they are useful to conductors. Later in the chapter, I will discuss how

conductors might potentially use the theories.

The first movement theory to be discussed is that of Rudolf Laban.

40 Other writers have also extensively covered each theory, including the theorists themselves.For Laban, his own books include The Mastery of Movement (Laban 1980a), Choreutics (Laban1966), Modern Educational Dance (Laban 1980b), and Effort (Laban and Lawrence 1974).Other useful books include Laban for All (Newlove and Dalby 2004), Mastering Movement(Hodgson 2001), and Beyond Dance (Davies 2006). For Dalcroze, his own books includeEurhythmics, Art and Education (Jaques-Dalcroze 2003), and Rhythm, Music and Education(Jaques-Dalcroze 2002). Other useful books include The Rhythm Inside (Schnebly-Black andMoore 1997), and Rhythm and Life (Spector 1990). No publications by Delsarte exist. Usefulbooks on his theories include Every Little Movement (Shawn 1974), and The Delsarte System ofOratory (Delaumosne 1887). For Alexander, his own books include The Use of the Self(Alexander 2001), Man’s Supreme Inheritance (Alexander 2005), and Constructive ConsciousControl of the Individual (Alexander 1985). Other useful books include Indirect Procedures (DeAlcantara 1997), and Body Learning (Gelb 1994). For Feldenkrais, his own books includeAwareness Through Movement (Feldenkrais 1990), and The Potent Self (Feldenkrais 1985).Another useful book is Awareness Heals (Shafarman 1997).

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Theories of Movement - Rudolf Laban

Laban believed that the body is the instrument of expression through movement,

writing in his book The Mastery of Movement:The body acts like an orchestra in which each section is related to any other and is partof the whole. Its various parts can combine in concerted action, or one part may performalone as a “soloist” while others pause. It is also possible that one or several parts takethe lead and others accompany (Laban 1980a:34).

He also believed in the greater expressive power of movement, stating:‘Movement can say more, for all its shortness, than pages of verbal description’

(Laban 1980a:87).Conductor Stephen Miller states that: ‘The primary value of Laban Movement

Theory and Laban’s system of notation was his understanding and representation

of the dynamic quality of movement’ (Miller 1988:32). Based on my experienceworking with conductors, I believe that it is Laban’s utilisation of the expressive

power of movement that makes his theory so important for the enhancement ofexpressive conducting. Laban believed that it is possible to describe any

movement of the body by determining which part of the body moves, in which

direction the movement occurs, at what speed the movement takes place andwhat degree of force is required for the movement (Laban 1980a:23).

Laban used ‘effort’ and ‘shape’ (Laban’s terms) as variables in his analysis anddescription of movement.

There are four factors in Laban’s definition of effort: force (weight), described as

strong or light, heavy or weightless, firm or gentle, forceful or delicate, powerfulor weak; space (direction), described as straight or curved, direct or flexible,

spirally or undeviating, growing or shrinking, advancing or retreating, rising orsinking, widening or narrowing, folding or unfolding, opening or closing,

gathering or scattering; time (speed or duration), described as slow or quick, long

or short, sustained or sudden, lingering or instantaneous, lethargic or fleeting;and flow, described as free or bound, constant or intermittent, abandonment or

rigidity (see Miller 1988:18).

I have observed that low entering behaviour conductors in particular havedifficulty conveying the contrasting effort factors described by Laban, due to a

lack of body awareness on the part of the low entering behaviour conductors,caused by a low bodily-kinaesthetic sense. For example, variations in force or

weight of gesture are required to convey contrasting textures or moods in the

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music (light or dark, transparent or thick). Variations in the conductors’ use of

space and direction of movements can influence the phrasing, dynamics andexpression of the music, such as reinforcing a high point in a phrase, or

controlling a diminuendo. Variations in the speed of the conductors’ movements,including the preparation of these movements through clear upbeat motions are

important for the delivery and maintenance of appropriate tempi. Variations in

the flow of the conductors’ movements can influence the variety of articulationsand styles within the music. Low entering behaviour conductors appear to be less

able to deliver these variations in effort through their gestures.

Laban determined eight ‘basic effort actions’ that are combinations of time, forceand space (Table 12). He conceptualised these eight combinations with both

objective function and sensation in mind.

Effort Action Time Force SpacePress Slow Strong DirectWring Slow Strong IndirectGlide Slow Light DirectFloat Slow Light IndirectPunch Quick Strong DirectSlash Quick Strong IndirectDab Quick Light DirectFlick Quick Light IndirectTable 12 Laban’s Effort Actions (see Miller 1988:35)

The effort actions present first-rate kinaesthetic images to conductors, effectively

demonstrating how the effort factors can be combined. As shown later in thechapter, Laban’s concepts of weight, space, time and flow, plus the eight effort

actions, make powerful teaching and imagery tools, such as a conductor’s use of

space relating perfectly to dynamic control, weight relating to dynamics andtexture, time relating to tempo, and flow relating to style and articulation. The

effort actions make excellent and easily understood descriptors of mood andstyle. I have also used the effort actions in my teaching of conductors, by asking

student conductors to match musical examples to each effort action, consistently

finding that the students’ conducting was more expressive when the effortactions and the musical example were matched, as opposed to not thinking of the

effort actions.

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Shape factors are comprised of movements in the vertical, horizontal, and sagittal

planes. The outer shape of each bodily movement is defined by changes ofposition in space. The link between two positions is the path that the movement

follows. Laban called this lingering impression of shape the ‘trace-form’.Just as the body moves within an area of space called the kinesphere, the forces

of movement vary within a range of force called the ‘dynamosphere’ (Fig. 13).

Laban hypothesised that most movement in the dynamosphere is composed ofthree basic dynamic motion factors or efforts: time (speed), force (weight), and

space (directional flux). Each dynamic motion factor has different degrees ofintensity. Rapidity (fast) is a higher degree of speed than slowness (slow);

strength (strong) is a higher degree of force than weakness (light); straightness

(direct) is a higher degree of directional flux than roundaboutness (flexibility)(see Miller 1988:33-34).

Fig. 13 Laban’s Concept of the Dynamosphere – with Effort Actions (seeNewlove and Dalby 2004:141)

The dynamosphere is a combination of the effort and shape factors. In his

discussions of space, Laban differentiated between space in general and thespecific space within reach of the body. He called the space within reach of the

body the ‘kinesphere’. The kinesphere is not unlike the ‘Conductor’s Immediate

Space’, discussed by Harold Farberman in Chapter Three (Farberman 1997a:1-

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2), except that it surrounds the body in all directions. The kinesphere is not static,

and is transported by movement.

In a similar manner to the effort factors, I have observed that low enteringbehaviour conductors also have difficulty with the shape factors described by

Laban, due to low bodily-kinaesthetic awareness. Conducting using the beat

patterns as they are shown in conducting textbooks are one, or in a limitedfashion, two-dimensional forms, utilising predominantly the vertical plane, with

a small amount of horizontal plane. The more horizontal plane used, the moreemphasis is placed on phrasing and expression, as Furtwängler notes in Chapter

Six. The sagittal plane, as has been shown in Chapter Three, appears to be almost

totally neglected in conducting textbooks, possibly due to a perception that it isharder to see by ensemble members located directly in front of the conductor.

However, the neglect of this plane limits the range of expressive movement

possibilities available to conductors, particularly with regard to the left hand.

Sixty-six percent of respondents from my survey of university conductingteachers had never used Laban with their conducting students. Of those

remaining, 81% of thirty respondents found Laban effective with their

conducting students, while 19% were undecided. More research has been carriedout on applications of Laban to expressive conducting than any other expressive

movement theory, including studies by Bartee (1977), Poch (1982), Miller(1988), Benge (1996), Billingham (2001), Yontz (2001), Neidlinger (2003), and

Gambetta (2005). Yet the glut of research into Laban in comparison with the

dearth of research into other expressive movement theories and their relationshipto expressive conducting is difficult to fathom. Certainly in the United States,

Laban has become very fashionable among researchers into conducting, with noless than four theses since the year 2000 being written about Laban applications

to conducting41, while Dalcroze for example, has failed to attract the same

amount of attention, possibly, according to Schreiber, due to the difficulty oflearning all of the elements of Dalcroze training; eurhythmics, solfège and

improvisation (Schreiber 1980:72-73).In his thesis, Charles Gambetta claims that music performance in general and

conducting in particular are better understood through the principles of Laban 41 Theses by Billingham (2001), Yontz (2001), Neidlinger (2003), and Gambetta (2005).

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Movement Analysis (LMA), which recognises that movement is also the channel

through which internal musical abstractions become transformed into audiblemusical expression, than through Dalcroze eurhythmics, which creates responses

to external musical stimuli (Gambetta 2005:90-91). However, I believe thatGambetta’s criticism of Dalcroze is unsupported by writings shown later in the

chapter by Claire McCoy, particularly in consideration of the amount of

proprioceptive feedback provided by the study of Dalcroze eurhythmics, whichwill also be investigated later in this chapter. Certainly Schreiber advocates the

presentation of both movement theories, writing: ‘Because neither Eurhythmicsnor Effort/Shape (Laban) are in themselves performance techniques, as opposed

to dance or mime or fencing, it is strongly suggested that advanced studies in

both be offered if ever a training program is designed for movement teachers’(Schreiber 1980:199). Schreiber adds that ‘the more successful teachers of stage

movement have already come to realise that no one approach is effective for all

students’ (Schreiber 1980:200), which I believe is also the case with theenhancement of expressive movement for conductors. For this reason,

conductors should also examine the expressive movement theories of Dalcroze.

Theories of Movement - Emile-Henri Jaques Dalcroze

According to Dalcroze teachers Anne Farber and Lisa Parker, Dalcroze

questioned the conventional music education methods of his time, influenced byhis frustration with the lifeless, mechanical performance habits of his own

conservatory students. He developed the idea that the body should be the point of

educational focus, and that musicianship began with and resided in the wholebody. Dalcroze’s conception of music education was that the body would play

the role of intermediary between sound and thought, so becoming an expressiveinstrument (Farber and Parker 1987:43-45). This corresponds with the

importance of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence to the enhancement of expressive

conducting, which was discussed in the previous chapter.

Apart from eurhythmics, Dalcroze training also involves strong emphasis on eartraining (solfège) and improvisation. These areas promote the development of

musicianship, which, although outside the limits of this thesis, were regarded by

university conducting teachers from my survey as among the most important

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skills required of a conductor. Furthermore, 17% of forty-two experienced

secondary school conductors in Melbourne from my other survey regardedmusicianship as among the most important attributes of an expressive conductor.

Despite this, 65% of eighty-eight respondents from my survey of universityconducting teachers had never used Dalcroze with their conducting students. Of

those remaining, 70% of thirty-one respondents found Dalcroze effective with

their conducting students, while 30% were undecided. Based on my experiencewith Dalcroze training courses, as well as my conducting teaching experience, I

believe the study of eurhythmics can help conducting students build a vocabularyof physical responses to music, supported by Farber and Parker, who believe that

gesture, design, shape, isolation, as well as opposition and coordination of parts,

are explored for their capacity to enact musical realities in physical space. Themovements should set up a circuit of information and response moving

continuously between brain and body (Farber and Parker 1987:44-45).

According to Dalcroze biographer Irwin Spector and authors Eden Davies and

John Hodgson, both Laban and Dalcroze were directly influenced by FrançoisDelsarte, whose theories were described in Schreiber’s thesis investigating

methods of movement training for actors, Schreiber stating that Delsarte’s was

the ‘first truly scientific study of both human behaviour and of expressivemovement’ (Schreiber 1980:191).

Theories of Movement - François Delsarte

Essential to an understanding of Delsarte’s theories is his Law of Trinity, whichexpresses the central relationship between body and mind. Dancer and Delsarte

scholar Ted Shawn outlines the Law of Trinity:Thus the three principles of our being, life, mind and soul, form a trinity. Because lifeand mind are one and the same soul; soul and mind are one and the same life; and lifeand soul are the one and the same mind (Shawn 1974:24).

From Delsarte’s Law of Trinity arises the concept that each object has a centre,

and two opposite ends, or extremes. Every movement has tension/relaxation,

balance, and form. Delsarte invented his own technical terms, which can be usedto indicate a centre (normal), a going out from the centre (excentric), and a going

in from the centre (concentric).

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As each unit of a trinity is capable of being divided into three aspects Delsarte

called this pattern ‘The Ninefold Accord’ and used it as the design for all histeaching charts, drawing it as a box (Fig. 14):

EXCENTRICExcentric

NORMALExcentric

CONCENTRICExcentric

EXCENTRICNormal

NORMALNormal

CONCENTRICNormal

EXCENTRICConcentric

NORMALConcentric

CONCENTRICConcentric

Fig. 14 Delsarte’s Ninefold Accord (Shawn 1974:30)

Delsarte also produced a chart of the relation of the hand to an imaginary cube infront of the body:

Palm of hand against face of cube nearest body – to rejectPalm of hand on face of cube farthest away from body – to include, protectPalm of hand on top surface of cube – to blessPalm of hand on bottom surface of cube – to supportPalm of hand on outside surface of side of cube – to hold, possess, includePalm of hand on inside of side surface of cube – to remove, set aside (see Shawn1974:42)

Conductors, to develop their variety of left hand gestures, can use this chart. For

example, conductors can use a ‘palm up’ left hand gesture to indicate to the

musicians that they want them to support the sound. Such a gesture is very usefulwhen working with wind players or singers to indicate a sustaining of the sound.

Conductors can also use an including, or protective left hand gesture incombination with a starting raise of the right hand as an effective pre-conducting

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behaviour (Fig. 15). This gesture creates an inclusive, non-threatening space

between the conductors’ hands, encouraging the involvement of the ensemblemembers.

Fig. 15 Example of an ‘Including’ Left Hand Pre-Conducting Behaviour

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Delsarte discovered that movement itself is divided into three great orders or

classifications, which Delsarte called ‘oppositions,’ ‘parallelisms,’ and

‘successions42’ (see Shawn 1974:33-34).

All of the charts are useful to conductors, as they provide a physical guide for

expressive movement possibilities. For example, Delsarte’s oppositions and

successions encourage the independent use of the right and left hands, strongergestures being created by moving the right and the left hands in opposite

directions, while more expressive gestures are created by establishing a gesturein one hand, then reinforcing it with the other hand in a fluid, successive motion.

However, 90% of university conducting teachers from my survey had never used

Delsarte with their conducting students. Of those remaining, 60% of ninerespondents found Delsarte slightly effective with their conducting students,

while 40% were undecided.

Alexander began his career a generation later than Delsarte, also intending to be

an actor. Alexander’s problems with his own voice led him to observe movementand body use in great detail.

Theories of Movement - F.M. Alexander

Alexander advocated a learning process that regulates the workings of the wholeself. According to Alexander, this process involves the relationship of the head to

the neck, and of the head and neck to the back. Alexander called this relationship

the Primary Control. The Alexander Technique seeks to alter use, notfunctioning, through indirect changes in the use of Primary Control (Alexander

2001:51-52).Through a long period of painstaking self-observation, often using mirrors,

Alexander discovered that it was his self-use which affected his functioning. He

discovered a tendency to pull his head ‘back and down’ (Alexander’s terms) ineveryday usage, a tendency that became exaggerated when Alexander recited.

42 Delsarte defined ‘oppositions’ as any two parts of the body moving in opposite directionssimultaneously, and expressive of force, strength, physical or emotional power; ‘parallelisms’ astwo parts of the body moving simultaneously in the same direction, and denoting weakness froma physical standpoint; and ‘successions’ as any movement passing through whole or any part ofthe body, which moves each muscle, bone and joint in a fluid, wavelike movement, and is thegreatest order of movement for the expression of emotion (see Shawn 1974:33-34).

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Through allowing his head to move ‘forward and up,’ Alexander observed an

improvement not only in his voice, but also in his general functioning.The ultimate cause of misuse, in Alexander’s understanding, is the universal

habit of end-gaining (where the rush to get to the end product overrides theprocess). The antithesis of the end-gaining principle is called the ‘means-

whereby’ principle. This principle calls for a creation and use of the best possible

means to achieve any given end (Alexander 1985:153). This involves theexercise of vigilance in not disturbing the natural integration of Primary Control.

One of the most important aspects of the Alexander Technique for conductors is

the achievement of integration between posture and gesture afforded through its

use. Both conductors’ gestures and postures need to be convincing, so that thegestures are not perceived as being artificial. I have observed that many low

entering behaviour conductors ignore their postures in their efforts to concentrate

on their gestures, contributing to the presence of conflict in their non-verbalcommunication. This aspect of non-verbal communication will be discussed in

Chapter Six. The integration between posture and gesture can be greatlyfacilitated through the employment of the ‘means-whereby’ principle, which

avoids the ‘end-gain’ of producing the gesture alone. Body mapping, which is

discussed later in the chapter, assists conductors to discover how they areactually using their bodies when conducting. Despite this, 50% of university

conducting teachers surveyed had never used the Alexander Technique with theirconducting students. Of those remaining, 76% of forty-four respondents found

the Alexander Technique effective with their conducting students, while 22%

were undecided, and 2% found the Alexander Technique to be not effective withtheir conducting students.

The final movement theory to be introduced is the Feldenkrais Method, which,

like the Alexander Technique, is a somatic education process, which Thomas

Hanna defines as: ‘the field which studies the soma43: namely, the body asperceived from within by first-person perception’ (Hanna 1986).

43 As earlier stated, the soma is defined by Hanna as ‘the body experienced from within’ (Hanna1990).

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Theories of Movement - Moshe Feldenkrais

The Feldenkrais Method uses gentle movement and directed observation to

improve movement and enhance bodily functioning. The method is based onprinciples of physics, biomechanics and an understanding of learning and human

development. According to the Australian Feldenkrais Guild, through increased

awareness, students learn to abandon habitual patterns of movement and developnew alternatives, resulting in improved flexibility and coordination (Australian

Feldenkrais Guild n.d.:3-5). For conductors, the main benefit of the use of theFeldenkrais Method is the elimination of extraneous and distracting movements,

the increase of movement efficiency, and a heightened sense of awareness, not

just of movement, but of sight and sound. However, 86% of respondents frommy survey of university conducting teachers had never used Feldenkrais with

their conducting students. Of those remaining, 44% of twelve respondents found

Feldenkrais to be effective, while 56% were undecided.

According to the Australian Feldenkrais Guild, the similarity that exists betweenthe Alexander Technique and the Feldenkrais Method is that both are educational

approaches fostering kinaesthetic awareness through movement (Australian

Feldenkrais Guild n.d.:3-5). The difference is that Feldenkrais puts less emphasison the Alexander principle of Primary Control, Feldenkrais maintaining that

because the body/mind is an integrated system, an imbalance anywhere in thesystem creates imbalances everywhere. The best place to intervene to bring the

system back into balance will vary with the individual, and will not always be the

head/neck/back, but will be achieved by heightening the individual’s self-awareness. As an example a Feldenkrais teacher might ask a conductor to lock

their knees and place their weight back on their heels while moving their arms,before trying the same arm movements with their knees unlocked and their

weight forward on the balls of their feet. In this situation, the teacher would

avoid telling the conductor which set of movements was ‘correct’, but wouldsimply ask the conductor to be aware of any differences in the quality of their

arm movements in each movement set.

I selected the theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais,

as I believe they show the strongest frameworks in terms of movement theories

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and principles that can be applied to expressive conducting. The appearance of

commonalities in the five featured expressive movement theories highlight theimportance of the material. The commonalities also highlight the advantages of

focusing on multiple theories, as noted earlier by Schreiber, rather thanconcentrating on one theory only, to the neglect of all others.

Commonalities between Expressive Movement Theories

I observed the following commonalities of relevance to the enhancement ofexpressive conducting among the five expressive movement theories examined.

Firstly, all five are strongly in favour of the integration between body and mind.

This integration is vitally important for expressive conducting, as a conductor’sgestures must reflect the music and thought processes happening in their brain.

Supported by the five expressive movement theories examined in this thesis, I

believe that developing the mind-body connection contributes to enhancedexpressive movement and non-verbal communication in conducting, as discussed

in the previous chapter. Secondly, all five represent an educational process, andas such, are highly relevant to the teaching of expressive conducting, particularly

in the early stages. Thirdly, all five are teachable to anyone, not just those with

high entering behaviour. Being teachable, they should be employed in the earlieststages of conductor training. Finally, the importance of the sixth kinaesthetic

sense known as proprioception is acknowledged in all five of the expressivemovement theories. I argue that the development of proprioception is essential

for all conductors regardless of entering behaviour, as all conductors must have

awareness of the position of their bodies in space, as discussed in the previouschapter. I will now introduce each commonality in turn before further exploring

the potential use of the five expressive movement theories in the enhancement ofexpressive conducting in the next section.

All five of the expressive movement theories examined are strongly in favour ofthe integration between body and mind.

As has been shown in the previous chapter, a conductor’s gestures must reflectthe music and thought processes happening in their brain. I have observed that

some conductors, particularly those of lower entering behaviour, have difficulty

bodily expressing what they want the music to do. One of the difficulties of

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conducting is the combination of mental and physical skills required. While

conductors are located in the present in time, they must gesture physically in thefuture of other musicians and the music, in order to influence the music before it

happens. Mentally, conductors must think ahead of the music in order toanticipate the requirements of the musicians, while at the same time analysing

the performance that has just occurred to determine if it fits their conception of

the music. This combination of physical and mental skills presents greatchallenges to student conductors, who often resort to last minute gestures to

musicians, and become so caught up in the technique of conducting that they failto listen to the resulting performance, restricting their ability to analyse what has

occurred and diagnose solutions.

Each of the five expressive movement theories examined can greatly assistconductors to combine the physical and mental aspects of conducting, as none of

the five theories make any distinction between the physical and mental, regarding

them as inextricably linked. Too often in conductor training, the physical andmental sides are taught as separate functions, as has been shown in my

examination of conducting textbooks in Chapter Three. Baton technique isdrilled as manual training. Score analysis and repertoire is taught as

musicianship.

Laban’s philosophy, according to Newlove and Dalby, is based on the belief that

‘the human body and mind are one and inseparably fused’ (Newlove and Dalby2004:16). Laban comments on this relationship between body and mind in his

book The Mastery of Movement:Each phase of movement, every small transference of weight, every single gesture ofany part of the body reveals some feature of our inner life. Each movement originatesfrom an inner excitement of the nerves, caused either by an immediate sense impression,or by a complicated chain of formerly experienced sense impressions stored in thememory. This excitement results in the voluntary or involuntary inner effort or impulseto move (Laban 1980a:19).

Movement, therefore, is a natural result of inner feelings and memories, and is

most expressive of these.

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Regarding education, Laban writes in Modern Educational Dance: ‘It is the

happy combination of mind and body developing alongside each other for whichthe teacher should work without inhibiting the one or over-developing the other’

(Laban 1980b:22). Also with regard to the teaching of movement, Laban states:Modern dance training has to be based on the knowledge of the stimulating power whichmovement exerts on the activities of the mind. The impact of movement on the mind hasbeen studied, and it has been found that bodily movements consist of elements whichcreate actions reflecting the particular qualities of the inner effort from which theyspring (Laban 1980b:25-26).

Laban’s comments emphasise the importance of conductors developing theirinterpretations in tandem with their physical gestures.

For Dalcroze, harmony between body and mind is created through eurhythmics:Rhythmic gymnastics starts from the principle that the body is the inseparable ally of themind; it affirms that body and mind should harmoniously perform their diversefunctions, not only separately but simultaneously (Jaques-Dalcroze 2003:108).

Like Laban, Dalcroze here is clear about the importance of the mind-body

connection. He further comments on the importance of body involvement inlearning:

I look forward to a system of musical education in which the body itself shall play therole of intermediary between sounds and thought, becoming in time the direct mediumof our feelings. … The child will thus be taught at school not only to sing, listencarefully, and keep time, but also to move and think accurately and rhythmically. Onemight commence by regulating the mechanism of walking, and thence proceed to allyvocal movements with the gestures of the whole body. That would constitute at onceinstruction in rhythm, and education by rhythm (Jaques-Dalcroze 2002:8-9).

I have found that conductors who can maintain a consistent tempo from one

rehearsal to the next are greatly appreciated by ensembles, particularly thosecontaining singers, or involving dancers. Dalcroze’s emphasis on the

development of a rhythmic sense is therefore of enormous value to conductors.

As earlier stated, Delsarte expressed the relationship between body and mind as a

Trinity. Shawn further outlines in the following way Delsarte’s philosophy of

mind/body integration through the Law of Correspondence:Delsarte stated the Law of Correspondence thus: ‘To each spiritual function responds afunction of the body; to each grand function of the body corresponds a spiritual act’(Shawn 1974:22).

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According to Delsarte, each gesture is expressive of something, and is preceded

and given birth to by a thought, a feeling, an emotion, a design or a motive. Hebelieved that gesture is the communication of the soul:

Gesture has been given to man to reveal what speech is powerless to express. Thegesture, then, like a ray of light, can reflect all that passes in the soul. Hence if we desirethat a thing shall always be remembered, we must not say it in words; we must let it bedivined by gesture. Speech may be termed the sense of the intelligence. Gesture is thesense of the heart (see Shawn 1974:58).

Delsarte’s ideas are supported by the importance of non-verbal communication

over verbal communication, which will be emphasised in Chapter Six. Enhancingthe expressive use of gesture is vital for conductors, who are usually unable to

use words to communicate in performances. According to Delsarte, gestures aremore powerful anyway!

For Alexander, the concept of the Use of Self does not differentiate betweenbody and mind. Alexander explained his discovery of this unity in his book, The

Use of the Self (Alexander 2001:21):I must admit that when I began my investigation, I, in common with most people,conceived of ‘body’ and ‘mind’ as separate parts of the same organism, andconsequently believed that human ills, difficulties and shortcomings could be classifiedas either ‘mental’ or ‘physical’ and dealt with on specifically ‘mental’ or specifically‘physical’ lines. My practical experiences, however, led me to abandon this point ofview and readers of my books will be aware that the technique described in them isbased on the opposite conception, namely, that it is impossible to separate ‘mental’ and‘physical’ processes in any form of human activity (Alexander 2001:21).

Based on my conducting experience, I have found that much of the pure ‘mental’

work of conducting is achieved by the conductor prior to working with anensemble through a combination of score study, knowledge of styles and

performance practice, and practical experience. This preliminary work createsfeelings about the music and sensory impressions within the conductor that are

required to be bodily communicated to the ensemble when they meet in rehearsal

and performance. I have also found that my most successful communicationswith an ensemble have occurred when I have conceived the bodily movements

(gestures) as a direct result of my feelings and sensory impressions, thereby

developing the sensation and the movement in combination in a way describedby Alexander.

In common with the other four expressive movement theories, Feldenkrais

emphasises the connection between mind and body. For Feldenkrais, the learning

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processes activated through movement contribute to mental awareness.

Feldenkrais stresses the importance of muscular activity as part of the learningprocess:

In the early stages of learning, we are entirely concerned with linking up sensoryperceptions with muscular activity, and with recognizing the situation by the emotionaleffect it produces in us. … My contention is that learning always does involve the wholeframe, and all learning that does not directly involve muscular activity is poor(Feldenkrais 1985:130-131).

The importance of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain through the mind-body

connection to the enhancement of expressive conducting is here supported byFeldenkrais. Learning based on repetition (such as practising a beat pattern) may

ingrain the movement, but does not involve the mind. I have observed that beatpattern conducting is the cause of a great deal of unexpressive conducting, a

situation also noted by Farberman earlier in this thesis. I have already evaluated

the bodily-kinaesthetic approach taken by several conducting textbooks inChapter Three. Experienced secondary school conductors in Melbourne from my

survey also fail to support ‘just improving over time’ as a method to developskills in conducting. When asked to rank in order of importance methods to assist

the development of beat patterns, left hand use, and expressive gestures,

respondents ranked ‘just improve over time’ sixth on each occasion. Clearly,respondents did not believe that conducting improvement would just happen.

Each of the five expressive movement theories represents an educational process,and as such, is highly relevant to the teaching of expressive conducting at all

levels of entering behaviour. Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander andFeldenkrais were all gifted teachers, who not only taught their techniques to

others, but also trained others to teach their techniques in their own right. The

fact that these theories are educational rather than purely health-giving orpsychological means that the ideas from these theories can be transferred to other

fields, including the teaching of conducting.Laban strongly believed in the expressive movement concepts of effort and

shape, introduced earlier in the chapter, as part of his educational process.

The significance of the effort factors to the enhancement of expressiveconducting is that they provide excellent kinaesthetic resources to enable

conductors to move expressively. The factor of force assists conductors to moveconvincingly when conducting music of varying textures, heavy textures

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requiring different movements from light textures. The factor of space assists

conductors to convincingly communicate dynamic variety. As has been shown inconducting textbooks by Garofalo and Battisti (2005), Demaree and Moses

(1995), and Curtis and Kuehn (1992), which were discussed in Chapter Three,the size of the gestures (or the amount of space covered by the conductor) is a

determining factor in the resulting dynamic of the ensemble. The factor of time

assists conductors to comprehend and communicate tempo to the ensemble. Thefactor of flow allows conductors to non-verbally communicate stylistic

information about the music to the ensemble. Smooth flowing movementscommunicate legato articulations and phrasing, while short, bound movements

communicate staccato.

As an educational process, of initial importance to expressive conducting is theoverall improvement in musicianship offered by Dalcroze’s method. Among the

eurhythmics exercises, subdivision exercises are very useful for conductors as

preparatory exercises, subdivision exercises possibly involving stepping quarternote beats, clapping eighth note beats, and singing half note beats

simultaneously, for example. On a signal from the instructor, the quarter notebeats may change from the feet to the hands, the eighth note beats from the hands

to the voice, and the half note beats from the voice to the feet. Also of some use

for developing manual independence are ‘disassociation’ exercises that mayinvolve conducting a ‘three’ pattern with the right hand at the same time as

conducting a ‘four’ pattern with the left, and swapping on a signal from theinstructor.

Incidentally, Dalcroze developed his own ‘conducting patterns’ for use in his

exercises, and I have attended Dalcroze workshops where these have been used(Fig. 16 and Fig. 17). Although these patterns provide a useful kinaesthetic

sensation of beat points (as do most beat patterns), I consider them to beinappropriate for expressive conducting due to their large size and lack of flow

between the beats, factors that in my opinion also need to be taken into

consideration by conductors using ‘traditional’ conducting patterns in order to beexpressive of the musical content.

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Fig. 16 Dalcroze’s Beat Pattern for 3/4 Time (Jaques-Dalcroze 1920:31)

Fig. 17 Dalcroze’s Beat Pattern for 4/4 Time (Jaques-Dalcroze 1920:43)

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As stated earlier in the chapter, Delsarte used his ‘Ninefold Accord’ as the design

for all his teaching charts. Upon this basic chart were fashioned charts for thenine attitudes of the head, nine stances of the feet and legs, and many others.

Here is Delsarte’s chart for the head (Fig. 18):

Fig. 18 Delsarte’s Chart for the Head (see Shawn 1974:37)

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Delsarte developed Nine Laws of Motion (different from the Ninefold Accord),

which attribute expressive meaning to the various ways in which movement ispossible. Knowledge of these laws is beneficial to conductors, as they once again

provide a guide for expressive movement possibilities:The Nine Laws of Motion

(1) The Law of Altitude: Positive assertion rises, negative assertion falls; in general, theconstructive, positive, good, true, beautiful, moves upward, forward and outward – thedestructive, negative, ugly, false, moves downward, inward and backward.(2) The Law of Force: Conscious strength assumes weak attitudes; Conscious weaknessassumes strong attitudes.(3) The Law of Motion: Excitement expands motion, thought contracts motion, love andaffection moderate attitudes.(4) The Law of Sequence: “Let your attitude, gesture and face foretell what you wouldmake felt.” The thought comes first, then the expression of the face and attitude of thebody, and the gesture is a result of this cause – and only last does speech come.(5) The Law of Direction: Lengths are passional, heights and depths are intellectual,breadths are volitional. In stage directions these would be: directly toward or directlyaway from the audience – lengths; from side to side of the stage – breadths; up anddown as to elevation from the floor – heights and depths. Diagonals, arrived at by theopposition of two directions, have an element of conflict in them.(6) The Law of Form: Straight form is vital; Circular form is mental; Spiral form ismoral, mystic. Circular form is, generally speaking, more pleasing, due to itsassociations with the pleasant feel of round things as against angular objects; and thusby implication, angular forms are more unpleasant.(7) The Law of Velocity: The rhythm and tempo of gesture is proportionate to the massto be moved. This law is based on the vibration of the pendulum. Great levers have slowmovement; small agents more rapid ones. In proportion to the depth and majesty of theemotion is the deliberation and slowness of the motion, and vice versa.(8) The Law of Reaction: “Every object, agreeable or disagreeable, which surprises us,makes the body recoil. The degree of reaction should be proportionate to the degree ofemotion caused by the sight of the object.” Every extreme of emotion tends to itsopposite: Concentrated passion tends to explosion, explosion to prostration. Thus theonly emotion which does not tend to its own destruction is that which is perfectlymoderated, balanced, controlled.(9) The Law of Extension: The extension of the gesture is in proportion to the surrenderof the will in emotion. Extension in space beyond the body may be achieved by anarresting of the body at the moment of the culmination of the gesture, with held breath(see Shawn 1974:48-49).

As an example, conductors can make use of the Law of Altitude for dynamic

control. A crescendo moves upward, forward and outward, while a diminuendomoves downward, inward and backward. Conductors could also make more use

of the Law of Sequence to develop greater facial and body communication, as in

the delivery of a cueing gesture, which is most effective when set up by eyecontact between conductor and musicians, followed by an alteration in the

conductor’s body attitude to face the musicians, followed lastly by the gesture.As will be shown in Chapter Six, the face and the body are vitally important

aspects of non-verbal communication, and Delsarte’s request to consider the face

and body before the gesture is relevant for conductors wishing to enhance their

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expressive communication. Conductors can make use of the Law of Form to

communicate style and articulation. Straight, angular form indicates staccato,while circular, smooth form indicates legato phrasing.

Alexander taught his Technique between the years of 1895 and 1955. As a

teacher, he strongly believed that learning must take place in a ‘hands-on’

fashion, as merely telling a student what to do was insufficient:The belief is very generally held that if only we are told what to do in order to correct awrong way of doing something, we can do it, and that if we feel we are doing it, all iswell. All my experience, however, goes to show that this belief is a delusion (Alexander2001:33).

Alexander therefore believed that verbal instruction was ineffective, finding that

only learning through the bodily-kinaesthetic domain was reliable, which serves

as a reminder to conducting teachers to utilise movement as part of theirinstructional technique.

According to Alexander, observing a teacher is also insufficient:In any sphere of learning on a subconscious basis we have to face the fact that pupil andteacher are imbued with the erroneous idea that the pupil, by observing the teacher doingsomething successfully, will be able to copy it and succeed also. The pupil is quiteconvinced as to this, and the teacher is certain that if he teaches the pupil to do as hebelieves he does himself, he will succeed in enabling the pupil to succeed (Alexander1985:255-256).

