HOW PROFESSIONALS HOW PROFESSIONALS LEARN AND ACQUIRE LEARN AND ACQUIRE

EXPERTISEEXPERTISE Model of professionals as learners:Model of professionals as learners:

How professionals knowHow professionals know How professionals incorporate knowledge How professionals incorporate knowledge

into practiceinto practice Under what conditions professionals learn Under what conditions professionals learn

bestbest What role prior experience plays in learningWhat role prior experience plays in learning

Important for CPE educatorsImportant for CPE educators Planning CPE objectivesPlanning CPE objectives Learning experiences (activities)Learning experiences (activities) Evaluation of CPEEvaluation of CPE

A model of professionals as learners A model of professionals as learners consistent with the critical viewpointconsistent with the critical viewpoint Learning based on reflection on practiceLearning based on reflection on practice

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGYCOGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Study of mind and how it functionsStudy of mind and how it functions Based on children and with computers Based on children