As verbal and visual instruction are considered by Alexander to be unreliable, theproblem for conductors is how to accurately interpret information received

through the bodily-kinaesthetic domain. One particular application of the

Alexander Technique for musicians (and particularly conductors) that hasrecently come to light is Body Mapping, which is described by Alexander

teacher Barbara Conable: ‘Body Mapping is the conscious correction andrefining of one’s Body Map to produce efficient, graceful, and coordinated

movement. Body Mapping, over time, with application, allows any musician to

play like a natural’ (Conable and Conable 2000:5). Body Mapping is a termoriginally used by William Conable, Professor of cello at the Ohio State

University School of Music, who observed a discrepancy between his students’perceptions of their own physical structures, compared with the reality of how

they were structured. Their movements became affected by their mis-

perceptions. By aligning his students’ movements with how they were actually

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structured, Conable discovered they could perform with greater efficiency and

expression (Conable and Conable 2000:5).For conductors, Body Mapping emphasises the observation of the realities of

individual conductors movements, rather than following a prescribed model ofconducting behaviour. As has been stated in the previous chapter, every

conductor has a different body type and style of movement, so there is little value

in imposing a ‘one size fits all’ approach to conducting gestures. Therefore a farmore effective method is to work with an individual conductor’s movement

characteristics to build an expressive technique consistent with their Body Map.

Feldenkrais work is done in two formats, Awareness Through Movement and

Functional Integration. During group lessons (Awareness Through Movement), aFeldenkrais teacher verbally leads students through a sequence of movements in

basic positions, sitting or lying on the floor, sitting on a chair or standing. These

precisely structured movement explorations involve thinking, sensing, movingand imagining. Many of these movements are based on developmental

movements and ordinary functional activities. Some are based on more abstractexplorations of joint, muscle, and postural relationships. The emphasis is on

learning which movements work better and noticing the quality of these changes

in the body, which is relevant to learning expressive conducting.Private Feldenkrais lessons (Functional Integration) are tailored to each student’s

individual learning needs. Functional Integration is a hands-on form of tactile,kinaesthetic communication. The teacher communicates how students organise

their bodies and, through gentle touching and movement, conveys the experience

of comfort and ease of movement while students learn how to reorganise theirbody and behaviour in new and more expanded functional motor patterns.

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The Feldenkrais Method employs similar techniques to Alexander Body

Mapping, which has already been shown to be relevant to expressive conducting.Feldenkrais discusses the importance of developing an accurate self-image:

Each one of us speaks, moves, thinks, and feels in a different way, each according to theimage of himself that he has built up over the years. In order to change our mode ofaction we must change the image of ourselves that we carry within us. What is involvedhere, of course, is a change in the dynamics of our reactions, and not the mere replacingof one action by another. Such a change involves not only a change in our self-image,but a change in the nature of our motivations, and the mobilisation of all the parts of thebody concerned.These changes produce the noticeable difference in the way each individual carries oursimilar actions – handwriting and pronunciation, for instance (Feldenkrais 1990:10).

I have noticed that many developing conductors have difficulty communicating

contrasting dynamics, particularly dynamics in the softer range, due to a lack of

awareness of the actual size of their gestures. Using Feldenkrais techniques to re-educate their self-image, conductors can effectively re-adjust the size of their

gestures. For example, conductors could contrast the feel of large and small

movements through the shoulder, then the elbow, then the wrist, then finally thefingers, to discover which hinges feel most effective at delivering loud or soft

dynamics. Rather than telling conductors which hinge is correct, they candiscover for themselves through the exploration of their own movements, which

provides a more effective and lasting learning experience.

All five of the expressive movement theories are teachable to anyone, not just

those with high entering behaviour. As has already been discussed at the end ofChapter Three, the role of the body is often neglected in the teaching of

expressive conducting, according to conductors Michael Tilson Thomas (1994),

Larry Rachleff and James Hainlen (see Harris 2001). As will be shown, evenhigh entering behaviour conductors can benefit from increased movement

awareness. Conductors with low or moderate entering behaviour can still achievetheir maximum potential through expressive movement training.

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From his own writing, it would appear that Laban supports the idea that

expressive movement is teachable to all people, not just those with high enteringbehaviour. In his book The Mastery of Movement he writes: ‘The ability to

observe and comprehend movement is like a gift, but it is also, as in music, askill that can be acquired and developed through exercise’ (Laban 1980a:95).

In another book Choreutics he adds:Both impulse and response appear to be more easily felt by a person who has a certaingift for moving expressively. However, almost anyone can develop a certain degree ofawareness of the connection between motion and emotion through appropriate exercises.The expression will always be more or less personal, but the fundamental responses,given by different people to the same impulse, all seem to have some typicalcharacteristics, based on the harmonic laws which rule all movements in space (Laban1966:66).

I have found that using Laban’s effort actions, examples of which I have already

given, have been very effective when working with conductors at all levels ofentering behaviour. In particular, lower entering behaviour conductors have

appreciated the imagery of a familiar action, such as dabbing paint onto a canvas

to indicate a staccato movement, or floating through the air like a feather toindicate a legato movement.

Dalcroze makes reference to ‘born musicians’ and the teachability of music to all

abilities in his book Rhythm, Music and Education, indicating that he would

consider conducting ‘teachable’ to all:There is a theory regarding the “born musician,” according to which no amount ofmusical study can have any influence on temperament. On this is based the verdict ofcertain seers that rhythmic movement can be of no direct service to the art of music; for,on the one hand, it has nothing to teach the born musician, and, on the other, a personnot born a musician can never be made one! This theory, which is held by manymusicians, will not “hold water.” Eurhythmics reveals to the born musician a host ofsubconscious resources, which he could otherwise acquire only by dint of long years oflaborious and repeated personal researches and experiments. On the other hand, aloneamong all systems of musical education, eurhythmics is capable of awakening dormantor moribund temperament, of provoking in the organism the conflicts necessary forestablishing the control and balance of resistances, and of bringing to consciousness, bymeans of the harmonisation of cerebral and motor centres, and the canalisation ofnervous forces, undreamt of sources of creative and artistic vitality (Jaques-Dalcroze2002:146-147).

My brief experience with Dalcroze eurhythmics leads me to concur with

Dalcroze’s remarks. Eurhythmics demands a physical response from musicians

of all levels of entering behaviour, encouraging conductors to explore theirindividual movements at their own level. As eurhythmics movements are

personal and not prescriptive, they allow conductors to develop their own

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movement solutions, based on their own bodies and movement patterns. For

example, conductors could be asked as a eurhythmics exercise to feel the beat inone part of their bodies, such as walking to a beat. At the same time, they could

be asked to clap twice as fast with their hands, while moving their arms twice asslow as their feet. Such an exercise allows conductors of all levels of entering

behaviour to feel important tempo relationships and reinforces the physical

feeling of subdividing the beat.

I believe Delsarte would regard conducting as teachable as, according to Shawn,education in the ‘language of the body’ (Shawn 1974:78) would benefit all

people. Delsarte intended his charts and laws to be used by people in everyday

life, and I have given examples throughout the chapter of how some of his chartsand laws could be used by conductors.

Conscious control through proprioception would, in Alexander’s understanding,allow conducting to be teachable to all. In Alexander’s opinion ‘Man’s Supreme

Inheritance44’ is conscious control, which is available to neither savages (sic) noranimals. Only through bringing action from a subconscious to a conscious level

can Human-kind inhibit destructive habits and thought processes. Alexander

believed that natural aptitude relied too heavily on the subconscious. Otherscould be aided by the employment of conscious control:

Every one who has had experience, personally or vicariously, of the many ‘methods’and ‘systems’ of teaching breathing, speaking, singing, physical culture, golf, fencing,etc., must have noticed that whilst the failures of these “methods” are many, thesuccesses are comparatively few.The successes are of course set down to exceptional natural aptitude, whilst the teacherhas an explanation of those cases more flattering to himself and prefers not to considertoo closely the average of his failures. The truth is that all these systems break downbecause the pupil, in the attempt to adopt them, is guided always by his subconsciousdirection and is forced to depend too much on what is called natural aptitude. Whenguidance by conscious control and reason supersedes guidance by instinct, we shall beable to develop our potentialities to the full (Alexander 2005:204-205).

The concept of learning conducting by observing and imitating a teacher ormentor still remains a model for conducting instruction, as shown by my survey

of university conducting teachers, in which observation of other conductors wasfavoured by 13% of respondents as a method for developing students’ non-verbal

44 This was the title of Alexander’s first book.

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vocabulary45. As shown by Alexander, learning through observation alone is

unreliable, denying the significance of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence.

Provided kinaesthetic instruction is enabled, the Feldenkrais Method promotesteachability to all levels of entering behaviour. All levels of entering behaviour

can use the examples I have shown throughout the chapter of Feldenkrais

applications to conducting effectively, as the exercises are aimed at enhancingthe self-awareness of the individual conductors. Feldenkrais comments on the

adverse effect of repetition without self-awareness, in discussing the nature oftalent:

… everything we learn is based largely on the principle of repetition and committing tomemory. This may make it easier to understand why one man may practise daily on amusical instrument and fail to make any progress, while another shows dailyimprovement. Perhaps the nature of talent that is the accepted explanation for thisdivergence of achievement derives from the fact that the second student observes whathe is doing while he plays while the first one only repeats and memorises and relies onthe assumption that sufficient repetition of a bad performance will somehow bring aboutmusical perfection (Feldenkrais 1990:137).

This reinforces an important point for expressive conducting, as no amount ofpractice will make an inexpressive performer expressive, unless there is a process

involved to allow the performer to become expressively aware.

As has been shown in Chapter Four, the development of proprioception is

essential for all conductors regardless of entering behaviour, as all conductorsmust have awareness of the position of their bodies in space. I believe that

knowledge and use of the five expressive movement theories examined can assistconductors with their proprioceptive sense.

With regard to the development of proprioception, Laban wrote in Modern

Educational Dance:To develop the sense of movement, with which we all are endowed to a greater or lesserdegree, is of paramount importance. For this a conscious awareness of motor sensationsis necessary, combined with those arising from the interplay of effort and the body inspace.… We are not all endowed with an equally fine kinaesthetic sense, that is the sense bywhich we perceive muscular effort, movement, and position in space. Its organs are notsituated in any one particular part of the body, as those of seeing or hearing, for instance,but they are nerve endings embedded in muscle fibres all over the body. Throughmusical sound we try to refine our sense of hearing; through the interplay of colours andshapes in art we try to refine our sense of seeing; and through dancing we try to refineour kinaesthetic sense (Laban 1980b:110-111).

45 Other models favoured by respondents included self-observation (16%), getting theconductors’ faces to convey the musical mood (14%), and just through experience (10%).

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I have used kinaesthetic awareness when working with conducting students byhaving them move with their eyes closed. Moving in this way, they are forced to

use other senses than their eyes, sensing the position of their arms, the attitude of

their head and neck, and then comparing this sensation with the reality of theirpositioning.

According to Farber and Parker, it was Dalcroze’s belief that bodily movementwas an experience felt by a sixth muscular sense (proprioception), consisting of

the relationship between the dynamics of movement and the position of the body

in space, between the duration of movement and its extent, and between thepreparation of a movement and its performance (Farber and Parker 1987:44).

Dalcroze teachers Julia Schnebly-Black and Stephen Moore explain that from aDalcroze standpoint: ‘Proprioception, our sixth sense, conveys information to the

brain about the body’s position. Without looking, we know whether our arm is

raised, our heel is off the floor, or our wrist is bent’ (Schnebly-Black and Moore1997:28).

The essential purpose of movement through proprioception, according to theDalcroze philosophy, is to convey information back to the movers themselves,

which is very important for student conductors as they learn to integrate their

musical ideas with their gestures. Dalcroze himself wrote in Rhythm, Music and

Education with regard to proprioception:Bodily movements are a muscular experience, and are appreciated by a sixth – the‘muscular’ – sense. Which controls the multiple nuances of force and speed of thosemovements in a manner appropriate to the emotions that inspire them, and which willenable the human mechanism to refine those emotions, thus rendering dancing acomplete and essentially human art (Jaques-Dalcroze 2002:270).

As conducting is a physical form of communication, it makes sense to develop

conducting movements through physical learning as provided by Dalcrozeeurhythmics. Learning conducting through verbal or visual instruction is far less

efficient, as ultimately what is learned must be translated into physical form

anyway.

Although the proprioceptive sense was yet to be named at the time of Delsarte46,he recognised the influence of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain on gesture.

Delsarte stated in his ‘Doctrine of Special Organs’ that the meaning of a gesture

46 As stated in the previous chapter, Sir Charles Sherrington’s observation and definition ofproprioception was made in 1906.

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was strongly coloured by the part of the body in which the movement originated,

but was also further modified by the realm in space in which the gestureculminated (Shawn 1974:33). For conductors, this is demonstrated by conducting

varieties of texture in different parts of the body. For example, when conductinga heavy or dark texture, this is communicated most convincingly by using low,

purposeful, centred gestures, as if transporting a heavy weight (Fig. 19).

Fig. 19 Low, Purposeful Centred Gesture

A musical example of this is found in the opening four bars of Beethoven’s

Egmont Overture (Fig. 20), which demands low, purposeful centred gestures.

Fig. 20 Opening bars of Egmont Overture (Beethoven 1985:239)

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Alternatively, a light texture is communicated convincingly at the body’s

extremities and up high, with quick frivolous movements (see Fig. 21).

Fig. 21 Quick Frivolous Gestures

Such gestures could be used to conduct the opening of the third movement ofTchaikovsky’s Symphony No.4 (Fig. 22), which uses pizzicato strings only.

Fig. 22 Opening bars of the third movement of Symphony No.4(Tchaikovsky 1979:82)

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Alexander regarded proprioception as the chief guide for all precise human

movement. He wrote on the phenomenon of proprioception in his bookConstructive Conscious Control of the Individual, although he referred to it as

‘sensory appreciation’:Sensory appreciation, from our point of view, has a much wider significance than isgenerally attributed to it. But it will be sufficient at this point to state that, taken even inthe most limited sense, it includes all sensory experiences which are conveyed throughthe channels of sight, hearing, touch, feeling, equilibrium, movement, etc., and whichare responsible for psycho-physical action and reaction throughout the organism.If we raise an arm, move a leg, or if we make any other movements of the body orlimbs, we are guided chiefly by our sensory appreciation or, as most people would put it,by our sense of feeling. This applies to the testing of the texture of a piece of clothbetween one’s fingers, or to the gauging of size, weight, distance, etc. – in fact, to theemployment of the ‘physical’ mechanisms in the processes of hearing, seeing, walking,talking, and in all the other activities of life (Alexander 1985:34).

For conductors, the development of faulty sensory awareness can be offset by the

process of Body Mapping as stated earlier in the chapter, together with routine

check-ups to note any changes. For this, the regular use of a video camera byconductors is very beneficial to compare how conductors think they are moving

with the realities of the actual movements.

Feldenkrais regarded proprioception as ‘the most important sense,’ writing in his

book The Elusive Obvious:All mammals, men included, have skeletal muscles which are of no use at all withoutsenses, especially without the most important, the kinaesthetic sense. All of thiscomplexity is utterly useless without the autonomic nervous system and the centralnervous system. To act, to move, to feel, to think, to do anything, all of these structuresmust function (Feldenkrais 1981:118).

Kinaesthetic awareness is an important feature of the Feldenkrais Method for

conductors. For example, conductors could explore an exercise linking breathing

to raising the arms by comparing the proprioceptive feedback received from thebody first from inhaling as the arms are raised, then exhaling as the arms are

raised, then deciding which feels most natural. This method presents akinaesthetic alternative to a verbal explanation for conducting teachers.

As earlier stated, the presence of commonalities highlights the importance ofmaterial. The commonalities also highlight the advantages of focusing on

multiple theories, as noted earlier by Schreiber (1980), rather than concentratingon one theory only, to the neglect of all others.

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In the next section, I will explore the potential use of the five expressive

movement theories in the enhancement of expressive conducting.

Potential Use – Laban

The advantage of using Laban’s ideas, according to dance teacher Ed Groff, is

that they provide an easily understood way to describe and analyse movement:A knowledge of movement helps clarify what is needed to perform an action effectivelyand efficiently. LMA (Laban Movement Analysis) practitioners, whether coaches,teachers, or physical therapists, acknowledge that each individual fulfils the demands ofa specific task differently. A comprehensive system of analysis provides a coach,teacher, or therapist with tools to help correct ineffective or damaging movement habitsand help students or clients develop maximal functioning. The approach can be tailoredto the unique signature and learning style of each individual student. Skill learning andmastery can be taught from the standpoint of the movement coordination required foreffective performance, focusing on the process as well as on the result (Groff 1995).

I believe Groff’s advice could also be applied to the description, analysis and

enhancement of expressive conducting movements, as LMA is flexible enough tocater for individual differences in conducting. Individual conductors can be

described and analysed based on the combinations of weight, space, time, andflow present in their conducting, and deficiencies in any of these areas can be

identified as a way of enhancing expressive conducting possibilities.

As stated earlier in the chapter, more research has been carried out onapplications of Laban to expressive conducting than any other expressive

movement theory, including studies by Bartee (1977), Poch (1982), Miller(1988), Benge (1996), Billingham (2001), Yontz (2001), Neidlinger (2003), and

Gambetta (2005).

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First was Neale Bartee’s thesis, in which he develops a theoretical position on

conducting using principles of body movement as explicated by Laban. AlthoughBartee’s was a theoretical document and untested by experimentation, he came

up with the following nine general implications of Laban’s principles forconductors:

1. Laban’s Effort-shape analysis system is a viable means of observation andassessment of body movement.

2. Movement is a manifestation of the inner being of man.3. Body movement, in and of itself, is a conscious means of communication.4. Movement thinking integrates the inner world of impulses with physical

expression in movement.5. Education in the concepts and techniques of Effort-shape improves one’s

movement capabilities in the following areas:a) awarenessb) range of expressive movementc) selectivityd) effort balancee) economy of effort

6. Laban’s concept of the kinesphere is a valuable aid in orienting the body inspace.

7. The body and its limbs are able to execute certain effort patterns more naturallythrough certain shaping movements than others.

8. The ordering of a movement can be determined by where it originates, and howit relates to other parts of the whole body.

9. Single movements are organised in patterns of pathways and sequences orphrases (Bartee 1977:148-159).

Bartee’s thesis was important for being the first study to consider the potential

use of Laban’s theories by conductors. I consider Bartee’s thesis to be a seminalwork in the recognition of the value of expressive movement theories for

conductors. Bartee’s work provided the necessary theoretical framework for

future practical studies, the first of which was by choral conductor Gail Poch.Poch’s paper was significant, in that he was one of the first to incorporate

Laban’s ideas in his conducting classes, finding that:Movement study has also proven to be extremely useful as a remedial tool for those whodo not possess innate flair, or a natural inclination for conducting. Many of thesestudents are vitally interested in developing effective communication skills, but they areinhibited by their apparent awkwardness. Once they have experienced the movementefforts and realise how a gesture is shaped so that it connects with the music, they gainconfidence and their abilities improve rapidly. Often it is these students who ultimatelybecome the most compelling conductors. They frequently possess a greater degree ofmusicality and sensitivity than their peers who were initially more demonstrative orbetter coordinated (Poch 1982:22).

An additional significance of Poch’s article is that it was the first to acknowledge

the benefits gained by lower entering behaviour conductors through using Labanprinciples.

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The most recent studies that have considered the potential use of Laban’s

theories by conductors have been by Erica Neidlinger (2003), Timothy Yontz(2001), and Charles Gambetta (2005).

Neidlinger’s thesis examined the effect of Laban Effort/Shape instruction onyoung conductors’ perception of expressiveness across arts disciplines. She

correctly observes that many music educators struggle with the expressive

elements in conducting, arguing that expressive movement training afforded byLaban can provide a solution:

There are many music educators who are highly skilled in beating time but are less adeptat expressing feeling. By drilling the same skills (often time beating) with youngconductors, perhaps their expressive development is inhibited. A constant focus on theexecution of beat patterns may instill such a strong kinaesthetic memory that departingfrom those patterns becomes increasingly difficult. … Instead, a better approach may beto introduce the expressive elements of movement through which students can conveyinner intentions early in their training to allow for the simultaneous development ofexpression and skill (Neidlinger 2003:6-7).

Expressive conducting, according to Neidlinger, is learnable at the outset through

the application of Laban principles:Expressive movement is often misconstrued as a mystical ability that cannot be put intowords. On the contrary, the elements of expressive movement can be dissected andanalysed in a specific manner, thereby making expressive evaluation an objective task.… If the use of expressive movement (through observation, kinaesthetic application, andevaluation) was introduced and reinforced to a beginning conducting class perhapsstudents would emerge with enhanced expressive abilities (Neidlinger 2003:25).

Neidlinger therefore views the bodily-kinaesthetic domain in combination with

visual observation of self and others as important ingredients in the acquisition of‘enhanced expressive abilities.’ She also regards expressive movement as a

tangible and learnable element. Yet she laments the fact that no instrumentalconducting textbook emulates Jordan’s Evoking Sound in beginning with Laban

movement exercises (Neidlinger 2003:138), as does Yontz (Yontz 2001:108).

This has now occurred in Lead and Inspire by Garofalo and Battisti (2005), inwhich the entire third chapter is devoted to movement exercises, including Laban

concepts of weight, space, time, and flow. Neidlinger also observes that there hasbeen no research to this time on the effect of expressive movement training on

conductors other than at the beginner stage. She suggests that it would be

interesting to discover if already highly expressive conductors received anyexpressive movement training, or experience in other arts disciplines. This has

been done in my survey of experienced Melbourne secondary school conductorsdiscussed throughout this thesis, results indicating that 36% of these conductors

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had undertaken expressive movement activities since they first started to

conduct. Although this is a low number, those respondents who had undertakenexpressive movement activities did find them beneficial47.

In the early stages of Charles Gambetta’s thesis on creating a fresh approach to

the teaching of conducting gesture through the principles of Laban Movement

Analysis, Gambetta argues:Clearly the art of conducting should be as firmly rooted in the art and science of humanmovement as it is in the art of music. Mastery of either discipline without acomplementary mastery of the other has been insufficient for nearly two hundred years.Metronomic precision combined with strict adherence to traditional beat patterns (thehallmarks of time-beating) are simply not enough (Gambetta 2005:7).

Gambetta brought to this study his ten-year experience with Laban Movement

Analysis, which he used to design a study in which four conductors, following a

conducting pre-test, completed five weekly one-hour sessions on LabanMovement Analysis (LMA), after which they were given a conducting post-test

(Gambetta 2005:20-21).Among the resulting implications of Gambetta’s study, he found that:

The researcher’s application of LMA establishes a truly viable alternative to themethodical use of metrically based beat patterns as the dominant organising principle ofconducting technique.Conductors cling to beat patterns because they are widely taught and because they createa convenient physical context (not a connection) for musical events in the absence of aricher, more effective framework for the conception and execution of conductinggestures. Beat patterns work to some extent, but in the hands of conductors with little orno connection between the expressive qualities of their gestures and elements of musicalexpression, they rob music of its breath, its continuity, its very life (Gambetta 2005:171-172).

Gambetta claims that music performance in general and conducting in particularare better understood through the principles of LMA, which recognises that

movement is also the channel through which internal musical abstractions

become transformed into audible musical expression, while Dalcrozeeurhythmics creates responses to external musical stimuli (Gambetta 2005:90-

91). I consider Gambetta’s dismissal of the effects of Dalcroze eurhythmics on

internal stimuli to be far-fetched, unsupported by writings shown later in thechapter by Claire McCoy, particularly in consideration of the amount of

proprioceptive feedback provided by the study of Dalcroze eurhythmics.

47 See Appendix B.

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In the training of conductors, Laban’s concepts of weight, space, time and flow,

plus the eight effort actions, make powerful teaching and imagery tools. Aconductor’s use of space relates perfectly to dynamic control48, weight relates to

dynamics and texture, time relates to tempo, and flow relates to style andarticulation. The effort actions make excellent and easily understood descriptors

of mood and style. Practising floating and gliding effort actions, for example,

enhance the ability of young conductors to be able to convey legato gestures,while practising dabbing and flicking effort actions enhance staccato gestures,

simply and with a minimum of verbal explanation required.

Laban’s theories, as indicated in the survey of university conducting teachers, arethe most widely known and used of the five expressive movement theories. The

other theories have either not been used as extensively, or conducting teachersare ignorant as to their potential. Such is the case with the theories of Dalcroze.

Potential Use – Dalcroze

Given the implications of Dalcroze’s employment of body movement and thelinkage between movement and sound, it is remarkable that there has been so

little written about the potential relationship between Dalcroze’s work and

expressive conducting. No theses have been undertaken in this area, althoughpapers by Albert Pfrimmer, John Dickson and Claire McCoy have touched on the

subject, particularly in the area of choral conducting.

48 In the mid-1980s, I witnessed a magical performance of Mahler’s Symphony No.1, conductedby Claudio Abbado. At the opening of the symphony, Abbado was almost motionless, coaxing abarely audible pianissimo out of the London Symphony Orchestra. As the movement developed,Abbado increased the size and space of his gestures to build to the climax of the movment. Ifound this to be an object lesson in space relating to dynamics.

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It is claimed by Spector that conductors Wilhelm Furtwängler, Rudolph Ganz

and Albert Pfrimmer were strongly influenced by eurhythmics, although Spectorprovides no real evidence to support this claim with regard to Furtwängler.

Spector describes the presentation made by Pfrimmer at the First RhythmicConference in Geneva in 1926, outlining the benefits of eurhythmics for

conductors:The Dalcroze method, he remarked, is the key to preparing conductors; it has itspedagogic influence, accentuates and intensifies rhythmic sense, sharpens the hearingfor harmony and for phrase, strengthens the musical memory, and develops the ability toexpress, through mime or plastic, a form of body expression. The latter point, he said, isin itself a system of expressing rhythmic movement and feeling. Besides thedevelopment of all musical faculties he stressed the value of concentration on left handand right hand independence (Spector 1990:269).

Toward the conclusion of his presentation, Primmer emphasises the importance

of the connection between body and mind for conductors that can be provided bythe Dalcroze method:

The art of the conductor is not simply an imitation or a variant of rhythmic gymnastics,but a very special and personal art. He has his own particular and individual technique,which goes beyond the framework of rhythmic gymnastics. However these gymnasticsprovide him with a great part of his elements, even with the conditions sine qua non ofhis technique: the psycho-physical disposition. Given that the gestures of the conductormust express the sensations, the sentiments and the ideas of the music to be played, it isnecessary that orders given by the brain and the consequent actions be in perfectharmony without stopping, without impediments, without irregularities. It is thereforenecessary to eliminate all resistances to teach the future conductor to achieve completerelaxation of the body and the mind and then to develop his spontaneity, the ease andintelligibility of his gestures (Pfrimmer 1926:191-192).

Pfrimmer here argues that Dalcroze work enhances the ability of a conductor topersonalise his or her gestures according to the conductor’s own physical

characteristics. Bodily-kinaesthetic learning is paramount in learning Dalcroze,

rather than following verbal instructions, or copying another conductor’sgestures.

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Taking the same approach of developing individuality in conducting students,

choral conductor John Dickson urges the training of conductors through themethodology of kinaesthetics as advocated by Dalcroze. Dickson explains:

Movement has not generally been used with adults or with conductors. This isunfortunate, for although one would not necessarily deny the necessity of rudimentaryskills, many conducting programs often limit instruction by teaching only abstractmechanics and techniques of gesture which, in many cases, are divorced from the musicmaking process. As a result, conducting robots are created who understand themechanics of gesture, but have little concept of the music itself – it’s shape, flow, anddirection.… In my teaching of conducting, I attempt to focus on the connection between the bodyand conducting gestures. Whether I concentrate on a feeling of lift in the upper body,facial expression, bodily position, or dance, my approach is the physical development ofgestures. Unless students gain a broad understanding of the concepts behind thegestures, their knowledge of music remains incomplete. In addition to this, the conceptsof bodily movement I teach are born out of my own kinaesthetic experiences withmusic. My challenge, then, lies not in simply teaching gesture, but in opening studentsup to the complete kinaesthetic process (Dickson 1992:15-17).

Dickson’s teaching is therefore based on the view that kinaesthetic learning is

more thorough and holistic than ‘abstract mechanics,’ which is a view I share.

Choral conductor Claire McCoy has written one of the few articles on the subject

of eurhythmics and conducting teaching, and states that the conductor uses thebody as a medium of musical expression:

How can musical imagination and the physical ability to communicate musical ideas bedeveloped in conductors? A promising approach lies in supplementing the traditionalstudy of conducting with experiences in whole-body movement. One research studyfound that Laban’s principles of movement can be successfully employed in the trainingof conductors. An even more comprehensive approach to training the body to be avehicle for musical expression is Dalcroze eurhythmics. In the study of eurhythmics,music and movement are inextricably linked; eurhythmics is a process of education inmusic that engages the whole body in response to music (McCoy 1994:21).

Having used eurhythmics exercises in workshops with conductors myself, such

as those provided in The Rhythm Inside (Schnebly-Black and Moore 1997:117-

140), I am in full agreement with McCoy as to the benefits of eurhythmics forconductors. An initial warm-up activity, for example, focuses awareness on

breathing and various parts of the body. Using music improvised on the spot,conductors practise moving different parts of their bodies to reflect the beat.

Changes to the localisation of the beat should be smooth and instantaneous.

Conductors then step the beats, alternating between forward and backwardmovements. Changes should be smooth and instantaneous, with almost no time

to think between the instruction and the reaction. Conductors then practiseinternalising the beat through sound and silence. When the music stops,

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conductors should continue to feel the pulse of the music. As a variation, the

conductors silently feel the beat while the music plays, and show the beat insome way when the music stops. Conductors should change the speed of their

movements as determined by the pulse of the music heard. They should showdifferent pulses simultaneously in different parts of their bodies. Finally,

conductors respond to the music in canonic form, such exercises being

particularly challenging for conductors’ proprioceptive sense. Canonic exercisesrequire a relaxed concentration and heightened awareness. They are excellent for

sensing movements, and developing fine motor skills within the body. Best of allfor conductors, these exercises are all carried out through the medium of music.

Potential Use – Delsarte

Shawn found that one of the problems with studying Delsarte is that the man

himself never published any of his own writings, feeling that his ideas were stillevolving and incomplete. Steele Mackaye, Delsarte’s most famous pupil, and

anointed by his master as his successor, lectured and taught all his life, but diedbefore publishing any of his own work on Delsarte (see Shawn 1974:12). Both

Hecht in her thesis (Hecht 1971:9-18) and Shawn in his book (Shawn 1974:118-

119) describe some of the difficulties interpreting Delsarte’s own survivingwritings, which are stored in the library at Louisiana State University. Most of

these writings appear as random ideas, scribbled down on scraps of paper,lacking consistency of form or thought. Delsarte’s ideas were instead

documented by his students, such as L’Abbe Delaumosne and students of

Mackaye, many of who took copious verbatim notes of Delsarte’s lectures andclasses.

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Conductors, conducting teachers and writers on conducting have largely ignored

the work of Delsarte, as shown in the two surveys. Gregory Lyne’s (1979) articleis one of the few to acknowledge the relevance of Delsarte’s theories to

expressive conducting, Lyne urging conductors to be more than mere ‘timebeaters.’ He makes reference to the expression charts set out by Delsarte as a

method of getting more expression into conducting gestures.

Towards the end of his paper, Lyne writes:I should like to entertain the idea that through a conscious awareness of the Delsartianideas and the utilisation of these basic principles, the communication with our singersmay be heightened, and a more artistic musical product may be the result. Theawareness of nonverbal and gestural communication may well enable us to avoid someof those moments in rehearsal when we might be accused of uninspiring conducting(Lyne 1979:24).

My surveys have shown that conductors use less Delsarte than the othermovement theories, possibly due to their theoretical nature, which provide less

practical opportunities for usage. Also, many conductors may simply be unawareof Delsarte. Hecht shows how the popularity and mis-interpretation of Delsarte’s

ideas in America in the 1880s and 1890s may have caused a backlash of neglect

in the twentieth century that continues into the twenty-first, due to the mistakenidea that Delsarte’s teachings were only dramatic poses (Hecht 1971:77-78).

Nevertheless, I consider study of Delsarte’s charts to be useful for conductors, asare knowledge of the Delsartian concepts of oppositions, parallelisms and

successions, and the Nine Laws of Motion, as they provide a physical guide for

expressive movement possibilities. For example, oppositions (any two parts ofthe body moving in opposite directions simultaneously) can assist conductors to

convey strength in gesture, parallelisms (two parts of the body movingsimultaneously in the same direction) convey weakness, and successions (any

movement passing through whole or any part of the body) can assist in the

expression of emotion in gesture. Earlier in the chapter, I provided examples ofhow oppositions and successions can aid the development of right and left hands

working together. I showed how the use of Delsarte’s cube (see p. 94) assists

more variety in left hand gestures. I also gave examples of how the Laws ofAltitude, Sequence and Form (from the Nine Laws of Motion) can be used by

conductors to increase their expressive movement potential.In a 2005 thesis, Kayoko Dan advocated exercises to activate facial expression in

instrumental conductors. As part of Dan’s research, he experimented with the

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angle of conductors’ heads while conducting, in order to assist with the portrayal

of different emotions, finding that altering the head angle enabled differentemotions to be communicated more easily (Dan 2005:27-28). Following on from

Dan’s findings, conductors attempting to develop their range of emotionalportrayal could use Delsarte’s chart of attitudes for the head (see Fig. 18 earlier

in the chapter).

Potential Use – Alexander

The Alexander Technique has assisted many musicians over the years, including,

according to Alexander teacher Pedro De Alcantara, conductors Adrian Boultand Colin Davis. An article written on the application of the Alexander

Technique that makes reference to conductors is Hillary Mayers’ and Linda

Babits’ article in the Music Educators Journal, which states:Conductors may perceive how their own physical movement affects the sound that theyelicit from their ensembles. A band instructor will better understand how instrumentsbecome part of the physical balance of the musicians. A choral conductor willexperience how postural distortion can interfere with vocal quality and breath capacity.Ultimately, in each of these cases, the teacher’s good physical use will serve as a modelfor his students (Mayers and Babits 1987:54).

I have certainly observed the reverse to be also the case, in that conductors who

exhibit poor physical use are at worst mirrored by their ensemble’s posture, or at

best, totally ignored.De Alcantara’s book on the Alexander Technique is written primarily for

musicians, with the foreword written by conductor Colin Davis, who commentson his own introduction to the Alexander Technique:

I shall always remain grateful to Sir Adrian Boult, who sent me to Wilfred Barlow formy first Alexander lesson. ‘My boy!’ he said, ‘you’ll be a cripple if you go on like that!’That was some forty years ago. Now my wife is an Alexander teacher herself and ourfamily of musicians takes lessons from her. It is clear that we are all convinced of theimportance of the Technique (De Alcantara 1997:xi).

De Alcantara refers frequently to two conductors who he holds up as ‘models of

Alexander principles,’ Wilhelm Furtwängler and Leopold Stokowski, althoughthere is no evidence that either actually studied the Alexander Technique. Both

of these conductors, however, did possess the undoubted ability to communicate

with the musicians through their movements.

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As mentioned earlier, one particular application of the Alexander Technique for

musicians (and particularly conductors) that has recently come to light is BodyMapping. While not directly mentioning body mapping, Alexander teacher

Michael Gelb advocates knowledge of the workings of our bodies (Gelb1994:128):

An understanding of the workings of all the joints is crucial to good Use of the self. Ourjoints not only make movement possible, they are also centres of our kinaestheticfeedback system. If a joint is misused the kinaesthetic information coming from it to thebrain will be distorted, leading to further misuse. The simple fact is the majority of us donot know where any of the major joints of the body are located, and we misuse ourselvesaccordingly (Gelb 1994:128).

To this point, Maribeth Knaub has written the only thesis about body mapping,

presenting it as an instructional strategy for teaching the Alexander Technique to

music students. Although this thesis contains no references to conducting, two ofits findings are relevant to it. The first relates to the position of the right hand

when conducting. Knaub explains:An example of a functional misconception is that few people realise that the ulna (in theforearm) is the stable bone and the radius rotates around it. This affects the alignment ofthe thumb and the other fingers when playing an instrument. Tendonitis can result fromthis problem (the mis-alignment of the ulna and radius) (Knaub 1999:40).

As was observed in Chapter Three, in developing baton technique in conductors,

conducting textbooks by Demaree and Moses and Green teach that ‘the baton

should serve as an extension of the right arm,’ the implication being that thebaton should stretch out in a straight line from the arm. Body Mapping, however,

maintains that this is an unnatural position for the wrist, examination of the arm

structure appearing to support this finding (see Fig. 5) (Calais-Germain1993:144).

The second significant finding occurs in the ‘Recommendations for FutureStudy’ section, in which Knaub states:

Further research can open the door wider and wider for music teachers and their studentsto understand what enables musicians to be free of unnecessary tension as they play orsing. A suggestion for future study is to combine the Alexander Technique with otherapproaches that view the mind-body as one entity. Very beneficial results could comeout of such a study (Knaub 1999:109).

Knaub’s recommendation backs up my contention that it is the knowledge and

experience of a number of movement theories that combine to assist a conductorto develop more expressive gestures.

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One of the more recent applications of Body Mapping to conducting was the

release of a companion video in 2002 to Jordan’s textbook Evoking Sound:

Fundamentals of Choral Conducting and Rehearsing. This video, Evoking

Sound: Body Mapping Principles and Basic Conducting Technique, also makesreference to lining up the right hand little finger with the ulna, backing up the

findings of Knaub (Jordan and Buchanan 2002).

Conductors wishing to effectively use the Alexander Technique must inhibit the

desire to look right or stand up straight, or to copy other conductors. Instead thefocus is on sensory awareness and allowing the head and neck to be free. There is

a total and continual vigilance required to maintain the Primary Control, which is

process-related, rather than aiming to achieve a particular end product.Conductors through observation should construct their own body maps to gain an

awareness of the realities of their body structure and use, instead of their faulty

perceptions of their structure and use.

Potential Use - Feldenkrais

As can be seen from the surveys earlier in this chapter, musicians are largely

ignorant of the benefits of the Feldenkrais Method, little having been writtenlinking the Feldenkrais Method to music. Rozanna Weinberger interviewed

Frank Wildman, director of the Movement Studies Institute of America, on thebenefits of the Feldenkrais Method for musicians, Weinberger commenting:

But the Feldenkrais Method asks, ‘How does one physically learn? How can we takeyou back to that place where you’re not even thinking about improving, but rather –much like a baby learning to take its first steps – sensing body movementskinaesthetically?’ When we do things for the pleasure inherent in the movement, thenwe’re working with the true foundations for coordination (Weinberger 1999:77).

It is the development of movement awareness that the Feldenkrais Method

allows that is of particular benefit to conductors. There are currently no theses onthe application of the Feldenkrais Method to expressive conducting.

Although Feldenkrais has less practical applications for conductors than Laban

and Dalcroze, for example, one of the useful concepts of the Feldenkrais Methodis that it works to re-organise patterns of movement to achieve maximum

efficiency and ease of use, which is relevant for the enhancement of expressiveconducting. For example, Feldenkrais describes an exercise in which the

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movement of the eyes organises the movement of the body (Feldenkrais

1990:145-154). Beginning with an arm swinging movement first to the right,then to the left, conductors should first try this movement with eyes closed, just

observing the smoothness of the movements and noticing which part of the bodyturns first: the eyes, the head, or the pelvis. Conductors should then try the

movements with eyes open, noticing if the eyes now move in a different way

than before. They should compare the quality of the movements with eyes openand eyes closed to see if there is a difference in the smoothness and fluidity of

the movements one way or the other. Conductors should also sit on the floor andmove the left hand across the body as far to the right as possible, following the

movement with the eyes. Through the use of the eyes, the turning angle is

widened. According to Feldenkrais, the eyes play an important role incoordinating the musculature of the body, greater even than the role played by

the neck muscles (Feldenkrais 1990:148). Eye use also has a decisive influence

on the manner in which the neck muscles contract. In my observations ofconductors, muscle tension appears to be shown greatest by the tensing of the

neck muscles. If conductors through the improved use of their eyes (and eyecontact is shown in Chapter Six to be one of the most important forms of non-

verbal communication) can reduce muscle tension, then that is a significant

enhancement to their conducting.

Using awareness, conductors can develop improved efficiency of movement,therefore eliminating unnecessary or distracting movements. Useful examples of

Feldenkrais lessons are provided by Shafarman, whose fourth lesson in

particular, ‘Uninhibited Breathing,’ (Shafarman 1997:102-115) is of value toconductors. As mentioned earlier, effective and efficient breathing is one of the

most important communication tools for conductors. The lesson consists ofconductors lying on their backs, observing breathing, observing abdominal

movement, and controlling breathing; performing similar movements lying on

their fronts, and sitting in chairs. Apart from the importance of breathing forcommunication of the preparatory beat, breathing has the significant benefit of

relaxing conductors before performances.

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In this chapter, I have explored how the use of the five expressive movement

theories selected (Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais) canenhance expressive conducting at all levels of entering behaviour, and examined

commonalities of these five expressive movement theories.

Although acting has been used by a majority of conducting teachers, othermovement activities have failed to achieve general support, however, most

teachers who have used movement activities have found them to be effectivewith their conducting students.

Taking into consideration the data received from both surveys, I selected five

movement activities for examination in this study; those of Laban, Dalcroze,Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais, not necessarily for being the most popular

movement activities, but for providing the strongest frameworks in terms of

movement theories and principles which could be applied to expressiveconducting.

Studies of Laban’s ideas on conducting by Bartee (1977), Poch (1982), Miller(1988), Benge (1996), Yontz (2001), Neidlinger (2003), and Gambetta (2005),

have been written. More research has been carried out on applications of Laban

to conducting than any other expressive movement theory, although the glut ofresearch into Laban in comparison with the dearth of research into other

expressive movement theories and their relationship to conducting teaching isdifficult to fathom.

Given the implications of Dalcroze’s employment of body movement and the

linkage between movement and sound, it is remarkable that there has been solittle written about the potential relationship between Dalcroze’s work and

expressive conducting. No theses have been undertaken in this area, althoughpapers by Pfrimmer (1926), Dickson (1992) and McCoy (1994) have touched on

the subject.

Conductors, conducting teachers and writers on conducting have largely ignoredthe work of Delsarte, as shown in the two surveys. Lyne’s (1979) article

represents one of the few to acknowledge the relevance of Delsarte’s theories toexpressive conducting.

The Alexander Technique has assisted many musicians, including conductors

Adrian Boult and Colin Davis. Documents written on the application of the

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Alexander Technique by Mayers and Babits (1987), and De Alcantara (1997)

make reference to conductors.One particular application of the Alexander Technique for musicians (and

particularly conductors) that has recently come to light is Body Mapping. To thispoint, the only thesis written about body mapping, by Knaub (1999), presents it

as an instructional strategy for teaching the Alexander Technique to music

students.As can be seen from the surveys shown in the Appendices, musicians are

ignorant of the benefits of the Feldenkrais Method, little having been writtenlinking the Feldenkrais Method to music. There are currently no theses on the

application of the Feldenkrais Method to expressive conducting.

I observed four commonalities of relevance to conducting among the five

expressive movement theories examined. The appearance of commonalities in

the five featured expressive movement theories highlight the importance of thematerial.

Firstly, all five are strongly in favour of the integration between body and mind,which is vitally important for conductors, whose gestures must reflect the music

and thought processes happening in their brain. Supported by the five expressive

movement theories examined in this thesis, I believe that developing the mind-body connection contributes to enhanced expressive movement and non-verbal

communication in conducting.Secondly, all five represent an educational process, and as such, are highly

relevant to the teaching of expressive conducting, particularly in the early stages.

Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander and Feldenkrais were all gifted teachers,who not only taught their techniques to others, but also trained others to teach

their techniques in their own right.Thirdly, all five are teachable to anyone, not just those with high entering

behaviour. Being teachable, they should be employed in the earliest stages of

conductor training. According to statements made by Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte,Alexander, and Feldenkrais, even high entering behaviour conductors would

benefit from increased movement awareness. Conductors with low or moderateentering behaviour can still achieve their maximum potential through expressive

movement training.

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Finally, the importance of the sixth kinaesthetic sense known as proprioception is

acknowledged in all five of the expressive movement theories. I argued in theprevious chapter that the development of proprioception is essential for all

conductors regardless of entering behaviour, as all conductors must haveawareness of the position of their bodies in space.

So far in this thesis, I have emphasised the importance of the bodily-kinaestheticdomain to the enhancement of expressive conducting. In the next chapter, I will

investigate how the expressive elements of conducting are communicated,emphasising the importance of non-verbal communication, and introduce three

different gestural modes, which allow for a varied range of gestures depending

on the musical circumstances faced by the conductor.

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CHAPTER SIX – THE USE OF NON-VERBAL SKILLS ANDCONCEPTS TO ENHANCE EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING

In this chapter, the main aim is to highlight the enhancement of expressiveconducting through the use of non-verbal communication skills in conducting,

through an examination of the categories and coding of non-verbal

communication available to conductors, and an exploration of the use ofkinesics49 by conductors. Additional aims are to examine the use of observation

and recording of non-verbal communication of relevance to expressiveconducting, and to consider the use of non-verbal communication, facilitated by

the declamatory and narrative modes as described in a thesis by Christopher

Koch (2003), to enhance expressive conducting.

In the first part of this chapter, I will investigate how the expressive elements of

conducting are communicated, given that emphasising communication is a vitalelement in the enhancement of expressive conducting to all levels of entering

behaviour. The discussion will be informed by statements of writers FrederickHarris (2001), Philip Hart (1983) and Barry Green (2003), and conductors

Claudio Abbado (see Matheopoulos 1982), Charles Munch (1955) and Pierre

Boulez (see Matheopoulos 1982). My own experience of conducting and theresults from my surveys suggest that non-verbal communication is the essential

element in expressive conducting for all levels of entering behaviour.In the second part of this chapter, I will discuss non-verbal communication

research by the scholars Judee Burgoon, David Buller, Gill Woodall (1996), Paul

Ekman and Wallace Friesen (1969), and conducting research by Faye Julian(1989) and Gary Sousa (1989) as part of my introduction to the categories and

coding of non-verbal communication available to conductors.

In the third part of this chapter, I will discuss the work of the writers and

researchers William James (1932), Mary Key (1975), John Bulwer (2003),Michael Argyle (1975), Steven Beebe (1974), Ekman and Friesen, and Albert

Mehrabian (1972), neurologist Frank Wilson (1999), and conductor RobertGrechesky (1985) to show how the use of kinesics can enhance expressive

49 The term ‘kinesics’ is defined by anthropologist Ray Birdwhistell as ‘the study of body motionas related to the non-verbal aspects of inter-personal communication’ (Birdwhistell 1952:3).

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conducting, including posture, movements of the hands and arms, and especially

the use of the face and eyes.In the fourth part of this chapter, I will present methods advocated by Norman

Leyden (1968), Jan Roshong (1978), Thüring Bräm and Penny Boyes Braem(2001), Teresa Marrin (1996), Teresa Marrin Nakra (2000), and Jessica Kun

(2004) to observe and record non-verbal communication behaviours of relevance

to expressive conducting, including movement analysis, film, observationalinstruments, and computer technology.

In the fifth part of this chapter, I will discuss the arguments for and against theuniversality and the cultural context of emotional expression in non-verbal

communication. Charles Darwin’s view was that the expression of emotions is

innate and universal throughout human-kind, however, the anthropologist RayBirdwhistell (1970) argued that emotional expression is learned and culturally

based. Ekman (1998) takes a third position, arguing that emotions are universal,

but that the context for their expression is cultural. Ekman’s findings proposethat for conductors, a limited set of universal emotional expressions are learnable

under the cultural display rules that tradition has set down for a conductor. Thistradition permits verbal and non-verbal communication in rehearsal but only non-

verbal communication through facial expression, including eye contact, and the

motion and attitude of a conductor’s hands, arms and body in performance.In the final parts of this chapter, I will outline the advantages of non-verbal

communication for expressive conducting, arguing that Koch’s declamatory andnarrative modes can be effectively taught to conductors through the use of

illustrators, regulators and affect displays. Taken at face value, non-verbal

communication would appear to be an impossibly broad and disjointed area forconducting teachers to cover. However, kinesics including posture, hand and arm

movements, incorporating universally known emblems, expressive illustratorsand regulators; and eye contact and facial interest, incorporating affect displays

are all learnable expressive communication tools.

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Communicating the Expressive Elements in Conducting

As conducting is a silent art, a conductor elicits a response from the musicians

via his or her physical gestures. Choral conductor Jameson Marvin associates aconductor’s arm movements with their realisation of sound:

Physical gestures require energy and they generate energy. The quality of the response isa mirror of the quality of the energy projected. The more meaningful the conductinggesture, the more focused the energy. The more focused the energy, the greater thepower to elicit the desired response. Onward flows the circle of energy – from conductorto chorus and back to conductor. The cycle is revitalising for both. This process is realbut invisible; it is thus often felt to be spiritual, and its essence inspires and enriches thelives of the participants (Marvin 1988:26).

The communication of energy and focus, which Marvin regards as an importantaspect of gesture, is often missed in conducting training programs, according to

conductor and teacher Thomas Dvorak, who states:Conducting classes are too pattern oriented. Instead we should educate youngconductors to develop a greater responsiveness to music, to get their feelings involvedand allow their faces and minds to open up, to share their involvement in the music.… Our goal should be to teach students to add their inner-most feelings to their physicalskills. The big task is to communicate the essence of the music (see Knight 2004a:16).

Dvorak cites the example of the mime artist Erwin ‘Bud’ Beyer of Northwestern

University50 who teaches communication via subtle movements of the face and

torso. These physical areas most clearly communicate feelings to other people,

feelings that are not easily or clearly communicated verbally.

So, how important for a conductor is the ability to communicate? In my survey

of experienced secondary school conductors, I asked them to list the mostimportant attributes of an effective conductor (Table 13) and an expressive

conductor (Table 14):

50 Bud Beyer has been successfully presenting communication workshops for conductors aroundthe USA for twenty-five years.

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Ability to Communicate 12 29%Balance between Functional & Artistic 2 5%Clarity 9 21%Decisive 1 2%Efficient Technique 2 5%Expressive 1 2%Humour 4 10%Interpretation 5 12%Knowledge of Instruments 2 5%Knowledge of Repertoire 3 7%Leadership 2 5%Listening Skills 2 5%Motivator 5 12%Musicianship 1 2%Patience 2 5%Preparation 6 14%Rehearsal Techniques 8 19%Rhythm 1 2%Score Study 1 2%Strength of Personality 1 2%Stylistic Understanding 3 7%Teaching Ability 2 5%Timing 2 5%Understands Musicians 12 29%Table 13 Important Attributes of an Effective Conductor

The most important attributes of an effective conductor, as listed by respondents,were the ability to communicate and an understanding of musicians (both 29%).

The next most important attributes were clarity (21%) and rehearsal techniques

(19%).Baton Control 3 7%Clarity 3 7%Communication 14 33%Encouraging Attitude 1 2%Ensemble Empathy 3 7%Expressive Movements 6 14%Inspirational 4 10%Interpretation 2 5%Joy in Music Making 3 7%Keeping Time 2 5%Knowledge of Score 2 5%Listening Skills 2 5%Manual Independence 2 5%Musicianship 7 17%No Excessive Gestures 6 14%Phrasing 1 2%Physical Embodiment of Music 3 7%Range of Gestures 2 5%Sense of Humour 1 2%Suspend Time Keeping 3 7%Stylistic Understanding 2 5%Table 14 Important Attributes of an Expressive Conductor

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The most important attributes of an expressive conductor, as listed by

respondents, were communication (33%), musicianship (17%), expressivemovements and no excessive gestures (each 14%).

Communication can occur in two forms, verbal or non-verbal. Although clearand succinct verbal communication is important to a conductor in a rehearsal

situation, only non-verbal communication is normally available to a conductor in

performance. Although good communication skills are regarded by practisingconductors as the most important attribute of expressive conductors, conducting

teachers, as shown by my surveys, appear to lack an effective way to teach non-verbal communication skills to lower entering behaviour students.

The twelve conductors surveyed by Frederick Harris51 all agreed that non-verbal

gestures must reflect the nature of the music and that the use of the face and theeyes are the most powerful means by which a conductor can communicate how

he or she feels (Harris 2001:48). Conductor Claudio Abbado also agrees, adding

the importance of the hands as well as the face and eyes (see Matheopoulos1982:74), features which Philip Hart noticed in his observation of Abbado’s

communication with an orchestra (Hart 1983:88). Of conductor DanielBarenboim, Hart observes:

Although Barenboim is an extremely articulate talker about music, he curbs his verbalfacility on the podium. He communicates a great deal with gestures that are extremely‘orchestral’ for a musician so completely at home at the keyboard. … Players sitting infront of him all agree that he communicates a great deal with his eyes, an observationthat will surprise no one who has talked face to face with him (Hart 1983:30-32).

Barenboim’s eyes were a vital factor in his non-verbal communication with

musicians. Conductor Charles Munch confirms the importance of facialexpression and gesture in expressively communicating with musicians, adding:

‘The look in his eyes is often more important than the motion of a baton or the

position of a hand’ (Munch 1955:70).In providing advice for teaching young conductors, composer-conductor Pierre

Boulez states:The first and most important thing you have to learn is communication, how to explainwhat you want, not always verbally, but through gestures. … And it was interesting forme to observe at a conducting class I once taught in Basle how some students who knewthe scores well and were also technically gifted, still could not get through to theorchestra because they lacked this ability to communicate (see Matheopoulos 1982:33).

51 Frank Battisti, Frederick Fennell, James Hainlen, Craig Kirchhoff, Stephen Massey, WilliamMcManus, Gustav Meier, Weston Noble, Larry Rachleff, Malcolm Rowell, Gunther Schuller,and Stanislaw Skrowaczewski.

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Boulez’s observation reinforces my contention that conductors with a low

entering behaviour for expressive communication struggle to work effectivelywith ensembles, regardless of the technique and musical ability of the conductor.

Conductor and teacher John Knight often observes a transformation ofconductors when they get on the podium to conduct, suggesting that they

concentrate so intently on what they have to do as conductors, that their faces

assume a blank expression of concentration, rather than expressivelycommunicating with the musicians through facial interest. Knight states: ‘Some

directors talk personably in the hallway, but when they jump on the podium ametamorphosis occurs. They become so stiff that tension in their back is apparent

from the first downbeat, even at a dynamic of piano’ (see Ling 1998:14). I have

observed this same phenomenon among conductors many times: an articulate andanimated person off the podium, who uses a variety of hand and facial gestures

and good eye contact, becomes an expressionless, characterless conducting

automaton a few minutes later on the podium.Barry Green suggests that the phenomenon of entrainment is an important aspect

of expressive communication52. According to Green, entrainment was firstdocumented by Dutch scientist Christian Huygens, who noticed in 1665 that two

pendulum clocks, mounted side by side on a wall, would swing together in

precise rhythm; in fact, they would hold their mutual beat far beyond theirmaker’s capacity to match them in mechanical accuracy (Green 2003:23-24).

Entrainment can also occur between musicians in performance, such as betweena conductor and an ensemble. Green describes the entrainment process in music:

‘This isn’t one person following the other, it is more a matter of the two artists

responding to music that was within each of them – hearing it and responding toits shape, sound, rhythm, and character’ (Green 2003:15).

Green also believes that the entrainment process can involve the audience as wellas the performers:

When musicians entrain, they merge and synchronise their actions. These synchronisedactions in turn have the potential to reach and entrain the audience as well. And whenthat happens, as the final crash is heard or last long note fades at the end of a piece, theaudience is one, as you can tell from the stunned silence – and thunderous applause(Green 2003:24).

52 Entrainment is defined by Clayton, Sager, and Will as: ‘a process whereby two rhythmicprocesses interact with each other in such a way that they adjust towards and eventually ‘lock in’to a common phase and/or periodicity’ (see Clayton, Sager, and Will 2004:2).

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Although the process of entrainment has been recognised for over three hundred

years, the effect of entrainment on the communication between conductor andensemble has yet to be researched. Although outside the scope of this thesis, it is

highly recommended for future research.

Conductor Malcolm Rowell, who teaches conducting at the University of

Massachusetts, describes the importance of using drama teachers and non-verbalcommunication experts when working with student conductors, as words are

inadequate to describe feelings:The bottom issue here is – describe what it means to smell a rose, or describe to mewhat it means to be in love. And words are just very inadequate. But you can express tosomeone what it means to play beautifully, you can express to someone what it means tobe in love – it might be a glistening of the eye, it may be reaching out, or it may be anopening up, it may be something as simple as a smile (see Harris 2001:62-63).

As previously stated, based on my own experience of conducting and on theresults from my surveys, I believe that non-verbal communication is at the

essence of enhancing expressive conducting to all levels of entering behaviour.

Categories and Coding of Non-Verbal Communication Used by

Conductors

From my experience of the teaching of conducting, I maintain that it is important

for conductors to be aware of the categories and coding of non-verbalcommunication available to conductors so that they can better understand and

analyse the non-verbal behaviour that they use. Each of the five expressivemovement theories discussed in the previous chapter emphasise the employment

of movements that convey a unified meaning through the whole body, rather than

disconnected gestures. Warren Lamb, a student of Laban, makes the distinctionbetween postural movement, which involves coordination through all parts of the

body, and gestural movement, in which only part or parts of the body are

involved (Lamb 1965:14-15). Lamb writes:If there are frequent occasions when Gesture merges into Postural adjustment there is nofeeling of artificiality. If many Gestures are observed which do not merge and thereforeappear unrelated to Posture, or if there is so little postural adjustment for them to mergeinto, a distinct feeling of artificiality is created (Lamb 1965:32).

For conductors, who routinely use gestural movement as part of their conducting

technique, it is important that they allow these gestures to merge into a

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complimentary postural adjustment in order that their movements appear sincere

and convincing. Studying the different categories and coding of non-verbalbehaviour aids the enhancement of expressive conducting, as will be shown.

Since the 1960s, there has been an explosion of research into non-verbal

communication, as shown by the work of researchers Paul Ekman and Wallace

Friesen (1969), Michael Argyle (1975), Judee Burgoon (1996), Mary Key(1975), and Albert Mehrabian (1972). According to Burgoon, Buller and

Woodall, for communication to occur there must be a sender and one or morereceivers. The sender communicates with the receiver(s) either intentionally or

unintentionally (Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall 1996:10-13). For example, the

sender/conductor who winks at the percussion section in an ensemble during aperformance to show his approval of a well-played piece of music does so

intentionally, while the sender who yawns while listening to a long speech does

so either intentionally or unintentionally, depending on whether they were awareof sending the yawning signal while it was occurring.

It would be easy, then, to say that anything interpreted by the receiver as amessage is communication, however, this definition is rather too broad for

practical purposes. As advocated by Burgoon, Buller and Woodall, a message

orientation is defined as communication only when behaviours form part of asocially-shared coding system. This includes behaviours that are typically sent

with intent; are used with regularity among members of a given socialcommunity, society, or culture; are typically interpreted as intentional; and have

consensually recognised meanings (Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall 1996:13-14).

An example of a conducting non-verbal message is when a conductor uses asmall amount of space to indicate a soft dynamic, in contrast with using a large

amount of space to indicate a loud dynamic. Musicians routinely understandthese signals. Similarly, a conductor sends a non-verbal message to an ensemble

through the speed of his or her arms, communicating the tempo of the music to

the musicians.

In the 1960s, Ekman and Friesen made a major contribution to the understandingof non-verbal behaviour by assigning the terms ‘origins’, ‘usage’ and ‘coding’ to

the circumstances of non-verbal behaviour. In the opening paragraph of their

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paper ‘The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behaviour: Categories, Origins, Usage, and

Coding,’ they state:If we are to understand fully any instance of a person’s non-verbal behaviour – that is,any movement or position of the face and/or the body – we must discover how thatbehaviour became part of the person’s repertoire, the circumstances of its use, and therules which explain how the behaviour contains or conveys information (Ekman andFriesen 1969:49).

The way in which the non-verbal behaviour originally became part of the

person’s repertoire is known as ‘the origin of a behaviour.’ The usage refers to

regular and consistent circumstances surrounding the occurrence of a non-verbalact, including the external conditions found whenever the act occurs; the

relationship of the act to the associated non-verbal behaviour; the person’sawareness of emitting the act; the person’s intention to communicate; feedback

from the person (people) observing the act; and the type of information conveyed

by the act (Ekman and Friesen 1969:53).

Ekman and Friesen describe five categories of non-verbal behaviour that canenhance expressive conducting, as each category has a different communicative

role:

‘Emblems’ are non-verbal acts which can be translated, or defined in a word ortwo, or perhaps a phrase (such as raising a hand to indicate ‘stop’); ‘Illustrators’

are movements which are directly tied to speech and illustrate what is being said

verbally; ‘Affect displays’ are muscle movements, generally facial, associatedwith a display of emotion; ‘Regulators’ are acts that maintain and regulate the

back-and-forth nature of speaking and listening between two parties; and‘Adaptors’ are behaviours often learned in childhood and maintained by habit,

and the most difficult form of non-verbal behaviour to describe (Ekman and

Friesen 1969:63-84).Ekman and Friesen’s categorisation of non-verbal behaviour is relevant to the

enhancement of expressive conducting, as each of the five categories serve asvaluable gestural tools for conductors. For example, as words are usually

impossible in performance, conductors rely on emblems that are understood by

all musicians to get clear messages across, such as using a preparatory breathinggesture to start the music. Illustrative movements, including Laban effort actions

described in the previous chapter, such as gliding gestures to indicate legato anddabbing gestures to indicate staccato, are widely used by conductors to portray

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the desired character and style of the music, and these are excellent examples of

illustrators. Conductors use ‘affect displays,’ such as smiling or frowning, tocommunicate their feelings and reaction to the performance, while ‘adaptors,’

such as facial mannerisms and habits, are unconsciously used by conductors,possibly serving as a distraction to the musicians unless they are identified and

controlled in the early stages.

From the 1980s, conductors began to show an interest in these categories of non-

verbal communication, as demonstrated by Faye Julian’s article ‘NonverbalCommunication: Its Application to Conducting,’ which appeared in the Journal

of Band Research, Julian stating:A conductor deliberately chooses from four of the gesture categories and may use thefifth group without knowing it. The technique of conducting might be described asemblematic with certain agreed-upon movements of the hands having a set meaning.The illustrators a conductor chooses might well punctuate, accent, and point out. Just asideograph illustrators are used more frequently with more difficult messages in spokencommunication, perhaps more gesturing is used by the conductor when more difficultpassages of music are interpreted.Conductors use many and varied forms of affect displays – many with their faces, somewith their bodies, and a few with their feet. Even the least musical audience member isable to read degrees of feelings in the conductor’s face and body. Likewise, bothmusicians and audience can pick up distracting adaptors. If the conductor displaysmannerisms which are odd and disconcerting, all attention will go to the mannerism andlittle if any to the music (Julian 1989:51).

While contributing little new research, this article concisely summarises Ekmanand Friesen’s research into the five types of gestures (emblems, illustrators,

regulators, affect displays and adaptors). Julian gives examples of how each of

the five could be used, such as placing the index finger on the top of the thumb ofthe same hand for the ‘OK’ sign as an emblematic gesture; pounding a fist on a

table for urgency as an illustrator; nodding the head as a regulator, clenchingtight the hands as an affect display; and tapping a pen as an adaptor (Julian

1989:51). Julian fails to mention that not all emblems are universally understood,

or have a consistent meaning to all cultures. Desmond Morris, in his examinationof the meaning of the ‘OK’ gesture described by Julian (which Morris calls ‘the

ring’), gives four different meanings to this gesture throughout Europe and the

Mediterranean region alone (see Fig. 23); ‘OK’ for Britain, Scandinavia, most ofItaly and Spain; an ‘orifice’ for Greece and Turkey; ‘zero’ for France and

Belgium; and a threatening gesture for parts of North Africa (Morris et al.1979:116-117).

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Fig. 23 Interpretations of ‘the Ring’ Gesture Throughout Europe (Morriset al. 1979:116-117)

As shown by Morris, conductors need to be sensitive to the culturalrepresentation of their ensemble members before selecting certain gestures to use

as emblems, in order to avoid unintended or possibly offensive signals being

sent.

Gary Sousa’s thesis specifically examined the universal understanding ofconducting ‘emblems’ by requesting performers at three levels (university, high

school, and middle school) observe and identify conducting gestures, asking

them: What are the specific non-verbal conducting gestures commonly used byand taught to instrumental conductors to communicate musical concepts? Do

these musical conducting gestures have precise meanings and commoninterpretations among instrumental performers? Which of these gestures can be

considered musical conducting emblems? Is the ability to interpret the meanings

of these musical conducting emblems acquired over a period of time byinstrumental performers (i.e., during the elementary, secondary, or collegiate

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period of instrumental study), or are they common gestures whose meanings are

understood by all levels of instrumental performers? (Sousa 1989:5-6)Sousa identified fifty-five gestures as conducting emblems, only nineteen being

identified by the total population of performers in his study, indicating thatgestures considered by many to be ‘emblematic’ were not necessarily understood

by all performers. Sousa’s results indicate an increasing level of accuracy in

interpreting conducting gestures as performers increase in age and experience.Among the conclusions of his thesis of relevance to conducting teaching, Sousa

writes:It can no longer be assumed that the conducting gestures commonly taught in the collegeclassroom and recommended in conducting textbooks have universal interpretation byinstrumental performers. Even the college population did not recognise all of thegestures thought to be in common usage. It should also be noted that only seven of thefifty-five instrumental conducting gestures had 100% recognition by the collegestudents.As well, those who teach instrumental conducting at the university level should besensitive to the fact that some gestures may be more effective than others in thecommunication of specific musical ideas. They should also make their conductingstudents aware that some of the ensemble problems relating to tempo and dynamics maybe inherent in the gestures that conductors use (Sousa 1989:90).

The conducting gestures that rated the poorest in terms of emblematic

recognition involved preparatory beats and tempo changes. Sousa’s examples

used conducting technique as shown in five textbooks: The Art of Conducting byHunsberger and Ernst; Basic Conducting Techniques by Labuta; The

Conductor’s Workshop by Long; The Grammar of Conducting by Rudolf; andThe Modern Conductor by Green (Sousa 1989:32)53. It is possible that the low

recognition of some of gestures signifies a weakness in the conducting technique

as shown in the five textbooks. It is also possible that other aspects of non-verbalcommunication beyond the technique are required to consolidate the emblem,

such as the expressive use of the body, face, eyes, and hands/arms.Although emblems are an essential part of conducting, in that they are supposed

to represent a signal that is universally understood, the inconsistency of the

recognition of emblems identified in Sousa’s thesis indicates that conductorsshould also use other aspects of non-verbal communication, such as the coding.

53 All five of these textbooks were identified in my survey of university conducting teachers. Fourof the five were identified in my survey of experienced secondary school conductors inMelbourne, the only one not being identified was the book by Gerry Long.

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According to Burgoon, Buller and Woodall, the coding of non-verbal

communication can be differentiated according to the transmission medium andchannel used:

Typically, body movement, facial activity, and gaze are combined into kinesics, or whatis known in the popular vernacular as body language. Vocal activity forms anothercategory known as paralanguage or vocalics. Likewise, touch is treated as a separatecode called haptics. The use of space, called proxemics, and the use of time, calledchronemics, are also given independent status. Finally, physical appearance is oftenseparated from the use of artifacts (Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall 1996:18).

Having recognised the existence of seven non-verbal communication codes, only

one, kinesics, will be considered as part of this thesis54, kinesics being defined as‘the study of body motion as related to the non-verbal aspects of inter-personal

communication’ (see Birdwhistell 1952:3). For conducting teachers, kinesics

moves beyond the standard beat pattern conducting gestures of the correctivemode described by Koch later in the chapter, to involve expressive movements of

the hands, arms, and body, posture, facial expression, and eye contact, whichconstitute Koch’s declamatory and narrative modes.

54 Kinesics is the coding most relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting. The othersix codes can be used by conductors in the following ways:Vocalics can be intentionally used by conductors in rehearsal as a teaching tool, including body-generated sounds, such as clapping and tapping (Berz 1983:4), or unintentionally in performance,including grunts, groans, and singing along with an ensemble, which can distract the audiencefrom the music.Conductors in a limited sense can use proxemics, in that although restricted by the presence of apodium and the need to be seen by the musicians, conductors can still make use of their personalspace in the vertical, horizontal, and sagittal planes. For conductors, the concept of space equateswith dynamics and intensity: the more space utilised by the conductor, the louder the dynamicsand the greater the intensity.Conductors are constantly working with chronemics, as music lives for only a moment in time.Although conductors indicate beat points by way of a beat pattern, it is the way they use the spacebetween the beat points that adds expression to the music. Conductors with a high enteringbehaviour for chronemics appear to do this effortlessly, although most conductors work with ametronome at various stages to improve their chronemic sense.Conductors in a musical performance also use certain artifacts, music stands creating acommunicational barrier between the conductor and the ensemble, although this is normally moreof a problem for instrumental groups than for choral groups, who do not generally use musicstands. Some conductors may memorise their music so that they can do without a music stand.Many conductors choose to use a baton to increase the visibility of the beat, particularly forconducting large ensembles, or where a large distance exists between conductor and performers,such as when conducting singers on stage separated by an orchestra pit.The physical appearance of the conductor can become an issue in performance if it becomes adistraction. Traditionally, conductors in performance are dressed in all black, or black and white,to make the hands or the baton more visible.Haptics, in the truest sense, is not available to conductors in traditional Western musicperformance, as they are normally unable to ‘touch’ other performers. However, a form of hapticcommunication can occur by way of the sensitivity and gradation of the conductor’s gestures.

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The Use of Kinesics to Facilitate Expressive Conducting

Ray Birdwhistell coined the term kinesics for the study of human body motion as

communication. In his book Kinesics and Context – Essays on Body Motion

Communication he analyses the importance of body motion, arguing that like

other events in nature, no body movement or expression is without meaning in

the context in which it appears; like other aspects of human behaviour, bodyposture, movement, and facial expression are patterned and, thus, subject to

systematic analysis; and while the possible limitations imposed by particularbiological substrata are recognised, until otherwise demonstrated, the systematic

body motions of the members of a community is considered a function of the

social system to which the group belongs (Birdwhistell 1970:183-184).In this case, conductors are the members of the community described by

Birdwhistell, and the social system is the conventions of Western classical music

to which conductors adhere.

In the mid-seventeenth century, the significance of the non-verbalcommunication of the hand was recognised by the English physician John

Bulwer, who writes in ‘Canon V’ of his Chironomia:The Hand directed towards the Auditors (audience), with a kind of impetuous agitationof the arm, maintaining its gravity with a swift recourse, is an action intense and full ofvehemence, fit to threaten, denounce, reprehend, and by its extension, implies power anda prevalent authority (Bulwer 2003:31-32).

Although not intended for conductors, the historical importance of Bulwer’swriting must be acknowledged. Bulwer attempted to explain the various

movements and gestures of the hand and to define their communicative function.As the hands are among the most important and recognisable tools available to

conductors, some development of the communicative capability of their hands is

required for the enhancement of expressive conducting.

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The neurologist Frank Wilson recognised the importance of the human hand in

brain development, finding that as children develop, an important part of theirlearning is through manipulation of objects with their hands. Wilson writes:

The brain is not a passive witness to the expansion of these mechanical andsensorimotor explorations and accomplishments. … It even, I suspect, creates aninternal perceptual biological clock scaled to and calibrated by observable changes inthe extrapersonal world – which means the brain acquires, and tunes itself to, therhythms that the legs, shoulders, arms, hands, chest, tongue, and lips invent in theirresponses to the world. There is in fact strong neurophysiologic evidence that a specificpart of the brain’s motor system, the supplementary motor area, actually performs thisfunction (Wilson 1999:195-196).

Wilson’s description of the brain participating in sensorimotor explorations fits

in perfectly with the Dalcroze approach to learning via rhythmic movement, an

approach that has already been shown in the previous chapter to be highlyrelevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting.

Wilson also devoted an entire chapter of his book to the importance of theFeldenkrais Method, and the use of the hands through healing:

The Healing Arts have always been connected with the hands; sometimes – as MosheFeldenkrais learned and then demonstrated to Anat Baniel and others – the skilled handguiding another person’s relaxed movements can induce not only more comfortable andgraceful movement but memories attached to forgotten postures or physical responses tosevere stress or injury (Wilson 1999:258).

Wilson’s point was that a skilled teacher’s hands can guide a student’s

movements in a far more effective manner using kinaesthetic feedback asopposed to merely demonstrating. This has already been shown to be an

important aspect of both Alexander and Feldenkrais teaching, leading to more

comfortable and graceful movements in students.

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An important aspect of conductors working on expressive body movement as a

special area in their training is the development of a potential synthesis betweengesture, the conductor’s feelings about the music, and a reduction in anxiety, as

noted by Argyle, which is readily communicable to musicians. Argyle’s bookBodily Communication provides a section on ‘Gestures and Emotions’ in which

he discusses the significance of the hands in non-verbal communication:The hands are not adapted as areas of communicating emotion as the face is;nevertheless emotions are to some extent displayed in the hands and other parts of thebody. The general level of arousal is reflected in all parts of the body, in the form ofdiffuse, and generally meaningless movements. Probably one of the main messagesconveyed by hand movements is the level of excitement of a speaker (illustrators). It isnot known how far more specific emotional states are communicated. Anxiety, forexample, may be conveyed by tense, strained hands, clutching each other, or the arms ofa chair. In these cases the general emotional state results in gestures, which are notintended to communicate, and which people often try to conceal (Argyle 1975:262-263).

As supported by Argyle, I believe that a relaxed, focused and expressive body

(and hands) leads to a relaxed, focused and expressive face. This is another

example of complimentary postural merging, which Lamb discussed earlier inthis chapter.

In 1932 William James published a study of the expression of bodily posture in

which he analysed 347 different postures assumed to be expressive, with five

variables, being the head, trunk, feet, knees, and arms. In his discussion of theresults of the study, James observed the conditional nature of postural

expression, being based on the attitude of the observer, the situation of theposture, and the nature of the posture itself:

We may say at once that there are few postural expressions that are unequivocal to allmen. For, from the point of view of the observer, the expression is in essence a meaningput upon a particular disposition of the various members of the body and, like othermeanings, has numerous conditions (James 1932:424).

Concerning the emotional expression of posture, James commented in favour of

interpreting a fluid movement from a static position:Finally, something should be said concerning the relation of the posture as an expressionof an idea or emotion to the total movement of which the posture may be regarded as aphase. The human organism, of course, attains its posture by way of movement, and itmight be argued that it is the movement as a whole that is expressive and, consequently,the posture taken by itself is an abstraction. Such an argument, however, would confusethe physiology of movement with the essential problem of expression. While it may betrue that in some cases the total movement would be less equivocal than any of itsphases, a single phase is sufficient for expression (James 1932:428).

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James’ solution, recording positions of movement, and extrapolating expressive

intention from these positions, is not entirely satisfactory, in that it goes againstthe ideas of Alexander, Laban, and Feldenkrais observed in the previous chapter,

who argue for the expressivity of active motion over frozen posture. Here, thedistinction needs to be made between the observation of expressive movement

and the learning of expressive movement. There is no doubt that the

enhancement of expressive conducting is greatly facilitated by active kinaestheticmovement, rather than by copying still photographs from books on conducting55.

James’ position is possibly a reflection on the difficulty of recordingobservations of expressive non-verbal behaviour, a problem that will be

discussed later in this chapter and which to this day has not been fully solved in

relation to observation of conducting.James also observed that ‘the head and the trunk taken together are basic to the

postural expression; arms, hands, distribution of weight, etc., are to make more

specific the more general expression of the head and the trunk’ (James1932:435). This fits in with Lamb’s observations regarding the complimentary

nature of posture and gesture. Lamb makes the following comment on learninggestures without postural awareness:

There seems to be a tendency for most people to fix their Posture while learning andconcentrating on Gesture. It is sufficient simply to exhort them to keep up some posturalmovement to overcome a lot of potential tension. Once a task has been learned togetherwith a fixed Posture a habit is formed and it is then extremely difficult to ‘feed in’ thePosture adjustment other than by stopping the task and doing the Posture movement as adiversion (Lamb 1965:38).

For conductors wishing to enhance their expressive conducting, Lamb and

James’ comments are significant, as I have observed many conductors,particularly those of low entering behaviour, who, in attempting to work on

developing their gestures, completely ignore their posture.

55 This was an advantage of the McMurray DVD Conducting from the Inside Out, as noted inChapter Three.

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A conductor’s bearing is important in that it communicates the conductor’s

confidence, enthusiasm, control, and knowledge of the music non-verbally to theensemble. As discussed in the previous chapter, body mapping can help student

conductors to maintain awareness of the realities of their body usage. Accordingto non-verbal communication researcher Mary Key, posture is also an important

communicator of status:Status relationships and class stratification are signaled, among other things, bynonverbal behaviour. Such things as tone of voice or the use of silence convey rank.Posture was a marked feature of status among the Romans. A man of high rank wasdepicted in statues as erect, calmly draped, and in a frontal position. Those withoutdignity, derelicts, old women, drunkards, servants, and fools are shown as bent figures,tight and tense (Key 1975:156).

Conductors also communicate their intentions by the motion and attitude of their

hands and arms, which can influence the response of the musicians above andbeyond the use of corrective mode conducting gestures, which include beat

patterns.

A thesis by Robert Grechesky examines the conducting behaviours of directors

of randomly selected high school bands in Central Indiana to determine theirrelationship to expressive performance. Grechesky observed, categorised, and

analysed verbal and non-verbal behaviours to determine how they affected bandperformance, the findings showing that conductors of the more musical groups

displayed significantly more body movement. Also, conductors who

demonstrated more use of the left hand and coordination of right and left handshad better results according to a panel of four independent judges (Grechesky

1985:77), and that of the variables, the emblems and illustrators (iconicbehaviours) had the most powerful effect of all. Overall findings indicated that

conductors who had sharpened their non-verbal communication skills had a very

positive effect on their groups’ musical performance, Grechesky writing:If the art of music is viewed as expressive form, and the power of music is holistic andnonverbal in nature, then it makes sense to approach music in a holistic and nonverbalcontext. The findings indicate that conductors who can communicate their conception ofthe music through nonverbal techniques are more effective than conductors who musttalk about the music. The point is that if the essence of the music is nonverbal, theessence of conducting should also be nonverbal (Grechesky 1985:153).

Another important aspect of conductors communicating through non-verbalmeans is that it represents a significant time-saver, as opposed to stopping the

ensemble and making verbal comments.

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For teachers of conducting, Grechesky makes the following recommendation:For teachers of conducting, it means that additional skills need to be taught inconducting classes. Simple time beating and cueing skills would seem to be no longeradequate. Expressive and effective nonverbal communication skills would become partof the curriculum. Conducting technique would include the ability to communicatethrough gesture the expressive intent of the music. Perhaps skills from other disciplinessuch as mime, acting, and dance could be incorporated into the conductor’s repertoire(Grechesky 1985:155).

Grechesky’s recommendation backs up my argument that the effective use of

non-verbal communication can enhance expressive conducting. As stated earlierin the thesis, many conducting teachers have become too beat pattern focused.

This is supported by my survey of secondary school conductors in Melbournewho reported, as stated in the previous chapter, that they found beat patterns easy

to learn, while left hand use and expressive gestures were difficult and in some

cases, still uncomfortable. As shown in the previous chapter, theories ofexpressive movement can enhance expressive conducting.

Eye contact and facial expressions are among the most powerful non-verbalkinesic signals available to conductors, as shown by researchers Steven Beebe

(1974), Ekman and Friesen (2003), Key, and Mehrabian.This has been supported by my survey of eighty-eight university conducting

teachers, in which they were asked which non-verbal communication skills are

important for their conducting students to develop (Table 15):

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Affirmation/Positive Reinforcement 2 2%All Conducting Should be Non-verbal 1 1%All Non-verbal Communication Techniques 5 6%Baton Technique 5 6%Body Language 12 14%Breathing 1 1%Clarity 2 2%Cueing 3 3%Dance 1 1%Dynamics 1 1%Expressive Gestures 7 8%Eye Contact 22 25%Facial Expression 37 42%Hands/Arms 12 14%Imagery 1 1%Influencing Skills 1 1%Laban 1 1%Listening 1 1%Mime 2 2%Motion Styles 2 2%Reflect Music Through Gesture 11 13%Rehearsal Techniques 1 1%Sign Language 1 1%Stance 6 7%Starts and Stops 3 3%

Table 15 Important Non-Verbal Communication Skills for ConductingStudent Development

The most important non-verbal communication skills, as listed by respondents,were facial expression (42%), eye contact (25%), body language and hands/arms

(each 14%).In consideration of the facial channel, I have observed that many low entering

behaviour conductors display a lack of confidence through the avoidance of eye

contact with ensembles. Yet the eyes are among the most importantcommunication tools available to a conductor, as shown by Beebe’s 1974 paper,

which investigated eye contact as a non-verbal determinant of speakercredibility. Beebe links the level of eye contact with the level of other non-verbal

communicative elements:By a subjective observation of students’ public speaking, one notes that a lack of eyecontact is usually accompanied by other ‘undesirable’ speech-delivery characteristics,such as lack of enthusiasm, lack of confidence, lack of vocal inflection, or lack ofgestures (Beebe 1974:25).

It is also possible that conductors who develop their use of eye contact with theirensembles can improve the areas listed by Beebe: enthusiasm, confidence,

inflection, and gestures.

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Ekman and Friesen explain that: ‘Emotions are shown primarily in the face, not

in the body. The body instead shows how people are coping with emotion’(Ekman and Friesen 2003:7). They describe in detail and show in pictures the

facial characteristics of the primary emotions: surprise, fear, disgust, anger,happiness, and sadness, including various blends of the primary emotions. They

even instruct the reader on how to check their own facial expression style56.

The ability to recognise facial expression styles is important for conductorswishing to enhance their expressive conducting, as conductors who practise the

facial characteristics may be able to increase their repertoire of facial signals,therefore responding to the feelings within the music more empathically.

For Key, it is the eyes and the mouth that are particularly significant in facial

expression:The eyes and the mouth, it is generally agreed, carry the heaviest load of communicativeand expressive manifestations. Disagreement comes, however, in deciding which is themore important in signaling. When one begins to think of the infinite number ofpotential situations and individuals that make up the variables, one could very well cometo the conclusion that the question of whether the upper or the lower part of the face ismore important is either unanswerable or irrelevant (Key 1975:85).

Key further states: ‘If the eyes are the “windows of the soul,” certainly the mouthis the very door’ (Key 1975:88).

56 They identify eight different styles of basic facial expression: the ‘withholder,’ who has anunexpressive basic face; the ‘revealer,’ with an expressive basic face; the ‘unwitting expressor,’who doesn’t know they are showing how they feel when they are showing it; the ‘blankedexpressor,’ who is convinced they are showing an emotion on their face when, in fact, their facelooks neutral or completely ambiguous to others; the ‘substitute expressor,’ who substitutes theappearance of one emotion for another without knowing what they are doing; the ‘frozen-affectexpressor,’ who always shows a trace of one of the emotions in some part of their face when theyare actually not feeling any emotion; the ‘ever-ready expressor,’ who characteristically shows oneof the emotions as the first response to almost any event in any situation; and the ‘flooded-affectexpressor,’ who always shows one or two emotions, in a fairly definite way, almost all the time(Ekman and Friesen 2003:155-157).

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The eyes and the mouth are the most mobile parts of the face. For conductors, a

simple study of the various combinations of eye (eyebrow) and mouth use arebeneficial, in that it makes them aware of the possibilities for communication

using eye and mouth combinations, and suggests a body mapping exercise forindividual conductors to observe their own usage of eyes and mouth when

conducting. For my own conducting students, I have designed a basic sheet of

nine faces (see Fig. 24), showing the different combinations, and asking theconductors to use one word to describe the expression being shown on the face57.

Although most of the responses were fairly similar, the middle face on themiddle line elicited the greatest variety of responses. Due to the blending of

emotions in this face, adolescent conductors in particular had difficulty

interpreting what I considered to be a mischievous or slightly devious face. Manyof the younger conductors who observed these faces stated that they considered

the middle face to be ‘evil.’

57 I wish to thank Professor Allan McMurray of the University of Colorado at Boulder forinspiring me to prepare this sheet. McMurray drew similar faces during a conducting course Iobserved in 2001, which have since been reproduced in Lead and Inspire (Garofalo and Battisti2005:90).

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Fig. 24 Non-Verbal Communication Sheet (mouth & eyebrows)

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Non-verbal communication researcher Mehrabian also commented that the

communication of positive and negative attitudes is more effective using facialcommunication:

It was found that the facial channel was generally more effective than the vocal one forcommunicating attitudes and that negative attitudes were more readily conveyed thanpositive ones. The latter finding supported the view that implicit channels are used toexpress negative attitudes, because explicit (verbal) expression of negative attitudes issocially discouraged. It was also found that an individual’s ability to communicatevariations in negative attitude largely accounted for his overall attitude-communicatingability. Low approval seekers were better at encoding variations in negative attitude thanwere high approval seekers, although there was no corresponding difference between thetwo groups’ abilities to decode positive or negative attitudes (Mehrabian 1972:146).

Mehrabian’s observation on the effective employment of the facial channel in

non-verbal communication has meaning for student conductors, who are

continually urged by their conducting teachers to ‘get the score in their heads, nottheir heads in the score!’ and to use eye contact with their ensembles.

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, an ongoing problem for conductors has beento find an effective way to observe and record conducting non-verbal

communication behaviours. My survey of university conducting teachers showedthat weekly observation of students’ conducting was regarded by participants as

the most important way of assessing the success or quality of the conducting.

With regard to the problem of observing physical behaviour, Lamb writes:Perhaps the weakest link in the study of physical behaviour is that observations aretaken by the human eye. Although a convincing correlation has been achieved from anumber of people observing the same subject, the recordings obtained will always besuspect. There is no reason, however, why some recording device should not bedeveloped, and why some sort of computer should not carry out the analysis. There isnothing in the observations which will prevent this – all that is required is recognitionthat this is a worthwhile measurement to make (Lamb 1965:185).

Supporting Lamb’s recognition of the value of observation, I believe that the

observation and recording of non-verbal conducting behaviours is critical to theenhancement of expressive conducting, and this is also supported by my two

surveys. In the next section, I will introduce writers who have attempted to do

this, including Norman Leyden (1968), Jan Roshong (1978), Thüring Bräm andPenny Boyes Braem (2001), Teresa Marrin (1996), Teresa Marrin Nakra (2000),

and Jessica Kun (2004).

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The Observation and Recording of Non-Verbal Conducting Behaviours

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, the most important attribute of expressive

conductors, according to my survey of forty-two experienced Melbournesecondary school conductors, is good communication. As verbal communication

is unavailable to conductors in performance, the use of non-verbal

communication by conductors wishing to enhance their expressive conducting isparamount.

In my survey of university conducting teachers, they were asked to indicate how

they developed their conducting students’ non-verbal vocabulary (Table 16):Acting 4 5%Chekhov Exercises 1 1%Class Forms Ensemble 2 2%Conduct Same Piece in a Variety of Styles 4 5%Conduct with Body Only 2 2%Conducting Experience 9 10%Create a Gestural Vocabulary 5 6%Develop Interpretation 3 3%Develop Natural Reactions 2 2%Discussion 4 5%Experimentation 1 1%Face Conveys Musical Mood 12 14%Green/Malko Exercises 1 1%Imagery 2 2%Imitation 4 5%Improvisation 2 2%Increase Score Knowledge 2 2%Laban 2 2%Mime 3 3%Movement Sessions 2 2%Observe Other Conductors 11 13%Peer Critique 3 3%Psychological Drill 2 2%Repertoire Driven 3 3%Self-Evaluation 2 2%Self-Observation 14 16%Silent Rehearsals 6 7%Specific Non-verbal Exercises 5 6%

Table 16 Methods for Developing Conducting Students’ Non-VerbalVocabulary

The most important methods for developing conducting students’ non-verbal

vocabulary, as listed by respondents, were self-observation (16%), getting theface to convey the musical mood (14%), and observation of other conductors

(13%).

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As observation (of self and others) is acknowledged as an important method for

developing non-verbal communication techniques in student conductors, then aneffective means of observing and analysing conductor non-verbal behaviour is

needed. Since the late 1920s, observation and analysis of conducting behaviourshave taken the form of movement analysis, film, observational instruments, and

computer technology, as shown in theses by Benge, Gambetta, Leyden, Roshong,

Berz, Silkebakken, Marrin, Marrin Nakra, and Kun.

By 1928, Laban, along with his most eminent students, had developed the systemof dance notation initially known as ‘kinetography,’ but later known as

‘Labanotation.’ Laban’s former assistant Eden Davies described the advantages

of the Labanotation notation system:The main innovation was the use of a vertical staff to represent time, the immediateadvantage of which was that continuity of movement could be indicated. The two sidesof the staff represented the right and left sides of the body and the length of each symbolshowed the time taken by each part of the movement, so that timing could also beaccurately represented. The simplicity and adaptability meant it could be applied to alltypes of movement (Davies 2006:6-7).

Despite the advantages of Labanotation in terms of movement description, its useamong conducting teachers appears to be non-existent, possibly due to its

perceived complexity and the learning curve associated with its use. For thesereasons, there is little incentive for other conducting teachers to learn

Labanotation.

The use of Laban Movement Analysis, however, has proved to be beneficial toconductors and conducting teachers, as shown in theses by Timothy Benge, and

Charles Gambetta, which was referred to in the previous chapter. With regard tothe use of Laban Movement Analysis (LMA) in conductor training programs,

Benge writes: ‘Since LMA is clearly applicable to the art of conducting,

conductor preparation programs can be strengthened through the infusion ofLaban movement training. This integration should be primarily kinaesthetic and

experiential, with enough theory provided to generate an awareness of movement

as a medium for communication’ (Benge 1996:60).

Also used by conductors to observe, record and analyse non-verbalcommunication behaviours has been film and video. In his thesis of 1968,

Leyden used kinescope film of the conducting of Arturo Toscanini to determine

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the configurations of Toscanini’s conducting beat patterns as part of an analysis

of the consistency of his patterns and a comparison with the beat patternspublished in conducting textbooks (Leyden 1968:7-8). Leyden rephotographed

sections of the original kinescope film onto 8mm film, then projected these ontoa 14’’ x 17’’ pad of tracing paper, one frame at a time, marking the outlines of

Toscanini’s right hand, right arm, baton, and silhouette. From these frames,

Leyden was able to mark out Toscanini’s beat patterns, comparing them withbeat patterns shown in four conducting textbooks: The Modern Conductor by

Elizabeth Green, Elements of Conducting by Emil Kahn, Conducting Technique

by Brock McElheran, and The Grammar of Conducting by Max Rudolf58. The

results of Leyden’s examination of Toscanini’s beat patterns showed ‘some

fundamental differences’ with the beat patterns presented in the four textbooks,Leyden writing: ‘Not only are all but one of Toscanini’s patterns unique in their

configuration (the one-beat pattern is consistent with the textbooks) but as

presented in this project the patterns were developed from motions actually madeduring performances, while the textbook diagrams are abstracts whose relation to

actual movements is not established or defined’ (Leyden 1968:293).Leyden’s approach, while crude compared with methods afforded by more

modern technologies including video, DVD, and computers, represented an early

attempt to analyse a conductor’s moving images on film. From my survey ofuniversity conducting teachers, 30% of respondents undertake weekly

observations of their students, mainly using video, which they use to analysetheir students’ conducting, but also for student assessment purposes.

Another method used by conductors to observe and analyse conducting isthrough the use of observational instruments. The use of observational

instruments allows for descriptive recording of non-verbal conducting behavioursbeyond the beat patterns. Roshong developed an observational instrument as part

of his thesis that inventoried the non-verbal communication of conductors to see

if relationships exist between the observed behaviour and the nature of the taskperformed. The instrument observed the following six categories: facial

58 The textbooks by Green, McElheran and Rudolf were identified in my surveys of universityconducting teachers and experienced secondary school conductors in Melbourne. The fourthbook by Emil Kahn was not identified in either survey (Kahn 1975).

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expression, conducting gesture, eye contact, body movement, vocal quality, and

silence. There was also space to record the sequence of events (Fig. 25).

Fig. 25 Conductor Non-Verbal Observation Form (Roshong 1978:87)

In discussing his conclusions, Roshong stated:The experimental study revealed that there may be patterns of nonverbal behaviours thatare common to experienced conductors. This information implies that conductors,teachers of conducting and students of conducting might gain better control andunderstanding of their conducting task by the systematic study of both the general natureof nonverbal communication and their own nonverbal behaviour (Roshong 1978:84).

Roshong’s developed observational instrument was a viable means of recording

both the type and quality of the subjects’ non-verbal behaviour. According to

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Dennis Silkebakken, the significance of Roshong’s study ‘lies in Roshong’s

interest in measuring the intensity and sequence of non-verbal conductingbehaviours’ (Silkebakken 1988:35).

There were also some commonalities of non-verbal behaviours displayed by thesubjects of the study during specific rehearsal events. These commonalities

included facial approval and forward movement during starting, stopping and

sustaining events, facial disapproval, eye contact with the group, and movementaway during instruction. Roshong’s study showed an example of which

conducting behaviours could be observed, recorded, and analysed using anobservational instrument.

Additional observational instruments were later developed by William Berz and

Silkebakken, among others59, who refer to Roshong’s research but offer nocritical responses to the observational instrument.

Bräm, a conductor, and Braem, a linguist and sign language expert, produced apaper that focused in particular on the observation of left hand gestures

(discussed as the non-dominant hand), documenting and describing the types ofgestures typically used. In comparison to the large number of hand shapes

available in sign language, only thirteen are identified as being regularly used by

the left hand in conducting, which can be grouped into the following sixcategories: manipulating objects; showing the path or form of an object;

indicating direction; portraying an object; indicating a body part; andholophrastic interjections (regulators) (Bräm and Braem 2001:18-24).

59 Berz developed an instrument designed to classify observed non-verbal communicationbehaviours made by conductors, completing a detailed analysis of previous non-verbalcommunication research and selecting seven non-verbal areas for study: kinesics, physicalappearance, vocalics, haptics, chronemics, proxemics, and artifact use. In conclusion, Berz foundthat the developed instrument was practical for use in conductor non-verbal communicationclassification59, although issues of observer training and observer fatigue arose (Berz 1983:142-148).Silkebakken developed an observer rating form to collect information on fifteen individualconductor visual attribute categories, plus a rating for the overall visual effect of the conductor.The fifteen categories were divided into four groups: conducting style, body movement, physicalappearance, and facial expressions. All of these groups were recorded on videotape from the frontand the back of the conductor, except facial expressions, which were recorded from the frontonly. Silkebakken concluded that ‘while inconsistencies were found across all observers,‘Expressiveness’ proved to be the category most highly related to the score given to overall visualeffect’ (Silkebakken 1988:111). He also concluded that ‘observers (or audiences) in general arelikely to respond positively to a conducted musical performance if the conductor exhibitsphysical gestures which tend to relate to the expressive quality of the music being performed’(Silkebakken 1988:112).

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Bräm and Braem concluded:The expressive hand gestures of orchestral conductors, like signs of deaf sign languagesand speech-accompanying gestures, seem to be composed of a limited set of sub-components which can be associated with several different kinds of meanings. …Unlikesign language, the conducting gestures are polysemous (many meanings) entities whoseexact meaning is only clear when set in a specific context. At one level, the meanings ofthese gestures are accessible through metaphoric/metonymic association with actions,which the body can make, or with body parts, or like conventionalised gestures(emblems) have more specifically encoded cultural meanings (Bräm and Braem2001:27).

Therefore, to relate these findings back to Ekman and Friesen’s categories, most

intentional conducting gestures are emblems, illustrators, regulators, and, insome cases, affect displays. Bräm and Braem’s paper is one of the few to analyse

left hand use, which was shown in Chapter Three to be one of the most neglected

areas in many conducting textbooks. Through observation and analysis of lefthand use, conductors can enhance their repertoire of expressive conducting

gestures.

Recent studies by Marrin, Marrin Nakra and Kun have applied computer

technological solutions to the observation and recording of conductingbehaviours. Marrin’s 1996 Masters thesis attempts to use technology to shed

light on the issue of expressive conducting gesture by focusing on the gestural

language of conducting and describing preliminary attempts to analyse and applysuch analyses to software mappings on a device called the ‘Digital Baton,’ the

Digital Baton being described by Marrin:The Digital Baton is a hand-held electronic device, initially designed to record and studythe gestural language of conducting. It measures its own motion and surface pressure ineleven separate ways and transmits them continuously. These eleven channels of dataare then captured, analysed, and applied as control parameters in a software systemwhich plays back a musical result. The Digital Baton system has been designed toseamlessly combine precise, small-motor actions with a broad range of continuousexpressive control. It was conceived and built from scratch at the M.I.T. Media Lab, as apossible prototype for a new kind of digital instrument (Marrin 1996).

Marrin suggests that a possible application for the Digital Baton is as a training

system for student conductors. Despite yielding a large amount of data, Marrinnotes shortcomings of the Digital Baton, including limited software, and an

exaggeration of the motion of the baton. She observed that the Digital Baton didnot yet feel finished, adding that improvements needed should include wireless

capability, and an ability to measure left hand gesture (Marrin 1996).

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Formulated to respond to the issues raised by the Digital Baton, Marrin Nakra

began the Conductor’s Jacket project in the spring of 1997. The basic premise ofthe project was to build a device to sense as many potentially significant signals

from a working conductor as possible without changing their behaviour.According to Marrin Nakra, the most important human factor in the design of the

Conductor’s Jacket system was the need to provide a device that would not

constrain, encumber, or cause discomfort to a conductor during standardrehearsals and performances. The Conductor’s Jacket comprised of a spandex

sleeve, worn on the conductor’s arm, with two electromyography (EMG) signal-conditioning electrodes, attached to the biceps and forearms that are activated by

a conductor’s gestures to initiate a MIDI recording and analyse muscle

movements. Marrin Nakra felt strongly that data should be gathered in aprofessional context, as opposed to a laboratory situation, in order to generate

useful and significant results (Marrin Nakra 2000:3.3.1). Although the

Conductor’s Jacket was primarily intended as a performance instrument ratherthan a sensor, the ability of the Conductor’s Jacket to record large amounts of

physiological data from conductors makes it potentially useful to conductorswishing to monitor the level of tension in their arms, and the small muscle

movements required to perform a range of gestural styles, such as legato and

staccato.Regarding the physiological data collected by the Conductor’s Jacket, Marrin

Nakra writes:One way that the current findings of this project could be applied would be to usesimilar methods and sensors as were used here to research the link between music andthe emotions. While many theorists and musicians have acknowledged that music is avery powerful medium for emotional expression, very few have looked at physiologicalcorrelates to the musical/emotional experience. Charles Darwin may have been the firstto describe the perception of music in behavioral terms (Marrin Nakra 2000:8.2.1).

Marrin Nakra’s findings emphasise the importance of conductors exploring themedium of emotional expression, a hitherto under-researched area in conducting.

I will discuss the enhancement of emotional expression in conducting in the next

section.

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Among the suggestions for future applications of The Conductor’s Jacket,

Marrin Nakra states:It has been suggested by many people that the Conductor’s Jacket is potentially verypromising as a tool for teaching and practising conducting skills. For example, I’ve beenapproached by a professor of conducting at the University of Arizona, who has asked meto develop a version of the jacket for his class. …This could be a great help to certainconductors, who otherwise have to cajole or pay an ensemble of musicians when theywant to get experience (Marrin Nakra 2000:8.2.2).

The limitations of the Conductor’s Jacket in terms of its use by conductorswishing to improve their expressive conducting is that the physiological data

provided is limited to the arm only. For a more ‘total body’ approach, thepotential exists to use the motion capture technology used in film making to

observe and analyse whole body movements.

The purpose of Kun’s 2004 thesis was to design and implement a

responsive/interactive system for conducting and conducting pedagogy usingmotion capture technology. Kun describes motion capture as: ‘the process of

capturing movement in three-dimensional space and mapping it onto a computer-

generated object by tracking and recording information’ (Kun 2004:11).According to Kun, single or dual camera systems are suitable for facial capture,

while three to sixteen (or more) camera systems are necessary for full-bodycapture. Special hardware samples the position and/or orientation of the markers

in time, generating a set of motion data, also known as motion curves. Three-

dimensional motion analysis systems give an accurate and convenient methodtoward quantitative assessment of function by providing comparative or absolute

measurement of motion. Feedback can be in either real-time or post-run, theprocess allowing accurate joint angles to be quickly and conveniently reported

(Kun 2004:12).

The physical environment and the system can provide opportunities forconducting students to practise baton technique in a setting that simulates a live

performance. As Kun states: ‘the potential for conducting students to be able to

review performances from any angle enables them to make more informedcritical judgements to improve their technique, by carefully addressing

conducting elements and isolating problem areas that can be reviewed from anyperspective’ (Kun 2004:44).

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Kun felt that the disadvantage of the previous interactive digital baton by Marrin

was that it was cumbersome and did not represent the true feeling of realconducting (Kun 2004:7). The benefits of motion capture are that it offers not

only the ability to track movements by the conducting baton free of wires, butwith the marriage to interactive midi software, can provide aural feedback of the

nuances of sound the conductor would communicate to live performers (Kun

2004:1-2).Kun’s system was only set up to detect beat points, tempo and dynamics, Kun

finding that the system was reliable in terms of beat detection, but liable to errorif there were sudden changes in tempo or dynamics. There were no problems if

these were maintained consistently (Kun 2004:36). Reflective markers were only

placed at the tip of the baton, the index finger/thumb hinge, and the wrist, Kunstating that the addition of markers is crucial in the development of a more

complex system (Kun 2004:37). Obviously at this stage, the ability of Kun’s

system to observe and record more expressive elements of conducting is limited.Among her suggestions for the future development of the motion capture system

for use by conducting teachers, Kun suggests that it could be used to aid thedevelopment of proprioception:

Motion capture offers visual feedback and the responsive/interactive system the auditoryfeedback necessary to assist with the analysis of the amount of effort required by amuscle to produce an accurate movement. Through repetition and adjustment of motion,the conductor can improve the accuracy of the actions in relation to the visual andauditory feedback. Such repetitive actions will assist the conductor to get a sense of the‘feeling’ of the correct movement in order to achieve the correct musical response.Furthermore, habituating correct gestures helps ensure that the brain consistentlyprovides the correct messages to the body through more highly sensitised proprioception(Kun 2004:38).

Although Kun correctly identifies the benefits of developing proprioception inconducting students, one of the main drawbacks of the use of motion capture

technology by conducting teachers is that to this point, facial gestures andtherefore affect displays, are not recordable using this technology. According to

Kun, real-time optical trackers relying on optical or video technology exist, and

their use would be an asset to conducting pedagogy for the analysis of facialexpressions of conductors (Kun 2004:42).

In my experience teaching conducting, I have noticed that the most favouredform of generalised observation by conducting teachers and students continues to

be video recording and playback, and increasingly, DVD. As can be seen from

statements by Marrin Nakra and Kun, the ability of technology to observe and

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record conductor emotional expression is still limited. Yet conductors, through

the use of affect displays, have the ability to powerfully communicate theirfeelings about the music to the musicians, which, as shown earlier in this chapter

(Table 10), is one of the most important non-verbal communication techniquesfor conducting students to develop, as noted by university conducting teachers

from my survey. As Ekman and Friesen noted earlier in the chapter, there are

eight different styles of facial expression, but can emotional expression actuallybe enhanced as part of conducting training?

The Development of Emotional Expression in Conducting

Two opposing perspectives on emotional expression exist within the field of non-verbal communication, Charles Darwin’s view being that the expression of

emotions is innate and universal throughout human-kind, while alternatively, it

was the view of the anthropologist Birdwhistell (1970) that emotional expressionis learned and culturally based. Ekman (1998) takes a third position, arguing that

emotions are universal, but the context for their expression is cultural.

The English physician Sir Charles Bell recognised early in the nineteenth century

the ability of the body, and particularly the face, to express emotions moreclearly than words, being particularly interested in the forms of facial expression

which separated ‘Man’ from ‘brutes’ (Bell 1883:95), as well as the physiologicaleffects which various emotions had on the body, and including the function of

respiration.

Bell’s advice to artists to experiment with the representation of humanexpression also has relevance for student conductors learning emotional

portrayal:In studying expression the artist should attempt all, even that which is disagreeable, sothat in higher composition he may avoid deformity and every debasing expression, andthis not by chance, but by knowing them and avoiding them; by this means – and it wasfollowed by the ancients – his power of representation will be improved, and what isdignified and beautiful in form and expression more certainly attained (Bell 1883:173).

Student conductors could therefore develop expression through the medium oftheir own bodies via bodily-kinaesthetic experimentation to find the most

efficient means of communication, based on self-awareness, as discussed inprevious chapters.

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Less well known than his influential books On the Origin of the Species by

Means of Natural Selection, and The Descent of Man, Darwin’s 1872 book The

Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals owes much to Bell, althoughDarwin differed in that he believed that many of the expressions of emotion

observed in human-kind could also be observed in animals. Darwin also argued

for the universality of emotional expression, a position that put him at odds withtwentieth-century anthropologists Birdwhistell and Walburga Von Raffler-Engel

(1981). Darwin stated:That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower animals, are nowinnate or inherited, - that is, have not been learnt by the individual, - is admitted byeveryone. So little has learning or imitation to do with several of them that they are fromthe earliest days and throughout life quite beyond our control; for instance, therelaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased action of the heart inanger (Darwin 1998:348).

Darwin formulated three general principles of expression: firstly, that expressivemovements occur through habit and association; secondly, that when an opposite

state of mind to the habitual state is induced, there is a strong tendency for the

body to perform movements which are the antithesis of the habitual movements;and thirdly, that emotional expression (‘reaction’) can result from the direct

action of the nervous system, as in the ‘startle’ reflex (Darwin 1998:34).Darwin emphasised a point relevant to conductors when he discussed the role of

empathy in non-verbal communication, as my survey of experienced Melbourne

secondary school conductors revealed that 10% of respondents believe thatensemble empathy is an important skill that should be developed by student

conductors:The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin may havebeen, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare. They serve as the firstmeans of communication between the mother and her infant; she smiles approval, andthus encourages her child on the right path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceivesympathy in others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and ourpleasures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The movements ofexpression give vividness and energy to our spoken words. They reveal the thoughts andintentions of others more truly than do words, which may be falsified (Darwin1998:359).

Facial and body expression in conductors are therefore the areas of utmost

empathic communication.

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Birdwhistell’s views on non-verbal communication, stated earlier in the chapter,

were opposed to those of Darwin, who regarded expressive movement as innate.Birdwhistell regarded body motion as learned, systematic, and analysable:

All kinesic research rests upon the assumption that, without the participant’s beingnecessarily aware of it, human beings are constantly engaged in adjustments to thepresence and activities of other human beings. …Further, it is the working assumption of the kinesicist that, until otherwise demonstrated,all body motion systems contain dominant learned aspects which are of special interestto the behavioral scientist concerned with problems of communication theory. Fiveyears of intensive preliminary recording and analysis have led me to the conviction thatkinesic behaviour is learned, systematic, and analysable (Birdwhistell 1970:48-49).

Birdwhistell’s position backs up my contention (and that of Laban, Dalcroze,

Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais) that all levels of entering behaviour can

learn expressive movement. Birdwhistell’s research also emphasises theenhancement of expressive movement through observation and analysis.

Birdwhistell’s stance on the ability of members of a culture to learn body motionprovides an incentive for conducting teachers to closely study expressive

movement:Kinesics is not concerned, as such, with the movement potential of the human species,but rather with those portions of the movement spectrum which are selected by theparticular culture for patterned performance and perception. At the same time, as is truewith other cultural behaviour, much of what happens and which is necessary to theproper performance of a social act cannot be recalled by the actor or the untrainedspectator. I have long had the belief that as the child is taught to move, to view andmeaningfully to reproduce movement, an integral part of this education is concernedwith enhancing or preventing recall of much of this activity (Birdwhistell 1970:191).

In support of Birdwhistell’s position, Von Raffler-Engel also believed that body

movement is learned rather than innate. In a chapter on the acquisition of non-verbal behaviour, she argued that the development of non-verbal communication

skills depends on a number of simultaneous factors:Purposeful movements of the body also require physical coordination and thereforecannot be produced by children before they have acquired the coordination necessary foreach movement. In this respect, the development of kinesics is similar to thedevelopment of sound articulation, which requires muscle control and a full set of teeth.The development of kinesics requires readiness in motor coordination, psychologicalintent, and knowledge of the proper form of nonverbal behaviour (Von Raffler-Engel1981:11-12).

The concept of a number of simultaneous factors working together to produce

expressive movement was developed in Chapter Four, where Dynamic SystemsTheory was proposed as a theory of motor skill development compatible with the

enhancement of expressive movement at all levels of entering behaviour.

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My survey of university conducting teachers appears to support expressive

conducting being learnable. Teachers were asked to lst the prerequisites theyrequired of potential conducting students (Table 17).No Response 3 3%No Prerequisites 4 5%No Conducting Experience 37 42%Resume 15 17%Interview 22 25%Audition 23 26%Audio Recording of Conducting 6 7%Video Recording of Conducting 15 17%Recommendation or Referral 0Piano Proficiency 24 27%Instrument/Voice Proficiency 48 55%Theory Proficiency 63 72%Aural Training Diagnostic 30 34%Music History Diagnostic 3 3%Repertoire Knowledge 5 6%Previous Conducting Class 4 5%Teaching Experience 2 2%Table 17 Prerequisites Required of Potential Conducting Students

The two most popular prerequisites among respondents were theory andinstrument/voice proficiency. These were required prerequisites in over half of

the respondents. 42% of respondents required no prior conducting experienceand 5% had no prerequisites at all. As actual conducting experience was not a

requirement in many of the conducting programs, then the teachers must have

been confident in their ability to teach conducting to those in their classes.

In the 1998 third edition of Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and

Animals, Ekman contributed a detailed afterword in which he comments on thedebate between Darwin’s position on the human expression of emotions as being

innate and universal, and Birdwhistell’s position as being learned and culturallybased (Ekman 1998:363-393). This debate is significant for the learning of

expressive conducting, as, if the expression of emotions is solely innate, then the

implication is that emotional expression is achieved solely by heredity alone andis unlearnable. Alternatively, if the expression of emotions is solely culturally

based, then the implication is that emotional expression lacks uniformity and isdependent solely on environmental rules and conditions.

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Ekman takes a middle ground in the debate between the universality and the

cultural dependence of emotional expression, finding that only in the expressionof strong emotion are expressions the same:

To have shown that there are universals in facial expressions of emotion does not meanthat expressions are universal in every regard. Our evidence, and that of others, showsonly that when people are experiencing certain strong emotions, and are not making anyattempt to mask their expressions (display rules), the expression will be the sameregardless of age, race, culture, sex, or education. That is a powerful finding (Ekman1998:391).

Cultures broadly differ in their expression of emotions as regards their respective

display rules, which specify who can show which emotion to whom and when;the specific events which are likely to call forth an emotion; and the presence or

absence of words in a given language to describe an emotional state (Ekman

1998:392). Ekman concludes by writing:Even though the expressions are universal, culture determines whether the person evenknows that the feelings are related to the event … Our evolution gives us these universalexpressions, which tell others some important information about us, but exactly what anexpression tells us is not the same in every culture (Ekman 1998:393).

Ekman’s findings mean that for conducting teachers, a limited set of universal

emotional expressions are teachable under the cultural display rules set down fora conductor, which permit verbal and non-verbal communication in rehearsal, but

only non-verbal communication through facial expression, including eye contact,

and the motion and attitude of a conductor’s hands, arms and body, inperformance.

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Emphasising the ‘Non-Verbal’ in Non-Verbal Communication in Expressive

Conducting

How can conductors effectively communicate their musical intentions to a groupof musicians? One way is through words, however words are an imprecise way

of describing a feeling or mood and are time-consuming in a rehearsal.

Moreover, many musicians dislike being lectured, and words are normallyinappropriate in an actual performance.

From time to time, conductors do need to speak in rehearsal. While words shouldbe kept to a minimum, it is important that the verbal instructions being given are

consistent with the non-verbal signals being sent. Taken particularly from a

choral conductor’s perspective, Kevin Ford’s article ‘Implications for Non-Verbal Communication and Conducting Gesture’ pointed out that gestures

actually impact on thought and constitute a more complete thought when

combined with language. While the link made between gesture and speech liesoutside the current investigation, Ford reinforced the link between gesture and

intention:The conductor who uses gestures that are at odds (non-verbally) with his or her musicaldesire must spend a great deal of time talking to the choir and convincing them to ignorethe nonverbal cues they are seeing while performing the conductor’s musical intent.Efficiency will increase as the group learns to ignore more and more of the confusinggestures, but the conductor will likely need to use more verbal communication to obtainthe musical intent (Ford 2001:20-21).

Ford’s important point for teachers of conducting is that if there is an incongruitybetween verbal and non-verbal communication, conductors ask ensembles to

ignore or discount their gestures. Apart from the wasted time and confusion withthis request, it may not be possible for the ensemble to ignore the gestures. Non-

verbal communication is too powerful for words!

Even though Mehrabian titled his book Nonverbal Communication, he found it

necessary in the early stages of the book to disown this term, stating: ‘In this

volume, then, the concept of implicit communication is used in preference to themisnomer, nonverbal communication’ (Mehrabian 1972:2).

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Mehrabian commented on the inability of Western culture to express feelings via

words, and the lack of instruction in ‘implicit’ communication:There are two pervasive traditions of western society that bear on the understanding ofimplicit communication. Although either one may be found in any culture, theoccurrence of both within the same culture produces a unique significance for implicitbehaviours. The first, and probably more important, of these traditions is restraint in theexpression of feelings, particularly negative ones, outside the sphere of intimaterelationships. The second is the absence of explicit instruction on the subject of implicitmessages within the framework of formal education. The continued emphasis onlanguage skills both at home and in school is a sharp contrast to the neglect of implicitcommunication (Mehrabian 1972:178).

Both of the issues raised by Mehrabian have implications for the enhancement ofexpressive conducting, as if words are generally deemed inappropriate or

inadequate for the expression of feelings, and conductors are restricted in their

employment of words in performance, then it makes sense for conductors tolearn skills in non-verbal (implicit) communication in order effectively to

communicate their feelings about the music.

Argyle, like Mehrabian, noticed the importance of non-verbal communication aspart of social skills training and therapy:

At present education places a great deal of emphasis on words, books, and verbalcommunication. Training in social skills is now being given in various quarters – forinterviewers, teachers, and other performers of professional social skills, and also insome schools. Much of this training emphasises the use of bodily communication(Argyle 1975:16).

Argyle’s comments back up the observations of conductors Tilson Thomas

(1994), Rachleff and Hainlen (see Harris 2001) at the end of Chapter Three thatdeveloping a bodily connection is the key to learning.

According to researchers and conductors Kimberly Van Weelden (2002), Rodney

Eichenberger (see McClung 1996), and Alan McClung (2005), non-verbal

communication enhances expressive conducting by moving beyond the standardbeat patterns.

In discussing the implications for beginning conductors’ training in non-verbalcommunication, Van Weelden states:

For many conductors the art and skill of effectively and efficiently conveying messagesthrough nonverbal means, such as gestures and facial and body expressions, is a lifelongpursuit. Teachers of beginning conducting classes start this process by spending a greatdeal of time instructing students how to use their arms, hands, fingers, faces, and bodiesto accurately display beat patterns and cues. However, the whole of a conductor’s non-verbal communication skills includes subtler aspects beyond those gestures (VanWeelden 2002:67).

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Van Weelden here acknowledges that the development of a broader range of

non-verbal communication skills beyond the beat patterns is required for theenhancement of expressive conducting.

Eichenberger, one of the leading authorities on the teaching of choral conductors,explained how he developed his approach to teaching choral conducting by

moving beyond beat patterns:In those early years I taught undergraduate conducting the old tried-and-tested way, inwhich you start with a pattern and then fit the music into it. At times, my studentsbecame frustrated with my instruction. It worried me, so I readjusted my method. … Wecame to the conclusion that the conducting pattern was a useful and important tool, butthat it was effective only if it worked within the context of each piece of music. Thisdiscovery completely changed my outlook on conducting. Instead of superimposingmusic on a conducting pattern, I focused first on the music and found ways to make itcome alive (see McClung 1996:21).

Eichenberger encouraged his conducting students to isolate each movement and

then to discover its effect on the musical performance. He maintained that it isthese movements that then become effective elements in the development of a

non-verbal vocabulary (see McClung 1996:24).

In a later article, McClung added:If the essence of conducting is in the gesture and if the essence of the gesture is in thevalue of the information communicated nonverbally, it is only by freeing the body withan enhanced perception of the power of nonverbal behaviours that musical intentionscan be effectively communicated to members of musical ensembles. To enhanceperception, the conductor must become cognitively, aurally, and visually aware of thepotential power of gesture, and set about to master the psychomotor skills that producedesirable musical results (McClung 2005:27).

McClung here argues that for the gestural communication to be effective, itshould be combined with a body free to communicate non-verbally, backing up

Lamb’s contention that gesture and posture must be merged for effective non-verbal communication to occur.

As indicated earlier, many conductors, particularly those of low enteringbehaviour, struggle to get beyond the learning of beat patterns into more

expressive conducting, due to the high emphasis placed on developing the right

hand beat patterns as conducting technique. Despite the acknowledgedimportance of body presence among conducting teachers in the early stages of

instruction, there remains a lack of consensus as to how expressive conductingshould best be taught. A recent approach by Koch (2003) is to classify the types

of gestures required of a conductor into three gestural modes, which allows for a

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more varied approach to body use, gesture and non-verbal communication

beyond the delivery of beat patterns.

The Use of Gestural Modes to Enhance Expressive Conducting

According to Koch, an expressive conductor uses different types of gestures as

part of the process of conducting, depending on the skill level of the ensemble,the level of experience the ensemble has of the work at hand, and the

requirements of the music. Koch describes three gestural modes, declamatory,corrective, and narrative. He describes declamatory mode as gesture referring to

sound in which a conductor strives to demonstrate their musical conception as

clearly as possible through symbolic gesture60. In corrective mode the

conducting gesture primarily refers to performance accuracy in terms of

precision, tempo, dynamics and articulation, the main focus being on errorprevention. In corrective mode, little or no effort is made by a conductor to

portray the sound through gesture. In narrative mode, a conductor is lessconcerned with demonstrating or correcting the sound than in using gesture to

illuminate aspects of the music and its overall architecture. In narrative mode, a

conductor grants greater autonomy to the ensemble with the expectation that theensemble will perform with accuracy and sensitivity. The role of a conductor in

narrative mode is to highlight features of the interpretation which they would likethe ensemble to bring out in their performance (Koch 2003:136-140). An

expressive conductor uses all three modes, although the greater the skill level of

the ensemble, the less the corrective mode needs to be used. As the correctivemode is mainly concerned with performance accuracy and error prevention, there

is less scope in this mode for expressivity in conducting, while the declamatoryand narrative modes are the natural domain for expressive conducting.

When learning conducting, as indicated in my survey of secondary school

conductors, most conductors were only comfortable conducting in the correctivemode, initially through beat patterns, as shown earlier, with little emphasis

placed on the declamatory and narrative modes until later stages of theirconducting experience, the declamatory and narrative modes being regarded by

them as ‘advanced’ conducting. As a result of this, many conductors have

60 Examples of symbolic type gestures are Laban effort actions: float, glide, dab, flick, press,wring, punch, and slash, which were discussed in Chapter Five.

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difficulty leaving the comfort zone of the corrective mode, regardless of the skill

level of their ensembles. On the other hand, high entering behaviour conductorsappear to have a greater natural affinity for the declamatory and narrative modes,

being more willing to depart from the corrective mode. As the declamatory andnarrative modes are the modes in which high-level ensembles work in as a matter

of course, it is the conductors who can depart from the corrective mode who will

have the greatest success with ensembles at this level.

Walter and Furtwängler believe that there are misconceptions over the primarytask on the conductor, which keeps too many conductors in the corrective mode.

Walter states:There remains the fundamental error of assuming that the foremost task of a conductoris to keep the players together.This error is fostered by appearances: one sees a single person in front of all the fiddling,blowing, beating, singing musicians, and to the superficial observer, his task seems to beto bring unity and order into these masses; the eyes of all participants are directed at thatone man, he raises his hand and stick and moves them, thereby keeping the manytogether and leading them. No wonder the ‘spectator’ believes such a function to bemechanical. What he does not see is the transmission of spiritual impulses from theconductor to the executants (Walter 1961:82).

The task of keeping an ensemble together is in the corrective mode, requiring

conducting gestures focusing on performance accuracy in terms of precision,

tempo, dynamics and articulation. Conductors who stay within this mode willfind their ‘spur-of-the moment’ influence on the ensemble to be limited, the

ensembles unable to recognise the role of the conductor to influence the sound orinterpretation through gesture while the performance is in progress. What Walter

describes as ‘spiritual impulses’ is instead communication through the

declamatory and narrative modes.

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Furtwängler believes that most conductors place far too much emphasis on the

downbeat gesture, rather than its preparation. A perfect example of a ‘narrativemode’ conductor, Furtwängler argues that:

What makes a group of musicians all start to play at the same time needs visualpreparation. It is not the instant of the downbeat itself that produces the precision withwhich the orchestra enters, nor is it the precision of the conductor’s gesture but the wayhe prepares for it. Its clarity may affect the subsequent downbeats through itscharacterisation of the pulse as a whole but as far as the opening note of the piece isconcerned – the note at which the beat is aimed – this is irrelevant. All those whoconduct solely in terms of fixed points – and ninety percent of conductors do – arecompletely unaware of this.A strong downbeat has considerable disadvantages. It binds the movement of the pieceto specific points, thereby restricting the natural flow of the music and reducing itseffectiveness.… The power to affect a note – and this cannot be emphasised too often – lies in thepreparation of the beat, not in the beat itself (see Taylor 1991:19-20).

Furtwängler’s endorsement of the preparatory gesture makes sense in that an

expressive conductor’s gesture must always occur in advance of the music.Conductors who place importance on the preparatory gesture give their

ensembles more time to assimilate the meaning of the gesture and reactaccordingly. As Furtwängler noted, downbeat conducting has a tendency to fix

music to beat-points rather than allow the music to flow through beats.

Former Cleveland Orchestra trombonist James DeSano, a long-time observer ofconductors, agrees with this assessment, stating: ‘Students should learn that a

clean entrance depends on the upbeat yet too many conductors use a stab andgrab technique on the prep beat. This results in sloppy playing even at the

professional level’ (see Knight 2004b:30-32).

Otto Klemperer agrees about the importance of the preparatory beat (upbeat):… Very important is the upbeat; it’s the upbeat and not the downbeat that makes anorchestra attentive. One of the most important points is, I believe, that the conductor’shand should give the musicians the opportunity to play as though they were quite free.The players are hindered when the conductor beats too emphatically (see Heyworth1985:111-112).

As can be seen from these statements, both Klemperer and Furtwängler regarded

beat-point conducting as too restrictive of the flow of the music. Furtwängler in

particular was never known for the clarity of his beat according to Schonberg,who writes:

Furtwängler’s beat was a phenomenon unduplicated before or since: a horror, anightmare, to musicians. On the podium he lost himself. He would gesticulate, shout,sing, make faces, spit, stamp. Or he would close his eyes and make vague motions. Untilorchestras worked with him and got used to that curious, quivering, trembling baton theycould be in a complete mess (Schonberg 1967:272).

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Conducting in the corrective mode was largely unnecessary for the standard of

ensembles with which Furtwängler worked. As he and Klemperer communicatedmainly using the narrative mode and sometimes in the declamatory mode, they

were more interested in gestures indicating their desired interpretation or musicalfeatures than in technical clarity. Furtwängler was known to say: ‘Standardised

technique creates in turn standardised art’ (see Schonberg 1967:272).

A conductor’s technique, in its purest form, functions in the corrective mode. Ihave found many conductors to be trapped in this mode, failing to extend their

technique to reach the declamatory or narrative modes. The beat patterns, onceswitched on by a conductor, can function automatically, flailing away regardless

of the musical moment. As I have experienced and observed on many occasions,

it is very hard to break free from the comfort of the beat patterns, once learned.As Furtwängler (see Taylor 1991) earlier noted, the emphasis on downbeats as

part of technique leads to mere time beating, and the destruction of musical

phrasing. However, an effective, expressive musical performance will requiremore than the use of corrective mode conducting, requiring gestures which Koch

described as being in the declamatory and narrative modes.

Of the nineteen emblematic gestures (gestures that can be universally

understood) identified by the total population of instrumental performers inSousa’s study (Sousa 1989:84-86), referred to earlier in the chapter, fifteen

consisted of gestures in the corrective mode, such as beat patterns, dynamics,articulation and tempo. Of the remaining four emblematic gestures, two were

phrasing gestures, one was a left hand illustrative gesture (all three doubling as

illustrators, which I consider to be in the declamatory mode, as in this mode, thegestures refer to the sound), and the fourth was a left hand regulatory gesture

(Sousa 1989:86), which I consider to be in the narrative mode.Although corrective mode gestures and universally understood emblems are

important for conductors, as they emphasise clarity and precision, I believe that

more use could be made of illustrators and affect displays by expressiveconductors in order to access the declamatory mode. As described by Koch, in

the declamatory mode, gestures refer to sound in which a conductor strives todemonstrate their musical conception as clearly as possible through symbolic

gesture, symbols which are perfectly communicated by illustrators and affect

displays. Using illustrators (typically performed by the hands and arms) from the

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earliest stages of conducting instruction allows both left and right hands to be

involved in the conducting process much earlier than traditional methods ofconducting instruction, which tend to be focused on the development of right

hand technique through beat patterns. Furthermore, more use could be made ofregulators and affect displays by conducting teachers in order to access the

narrative mode, in which a conductor uses gesture to illuminate aspects of the

music and its overall architecture. Through the use of regulators, a conductorenhances the expressive partnership with the musicians, granting them greater

musical autonomy, yet shaping the musical narrative to fit the conductor’sinterpretation. Affect displays communicate the conductor’s emotional reaction

to the narrative. In terms of affect displays, the eyes and the mouth are the most

mobile parts of the face. For conductors, a simple study of the variouscombinations of eye (eyebrow) and mouth use are beneficial, in that it makes

them aware of the declamatory possibilities for communication using eye and

mouth combinations, and suggests a body mapping exercise for individualconductors to observe their own usage of eyes and mouth when conducting. The

use of illustrators, regulators and affect displays represent what I consider to bean effective way to allow conductors to access gestures beyond the corrective

mode, using non-verbal communication to reach the declamatory and narrative

modes.


In this chapter, I have argued that the categorisation of non-verbal behaviour is

relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting, as conductors rely onuniversally understood emblems for clarity and the basis of technique, while

illustrative movements are widely used to portray the desired character and styleof the music. Conductors use ‘affect displays’ to communicate their feelings and

reaction to the performance, while ‘adaptors,’ such as facial mannerisms and

habits, are unconsciously used by conductors. These can all be effectivelycommunicated through the non-verbal coding of kinesics, involving expressive

movements of the hands, arms and body, posture, bearing, facial expression, andeye contact.

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An ongoing problem for conductors has been to find an effective way to observe

and record conducting non-verbal communication behaviours, which is critical tothe enhancement of expressive conducting, supported by my two surveys. As

verbal communication is unavailable to conductors in performance, the use ofnon-verbal communication by conductors wishing to enhance their expressive

conducting is paramount. As observation (of self and others) is acknowledged as

an important method for developing non-verbal communication techniques instudent conductors, then an effective means of observing and analysing

conductor non-verbal behaviour is needed. The majority of contemporaryconducting teachers and students appear to make use of video and DVD formats

as observation tools.

The arguments for and against the universality and the cultural context of

emotional expression in non-verbal communication are significant for the

learning of expressive conducting, as if the expression of emotions is solelyinnate, then the implication is that emotional expression is achieved solely by

heredity alone and is unlearnable. Alternatively, if the expression of emotions issolely culturally based, then the implication is that emotional expression lacks

uniformity and is dependent solely on environmental rules and conditions.

Ekman takes a third position, arguing that emotions are universal, but the contextfor their expression is cultural. Ekman’s findings mean that for conducting

teachers, a limited set of universal emotional expressions are teachable under thecultural display rules set down for a conductor, which permit verbal and non-

verbal communication in rehearsal, but only non-verbal communication through

facial expression, including eye contact, and the motion and attitude of aconductor’s hands, arms and body.

All of the seemingly diverse forms of non-verbal communication available to

conductors can be made into a workable form through the use of gestural modes.

Although corrective mode gestures and universally understood emblems areimportant for conductors to be taught, as they emphasise clarity and precision, I

believe that more use could be made of illustrators and affect displays byconducting teachers in order to access the declamatory mode. Furthermore, more

use could be made of regulators and affect displays by conducting teachers in

order to access the narrative mode. Through the use of regulators, a conductor

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enhances the expressive partnership with the musicians, granting them greater

musical autonomy, yet shaping the musical narrative to fit the conductor’sinterpretation, while affect displays communicate the conductor’s emotional

reaction to the narrative.

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CHAPTER SEVEN – SURVEY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The previous four chapters have constituted a comprehensive discussion of the

published literature on conducting, expressive movements theories, non-verbalcommunication, and bodily-kinaesthetic learning. The surveys were deemed

necessary for this thesis in order to collect information on the current level of use

of expressive movement activities by the survey respondents, and the types andmethods of non-verbal communication being taught by university conducting

teachers.As stated in the introduction, all participants in both surveys were invited to

respond to internet-based surveys, making completion and collection of the

surveys relatively straightforward, and responses completely anonymous. Thefirst survey, which is shown in full in Appendix A, is of eighty-eight university-

level conducting teachers. The second survey, which is shown in full in

Appendix B, is of forty-two secondary school level conductors based around theMelbourne (Australia) area. The two surveys were administered as exploratory

studies, serving as snapshots of the two groups at the time of the surveys (2005).Due to the broad exploratory nature of some of these questions, not all proved

relevant to expressive conducting and, as indicated in the review of each survey

question, were ultimately rejected.

The first survey indicated the value of conducting teachers exploring approachesbeyond the teaching of beat patterns to enhance expressive conducting. The

second survey provided useful perspectives from practising secondary school

conductors on the difficulties they had acquiring expressive conducting skills.Each survey is discussed in turn, each concluding with a discussion section

interpreting the survey findings.

Survey 1 – University Level Conducting Teachers

This survey was intended to gather information about the training of conductors,

particularly from the standpoint of conducting teacher priorities and the teachingof expressive conducting. Additional aims of this survey were to identify the

skills that beginner conductors should already possess or immediately seek to

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develop, and to identify the non-verbal communication skills required of a

conductor and how best to develop them.Conductors were contacted in Australia and the UK through direct email via the

universities. Other international conductors were contacted via an invitationposted on the College Band Directors National Association (CBDNA) website

bulletin board. All were invited to participate in an online survey, asking

questions about the musical background of their students, their teaching prioritiesand methodology. Eighty-eight conductors responded to the survey.

Base Location

Responses were received from five countries. 80% of responses were from theUSA across thirty-two states (8 respondents did not identify their state – 9%). 9%

of responses were from Australia across two states. Other countries from which

responses were received were the UK, Canada, and Spain. Five respondents (6%)did not identify their base location. It is likely that the high proportion of

respondents from the USA reflects the high number of university-level conductortraining programs in that country compared to other countries, and the high

proportion of CBDNA members, the largest source of respondents, in the USA.

Even allowing for the large number of respondents from the USA, the baselocation of conducting teachers is not seen as a determining factor in the ability

to teach expressive conducting.

A1 – A3 Number and Gender of Conducting Students

These questions were asked to determine the size of the conducting programs

under investigation, and to see if there was any notable gender imbalance withinthe student population. The most popular response when asked ‘How Many

Conducting Students?’ was ‘fifteen or more’ by thirty-two respondents (36%),

more than double any other category. While some respondents had more malestudents than female students, for other respondents this was reversed. 78% of

respondents had between one and eight male conducting students. 60% ofrespondents had between one and eight female conducting students. Eleven

respondents had no female conducting students. Overall, there appeared to be a

fairly even number of male and female conducting students. The gender balance

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was deemed to be of a satisfactory level, and the gender of the conducting

students is no longer a factor in this thesis.

A4 – A5 Prior Ensemble and Instrument Type Performing Background ofConducting Students

A large majority of the respondents had students with a wind band background.As the majority of students had a wind band ensemble background, the most

common instrument types were woodwind, brass and percussion. This reflectsthe fact that a majority of respondents were teachers of wind band conducting

programs. This was due to the large number of respondents who were members

of the CBDNA, and reflects the large number of wind band conducting programsin the USA aimed at training music educator/conductors.

A6 Student Age Group at Commencement of Conducting Lessons

The majority of respondents had students commence conducting lessons at theundergraduate level (ages 17 – 23). The age of the students in itself is not seen as

a significant factor in the ability to conduct expressively, and will therefore no

longer be a consideration in this thesis.

A7 Prerequisities Required of Potential Conducting Students

The two most popular prerequisites among respondents were theory and

instrument/voice proficiency. These were required prerequisites in over half ofthe respondents. 42% of respondents required no prior conducting experience

and 5% had no prerequisites at all. 76% of respondents listed between one andfour prerequisites. 13% of respondents listed five or more prerequisites (two

respondents listed ten prerequisites). Only 26% of respondents required an

audition from their potential conducting students, indicating that conductingteachers were more interested in potential students’ musical background than in

prior conducting experience.

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A8 What Skills Should a Beginner Conductor Already Possess?

Thirty-three responses were received in answer to the question ‘What skills

should a beginner conductor already possess?’ The most popular responses tothis question were music theory knowledge (34%), musicianship (30%), aural

skills (27%) and instrumental skills (23%). These appear to confirm the finding

of A7. The fact that skills such as basic left hand, charisma, coordination,expressive gestures, facial expressivity, and kinaesthetic ability all rated fairly

low indicate that conducting teachers regard these as elements that can be taughtlater on.

A9 What Skills Should a Beginner Conductor Immediately Seek to Develop?

The most popular responses to this question were baton technique (32%), score

reading skills (30%), aural skills (28%), musicianship (25%) and non-verbalcommunication (22%). Some skills were listed by some respondents as skills

desirable for a beginner conductor to already possess and by others as skills toimmediately seek to develop. More respondents felt that score reading skills

should be developed by the beginner conductor than already possessed (eleven

more), and likewise for expressive gestures, left hand independence, andrehearsal techniques (each ten more), beat patterns (four more), aural skills,

knowledge of instruments, research skills, and self confidence (each one more).Fewer respondents felt that music theory knowledge should be developed by the

beginner conductor than already possessed (twenty-eight less); likewise for

instrumental skills (eighteen less), historical knowledge (eleven less), piano skills(six less), musicianship (four less), and harmonic knowledge (one less). New

skills to be developed by the beginner conductor included baton technique(32%), non-verbal communication skills (22%), control of movements (15%) and

interpretation (9%).

A10 Gender of Respondents

Male respondents outnumbered female respondents by a ratio of over seven to

one. This is most likely a true reflection of the universal gender imbalance within

university conducting teachers. Although a wealth of data was collected through

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the survey on male/female conductors’ teaching priorities, gender issues and

commentary were not part of this thesis.

B1 Setting for Conducting Students’ First Lessons

Eighty-two percent of respondents gave first lessons in mainly the undergraduate

conducting class only. 9% of respondents gave first lessons in two settings –mainly an undergraduate class and a graduate class or private lesson, but

occasionally two graduate settings. Due to the low number of graduateconducting settings among respondents, the setting for the first lessons was not a

factor in this thesis.

B2 Conducting Textbooks Used

Seventeen respondents (19%) indicated that they used no conducting textbooks.Of those remaining, thirty-seven used one book only (52%), nineteen used two

books (27%), and fifteen (21%) used three or more books (one respondent usedseven conducting textbooks). The most popular conducting textbook used was

The Modern Conductor by Elizabeth Green, used by thirty-seven respondents

(42%). The second most popular textbook mentioned was The Art of Conducting


their own textbooks used other textbooks, while 75% of respondents who usedtheir own exercises used other textbooks. A significant part of this survey finding

was that 81% of university conducting teachers surveyed were regularly using

conducting textbooks.

B3 Rank Order of Importance of Aspects of Conducting Which May BeCovered in the Initial Few Lessons

The overall rank order for aspects of conducting which may be covered in theinitial few lessons differed from the number of first preferences among

respondents, due to some methods ranking higher on second and thirdpreferences than others. For example, twenty-four respondents (27%) found beat

patterns to be the most important aspect of conducting which may be covered in

the initial few lessons. However, beat patterns ranked second overall, behind

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body presence, due to a higher number of second and third preferences for body

presence. Use of the baton/right hand ranked third overall, yet only received tenfirst preferences (11%), half the number received by score study (23%) which

ranked as low as fifth. Repertoire development and interpretation were generallyagreed to be the least important aspects of conducting to be covered in the initial

few lessons.

A significant part of this survey finding was the high rank order given to bodypresence by the university conducting teachers surveyed.

B4 – B5 Conducting Students using a Baton and Left Hand

The majority of respondents (over 87%) had their students use a baton. Forty-onerespondents (just under 47%) insisted on their conducting students beating with

their right hand. Neither of these questions were regarded as significant to the

ability to conduct expressively.

B6 Rank Order of Impotance of Aspects of Conducting Which May BeCovered As Students Develop More Experience

Score study was ranked first in order of importance and received thirty-three firstpreferences (38%). Second in order of importance were expressive gestures, and

this category received thirteen first preferences (15%). Third in order ofimportance were rehearsal techniques, and this category received twelve first

preferences (14%).

Although both beat patterns and the psychology of conducting were ranked quitelow (twelfth and seventh respectively), they received a high number of first

preferences (eleven for the psychology of conducting, nine for beat patterns.Repertoire development remained the least favoured aspect of conducting by

respondents at this stage of learning.

The greatest jump in rank order of importance of aspects of conducting whichmay be covered as students develop more experience, compared with what

should be covered in the initial few lessons, were in rehearsal techniques andinterpretation (up eight places), and expressive gestures and score study (up four

places). The greatest drop in rank order occurred in beat patterns (down eleven

places) and starting and stopping the ensemble (down seven places).

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A significant part of this survey finding was the high rank order given to

expressive gestures by the university conducting teachers surveyed. Although notregarded as a major aspect in the initial few lessons, the survey regarded it as a

major aspect to be developed as students develop more experience.

B7 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of

Conducting Expressivity


order and number of first preferences (32%). Observation of other conductors

was ranked second, although conducting classes, courses, and workshopsreceived more first preferences (26%). Expressive movement activities were

ranked as low as sixth, although seven respondents gave it their first preference.

Few respondents believed that conducting textbooks would assist thedevelopment of conducting expressivity. Even less believed conducting

expressivity would just improve over time.The survey results clearly indicated that an active method was required to

develop conducting expressivity – it will not just improve over time. Observation

of self and other conductors was regarded as the main methods to improveexpressivity. Significantly, expressive activities were not ranked highly by the

majority of respondents. It is possible that many were not aware of thepossibilities of such activities.

B8 How Frequently Have You Used the Following Movement Training orActivities with Your Conducting Students? (Acting, Alexander Technique,

Calisthenics, Dalcroze, Dance, Delsarte, Feldenkrais, Laban, Pilates, Tai Chi,Yoga)

Ninety percent of respondents used one or more of the eleven listed movementactivities. The most popular responses were between one and four different

movement activities used (63%). 5% of respondents used eight or moremovement activities with their conducting students (one respondent used all

eleven).

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a) Acting

Over 70% of respondents had used acting with their conducting students. 36% ofrespondents, the largest group, stated that they had used acting occasionally. As

acting is a very broad area with a wide range of contrasting philosophicalviewpoints, it was deemed unsuitable for this thesis, however, it deserves to be

investigated in future studies.

b) Alexander TechniqueOver 50% of respondents had never used the Alexander Technique with their

conducting students. 24% of respondents had used the Alexander Techniqueoccasionally. Although a majority of participants had never used the Alexander

Technique, I still deemed the method suitable for this thesis due to its educational

background.c) Calisthenics

One of the problems with the term ‘calisthenics’ is that it has a different meaning

in different parts of the world. In the United States, the term means a type ofexercise consisting of a variety of simple movements usually performed without

weights or other equipment that are intended to increase body strength andflexibility using the weight of one's own body for resistance. In Australia, the

term is generally taken to mean a competitive women's performing sport,

involving the use of freearm, aesthetics, rods, clubs, and march routines.The overall results for calisthenics were similar to the results for the Alexander

Technique. Just over half the respondents had never used calisthenics (in anyform) with their conducting students. 27% of respondents had used calisthenics

occasionally. Due to the lack of a consistent interpretation of the term

‘calisthenics’, it was deemed unsuitable for this thesis.d) Dalcroze

Almost 70% of respondents had never used Dalcroze with their conductingstudents. Almost 20% of respondents had used Dalcroze occasionally. Although

a majority of participants had never used Dalcroze, I still deemed the method

suitable for this thesis due to its educational background, and for the way itdeveloped kinaesthetic responses using music and movement.

e) DanceFifty-three percent of respondents had never used dance before with their

conducting students. Just over 20% of respondents used dance occasionally, and

17% used dance frequently. Similarly to acting, as dance is a very broad area

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with a wide range of contrasting philosophical viewpoints, I deemed it unsuitable

for this thesis. Dance, however, deserves to be investigated in future studies.f) Delsarte

Less than 5% of respondents had used Delsarte with their conducting students.Nevertheless, I still deemed Delsarte suitable for this thesis due to its educational

background, and its strong theoretical underpinning in the meaning and

interpretation of gesture.g) Feldenkrais

Less than 10% of respondents had used Feldenkrais with their conductingstudents. Possibly, this was an unknown movement activity to many of the

respondents. Nevertheless, I still deemed Feldenkrais suitable for this thesis due

to its educational background, and the importance it places on kinaestheticawareness.

h) Laban

Almost 70% of respondents had never used Laban with their conductingstudents. 10% of respondents had used Laban frequently, 8% had used it

occasionally, and 6% had used it once or twice. 6% of respondents used Labanall the time. From other theses, Laban had been the most researched movement

activity applied to conducting. I deemed it suitable for this thesis due to its

educational background, as well as the conducting teaching possibilities of usingthe Laban elements of weight, space, and time.

i) PilatesAs less than 5% of respondents had used Pilates with their conducting students, I

deemed it to be unsuitable for this thesis.

j) Tai ChiAlmost three-quarters of respondents had never used Tai Chi with their

conducting students. Although Tai Chi was supported by some conductors fromthe survey and may well be a worthwhile movement activity for a future study, it

was left out of this thesis.

k) YogaOver 80% of respondents had never used yoga with their conducting students.

11% of respondents had used yoga occasionally. Although yoga was supportedby some conductors from the survey and may well be a worthwhile movement

activity for a future study, it was left out of this thesis.

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B9 Other Movement Training Methods or Activities Used with Conducting

Students

Sixty percent of respondents indicated no additional movement training methodsor activities other than those listed in B8. Of the respondents who had not used

any of the eleven movement training methods or activities in B8, 56% still did

not use other movement activities.The most popular movement training methods or activities used by respondents,

apart from those listed in B8, were mime (10%), Elizabeth Green conductingmovement exercises (from The Modern Conductor – 9%) and respondents’ own

movement exercises (9%). Although mime is an activity potentially rich in

expressive movement potential, it is a very broad area with a wide range ofcontrasting philosophical viewpoints. I therefore deemed mime unsuitable for

this thesis, however, it deserves to be investigated in future studies. Other

activities were similarly deemed unsuitable for this thesis.

B10 How Effective Have You Found the Following Movement Training orActivities with Your Conducting Students?

Occasional discrepancies were received in response to this section whencompared to responses received to B8. This was due to incomplete surveys –

some respondents failed to complete B10 after answering B8, possibly due torespondent fatigue, causing slight inconsistencies in responses.

a) Acting

Twenty-seven percent of respondents had never used acting with theirconducting students. Of those remaining, 82% found acting effective with their

conducting students. 15% of remaining respondents were undecided and 3%found acting to be not effective with their conducting students.

b) Alexander Technique

Fifty percent of respondents had never used the Alexander Technique with theirconducting students. Of those remaining, 76% found the Alexander Technique

effective with their conducting students. 22% of remaining respondents wereundecided and 2% found the Alexander Technique to be not effective with their

conducting students.

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c) Calisthenics

Fifty-one percent of respondents had never used calisthenics with theirconducting students. Of those remaining, 65% found calisthenics effective with

their conducting students. 30% of remaining respondents were undecided and 5%found calisthenics to be not effective with their conducting students.

d) Dalcroze

Sixty-five percent of respondents had never used Dalcroze with their conductingstudents. Of those remaining, 70% found Dalcroze effective with their

conducting students, while 30% were undecided.e) Dance

Fifty-one percent of respondents had never used dance with their conducting

students. Of those remaining, 85% found dance effective with their conductingstudents. 13% of remaining respondents were undecided and 2% found dance to

be not effective with their conducting students.

f) DelsarteNinety percent of respondents had never used Delsarte with their conducting

students. Of those remaining, 60% found Delsarte slightly effective with theirconducting students, while 40% were undecided.

g) Feldenkrais

Eighty-six percent of respondents had never used Feldenkrais with theirconducting students. Of those remaining, 44% found Feldenkrais to be effective,

while 56% were undecided.h) Laban

Sixty-six percent of respondents had never used Laban with their conducting

students. Of those remaining, 81% found Laban effective with their conductingstudents, while 19% were undecided.

i) PilatesNinety percent of respondents had never used Pilates with their conducting

students. Of those remaining, two-thirds found Pilates to be effective with their

conducting students, while one-third was undecided.j) Tai Chi

Seventy-four percent had never used Tai Chi with their conducting students. Ofthose remaining, 70% found Tai Chi effective with their conducting students,


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k) Yoga

Seventy-eight percent of respondents had never used yoga with their conductingstudents. Of those remaining, 56% found yoga effective with their conducting

students, while 44% were undecided.

B11 How Have These Movement Activities Helped Your Students Improve

Their Conducting?

Only those respondents who had used movement activities and found thembeneficial provided responses. Nevertheless, there was a wide range of responses

to the question of how these movement activities had helped students improve

their conducting. More than single responses were received to eight generalstatements: develops body awareness (5 responses), develops self-awareness and

confidence (5 responses), helps to contemplate expressive movement before it is

confined to beat patterns (3 responses), adds to movement vocabulary (2responses), develops connection between physical motion and music response (2

responses), overcomes inhibitions (2 responses), allows experimentation withmovement techniques (2 responses), and improves relaxation, movement control

and expressivity (2 responses). Only one multiple response was received for a

specific movement activity (Laban – allows for the application of everydaymovements – 2 responses).

In light of the importance assigned to the development of body presence in B3,participants who have used movement activities appear to suggest that the

movement activities may have some role in assisting with the development of

body presence.

B12 Which Non-verbal Communication Techniques are Important for YourStudents to Develop?

The most important non-verbal communication techniques, as listed byrespondents, were facial expression (42%), eye contact (25%), body language

and hands/arms (each 14%). This provided a guide to important areas requiringresearch from the literature.

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B13 How Do You Go About Developing Your Conducting Students’ Non-

verbal Vocabulary?

The most important methods for developing conducting students’ non-verbalvocabulary, as listed by respondents, were self-observation (16%), getting the

face to convey the musical mood (14%), and observation of other conductors

(13%). Self-observation and observation of other conductors were also listed asthe most popular methods for developing conducting expressivity.

B14 How Do You Assess the Success or Quality of Your Students’

Conducting?

The most important ways of assessing the success or quality of students’

conducting, as listed by respondents, were by weekly observation (30%), by

assessing the end product of the conducting (26%), and testing specific skills(18%). The importance of weekly observation from the survey highlighted the

importance of conducting teachers developing their observation skills.

Survey 1 – Discussion

From the survey, the following inferences can be made about the mainly wind

band conducting programs of the participants:The students are likely to be proficient in theory and an instrument or voice type.

There is a chance that the students would have had no prior conducting

experience.In the initial few lessons, teachers focused on body presence, beat patterns, use of

the baton, and starting and stopping an ensemble. As their students developedmore experience, teachers focused more on score study, expressive gestures,

rehearsal techniques, and interpretation.

Teachers primarily relied on their students to self-observe via video and mirrorfeedback to develop greater conducting expressivity. Many also suggested that

students observe other conductors and practise their conducting away from theensemble to develop expressivity. Some suggested more conducting classes,

courses, or workshops. Most teachers used conducting textbooks, many using

The Modern Conductor by Elizabeth Green. Few teachers believed that

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conducting textbooks would assist their students to develop expressivity,

however. Even less believed their students would ‘just improve over time.’Although expressive movement activities were not seen as a particularly

important method of developing conducting expressivity within students, mostteachers had used at least one expressive movement activity with their students.

Most teachers had used acting, the most popular of the expressive movement

activities. Of those teachers who had used expressive movement activities, mostfound dance, acting, Laban, and the Alexander Technique to be the most

effective with their students. Some teachers felt that movement activities hadgiven their students increased body awareness and confidence.

Respondents believed that beginner conductors should already have good musictheory knowledge and musicianship, plus decent aural and instrumental skills

prior to starting conducting. They should immediately work to develop baton

technique, score reading skills, aural skills, musicianship, and non-verbalcommunication. Some skills were listed by some respondents as skills desirable

for beginner conductors to already possess and by others as skills to immediatelyseek to develop. More respondents felt that score reading skills should be

developed by beginner conductors than already possessed, likewise for

expressive gestures, left hand independence, rehearsal techniques, beat patterns,aural skills, knowledge of instruments, research skills, and self confidence.

Fewer respondents felt that beginner conductors should develop music theoryknowledge than already possess it, likewise for instrumental skills, historical

knowledge, piano skills, musicianship, and harmonic knowledge. Important new

skills to be developed by beginner conductors included baton technique, non-verbal communication skills, control of movements and interpretation.

The most important non-verbal communication techniques for students todevelop were facial expression, eye contact, body language and expressivity of

hands/arms. There was lack of consensus among teachers about the best ways to

teach these techniques, the most popular methods being self-observation byvideo or mirror, activation of the face to convey the musical mood, and

observing other conductors.

The implications from this survey are that conducting teachers were clear about

the skills required of intending conductors, including music theory knowledge,

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instrumental/vocal skills, a good ear and musicianship. They were clear about the

delivery of good initial training in beat patterns and baton technique. Althoughbody presence was ranked as the most important aspect of conducting which

should be covered in the initial stages, there was a lack of consensus as to howthis should be taught. While few teachers believed that body presence and

expressivity would just improve over time, most teachers advocated a path of

discovery for their students involving observation (of themselves and otherconductors) and practice. Practical solutions such as classes, courses, workshops

and expressive movement activities appeared well down the list of ‘helpfulmethods.’

As conducting students developed in experience, the majority of teachers

believed that important skills to add were score study, expressive gestures,rehearsal techniques, and interpretation, followed by left hand independence and

non-verbal communication (particularly facial expression and eye contact).

While conducting textbooks assisted with aspects of score study and rehearsaltechniques, their use, while widespread, had not greatly assisted the development

of body presence, expressivity, left hand independence, or non-verbalcommunication. Few teachers believed that these areas would just ‘improve over

time.

Although acting had been used by a majority of conducting teachers, othermovement activities had failed to achieve general support. The fact is that most

teachers who had used movement activities found them to be effective with theirconducting students in the very areas that the teachers themselves had assigned

most importance (body awareness, confidence, independence of hands, and non-

verbal communication).

Survey 2 – Secondary School Level Conductors Based Around the MelbourneArea

As indicated in the introduction to this chapter, the second survey provideduseful perspectives from practising secondary school conductors on the

difficulties they had acquiring expressive conducting skills, therefore making apoint of difference from the first survey. This survey was intended to gather

information about the broader background and training experiences of

Melbourne secondary school conductors. Additional aims of this survey were to

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identify the skills that beginner conductors should already possess or

immediately seek to develop, and to identify the attributes of an expressive andan effective conductor.

Ninety-two secondary school level conductors around the Melbourne area werecontacted and invited to participate in an online survey, asking questions about

their musical background, and the conductor training they had received. The

majority of these conductors were regularly conducting school groups. Of theseninety-two, forty-two (46%) responded to the survey.

A1 & A3 Musical Instrument and Performance Background (other than

conducting)

Amateur Ensembles (90%), Secondary School Ensembles (76%) and Amateur

Theatre (76%) were the most popular ensemble performance backgrounds of

respondents. All respondents had participated in at least two different types ofmusic performance settings, apart from their conducting experience. Nineteen

respondents (45%) had performed at a professional level. The most popularmusical instrument background of respondents were woodwind (50%) and brass

(48%) instruments. Other listed families were percussion (10%), strings (5%),

voice (26%), and keyboard (36%). Nineteen respondents (45%) had abackground on instruments from two or more of these families. From the

statements of the respondents, it would appear that their instrumentalperformance experience had no effect on their ability to conduct expressively.

A2 & A5 Musical and Conducting Background of Family Members

Twenty-three respondents (55%) had two or more family members with amusical performing background. The spouse/partner (43% of respondents) was

clearly the most common family member to have a musical background. Twenty-

five respondents (60%) had no family members with a conducting background. Acomparison between results of A2 and A5 showed that half (50%) of the

spouses/partners with a musical performing background also had someconducting experience. A similar comparison showed that two thirds (66%) of

fathers with a musical performance background had some conducting experience.

Only three respondents (7%) had two family members with some conducting

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experience. Although the benefits or otherwise of coming from a musical

background could be argued, they do not appear to have an impact on the abilityto conduct expressively, and are outside the bounds of this thesis.

A4 Years of Performing Experience Prior to First Conducting Experience

The majority of respondents (almost 93%) had up to fifteen years of performanceexperience prior to their first conducting experience. Half of the respondents had

between six and ten years of performance experience prior to their firstconducting experience. This would appear to corroborate with the findings of

Survey 1 (A7) that the most important prerequisites of potential conducting

students are instrumental/voice proficiency and theory.

A6 Highest Level Musical Education Achieved

Two respondents (5%) were directing ensembles without any formal

qualification (performance or teaching). The majority of respondents (83%) hadachieved a Bachelors degree in music or education or higher. 22% of respondents

had gone further than a Bachelors degree. The level of musical education

achieved did not seem to have any impact on the ability to conduct expressively.


Male respondents outnumbered female respondents at a ratio of just over 2:1.

This ratio most likely represents the true ratio of experienced secondary schoolconductors in Melbourne conducting the better ensembles. As with Survey 1,

gender issues and commentary were not part of this thesis.

A7 Participation in Sporting Activities Prior to First Conducting Experience

The most popular sports played by respondents prior to their first conducting

experience were racquet sports (36%), athletics (26%), swimming (24%),football and cricket (21% each). 14% of respondents played no sports prior to

their first conducting experience. These questions were asked to determine if

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sporting participation was a determining factor in expressive movement. No

correlation was recognised by the participants themselves.

A9 Participation in Movement Training or Specific Movement ActivitiesPrior to First Conducting Experience

Sixty-two percent of respondents had not participated in any movement trainingor activities prior to their first conducting experience. Of those sixteen who had

participated, the most popular forms of movement activities were Acting (50% ofthose who participated), Dance (44% of those who participated), and Dalcroze

(31% of those who participated). 63% of those who participated had attempted

one type of movement activity only. 31% had attempted two. One respondenthad attempted five types of movement activity.

A10 – A11 Setting and Age at First Conducting Experience

The most popular setting for the first conducting experience of our respondentswas the secondary school rehearsal as a student (31%). The age bracket between

16 and 25 accounted for almost three out of four first conducting experiences. If

conductors did not have their first conducting experience as a student, they werethen next most likely to have it as part of their teacher training. Some conductors,

however, had their first conducting experience after their undergraduate training.Neither the setting or the age appeared to have any influence on the ability to

conduct expressively.

B1 Type of Conductor Training Undertaken

90% of respondents had undertaken some form of practical conductor training.

48% of respondents had undertaken at least two of a conducting class, a music

degree with conducting as a component, or a specific conducting course. Onerespondent had undertaken all three. 64% of respondents had observed a

colleague or a mentor as part of their training. Four respondents (10%) had onlyobserved a colleague or mentor or consulted a conducting textbook as their

conducting training. The significance of observation as a method for developing

conducting expressivity has already been noted in Survey 1.

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B2 Effectiveness of Areas of Conductor Training

a) Beat PatternsRespondents were satisfied with training received in the area of beat patterns.

Only two respondents (5%) felt that the beat pattern training they had received

had been in any way inadequate, with one undecided.b) Use of the Left Hand

Although a majority of respondents (59%) felt that their training in the use of theleft hand was adequate, there was a much higher rate of dissatisfaction (24%)

than for the training received in beat patterns. 14% of respondents were

undecided.c) Rehearsal Techniques

The overall ratio of satisfaction to dissatisfaction was the same as for the use of

the left hand. The category of ‘Completely Adequate’ for this question wasinadvertently left off the online response page. Although this section of the

survey yielded useful data on Rehearsal Techniques, it was outside theboundaries of this thesis.

d) Score Study

The majority of respondents (62%) were satisfied with the training they receivedin score study. A higher number of undecided respondents (17%) were observed

for this category than for the other areas. Again, this section of the survey wasoutside the boundaries of this thesis.

e) Expressive Gestures

The overall responses to this question were similar to those received for left handuse. A majority (57%) expressed satisfaction with the training they received in

the use of expressive gestures. 34% of respondents felt the training they receivedwas inadequate. There were less undecided respondents (7%) than for any

category except beat patterns.

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B3 Years of Regular Conducting Experience

The majority of respondents (64%) had between 6 and 20 years of regular

conducting experience. The most popular category for respondents was between11 and 15 years (26%). Years of conducting experience alone was no guarantee

of being able to conduct expressively.

B4 – B5 Styles and Types of Ensembles Directed

The majority of respondents were conducting secondary school and/or amateur

ensembles. As with Survey 1, predominantly wind band directors responded to

the survey. 83% of respondents conducted either one or two types of ensembles,the most popular combination for two ensembles being wind band and jazz

ensemble.

B6 Level of Difficulty Developing Skill Areas

a) Beat Patterns

The overwhelming majority of respondents found the beat patterns easy to learn.

Only four respondents (just under 10%) found the beat patterns slightly difficult.No respondents were undecided, and none found the beat patterns very difficult,

or were still uncomfortable with them. These findings are possibly a reflection onthe importance of the beat patterns in the priorities of the conductors themselves.

b) Use of the Left Hand

Sixty-four percent of respondents found the use of the left hand in conductingdifficult. Indeed, just fewer than 10% of respondents stated that they were still

not comfortable with using their left hands. Just fewer than 10% of respondentswere undecided. Nineteen respondents (45%) found the left hand slightly

difficult to use. Only 26% of respondents found the left hand in any way easy to

use.c) Rehearsal Techniques

Sixteen respondents (38%) found rehearsal techniques slightly easy to learn.Thirteen respondents (31%) found rehearsal techniques slightly difficult. There

were a high number of undecided respondents (24%).

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d) Score Study

Overall responses to score study were similar to responses for rehearsaltechniques. 7% of respondents found score study very easy, the same number

who found it very difficult. None stated that they were still not comfortable.e) Expressive Gestures

Over half of the respondents (57%) found the development of expressive

gestures difficult. Nineteen respondents (45%), the largest group, foundexpressive gestures slightly difficult, Three respondents (7%) found expressive

gestures very difficult, and two respondents (5%) were still not comfortable withexpressive gestures. 29% of respondents found expressive gestures easy (eleven

– slightly easy, one – very easy). There were six undecided respondents (14%).

B7 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of Skill

Areas

a) Beat Patterns

The overall rank order for methods to assist the development of beat patterns wasa different result than the number of first preferences among respondents. Some

methods ranked higher on second and third preferences than others. For example,

fifteen respondents (36%) found conducting classes, courses, or workshops to bethe most important method to assist the development of their beat patterns.

However, conducting classes, courses, or workshops ranked second overall,behind observation of other conductors, due to a higher number of second and

third preferences for observation of other conductors. On the other hand,

discussion with a mentor or a teacher, while ranking fourth overall in importance,received only two first preferences from respondents. Conducting textbooks were

generally agreed to be the least important assistance to the development of beatpatterns.

b) Use of Left Hand

As for beat patterns, the overall rank order to assist the development of the lefthand was a different result than the number of first preferences among

respondents. Although observation of other conductors received a higher rankorder than conducting classes, courses or workshops, more respondents gave

conducting classes, courses and workshops their first preference (thirteen

compared to ten for observation of other conductors). Other discrepancies

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between the overall rank order and the number of first preferences occurred in

self-observation (ranked third, but six first preferences) and practice away fromthe ensemble (ranked fourth, but eight first preferences). As with B7a,

conducting textbooks were down in the list of assistants important to thedevelopment of the left hand (ranked seventh, only one first preference).

c) Rehearsal Techniques

Forty-three percent of respondents listed observation of other conductors as theirfirst preference, and this was a clear first choice in rank order. Discussion with a

mentor or teacher was ranked second, and also received 24% of first preferences.Conducting classes, courses, and workshops were seen as being of lesser

importance regarding rehearsal techniques than any other area.

d) Score StudyConducting classes, courses and workshops were the most popular method for

developing score study techniques among respondents, both according to rank

order and number of first preferences (33%). Discussion with a mentor or teacherwas the second most favoured method. Practising away from the ensemble

received a higher rank order (third) for score study than for any other area.Compared with all other areas, observation of other conductors received a much

lower ranking in importance for score study. Only one respondent (2%) gave

observation a first preference for score study.e) Expressive Gestures

Observation of other conductors was clearly the most popular method fordeveloping expressive gestures among the respondents, both in terms of overall

rank order and number of first preferences (40%). Self-observation was a clear

second choice, receiving its highest ranking as a method for expressive gestures.Nine respondents (21%) chose self-observation via a mirror or video as their first

preference. Discussion with a mentor or teacher was marginally ranked higher(third) than conducting classes, courses or workshops (fourth), although classes

received twice as many first preferences (six – 14%) as discussion (three – 7%).

Few respondents believed that expressive gestures would just improve over time.This method was ranked sixth, with only two respondents (5%) allocating it a

first preference. Confirming B7a and B7b, conducting textbooks received evenless support, ranking seventh in order, and receiving no first preferences from

respondents. The highest preference conducting textbooks received for

expressive gestures was third preference from two respondents.

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The results from this section of the survey back up the findings of Survey 1, in

that self observation and observation of other conductors were found to be thetwo methods most favoured to assist the development of conducting expressivity.


Twenty-two respondents (52%) indicated that they used no conductingtextbooks. This finding, together with the findings from B7, indicated that

secondary school conductors in Melbourne do not find conducting textbooksparticularly helpful. The most common conducting textbook used was The

Modern Conductor by Elizabeth Green, used by ten respondents (24%). No other

textbooks came close to this result.

B9 – B10 Participation in and Impact of Sporting Activities to Assist

Conducting

Overall results indicate that respondents had indulged in slightly more sportingactivity since their first conducting experience. Fewer respondents indicated no

sports, compared to A7 (four respondents, compared to six). However, most

respondents failed to acknowledge any link between their participation insporting activities and their conducting. As no link could be established between

sporting participation and expressive movement, this area of inquiry wasdiscontinued from this thesis.

B11 – B12 Participation in and Impact of Movement Training or SpecificMovement Activities Since the First Conducting Experience

There was very little change in the number of respondents who had not

participated in any movement training or activities since their first conducting

experience, compared with prior to their first conducting experience. The mostpopular movement activities since the first conducting experience were now

Alexander Technique (four more respondents than A9) and Pilates (three morerespondents than A9). On the surface it would appear that the majority of

respondents failed to acknowledge any link between their participation in

movement activities and their conducting. However, the majority of those who

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indicated ‘No Impact’ had not participated in any movement activities (86%). Of

those who had participated in movement activities, over 73% found some benefittoward their conducting. The survey results clearly showed that many secondary

school conductors in Melbourne were ignorant of the benefits of expressivemovement activities.

B13 What Skills Should a Beginner Conductor Already Possess?

The most popular responses to this question were clear beat patterns (36%), scorereading ability (29%), aural skills (24%) and verbal communication skills (19%).

This finding reflected the high value placed on the beat patterns by the

respondents.

B14 What Skills Should a Beginner Conductor Immediately Seek to Develop?

The most popular responses to this question were expressive gestures (31%), and

beat patterns, rehearsal techniques, and score reading skills (each 24%). Survey 1also supported the importance of the development of expressive gestures.

B15 Important Attributes of an Expressive Conductor

The most important attributes of an expressive conductor, as listed byrespondents, were communication (33%), musicianship (17%), expressive

movements and no excessive gestures (each 14%). No distinction was made

among the respondents between verbal and non-verbal communication.

B16 Important Attributes of an Effective Conductor

The most important attributes of an effective conductor, as listed by respondents,

were the ability to communicate and an understanding of musicians (both 29%).Again, no distinction was made between verbal and non-verbal communication.

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Survey 2 – Discussion

From the survey, the following inferences can be made about the training and

experiences of the mainly wind band conductors who participated:Our typical conductor is likely to have first experienced conducting first-hand

aged between 16 and 20, possibly while still a secondary school student. A low

number of respondents stated that their first conducting experience had occurredas part of a conducting class or course, or in a university rehearsal. Even a

combination of all of these activities only accounted for 40% of the firstconducting experiences of the respondents. This could indicate that either the

respondents had already conducted before undertaking a class, course, or

university ensemble, or that these activities were not available to a number of therespondents.

Our typical conductor in most cases is likely to have a Bachelors degree in music

or education, in many cases has undertaken further study, and is most likely tohave undertaken some form of practical conductor training. There is a chance

that he has not used conducting textbooks, and even if he had, has discountedtheir influence on his conducting. He will be basically satisfied with the

conducting training he received. He will have found beat patterns to be very easy

to learn, but will have found using the left hand and expressive gestures difficult.In some cases he still may be uncomfortable with gesture.

Our typical conductor is likely to have accumulated between 6 and 20 years ofregular conducting experience. He will generally be conducting a secondary

school band and/or an amateur ensemble. It is unlikely that he will have

participated in any movement training or activities, but if he had, he will mostlikely acknowledge some benefit toward his conducting. The Alexander

Technique was now the most common movement activity among those who hadparticipated.

Respondents believed that beginner conductors should already have clear beatpatterns, be able to read a score, have decent aural skills and good verbal

communication skills prior to starting conducting. They should immediatelywork to develop their expressive gestures, beat patterns, rehearsal techniques,

and score reading skills. Some skills were listed by some respondents as skills

desirable for a beginner conductor to already possess and by others as skills to

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immediately seek to develop. More respondents felt that the beginner conductor

should develop left hand independence than already possess it. The same goesfor ensemble empathy. Fewer respondents felt that the beginner conductor should

develop beat patterns than already possess them. The same goes for aural skills,knowledge of instruments, understanding of style, score reading skills and

charisma. Important new skills to be developed by the beginner conductor were

expressive gestures, rehearsal techniques, and non-verbal communication skills.The most important attributes of an expressive conductor were communication,

musicianship, expressive movements, and economy of gesture.The most important attributes of an effective conductor were the ability to

communicate, an understanding of musicians, clarity, and good rehearsal

techniques.

The implications from this survey are that conductors were being well trained in

the area of beat patterns. There were some problems with the training conductorswere receiving in the use of the left hand and expressive gestures, most

respondents finding skill acquisition in these two areas difficult, and some stilluncomfortable, possibly a reflection on the training methods that were being used

to teach these areas.

Observation of other conductors and conducting classes, courses and workshopsgenerally seemed to be the methods that most respondents felt had assisted with

the development of skill areas, particularly with regard to beat patterns, use ofthe left hand and rehearsal techniques. For expressive gestures, self-observation

by way of video or mirror replaced classes, courses, and workshops.

Conducting textbooks and improvement over time were methods which weregenerally not supported by respondents, except in the less manual areas of

rehearsal techniques and score study. The highest ranking either of these methodsreceived in any area was fourth. It was clear that respondents do not feel that

conducting skills will just improve over time. It was also clear that many

respondents had not found conducting textbooks particularly helpful.The low ranking of classes, courses, and workshops for the expressive gestures

area can perhaps be attributed to unimaginative instruction in many of thesesettings. The fact that this method had been lowly ranked merely illustrates that

many of the respondents had failed to be assisted, and perhaps would benefit

from different types of classes. The fact that of the small number who had

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participated in movement training or activities, most had found them of benefit is

surely a signal of the types of classes that must be needed.The fact that expressive gestures and non-verbal communication figured so

highly in desirable conducting skills and attributes is another pointer that perhapsmore needs to be done to address these areas in conducting training.

Survey Findings Related to Main Research Questions

1. Are the movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, andFeldenkrais relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting?

Survey 1 found that of those who used Laban, 81% found it effective with theirconducting students. Of those who had used Dalcroze, 70% found it effective. Of

those who had used Delsarte, 60% found it to be effective. Of those who had

used Alexander, 76% found it effective. Of those who had used Feldenkrais, 44%found it effective, while 56% were undecided. A large proportion of respondents

had not used any of the five movement theories, indicating that there is still ahigh degree of ignorance as to their value and how they can be used. Survey

results indicate that Laban, Dalcroze, and Alexander have been found to be very

effective by those who have used them.

2. Can the use of non-verbal communication skills and concepts enhanceexpressive conducting?

Indications from both surveys are that communication skills are enormouslyvaluable for conductors to develop. Survey 1 in particular emphasises the

importance of the development of non-verbal communication through self-observation and observation of other conductors. What is not clear from the

surveys is how conductors, beyond observation, are supposed to use non-verbal

communication skills to enhance their expressive conducting. As this is asubjective area, many conductors may lack strategies to assist.

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3. Does the mind-body connection, motor skill development, and

proprioception play a part in the development of bodily-kinaesthetic learning?

This question was not answered in the surveys. Indeed, the acknowledgedimportance of body presence and body awareness prompted the asking of this

question from the literature.

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CHAPTER EIGHT – SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS ANDRECOMMENDATIONS

In this thesis, I have argued that bodily-kinaesthetic skills, the expressivemovement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais,

and non-verbal communication skills and concepts can enhance expressive

conducting at all levels of entering behaviour. As part of the discussion, I haveexamined the aspects of bodily-kinaesthetic learning that are being used in

conducting textbooks, and how these can be reinforced through the mind-bodyconnection, motor skill development, and proprioception.

I have found through my conducting experience that an effective way to enhanceexpressive conducting is through the use of the five theories. Although

applications of Laban to conducting have attracted the attention of researchers,

the other expressive movement theories have been comparatively neglected.Nevertheless, I have found through an examination of the five theories that they

are highly relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting, particularly thetheories of Laban, Dalcroze, and Alexander.

I observed four commonalities of relevance to conducting among the theories.Firstly, the five expressive movement theories strongly suggest that a

conductor’s development of the connections between mind and body willenhance the ability to move expressively and communicate non-verbally to the

ensemble.

Secondly, all five are educational theories highly relevant to the teaching ofexpressive conducting. The five theorists were all gifted teachers, who not only

taught their techniques to others, but also trained others to teach their techniques.Thirdly, all five are teachable to anyone, not just those with high entering

behaviour. As they are pedagogically useful, teachers of conducting may wish to

employ them selectively in the earliest stages of conductor training. The theoriesinfer that high entering behaviour conductors would benefit from increased

movement awareness, while those with low or moderate entering behaviour canstill achieve their maximum potential through expressive movement training.

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Finally, all five acknowledge the importance of the proprioceptive sense. Its

development is arguably essential for conductors, as they all need to be aware ofthe position of their bodies in space.

Ekman and Friesen’s (1969) categorisation of non-verbal behaviour is relevant to

the enhancement of expressive conducting, as each of the five categories serve as

bodily-kinaesthetic gestural tools for conductors. Conductors rely on emblemsthat are understood by all musicians to get clear messages across. Illustrative

movements, such as gliding gestures to indicate legato and dabbing gestures toindicate staccato, are widely used to portray the desired character and style of the

music. Conductors use affect displays to communicate their feelings and reaction

to the performance, while adaptors, such as facial mannerisms and habits, arecommunicated unconsciously.

As Burgoon, Buller and Woodall (1996) have shown, the coding of non-verbalcommunication can be differentiated according to the transmission medium and

channel used, including the media of vocalics, proxemics, chronemics, artifacts,physical appearance and haptics. However, my findings suggest that the seventh

medium, kinesics, is the best at enhancing expressive conducting. Kinesics

moves beyond the standard beat pattern conducting gestures of the correctivemode described by Koch (2003), to include the declamatory and narrative modes

that utilise expressive movements of the hands, arms, and body, posture, facialexpression, and eye contact.

Although corrective mode gestures and universally understood emblems areimportant in that they emphasise clarity and precision, conductors need to make

more of illustrators and affect displays to access the declamatory mode, as wellas regulators and affect displays to access the narrative mode. Through

regulators, a conductor emphasises the expressive partnership with the

musicians, at the same time shaping the musical narrative to fit the conductor’sinterpretation. Affect displays communicate the conductor’s emotional reaction

to this.

As conductors are built in a variety of shapes and sizes it seems illogical to teach

all conductors the same way without taking into account the variety of body

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types, as smaller conductors will use gestures differently from larger conductors.

Knowledge of and instruction in expressive movement appears to allowconductors at all levels of entering behaviour to learn in different ways. My

examination of the literature suggests that the mind-body connection, motor skilldevelopment, and proprioception play a significant part in the development of

bodily-kinaesthetic learning.

My survey showed that 81% of university conducting teachers use conducting

textbooks, indicating that they value them, if not for the development ofconducting expressivity, then possibly for the way the textbooks model a

complete method of conducting instruction than can easily be implemented by

teachers, as in textbooks by Labuta (2004), Hunsberger and Ernst (1992), andPhillips (1997), which begin with beat pattern instruction. However, the

textbooks by Jordan (1996), Garofalo and Battisti (2005), Maiello (1996a),

Kohut and Grant (1990), and the McMurray (2003) DVD, which includeexpressive movement exercises, give conductors of all entering behaviour a

chance to develop kinaesthetic feel for the gestures. Therefore these textbooksare recommended as effective resources and models for ‘best practice.’

Suggestions for Future Research

While this thesis has regularly discussed skills and concepts intended to enhanceexpressive conducting, it was not intended to serve as a ‘how to’ conducting

manual. Although a number of materials were evaluated in Chapter Three, there

is a need for more that employ a bodily-kinaesthetic approach, particularly usingthe DVD medium.

Reinforcing the importance of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain as a form of

intelligence, potential applications of experiential somaesthetics to conducting

deserve to be further investigated, somaesthetics focusing on bodilyconsciousness and agency, and embodied spirit (Shusterman 2000:161).

The application of Dynamic Systems Theory to conducting is an area in need of

investigation, combining the areas of motor skill development, bio-mechanics,

physiology, and psychology.

213

In this thesis, I have focused exclusively on the expressive movement theories ofLaban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais and their potential use in

the enhancement of expressive conducting. Other movement activities needsimilar investigation, including mime, Pilates, tai chi, and yoga. The broad areas

of acting and dance, which according to my surveys are popular among

university conducting teachers, require categorisation and thorough research.

Of the seven non-verbal communication codes, a considerable amount ofresearch has been undertaken into kinesics. Although less relevant to expressive

conducting, the other six codes vocalics, proxemics, chronemics, haptics, artifact

use, and physical appearance, have some applications and deserve investigation.

In Chapter Six, Barry Green suggests the phenomenon of entrainment as an

important aspect of expressive communication (Green 2003:23-27). The effect ofentrainment on the communication between conductor and ensemble has yet to

be researched.

As this has been a qualitative study, future studies incorporating quantitative

research designs on some or all elements of this thesis would be welcome.

Although this is not intended to be a ‘how to’ thesis, as a coda, I offer a verygeneral and basic outline of a conducting course as a demonstration of how the

theories discussed in this thesis could be incorporated into a thirteen-week

conducting course. Elements of the five expressive movement theories and non-verbal communication are included.

General Curriculum for Teaching Conducting Incorporating Theories of

Expressive Movement and Non-Verbal Communication

The following general course outline contains a possible curriculum for including

elements of expressive movement theories and non-verbal communication. Theoutline is structured into a thirteen-week course, with the assumption that the

class meets once a week for two hours a session. I have avoided assigning

musical examples as I regard this as a matter for the individual teacher.

214

Week 1: Course introduction, elements of a beat. Breathing/awarenessexercises. The breathing exercises incorporate Feldenkrais elements of

awareness. Conductors should count to five as they inhale, then count to five asthey exhale while gently raising and lowering parts of their bodies such as a

finger, a hand, an elbow, an arm, a shoulder, a foot, a knee, a leg, an eyebrow, a

head. What feels more natural – raising a part of the body on an inhalation or anexhalation? Variations on this exercise could include inhaling/exhaling over

different numbers of beats.Moving to the beat. This exercises incorporates Dalcroze elements. Conductors

should practise moving different parts of their bodies to reflect the beat. They can

step the beats to music, changing between forward and backward movements onan instructor’s command. Changes should be smooth and instantaneous, with

almost no time to think between the instruction and the reaction. Conductors can

then practise internalising the beat through sound and silence. When the musicstops, they should continue to feel the pulse of the music. As a variation,

conductors can silently feel the beat while the music plays, and show the beat insome way when the music stops, changing the speed of their movements as

determined by the pulse of the music heard.

Discovery of the kinesphere. This exercise explores Laban’s element of space.Conductors should imagine they are standing inside a large, transparent cube.

Firstly, they should explore all of the edges of each surface, starting with thefront wall, the right side wall, the roof, the floor, the left side wall, and finally the

back. Conductors should try not to move their feet, as this transports the

kinesphere. The exploration should be done firstly with the right arm, then withthe left, then with arms together, moving together, then in opposite directions.

Does the movement feel the same or different with the different arms? Thenconductors should shrink the cube to shoulder width, waist to shoulder height,

and placed immediately in front. All of the previous movements should be

performed again, using wrists instead of arms. Then shrink the cube still further,until it is about 10cm square. Perform the movements again, using fingers,

instead of wrists.Discovery of weight. This exercise explores Laban’s element of weight.

While remaining within the space, conductors should allow their movements to

feel really heavy. Where is this weight best communicated? Allow some of this

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weight to dissipate so that medium resistance is felt. Where is this weight best

communicated? Finally, allow all of the weight and tension to dissipate so thatonly the lightest resistance is felt. Where is this weight best communicated?

Discovery of speed. This exercise explores Laban’s element of time.Conductors have the choice of making quick or slow movements. Where is it

easiest to generate fast or slow movements?

Week 2: Holding a baton, basic beat patterns. Hinge movement awareness.

This is a Feldenkrais awareness exercise, reinforcing the Laban kinesphereexercise from the previous week. Conductors should contrast the feel of large

and small movements through the shoulder, then the elbow, then the wrist, then

finally the fingers, to discover which hinges feel most comfortable at deliveringloud or soft dynamics.

Law of Altitude. This is a Delsarte exercise, also reinforcing dynamic control.

Conductors should experiment with upward, forward, and outward movements,using right hand, then left hand, then both hands to deliver a crescendo. They

could then experiment with downward, inward, and backward movements todeliver a diminuendo.

Doctrine of special organs. This exercise is a Delsarte exercise, reinforcing the

Laban discovery of weight from the previous week. Conductors should establishat what location in the body varieties of textures are most convincingly

communicated, such as a heavy, dark texture incorporating low, purposeful,centred gestures, or a light texture incorporating quick, frivolous gestures.

Discovery of shape factors (Laban). Conductors can explore shape elements by

moving through three planes: vertical, horizontal, and sagittal. The vertical planecan be explored by moving as if standing inside the frame of a door. The

horizontal frame can be explored by moving as if standing surrounded by a largetable. The sagittal plane can be explored by moving as if standing inside a large

wheel. Movement pathways can be explored by moving through a combination

of the three planes.

Week 3: Awareness of stance (Feldenkrais). Conductors should first locktheir knees and place their weight back on their heels while moving their arms.

They should then try the same arm movements with their knees unlocked and

216

their weight forward on the balls of their feet. Is there a difference in the quality

of the arm movements in each position?Construction of Body Map (Alexander). Conductors should first draw using

simple stick figures the position of the legs, arms, and head that they believe theyassume when they take up the ‘conductor ready’ position. Conductors should

then compare this drawing with how they are actually standing when shown on a

video. They should make notes of discrepancies for future reference.Exploration of effort actions (Laban). The eight effort actions are combinations

of weight, space, and time. The effort actions are press, wring, glide, float,punch, slash, dab, and flick. Conductors should practise each, making particular

use of the imagery of the actions. They should then discover and match short

musical examples to each effort action.Law of Form (Delsarte). Delsarte’s Law of Form reinforces the effort actions,

being an excellent communicator of style and articulation. Conductors should

practise making straight, angular forms, indicating staccato, while circular,smooth forms indicate legato phrasing.

Week 4: The left hand, cueing. Cube exercises (Delsarte). Conductors can

develop variety in their left hands by using Delsarte’s cube chart. By practicing a

‘palm up’ left hand gesture, conductors can indicate that they want musicians tosupport the sound. Conductors can also use an including, or protective left hand

gesture in combination with a starting raise of the right hand as an effective‘conductor ready’ position.

Law of Sequence (Delsarte). In order to develop effective cueing gestures,

conductors should consider Delsarte’s Law of Sequence. Cues are most effectivewhen set up by eye contact between conductor and musicians, followed by an

alteration in the conductor’s body attitude to face the musicians, followed lastlyby the gesture.

Cueing exercise – avoidance of end-gaining (Alexander). As an extension of the

previous cueing exercise, conductors must inhibit the desire to deliver the cue.Conductors should allow the head to lead and the body to follow, maintaining

vigilance to make sure the neck remains free. Only after the body has beenallowed to orient itself in the direction of the intended recipient of the cue will

the arm find the means whereby to deliver the final cueing gesture.

217

Eye movement organising exercise (Feldenkrais). As a further extension of

cueing, this exercise develops the Feldenkrais concept that the eyes play animportant role in coordination. Beginning with an arm swinging movement first

to the right, then to the left, conductors should first try this movement with eyesclosed, just observing the smoothness of the movements and noticing which part

of the body turns first: the eyes, the head, or the pelvis. Conductors should then

try the movements with eyes open, noticing if the eyes now move in a differentway than before. They should compare the quality of the movements with eyes

open and eyes closed to see if there is a difference in the smoothness and fluidityof the movements one way or the other. Conductors should also sit on the floor

and move the left hand across the body as far to the right as possible, following

the movement with the eyes. Through the use of the eyes, the turning angle iswidened.

Week 5: Fermatas, gestures of syncopation. Canonic exercises (Dalcroze).In this listening and moving exercise, conductors should respond by moving to

the music in canonic form, beginning with interrupted canons, in which theinstructor plays each rhythmic figure, waiting for a response on each occasion. In

continuous canons, the instructor does not wait, playing the next example as the

conductor is performing the previous one. Continuous canons are particularlychallenging, as they require the conductor to perform one rhythmic figure, while

at the same time listening carefully as the instructor performs the next example.Eye and mouth combinations. As an introduction to non-verbal communication,

conductors should look at a basic sheet of nine faces (see Fig. 24) showing the

different possible combinations of eyebrow and mouth use, using one word todescribe the expression being shown on the face.

Week 6: Starts on beats other than 1, subdivisions, irregular metres.

Subdivision exercise (Dalcroze). Conductors should start by walking to quarter

note beats fitting in with music played by the instructor. On a signal, conductorsshould also clap eighth note beats, and on another signal, they should sing half

note beats. On another signal from the instructor, the quarter note beats maychange from the feet to the hands, the eighth note beats from the hands to the

voice, and the half note beats from the voice to the feet.

218

Self-observation techniques. As conductors will be required to keep a journal of

their own conducting observations, it is important that they become proficient atobjectively observing non-verbal behaviours. In this session, conductors observe

footage of other conductors with the sound turned down to see what they canobserve and record about the non-verbal communication between conductor and

performers.

Week 7: Rehearsal techniques. Non-verbal communication mapping

exercise.Conductors will be video recorded, firstly in conversation with a friend, then

conducting a short section of an ensemble rehearsal. In each instance, the

conductors should view the footage and note down the categories of non-verbalcommunication (emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators, and adaptors)

used and the number of times used. Is there a difference in relaxed conversation

from a rehearsal situation? Why?

Week 8: Score study techniques, application to set works. Body mappingreview (Alexander). Conductors should now re-visit their body maps drawn in

Week 3, and re-draw them. Then they should watch another video of their

conducting. Is the perceived body map closer to the realities of their conducting?What aspects are still kinaesthetically faulty?

Week 9: Verbal presentations on set works. Illustrators game. Conductors

should take turns playing ‘charades’ with the rest of the class. Who can make the

best use of non-verbal illustrators to allow the class to determine what theconductor is aiming to portray. Conductors could also get into groups of three or

four and play ‘Pictionary,’ with the same aim.

Week 10: Verbal presentations on set works. Facial expression mapping

exercise. Conductors should watch a video of their conducting, focused on theirfaces. How many emotions can they observe during the sessions? Are the

expressions appropriate for the music/occasion at the time? Conductors shouldnext practise portraying the six primary emotions: surprise, fear, disgust, anger,

happiness, and sadness. Are some emotions more difficult to portray than others?

How would an actor go about it?

219

Week 11: Review of all concepts. Regulators mapping exercise. Conductorsshould watch a video of their conducting, showing their whole bodies as well as

facial expression. What is the level of eye contact with the ensemble? Are cuesprepared effectively with eye contact and body orientation?

Week 12: Conducting of set works. Disassociation exercise. As an exercisein manual independence, conductors could try conducting a ‘three’ pattern with

the right hand at the same time as conducting a ‘four’ pattern’ with the left, thenswapping on a signal from the instructor.

Week 13: Conducting of set works. Non-verbal rehearsal. As a finalexercise, conductors should be able to run a portion of the rehearsal completely

non-verbally, using non verbal communication alone to indicate what they want

from the performers. Conductors should then reflect on what they were able toachieve from the rehearsal. What were they unable to communicate?

220

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234

APPENDIX A – SURVEY OF UNIVERSITY LEVEL CONDUCTINGTEACHERS

Introduction

This survey is intended as a case study/snapshot of the students and methodology

of university conducting teachers in 2005, with respondents from Australia,Canada, Spain, the UK and the USA. As a result this survey, inferences are made

about the training of conductors, particularly from the standpoint of conducting

teacher priorities and the teaching of expressive conducting. Additional aims ofthis survey are to identify the skills that beginner conductors should already

possess or immediately seek to develop, and to identify the non-verbalcommunication skills required of a conductor and how best to develop them.

Conductors were contacted in Australia and the UK through direct email via the

universities. Other international conductors were contacted via an invitationposted on the College Band Directors National Association website bulletin

board. All were invited to participate in an online survey, asking questions aboutthe musical background of their students, their teaching priorities and

methodology. Eighty-eight conductors responded to the survey.

235

Base Location

Frequency PercentValid

PercentCumulative

PercentValid USA (no state) 8 9.1 9.1 9.1

UK 3 3.4 3.4 12.5Alberta, Canada 1 1.1 1.1 13.6Victoria, AUS 7 8.0 8.0 21.6Queensland, AUS 1 1.1 1.1 22.7Spain 1 1.1 1.1 23.9Arkansas 1 1.1 1.1 25.0Arizona 2 2.3 2.3 27.3California 6 6.8 6.8 34.1Colorado 1 1.1 1.1 35.2Florida 3 3.4 3.4 38.6Georgia 1 1.1 1.1 39.8Illinois 1 1.1 1.1 40.9Indiana 1 1.1 1.1 42.0Iowa 2 2.3 2.3 44.3Kansas 2 2.3 2.3 46.6Kentucky 1 1.1 1.1 47.7Louisiana 1 1.1 1.1 48.9Massachusetts 2 2.3 2.3 51.1Michigan 1 1.1 1.1 52.3Minnesota 4 4.5 4.5 56.8Mississippi 3 3.4 3.4 60.2Missouri 2 2.3 2.3 62.5Nebraska 1 1.1 1.1 63.6New Hampshire 1 1.1 1.1 64.8New Jersey 1 1.1 1.1 65.9New York 4 4.5 4.5 70.5North Carolina 1 1.1 1.1 71.6North Dakota 1 1.1 1.1 72.7Ohio 1 1.1 1.1 73.9Oklahoma 1 1.1 1.1 75.0Pennsylvania 3 3.4 3.4 78.4South Carolina 3 3.4 3.4 81.8Tennessee 2 2.3 2.3 84.1Texas 4 4.5 4.5 88.6Washington 3 3.4 3.4 92.0Wisconsin 1 1.1 1.1 93.2West Virginia 1 1.1 1.1 94.3No Country Given 5 5.7 5.7 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

236

Responses were received from five countries. 80% of responses were from the

USA across thirty-two states (8 respondents did not identify their state – 9%). 9%

of responses were from Australia across two states. Other countries from whichresponses were received were the UK, Canada, and Spain. Five respondents (6%)

did not identify their base location.

237

A1 Number of Conducting Students

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

PercentValid No Response 2 2.3 2.3 2.3

Less than 3 9 10.2 10.2 12.53-4 11 12.5 12.5 25.05-6 8 9.1 9.1 34.17-8 6 6.8 6.8 40.99-10 7 8.0 8.0 48.911-12 9 10.2 10.2 59.113-14 4 4.5 4.5 63.615 or More 32 36.4 36.4 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

The most popular response when asked ‘How Many Conducting Students?’ was

‘fifteen or more’ by thirty-two respondents (36%), more than double any othercategory.

Overall, there appeared to be a fairly even number of male and female

conducting students. While some respondents had more male students thanfemale students, for other respondents this was reversed.

238

A2 Number of Male Conducting Students



None 8 9.1 9.1 12.51-2 12 13.6 13.6 26.13-4 17 19.3 19.3 45.55-6 17 19.3 19.3 64.87-8 14 15.9 15.9 80.79-10 7 8.0 8.0 88.611-12 3 3.4 3.4 92.013 or More 7 8.0 8.0 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

78% of respondents had between one and eight male conducting students.

239

A3 Number of Female Conducting Students



None 11 12.5 12.5 14.81-2 16 18.2 18.2 33.03-4 10 11.4 11.4 44.35-6 12 13.6 13.6 58.07-8 15 17.0 17.0 75.09-10 8 9.1 9.1 84.111-12 5 5.7 5.7 89.813 or More 9 10.2 10.2 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

60% of respondents had between one and eight female conducting students.Eleven respondents had no female conducting students.

240

A4 Prior Ensemble Performing Background of Conducting Students

No Response 2 2%None 4 5%Mainly Orchestral 30 34%Mainly Choral 31 35%Mainly Wind Band 75 85%Mainly Chamber Music 7 8%Big Band 1 1%Various 4 5%Folk Music 1 1%

A large majority of the respondents had students with a wind band background.

Thirty-six respondents (41%) had students participate in one of the above

categories and the same number had students participate in two categories.Almost 15% of respondents had students participate in three or more categories.

A5 Prior Instrument Type Performing Background of Conducting Students

No Response 1 1%No Background 2 2%Woodwind 76 86%Brass 79 90%Percussion 66 75%Strings 51 58%Voice 38 43%Keyboard 50 57%

Only one respondent had no students with any performing background. 86% of

respondents had students with backgrounds in three or more instrument types. Asthe majority of students had a wind band ensemble background, the most

common instrument types were woodwind, brass and percussion.

A6 Student Age Group at Commencement of Conducting Lessons

No Response 1 1%Under 17 2 2%17 – 23 78 89%24 – 30 27 31%31 – 40 16 18%Over 40 9 10%

The majority of respondents had students commence conducting lessons at theundergraduate level. 67% of respondents had students from one age group only

(mainly 17 – 23) commence conducting lessons, although 20% had students fromtwo age brackets.

241

A7 Prerequisites Required of Potential Conducting Students

No Response 3 3%No Prerequisites 4 5%No Conducting Experience 37 42%Resume 15 17%Interview 22 25%Audition 23 26%Audio Recording of Conducting 6 7%Video Recording of Conducting 15 17%Recommendation or Referral 0Piano Proficiency 24 27%Instrument/Voice Proficiency 48 55%Theory Proficiency 63 72%Aural Training Diagnostic 30 34%Music History Diagnostic 3 3%Repertoire Knowledge 5 6%Previous Conducting Class 4 5%Teaching Experience 2 2%

The two most popular prerequisites among respondents were theory and

instrument/voice proficiency. These were required prerequisites in over half of

the respondents. 42% of respondents required no prior conducting experienceand 5% had no prerequisites at all. 76% of respondents listed between one and

four prerequisites. 13% of respondents listed five or more prerequisites (tworespondents listed ten prerequisites).

242

A8 What Skills Should a Beginner Conductor Already Possess?

Analytical Skills 4 5%Aural Skills 24 27%Basic Left Hand Skills 3 3%Charisma 2 2%Clear Beat Patterns 8 9%Coordination 2 2%Desire to Learn 3 3%Ensemble Skills 3 3%Enthusiasm 1 1%Expressive Gestures 3 3%Facial Expressivity 1 1%Fundamental Baton Technique 6 7%General Knowledge 2 2%Harmonic Knowledge 2 2%Historical Knowledge 13 15%Instrumental Skills 20 23%Intellect 1 1%Kinaesthetic Ability 2 2%Knowledge of Instruments 3 3%Leadership 3 3%Musicianship 26 30%Music Theory Knowledge 30 34%Personal Presentation 1 1%Piano Skills 8 9%Research Skills 1 1%Rehearsal Techniques 2 2%Score Reading Ability 15 17%Secure Pulse 7 8%Self Confidence 3 3%Self Discipline 2 2%Sight Singing Ability 2 2%Teaching Ability 3 3%Verbal Communication Skills 5 6%

Thirty-three responses were received in answer to the question ‘What skillsshould a beginner conductor already possess?’ The most popular responses to

this question were music theory knowledge (34%), musicianship (30%), auralskills (27%) and instrumental skills (23%).

243

A9 What Skills Should a Beginner Conductor Immediately Seek to Develop?

Skill No. of Responses Percentage +/- from A8Arranging Skills 1 1% +1Aural Skills 25 28% +1Awareness 4 5% +4Baton Technique 28 32% +28Beat Patterns 12 14% +4Clarity 5 6% +5Control of Movements 13 15% +13Debating Skills 1 1% +1Dynamic Control 1 1% +1Ensemble Balance 1 1% +1Ensemble Empathy 1 1% +1Expressive Gestures 13 15% +10Good Stance & Posture 5 6% +5Harmonic Knowledge 1 1% -1Historical Knowledge 2 2% -11Imagery 2 2% +2Instrumental Skills 2 2% -18Interpretation 8 9% +8Knowledge of Instruments 4 5% +1Knowledge of Repertoire 5 6% +5Leadership 4 5% +1Left Hand Independence 13 15% +10Musicianship 22 25% -4Music Theory Knowledge 2 2% -28Non-verbal Communication Skills 19 22% +19Piano Skills 2 2% -6Podium Presence 3 3% +3Rehearsal Techniques 12 14% +10Research Skills 2 2% +1Score Reading Skills 26 30% +11Self Confidence 4 5% +1Understanding of Style 4 5% +4

The most popular responses to this question were baton technique (32%), scorereading skills (30%), aural skills (28%), musicianship (25%) and non-verbal

communication (22%). Some skills were listed by some respondents as skills

desirable for a beginner conductor to already possess and by others as skills toimmediately seek to develop. More respondents felt that score reading skills

should be developed by the beginner conductor than already possessed (elevenmore), and likewise for expressive gestures, left hand independence, and

rehearsal techniques (each ten more), beat patterns (four more), aural skills,

knowledge of instruments, research skills, and self confidence (each one more).Fewer respondents felt that music theory knowledge should be developed by the

beginner conductor than already possessed (twenty-eight less); likewise forinstrumental skills (eighteen less), historical knowledge (eleven less), piano skills

(six less), musicianship (four less), and harmonic knowledge (one less). New

244

skills to be developed by the beginner conductor included baton technique

(32%), non-verbal communication skills (22%), control of movements (15%) andinterpretation (9%).




Male 75 85.2 85.2 88.6Female 10 11.4 11.4 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

Male respondents outnumbered female respondents by a ratio of over seven to

one.

245

B1 Setting for Conducting Students’ First Lessons

No Response 3 3%High School Class 1 1%Undergraduate Class 71 81%Undergraduate Private Lesson 3 3%Graduate Class 10 11%Graduate Private Lesson 15 17%

82% of respondents gave first lessons in one setting only – mainly the

undergraduate conducting class. 9% of respondents gave first lessons in twosettings – mainly an undergraduate class and a graduate class or private lesson,

but occasionally two graduate settings. 3% of respondents gave first lessons in

three or more settings (one respondent gave first lessons in all five settings).


Green – The Modern Conductor 37 42%Prausnitz – Score and Podium 3 3%Hunsberger/Ernst – The Art of Conducting 21 24%Maiello – Conducting, A Hands-On Approach 7 8%Labuta – Basic Conducting Techniques 13 15%Leinsdorf – The Composer’s Advocate 1 1%Nowak/Nowak – Conducting the Music, Not the Musicians 5 6%Rudolf – The Grammar of Conducting 4 5%Kuijpers – The Art of Conducting 1 1%McElheran – Conducting Technique 2 2%Battisti/Garofalo – Guide to Score Study 7 8%Battisti/Garofalo – Lead and Inspire 1 1%Kohut/Grant – Learning to Conduct and Rehearse 1 1%Long – The Conductor’s Workshop 1 1%Schuller – The Compleat Conductor 4 5%Curtis/Kuehn – Guide to Successful Instrumental Conducting 1 1%McBeth – Effective Performance of Band Music 1 1%Phillips – Basic Techniques of Conducting 3 3%Scherchen – Handbook of Conducting 1 1%Demaree/Moses – The Complete Conductor 2 2%Jordan – Evoking Sound 2 2%McMurray – Conducting from the Inside Out (DVD) 1 1%Saito – The Saito Conducting Method 1 1%Instrumentalist – Conductors Anthology 1 1%Own Textbooks 2 2%Own Exercises 8 9%Various 2 2%None Indicated 17 19%

Seventeen respondents (19%) indicated that they used no conducting textbooks.

Of those remaining, thirty-seven used one book only (52%), nineteen used two

books (27%), and fifteen (21%) used three or more books (one respondent usedseven conducting textbooks). The most popular conducting textbook used was

246

The Modern Conductor by Elizabeth Green, used by thirty-seven respondents

(42%). The second most popular textbook mentioned was The Art of Conducting


their own textbooks used other textbooks, while 75% of respondents who usedtheir own exercises used other textbooks.

B3 Rank Order of Importance of Aspects of Conducting Which May BeCovered in the Initial Few Lessons

Rank Order Number of 1st Pref PercentageBeat Patterns 2 24 27%Use of Baton/RH 3 10 11%Starting and Stopping Ensemble 4 12 14%Use of Left Hand 7 2 2%Facial Communication 8 2 2%Expressive Gestures 6 7 8%Cueing 9 1 1%Rehearsal Techniques 11 5 6%Score Study 5 20 23%Body Presence 1 20 23%Psychology of Conducting 10 9 10%Interpretation 12 1 1%Repertoire Development 13 1 1%

The overall rank order for aspects of conducting which may be covered in the

initial few lessons differed from the number of first preferences amongrespondents, due to some methods ranking higher on second and third

preferences than others. For example, twenty-four respondents (27%) found beat

patterns to be the most important aspect of conducting which may be covered inthe initial few lessons. However, beat patterns ranked second overall, behind

body presence, due to a higher number of second and third preferences for bodypresence. Use of the baton/right hand ranked third overall, yet only received ten

first preferences (11%), half the number received by score study (23%) which

ranked as low as fifth. Repertoire development and interpretation were generallyagreed to be the least important aspects of conducting to be covered in the initial

few lessons.

247

B4 Conducting Students using a Baton?



Yes 77 87.5 87.5 88.6No 3 3.4 3.4 92.0Don't Mind 7 8.0 8.0 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

The majority of respondents (over 87%) had their students use a baton.

248

B5 Left Handed Conducting Students Beating with Right Hand?


PercentCumulative


Yes, Always 41 46.6 46.6 50.0Usually, But Consider EachIndividual Case 22 25.0 25.0 75.0

No, Don't Mind 13 14.8 14.8 89.8Has Not Been an Issue 9 10.2 10.2 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

Forty-one respondents (just under 47%) insisted on their conducting students

beating with their right hand.

249

B6 Rank Order of Importance of Aspects of Conducting Which May Be

Covered As Students Develop More Experience

Rank Order +/- from B3 Number of 1st Pref PercentageBeat Patterns 12 -11 9 10%Use of Baton/RH 8 -5 4 5%Starting & Stopping Ensemble 11 -7 5 6%Use of Left Hand 9 -2 3 3%Facial Communication 6 +2 4 5%Expressive Gestures 2 +4 13 15%Cueing 10 -1 2 2%Rehearsal Techniques 3 +8 12 14%Score Study 1 +4 33 38%Body Presence 5 -4 7 8%Psychology of Conducting 7 +3 11 13%Interpretation 4 +8 6 7%Repertoire Development 13 0 3 3%

Results indicated an agreement between the three most important aspects ofconducting which may be covered as students develop more experience, as rated

by respondents, and the number of first preferences. Score study was ranked firstin order of importance and received thirty-three first preferences (38%). Second

in order of importance were expressive gestures, and this category received

thirteen first preferences (15%). Third in order of importance were rehearsaltechniques, and this category received twelve first preferences (14%).

Although both beat patterns and the psychology of conducting were ranked quitelow (twelfth and seventh respectively), they received a high number of first

preferences (eleven for the psychology of conducting, nine for beat patterns.

Repertoire development remained the least favoured aspect of conducting byrespondents at this stage of learning.

The greatest jump in rank order of importance of aspects of conducting whichmay be covered as students develop more experience, compared with what

should be covered in the initial few lessons, were in rehearsal techniques and

interpretation (up eight places), and expressive gestures and score study (up fourplaces). The greatest drop in rank order occurred in beat patterns (down eleven

places) and starting and stopping the ensemble (down seven places).

250

B7 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of

Conducting Expressivity

Rank Order Number of 1st Pref PercentagePractice away from Ensemble 3 11 13%Observation of Other Conductors 2 13 15%Self Observation (Mirror, Video) 1 28 32%Discussion with Teachers/Other Students 5 4 5%Conducting Class/Course/Workshop 4 23 26%Conducting Textbook 7 2 2%Expressive Movement Activity 6 7 8%Just Improved Over Time 8 1 1%None of These 9 0


order and number of first preferences (32%). Observation of other conductors

was ranked second, although conducting classes, courses, and workshopsreceived more first preferences (26%). Expressive movement activities were

ranked as low as sixth, although seven respondents gave it their first preference.Few respondents believed that conducting textbooks would assist the

development of conducting expressivity. Even less believed conducting

expressivity would just improve over time.

B8 How Frequently Have You Used the Following Movement Training orActivities with Your Conducting Students? (Acting, Alexander Technique,

Calisthenics, Dalcroze, Dance, Delsarte, Feldenkrais, Laban, Pilates, Tai Chi,

Yoga)

Used No Activities 9 10%Used One Activity 12 14%Used Two Activities 17 19%Used Three Activities 12 14%Used Four Activities 14 16%Used Five Activities 6 7%Used Six Activities 6 7%Used Seven Activities 7 8%Used Eight or More Activities 4 5%

90% of respondents used one or more of the eleven listed movement activities.The most popular responses were between one and four different movement

activities used (63%). 5% of respondents used eight or more movement activitieswith their conducting students (one respondent used all eleven).

251

a) Acting


PercentCumulative


Never Used 24 27.3 27.3 28.4Used Once or Twice 11 12.5 12.5 40.9Used Occasionally 32 36.4 36.4 77.3Used Frequently 17 19.3 19.3 96.6Used All the Time 3 3.4 3.4 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

Over 70% of respondents had used acting with their conducting students. 36% ofrespondents, the largest group, stated that they had used acting occasionally.

252



PercentCumulative



Over 50% of respondents had never used the Alexander Technique with theirconducting students. 24% of respondents had used the Alexander Technique

occasionally.

253

c) Calisthenics


PercentCumulative



One of the problems with the term ‘calisthenics’ is that it has a different meaning

in different parts of the world. In the United States, the term means a type ofexercise consisting of a variety of simple movements usually performed without

weights or other equipment that are intended to increase body strength andflexibility using the weight of one's own body for resistance. In Australia, the

term is generally taken to mean a competitive women's performing sport.

The overall results for calisthenics were similar to the results for the AlexanderTechnique. Just over half the respondents had never used calisthenics (in any

form) with their conducting students. 27% of respondents had used calisthenicsoccasionally.

254

d) Dalcroze


PercentCumulative



Almost 70% of respondents had never used Dalcroze with their conductingstudents. Almost 20% of respondents had used Dalcroze occasionally.

255

e) Dance


PercentCumulative



53% of respondents had never used dance before with their conducting students.

Just over 20% of respondents used dance occasionally, and 17% used dancefrequently.

256

f) Delsarte


PercentCumulative


Never Used 83 94.3 94.3 95.5Used Once or Twice 1 1.1 1.1 96.6Used Occasionally 2 2.3 2.3 98.9Used Frequently 1 1.1 1.1 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

Less than 5% of respondents had used Delsarte with their conducting students.

257

g) Feldenkrais


PercentCumulative


Never Used 80 90.9 90.9 92.0Used Once or Twice 2 2.3 2.3 94.3Used Occasionally 2 2.3 2.3 96.6Used Frequently 3 3.4 3.4 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

Less than 10% of respondents had used Feldenkrais with their conducting

students.

258

h) Laban


PercentCumulative



Almost 70% of respondents had never used Laban with their conducting

students. 10% of respondents had used Laban frequently, 8% had used itoccasionally, and 6% had used it once or twice. 6% of respondents used Laban

all the time.

259

i) Pilates




Less than 5% of respondents had used Pilates with their conducting students.

260

j) Tai Chi


PercentCumulative



Almost three-quarters of respondents had never used Tai Chi with their

conducting students. 10% of respondents had used Tai Chi occasionally, 7%frequently, and 6% once or twice.

261

k) Yoga




Over 80% of respondents had never used yoga with their conducting students.

11% of respondents had used yoga occasionally.

262

B9 Other Movement Training Methods or Activities Used with Conducting

Students

None Indicated 53 60%Mime 9 10%Elizabeth Green Exercises 8 9%Relaxation & Movement Exercises 2 2%Balls and Sports 1 1%Aerobics, Stretching, Gym 1 1%Water Exercises 2 2%Swimming 3 3%Own Movement Exercises 8 9%Movement Imagery 2 2%Aikido 1 1%Sign Language 1 1%Walking 2 2%Ballet 1 1%Chekhov Acting Exercises 1 1%

60% of respondents indicated no additional movement training methods or

activities other than those listed in B8. Of the respondents who had not used any

of the eleven movement training methods or activities in B8, 56% still did notuse other movement activities.

The most popular movement training methods or activities used by respondents,apart from those listed in B8, were mime (10%), Elizabeth Green conducting

movement exercises (from The Modern Conductor – 9%) and respondents’ own

movement exercises (9%).Of the 40% who had used additional movement training methods or activities

with their conducting students, 83% had only used one activity. One respondenthad used three additional movement activities.

B10 How Effective Have You Found the Following Movement Training orActivities with Your Conducting Students?

Occasional discrepancies were received in response to this section whencompared to responses received to B8. This was due to incomplete surveys –

some respondents failed to complete B10 after answering B8, possibly due torespondent fatigue, causing slight inconsistencies in responses.

263

a) Acting


PercentCumulative


Never Used 24 27.3 27.3 30.7Not Effective 2 2.3 2.3 33.0Undecided 9 10.2 10.2 43.2Slightly Effective 28 31.8 31.8 75.0Very Effective 22 25.0 25.0 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

27% of respondents had never used acting with their conducting students. Ofthose remaining, 82% found acting effective with their conducting students. 15%

of remaining respondents were undecided and 3% found acting to be not

effective with their conducting students.

264



PercentCumulative



50% of respondents had never used the Alexander Technique with their

conducting students. Of those remaining, 76% found the Alexander Techniqueeffective with their conducting students. 22% of remaining respondents were

undecided and 2% found the Alexander Technique to be not effective with their

conducting students.

265

c) Calisthenics


PercentCumulative



51% of respondents had never used calisthenics with their conducting students.Of those remaining, 65% found calisthenics effective with their conducting

students. 30% of remaining respondents were undecided and 5% foundcalisthenics to be not effective with their conducting students.

266

d) Dalcroze


PercentCumulative


Never Used 57 64.8 64.8 69.3Undecided 8 9.1 9.1 78.4Slightly Effective 11 12.5 12.5 90.9Very Effective 8 9.1 9.1 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

65% of respondents had never used Dalcroze with their conducting students. Ofthose remaining, 70% found Dalcroze effective with their conducting students,


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e) Dance


PercentCumulative



51% of respondents had never used dance with their conducting students. Ofthose remaining, 85% found dance effective with their conducting students. 13%

of remaining respondents were undecided and 2% found dance to be not effectivewith their conducting students.

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f) Delsarte


PercentCumulative


Never Used 79 89.8 89.8 94.3Undecided 2 2.3 2.3 96.6Slightly Effective 3 3.4 3.4 100.0Total 88 100.0 100.0

90% of respondents had never used Delsarte with their conducting students. Of

those remaining, 60% found Delsarte slightly effective with their conductingstudents, while 40% were undecided.

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g) Feldenkrais


PercentCumulative



86% of respondents had never used Feldenkrais with their conducting students.Of those remaining, 44% found Feldenkrais to be effective, while 56% were

undecided.

270

h) Laban


PercentCumulative



66% of respondents had never used Laban with their conducting students. Ofthose remaining, 81% found Laban effective with their conducting students,


271

i) Pilates


PercentCumulative



90% of respondents had never used Pilates with their conducting students. Ofthose remaining, two-thirds found Pilates to be effective with their conducting

students, while one-third was undecided.

272

j) Tai Chi


PercentCumulative



74% had never used Tai Chi with their conducting students. Of those remaining,70% found Tai Chi effective with their conducting students, while 30% were

undecided.

273

k) Yoga


PercentCumulative



78% of respondents had never used yoga with their conducting students. Of those

remaining, 56% found yoga effective with their conducting students, while 44%

were undecided.

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B11 How Have These Movement Activities Helped Your Students Improve

Their Conducting?

Acting Response No.Develops Character Portrayal 1Engages Mood 1Increases Movement Choices 1Facilitates Direct Physical Response 1Promotes an Understanding of Movement and ‘Letting Go’ 1Eliminates Shyness 1

Alexander Technique Response No.Removes Tension 1Promotes Relaxation 1

Calisthenics Response No.Increases Wrist/Arm Motion and Fluidity 1

Dalcroze Response No.Develops Independence of Hands 1

Dance Response No.Loosens Up Students, Develops Pulse and Style 1Facilitates Expressive Shapes 1Increases Physical Feel for Music 1Helps Students to Learn to Move Artistically 1

Feldenkrais Response No.Develops Body Centering 1

Laban Response No.Allows for the Application of Everyday Movements 2Increases Imagery 1Integrates Movement with Sound 1Forces Students to Think about Style of Individual Musical/Physical Gesture 1Reinforces Physical Control and Interpretation 1

Pilates Response No.Develops Balance and Improved Posture 1

Tai Chi Response No.Promotes Calm and Elegant Movement 1Develops Intensity 1

Other Response No.Green Exercises Promote Independence of Hands 1Chekhov Concepts Provide a Rich Psychology of Images 1

General Response No.Adds to Movement Vocabulary 2Puts the Focus on Creating Music 1Improves Expressive Conducting 1Breaks Down Conventional Barriers 1Develops the Kinaesthetic Element 1Develops Body Awareness 5Develops Independent Style 1

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Enhances Fluid Communication of Expression & Interpretation 1Helps Students ‘Live’ the Music 1Promotes Role Play and Physically Mirroring the Music 1Creates Understanding of How Music Can Move One’s Self 1Develops Connection Between Physical Motion & Music Response 2Helps to Contemplate Expressive Movement Before it is Confined to BeatPatterns

3

Increases Focus on Particular Motion and Emotion 1Develops Self-Awareness and Confidence 5Overcomes Inhibitions 2Personalises Communication 1Allows Experimentation with Movement Techniques 2Instills Stronger Sense of Rhythm 1Improves Relaxation, Movement Control and Expressivity 2

Only those respondents who had used movement activities and found thembeneficial provided responses. Nevertheless, there was a wide range of responses

to the question of how these movement activities had helped students improvetheir conducting. More than single responses were received to eight general

statements: develops body awareness (5 responses), develops self-awareness and

confidence (5 responses), helps to contemplate expressive movement before it isconfined to beat patterns (3 responses), adds to movement vocabulary (2

responses), develops connection between physical motion and music response (2responses), overcomes inhibitions (2 responses), allows experimentation with

movement techniques (2 responses), and improves relaxation, movement control

and expressivity (2 responses). Only one multiple response was received for aspecific movement activity (Laban – allows for the application of everyday

movements – 2 responses).

276

B12 Which Non-verbal Communication Techniques are Important for Your

Students to Develop?

Affirmation/Positive Reinforcement 2 2%All Conducting Should be Non-verbal 1 1%All Non-verbal Communication Techniques 5 6%Baton Technique 5 6%Body Language 12 14%Breathing 1 1%Clarity 2 2%Cueing 3 3%Dance 1 1%Dynamics 1 1%Expressive Gestures 7 8%Eye Contact 22 25%Facial Expression 37 42%Hands/Arms 12 14%Imagery 1 1%Influencing Skills 1 1%Laban 1 1%Listening 1 1%Mime 2 2%Motion Styles 2 2%Reflect Music Through Gesture 11 13%Rehearsal Techniques 1 1%Sign Language 1 1%Stance 6 7%Starts and Stops 3 3%

The most important non-verbal communication techniques, as listed byrespondents, were facial expression (42%), eye contact (25%), body language

and hands/arms (each 14%).

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B13 How Do You Go About Developing Your Conducting Students’ Non-

verbal Vocabulary?

Acting 4 5%Chekhov Exercises 1 1%Class Forms Ensemble 2 2%Conduct Same Piece in a Variety of Styles 4 5%Conduct with Body Only 2 2%Conducting Experience 9 10%Create a Gestural Vocabulary 5 6%Develop Interpretation 3 3%Develop Natural Reactions 2 2%Discussion 4 5%Experimentation 1 1%Face Conveys Musical Mood 12 14%Green/Malko Exercises 1 1%Imagery 2 2%Imitation 4 5%Improvisation 2 2%Increase Score Knowledge 2 2%Laban 2 2%Mime 3 3%Movement Sessions 2 2%Observe Other Conductors 11 13%Peer Critique 3 3%Psychological Drill 2 2%Repertoire Driven 3 3%Self-Evaluation 2 2%Self-Observation 14 16%Silent Rehearsals 6 7%Specific Non-verbal Exercises 5 6%

The most important methods for developing conducting students’ non-verbal

vocabulary, as listed by respondents, were self-observation (16%), getting the

face to convey the musical mood (14%), and observation of other conductors(13%).

278

B14 How Do You Assess the Success or Quality of Your Students’

Conducting?

By the Product 23 26%Clarity of Conducting 5 6%Class Discussion 3 3%Conducting an Ensemble 5 6%Ensemble Feedback 8 9%Expressive Content of Gestures 2 2%Faculty Jury 1 1%Formal Score Analysis 1 1%Measure Influence of Conductor 5 6%Peer Critique 7 8%Private Sessions with Teacher 1 1%Self Assessment 10 11%Subjective Improvement 7 8%Test Specific Skills 16 18%Weekly Observation 26 30%Written Tests and Assignments 4 5%

The most important ways of assessing the success or quality of students’

conducting, as listed by respondents, were by weekly observation (30%), byassessing the end product of the conducting (26%), and testing specific skills

(18%).

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APPENDIX B – SURVEY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVELCONDUCTORS BASED AROUND THE MELBOURNE AREA

Introduction

No data exists on the background and training received by secondary school

conductors around the Melbourne area. This survey serves as a casestudy/snapshot of these conductors in 2005. From this survey, inferences are

made about the broader background and training of Australian secondary school

conductors. Additional aims of this survey were to identify the skills thatbeginner conductors should already possess or immediately seek to develop, and

to identify the attributes of an expressive and an effective conductor.Ninety-two secondary school level conductors around the Melbourne area were

contacted and invited to participate in an online survey, asking questions about

their musical background, and the conductor training they had received. Themajority of these conductors were regularly conducting school groups. Of these

ninety-two, forty-two (46%) responded to the survey.

Results

A1 Musical Instrument Background

Woodwind 21 50%Brass 20 48%Percussion 4 10%Strings 2 5%Voice 11 26%Keyboard 15 36%

Nineteen respondents (45%) had a background on instruments from two or moreof the above families.

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A2 Musical Background of Family Members

None 8 19%Father 9 21%Mother 10 24%Sister(s) 10 24%Brother(s) 9 21%Grandfather 3 7%Grandmother 3 7%Spouse/Partner 18 43%Children 8 19%Niece(s) 6 14%Nephew(s) 4 10%Cousin(s) 2 5%Uncle(s) 3 7%Aunt(s) 7 17%

Twenty-three respondents (55%) had two or more family members with a

musical performing background. The spouse/partner (43% of respondents) wasclearly the most common family member to have a musical background. Eight

respondents (19%) had no family background of musical performance.

A3 Musical Performance Background (other than conducting)

Amateur Ensembles 38 90%Amateur Theatre 32 76%Armed Services 2 5%High School Ensembles 32 76%Jazz Ensemble Residency 11 26%Professional Chamber 8 19%Professional Soloist 5 12%Professional Orchestra 9 21%Professional Theatre 8 19%

Amateur Ensembles (90%), Secondary School Ensembles (76%) and Amateur

Theatre (76%) were the most popular ensemble performance backgrounds ofrespondents. All respondents had participated in at least two different types of

music performance settings, apart from their conducting experience. Nineteenrespondents (45%) had performed at a professional level.

281

A4 Years of Performing Experience Prior to First Conducting Experience

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative PercentValid 0-5 Years 9 21.4 21.4 21.4

6-10 Years 21 50.0 50.0 71.411-15 Years 9 21.4 21.4 92.916-20 Years 2 4.8 4.8 97.6More than 20 Years 1 2.4 2.4 100.0Total 42 100.0 100.0

The majority of respondents (almost 93%) had up to fifteen years of performance

experience prior to their first conducting experience. Half of the respondents had

between six and ten years of performance experience prior to their firstconducting experience.

282

A5 Conducting Background of Family Members

None 25 60%Father 6 14%Mother 0Sister 3 7%Brother 1 2%Grandfather 1 2%Grandmother 0Spouse/Partner 9 21%Children 1 2%Nephew 0Niece 1 2%Cousin 0Uncle 0Aunt 1 2%

Twenty-five respondents (60%) had no family members with a conducting

background. A comparison with results of Table A2 showed that half (50%) ofthe spouses/partners with a musical performing background also had some

conducting experience. A similar comparison showed that two thirds (66%) offathers with a musical performance background had some conducting experience.

Only three respondents (7%) had two family members with some conducting

experience.

A6 Highest Level Musical Education Achieved

High/Technical School 2 5%TAFE Music Course 0Performance/Teaching Diploma 5 12%Bachelors Degree 26 62%Armed Services Training 0Postgraduate Diploma 5 12%Masters Degree 4 10%Doctoral Degree 0

Two respondents (5%) were directing ensembles without any formalqualification (performance or teaching). The majority of respondents (83%) had

achieved a Bachelors degree in music or education or higher. 22% of respondentshad gone further than a Bachelors degree.

283

A7 Participation in Sporting Activities Prior to First Conducting Experience

None 6 14%Aerobics 3 7%Archery 0Athletics 11 26%Baseball/Softball 6 14%Basketball/Netball 6 14%Bowling (Lawn/Ten Pin) 2 5%Cricket 9 21%Cycling 1 2%Diving 0Fencing 0Football (All codes) 9 21%Golf 8 19%Gymnastics 1 2%Hockey 1 2%Martial Arts 2 5%Motor Sports 1 2%Racquet Sports 15 36%Rowing 1 2%Shooting 0Skating (Ice, Roller) 1 2%Skiing 1 2%Swimming 10 24%Umpiring 1 2%Volleyball 1 2%Weights 1 2%

The most popular sports played by respondents prior to their first conducting

experience were racquet sports (36%), athletics (26%), swimming (24%),

football and cricket (21% each). 14% of respondents played no sports prior totheir first conducting experience. 64% of respondents had participated in

between one and three different sports. 14% of respondents had participated infour or five different sports.


Male 28 67%Female 13 31%No Response 1 2%

Male respondents outnumbered female respondents at a ratio of just over 2:1.

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A9 Participation in Movement Training or Specific Movement Activities

Prior to First Conducting Experience

No Participation 26 62%Acting 8 19%Alexander Technique 2 5%Calisthenics 1 2%Dalcroze 5 12%Dance 7 17%Feldenkrais 0Pilates 0Tai Chi 2 5%Yoga 1 2%

62% of respondents had not participated in any movement training or activitiesprior to their first conducting experience. Of those sixteen who had participated,

the most popular forms of movement activities were Acting (50% of those who

participated), Dance (44% of those who participated), and Dalcroze (31% ofthose who participated). 63% of those who participated had attempted one type

of movement activity only. 31% had attempted two. One respondent hadattempted five types of movement activity.

A10 Setting for First Conducting Experience

Conducting Class 5 12%Conducting Course 2 5%Music Education Class 8 19%High School Rehearsal 13 31%Community Ensemble Rehearsal 8 19%University Ensemble Rehearsal 4 10%Music Theatre Rehearsal 2 5%Chamber Music Rehearsal 0Stand-in at Rehearsal 3 7%Stand-in at Concert 1 2%

The majority of respondents (90%) indicated only one setting for their firstconducting experience. The most popular setting for the first conducting

experience of our respondents was the secondary school rehearsal as a student

(31%).A low number of respondents stated that their first conducting experience had

occurred as part of a conducting class or course, or in a university rehearsal.Even a combination of all of these activities only accounted for 40% of the first

conducting experiences of the respondents.

285

A11 Age Bracket at First Conducting Experience

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative PercentValid 15 or under 2 4.8 4.8 4.8

16-20 21 50.0 50.0 54.821-25 10 23.8 23.8 78.625-30 2 4.8 4.8 83.331-35 3 7.1 7.1 90.536-40 2 4.8 4.8 95.246-50 1 2.4 2.4 97.6Over 50 1 2.4 2.4 100.0Total 42 100.0 100.0

Taking into account the responses to A10, it seems reasonable to conclude that amajority of respondents had their first conducting experiences while still

secondary school students themselves, or else as very young teachers. The age

bracket between 16 and 25 accounted for almost three out of four firstconducting experiences.

286

B1 Type of Conductor Training Undertaken

No Practical Training 4 10%Observation of Colleague/Mentor 27 64%Conducting Class as part of other Course 19 45%Music Degree with Conducting as Component 15 36%Specific Conducting Course 23 55%Conducting Textbooks 19 45%

90% of respondents had undertaken some form of practical conductor training.

48% of respondents had undertaken at least two of a conducting class, a music

degree with conducting as a component, or a specific conducting course. Onerespondent had undertaken all three. 64% of respondents had observed a

colleague or a mentor as part of their training. Four respondents (10%) had onlyobserved a colleague or mentor or consulted a conducting textbook as their

conducting training.

B2 Effectiveness of Areas of Conductor Training

a) Beat Patterns

No Response 1 2%Completely Inadequate 0Slightly Inadequate 2 5%Undecided 1 2%Basically Adequate 16 38%Completely Adequate 22 52%

287

Clearly, respondents were satisfied with training received in the area of beat

patterns. Only two respondents (5%) felt that the beat pattern training they hadreceived had been in any way inadequate, with one undecided.

b) Use of Left Hand

No Response 1 2%Completely Inadequate 4 10%Slightly Inadequate 6 14%Undecided 6 14%Basically Adequate 16 38%Completely Adequate 9 21%

288

Although a majority of respondents (59%) felt that their training in the use of the

left hand was adequate, there was a much higher rate of dissatisfaction (24%)

than for the training received in beat patterns. 14% of respondents wereundecided.


No Response 1 2%Completely Inadequate 4 10%Slightly Inadequate 6 14%Undecided 6 14%Basically Adequate 25 60%Completely Adequate 0

289

The overall ratio of satisfaction to dissatisfaction was the same as for the use of

the left hand. The category of ‘Completely Adequate’ for this question wasinadvertently left off the online response page.

d) Score Study


290

The majority of respondents (62%) were satisfied with the training they receivedin score study. A higher number of undecided respondents (17%) were observed

for this category than for the other areas.

291



The overall responses to this question were similar to those received for left handuse. A majority (57%) expressed satisfaction with the training they received in

the use of expressive gestures. 34% of respondents felt the training they receivedwas inadequate. There were less undecided respondents (7%) than for any

category except beat patterns.

292

B3 Years of Regular Conducting Experience

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative PercentValid 0-5 Years 4 9.5 9.5 9.5

6-10 Years 8 19.0 19.0 28.611-15 Years 11 26.2 26.2 54.816-20 Years 8 19.0 19.0 73.821-25 Years 4 9.5 9.5 83.326-30 Years 5 11.9 11.9 95.2More than 30 Years 2 4.8 4.8 100.0Total 42 100.0 100.0

The majority of respondents (64%) had between 6 and 20 years of regular

conducting experience. The most popular category for respondents was between11 and 15 years (26%).

293

B4 Styles of Ensembles Directed

Amateur Ensembles 35 83%Amateur Theatre 19 45%Armed Services 0High School Ensembles 37 88%Jazz Ensembles 5 12%Professional Chamber Music 3 7%Professional Soloist 2 5%Professional Orchestra 3 7%Professional Theatre 3 7%University Ensembles 10 24%

The majority of respondents were conducting secondary school and/or amateur

ensembles. Fifteen of the respondents (36%) conducted ensembles in twocategories (most popular response was Amateur Ensembles and Secondary

School Ensembles). 24% of respondents conducted ensembles in three

categories. 24% of respondents conducted ensembles in four or more categories(one respondent conducted ensembles in seven of the ten listed categories).

B5 Types of Ensembles Directed

Orchestra 9 21%Choir 9 21%Wind Band 39 93%Jazz Ensemble 15 36%Chamber Music 4 10%Brass Band 2 5%

Predominantly wind band directors responded to the survey. 83% of respondentsconducted either one or two types of ensembles, the most popular combination

for two ensembles being wind band and jazz ensemble (45% of respondents

conducted two ensembles, 42% of these conducting wind band and jazzensemble). One respondent conducted four types of ensembles and one

conducted five.

294

B6 Level of Difficulty Developing Skill Areas

a) Beat Patterns

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative PercentValid No Response 1 2.4 2.4 2.4

Slightly Difficult 4 9.5 9.5 11.9Slightly Easy 18 42.9 42.9 54.8Very Easy 19 45.2 45.2 100.0Total 42 100.0 100.0

The overwhelming majority of respondents found the beat patterns easy to learn.Only four respondents (just under 10%) found the beat patterns slightly difficult.

No respondents were undecided, and none found the beat patterns very difficult,

or were still uncomfortable with them.

295

b) Use of Left Hand



64% of respondents found the use of the left hand in conducting difficult. Indeed,

just fewer than 10% of respondents stated that they were still not comfortablewith using their left hands. Just fewer than 10% of respondents were undecided.

Nineteen respondents (45%) found the left hand slightly difficult to use. Only26% of respondents found the left hand in any way easy to use.

296


Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative PercentValid Very Difficult 1 2.4 2.4 2.4

Slightly Difficult 13 31.0 31.0 33.3Undecided 10 23.8 23.8 57.1Slightly Easy 16 38.1 38.1 95.2Very Easy 2 4.8 4.8 100.0Total 42 100.0 100.0

Sixteen respondents (38%) found rehearsal techniques slightly easy to learn.

Thirteen respondents (31%) found rehearsal techniques slightly difficult. There

were a high number of undecided respondents (24%). Only two respondentsfound rehearsal techniques very easy. Only one found them very difficult. No

respondents stated that they were still not comfortable.

297

d) Score Study

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative PercentValid Very Difficult 3 7.1 7.1 7.1

Slightly Difficult 13 31.0 31.0 38.1Undecided 7 16.7 16.7 54.8Slightly Easy 16 38.1 38.1 92.9Very Easy 3 7.1 7.1 100.0Total 42 100.0 100.0

Overall responses to score study were similar to responses for rehearsal

techniques. 7% of respondents found score study very easy, the same number

who found it very difficult. None stated that they were still not comfortable.

298




Over half of the respondents (57%) found the development of expressive

gestures difficult. Nineteen respondents (45%), the largest group, foundexpressive gestures slightly difficult, Three respondents (7%) found expressive

gestures very difficult, and two respondents (5%) were still not comfortable withexpressive gestures. 29% of respondents found expressive gestures easy (eleven

– slightly easy, one – very easy). There were six undecided respondents (14%).

299

B7 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of Skill

Areas

a) Beat Patterns

Rank Order Number of 1st Pref PercentagePractice away from Ensemble 5 5 12%Observation of Other Conductors 1 11 26%Self Observation (Mirror, Video) 3 6 14%Discussion with Mentor/Teacher 4 2 5%Conducting Class/Course/Workshop 2 15 36%Conducting Textbook 7 0Just Improved Over Time 6 3 7%

The overall rank order for methods to assist the development of beat patterns wasa different result than the number of first preferences among respondents. Some

methods ranked higher on second and third preferences than others. For example,

fifteen respondents (36%) found conducting classes, courses, or workshops to bethe most important method to assist the development of their beat patterns.

However, conducting classes, courses, or workshops ranked second overall,behind observation of other conductors, due to a higher number of second and

third preferences for observation of other conductors. On the other hand,

discussion with a mentor or a teacher, while ranking fourth overall in importance,received only two first preferences from respondents. Conducting textbooks were

generally agreed to be the least important assistance to the development of beatpatterns.

b) Use of Left Hand

Rank Order Number of 1st Pref. PercentagePractice away from Ensemble 4 8 19%Observation of Other Conductors 1 10 24%Self Observation (Mirror, Video) 3 6 14%Discussion with Mentor/Teacher 5 2 5%Conducting Class/Course/Workshop 2 13 31%Conducting Textbook 7 0Just Improved Over Time 6 1 2%None of These 8 1 2%

As for beat patterns, the overall rank order to assist the development of the lefthand was a different result than the number of first preferences among

respondents. Although observation of other conductors received a higher rankorder than conducting classes, courses or workshops, more respondents gave

conducting classes, courses and workshops their first preference (thirteen

300

compared to ten for observation of other conductors). Other discrepancies

between the overall rank order and the number of first preferences occurred inself-observation (ranked third, but six first preferences) and practice away from

the ensemble (ranked fourth, but eight first preferences). Conducting textbookswere down in the list of assistants important to the development of the left hand

(ranked seventh, only one first preference).


Rank Order Number of 1st Pref. PercentagePractice away from Ensemble 6 2 5%Observation of Other Conductors 1 18 43%Self Observation (Mirror, Video) 7 1 2%Discussion with Mentor/Teacher 2 10 24%Conducting Class/Course/Workshop 3 5 12%Conducting Textbook 5 2 5%Just Improved Over Time 4 4 10%

Overall results for methods to assist the development of rehearsal techniques

were quite clear among respondents. 43% of respondents listed observation ofother conductors as their first preference, and this was a clear first choice in rank

order. Discussion with a mentor or teacher was ranked second, and also received24% of first preferences. Conducting classes, courses, and workshops were seen

as being of lesser importance regarding rehearsal techniques than any other area.

Only five respondents (12%) gave this method first preference, and it was thirdin rank order, well below observation of other conductors and discussion with a

mentor or teacher. Rehearsal techniques were considered by 10% of respondents

to just improve over time as their first preference, which ranked fourth in orderof methods.

d) Score Study

Rank Order Number of 1st Pref. PercentagePractice away from Ensemble 3 7 17%Observation of Other Conductors 6 1 2%Discussion with Mentor/Teacher 2 11 26%Conducting Class/Course/Workshop 1 14 33%Conducting Textbook 4 4 10%Just Improved Over Time 5 3 7%None of These 7 1 2%

Conducting classes, courses and workshops were the most popular method for

developing score study techniques among respondents, both according to rank

301

order and number of first preferences (33%). Discussion with a mentor or teacher

was the second most favoured method. Practising away from the ensemblereceived a higher rank order (third) for score study than for any other area.

Compared with all other areas, observation of other conductors received a muchlower ranking in importance for score study. Only one respondent (2%) gave

observation a first preference for score study.


Rank Order Number of 1st Pref. PercentagePractise away from Ensemble 5 3 7%Observation of Other Conductors 1 17 40%Self Observation (Mirror, Video) 2 9 21%Discussion with Mentor/Teacher 3 3 7%Conducting Class/Course/Workshop 4 6 14%Conducting Textbook 7 0Just Improved Over Time 6 2 5%None of These 8 2 5%

Observation of other conductors was clearly the most popular method for

developing expressive gestures among the respondents, both in terms of overallrank order and number of first preferences (40%). Self-observation was a clear

second choice, receiving its highest ranking as a method for expressive gestures.

Nine respondents (21%) chose self-observation via a mirror or video as their firstpreference. Discussion with a mentor or teacher was marginally ranked higher

(third) than conducting classes, courses or workshops (fourth), although classesreceived twice as many first preferences (six – 14%) as discussion (three – 7%).

Few respondents believed that expressive gestures would just improve over time.

This method was ranked sixth, with only two respondents (5%) allocating it afirst preference. Conducting textbooks received even less support, ranking

seventh in order, and receiving no first preferences from respondents. The

highest preference conducting textbooks received for expressive gestures wasthird preference from two respondents.

302


Teaching Music Through Performance Series 1 2%Green – The Modern Conductor 10 24%Labuta – Basic Conducting Techniques 1 2%Lisk – Alternative Rehearsal Techniques 4 10%Curtis/Kuehn – Guide to Successful Instrumental Conducting 1 2%Jordan – Evoking Sound 1 2%Nowak/Nowak – Conducting the Music, Not the Musicians 2 5%Maiello – Conducting, A Hands-On Approach 2 5%Green – The Conductor and His Score 1 2%Saito – The Saito Conducting Method 1 2%Rudolf – The Grammar of Conducting 1 2%Hunsberger/Ernst – The Art of Conducting 1 2%Berlioz – The Art of the Conductor 1 2%Battisti/Garofalo – Guide to Score Study 2 5%ABODA Conducting Course Notes 2 5%McBeth – Effective Performance of Band Music 1 2%None Indicated 22 52%

Twenty-two respondents indicated that they used no conducting textbooks. Ofthose remaining, fifteen used one book only (36%), three used two books (7%),

and two (5%) used four or more books (one respondent used six conductingtextbooks). The most common conducting textbook used was The Modern

Conductor by Elizabeth Green, used by ten respondents (24%). No other

textbooks came close to this result. The second most popular textbook mentioned(Alternative Rehearsal Techniques by Ed Lisk, used by 10% of respondents) is

not a true conducting textbook, only covering rehearsal techniques.

303

B9 Participation in Sporting Activities Since First Conducting Experience

Sport No. of Participants Percentage +/- from A7No Response 1 2% +1None 4 10% -2Aerobics 5 12% +2Archery 0 0Athletics 5 12% -6Baseball/Softball 1 2% -5Basketball/Netball 6 14% 0Bowling (Lawn/Ten Pin) 2 5% 0Cricket 9 21% 0Cycling 6 14% +5Diving 0 0Fencing 0 0Football (All codes) 7 17% -2Golf 9 21% +1Gymnastics 1 2% 0Hockey 2 5% +1Martial Arts 1 2% -1Racquet Sports 11 26% -4Shooting 1 2% 0Skating (Ice, Roller) 2 5% +1Skiing 1 2% 0Swimming 17 40% +7Volleyball 1 2% 0Walking 1 2% +1Weights 2 5% +1

Overall results indicate that respondents had indulged in slightly more sporting

activity since their first conducting experience. Fewer respondents indicated no

sports, compared to A7 (four respondents, compared to six). Sports that saw thelargest increase in participation from the first conducting experience were

swimming (seven more), cycling (five more), and aerobics (two more). Sportsthat saw the largest decrease in participation from the first conducting experience

were athletics (six less), baseball/softball (five less), racquet sports (four less),

and football (two less). 74% of respondents participated in between one and threedifferent sports (64% in A7). Only 10% participated in more than three different

sports (although two respondents had participated in six different sports).

304

B10 Impact of Sporting Activities on Conducting Improvement

No Impact 30 71%Improved Timing 1 2%Improved Self Awareness 1 2%Physical Preparation 1 2%Improved Fitness 6 14%Improved Coordination 3 7%Development of Natural Arm Motions 2 5%Develop Sporting Analogies 2 5%

Most respondents failed to acknowledge any link between their participation insporting activities and their conducting.

B11 Participation in Movement Training or Specific Movement ActivitiesSince the First Conducting Experience

Movement Activity No. of Participants Percentage +/- from A9No Participation 27 64% +1Acting 3 7% -5Alexander Technique 6 14% +4Calisthenics 0 -1Dalcroze 2 5% -3Dance 3 7% -4Feldenkrais 0 0Pilates 3 7% +3Tai Chi 2 5% 0Yoga 2 5% +1Marching 1 2% +1

There was very little change in the number of respondents who had notparticipated in any movement training or activities since their first conducting

experience, compared with prior to their first conducting experience. The most

popular movement activities since the first conducting experience were nowAlexander Technique (four more respondents than A9) and Pilates (three more

respondents than A9). The greatest drop in popularity from before the firstconducting experience to after the first conducting experience occurred in Acting

(five less), Dance (four less), and Dalcroze (three less). Of those who

participated, 80% took part in one type of activity only. One respondent took partin five activities since their first conducting experience.

305

B12 Impact of Movement Activities on Conducting Improvement

No Impact 29 69%Relaxes Body & Mind 3 7%Improved Fitness 1 2%Focus on Specific Parts of Body 2 5%Improved Well-Being 1 2%Enhanced Control of Movements 1 2%Enhanced Freedom of Hands/Arms 1 2%Natural Flow of Energy 1 2%Improved Coordination 1 2%Understanding of Human Movement 1 2%Dalcroze and Alexander 3 7%

On the surface it would appear that the majority of respondents failed to

acknowledge any link between their participation in movement activities and

their conducting. However, the majority of those who indicated ‘No Impact’ hadnot participated in any movement activities (86%). Of those who had participated

in movement activities, over 73% found some benefit toward their conducting.

B13 What Skills Should a Beginner Conductor Already Possess?

Ability to Start & Stop 3 7%Aural Skills 10 24%Basic Left Hand Skills 1 2%Charisma 2 5%Clear Beat Patterns 15 36%Coordination 2 5%Desire to Learn 5 12%Empathy with People 2 5%Ensemble Skills 2 5%Feel for Music 6 14%Harmonic Knowledge 3 7%Instrumental Skills 3 7%Knowledge of Instruments 5 12%Leadership 2 5%Musicianship 1 2%Passion for Music 4 10%Patience 1 2%Physical Endurance 1 2%Rhythm 6 14%Score Reading Ability 12 29%Secure Pulse 2 5%Stylistic Knowledge 4 10%Verbal Communication Skills 8 19%

Twenty-three unprompted responses were received in answer to the question‘What skills should a beginner conductor already possess?’ The most popular

responses to this question were clear beat patterns (36%), score reading ability

(29%), aural skills (24%) and verbal communication skills (19%).

306

B14 What Skills Should a Beginner Conductor Immediately Seek to Develop?

Skill No. of Responses Percentage +/- from B13Aural Skills 7 17% -3Beat Patterns 10 24% -5Charisma 1 2% -1Control of Movements 2 5% +2Dynamic Control 1 2% +1Ensemble Balance 1 2% +1Ensemble Empathy 4 10% +2Expressive Gestures 13 31% +13Good Stance & Posture 1 2% +1Knowledge of Instruments 2 5% -3Knowledge of Repertoire 2 5% +2Left Hand Independence 5 12% +4Non-verbal Communication Skills 8 19% +8Rehearsal Techniques 10 24% +10Score Reading Skills 10 24% -2Sense of Pitch 3 7% +3Timing 3 7% +3Understanding of Style 1 2% -3

The most popular unprompted responses to this question were expressive

gestures (31%), and beat patterns, rehearsal techniques, and score reading skills

(each 24%). Some skills were listed by some respondents as skills desirable for abeginner conductor to already possess and by others as skills to immediately seek

to develop. More respondents felt that left hand independence should bedeveloped by the beginner conductor than already possessed (four more), and

likewise for ensemble empathy (two more). Fewer respondents felt that beat

patterns should be developed by the beginner conductor than already possessed(five less); likewise for aural skills (three less), knowledge of instruments (three

less), understanding of style (three less), score reading skills (two less) andcharisma (one less). New skills to be developed by the beginner conductor were

expressive gestures (31%), rehearsal techniques (24%), non-verbal

communication skills (19%), sense of pitch, timing (both 7%), control ofmovements, knowledge of repertoire (both 5%), dynamic control, ensemble

balance, and good posture (each 2%).

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B15 Important Attributes of an Expressive Conductor

Baton Control 3 7%Clarity 3 7%Communication 14 33%Encouraging Attitude 1 2%Ensemble Empathy 3 7%Expressive Movements 6 14%Inspirational 4 10%Interpretation 2 5%Joy in Music Making 3 7%Keeping Time 2 5%Knowledge of Score 2 5%Listening Skills 2 5%Manual Independence 2 5%Musicianship 7 17%No Excessive Gestures 6 14%Phrasing 1 2%Physical Embodiment of Music 3 7%Range of Gestures 2 5%Sense of Humour 1 2%Suspend Time Keeping 3 7%Stylistic Understanding 2 5%

The most important attributes of an expressive conductor, as listed by

respondents, were communication (33%), musicianship (17%), expressive

movements and no excessive gestures (each 14%).

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B16 Important Attributes of an Effective Conductor

Ability to Communicate 12 29%Balance between Functional & Artistic 2 5%Clarity 9 21%Decisive 1 2%Efficient Technique 2 5%Expressive 1 2%Humour 4 10%Interpretation 5 12%Knowledge of Instruments 2 5%Knowledge of Repertoire 3 7%Leadership 2 5%Listening Skills 2 5%Motivator 5 12%Musicianship 1 2%Patience 2 5%Preparation 6 14%Rehearsal Techniques 8 19%Rhythm 1 2%Score Study 1 2%Strength of Personality 1 2%Stylistic Understanding 3 7%Teaching Ability 2 5%Timing 2 5%Understands Musicians 12 29%

The most important attributes of an effective conductor, as listed by respondents,

were the ability to communicate and an understanding of musicians (both 29%).The next most important attributes were clarity (21%) and rehearsal techniques

(19%).

HOW THEORIES OF EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT AND ......HOW THEORIES OF EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT AND NON-VERBAL...

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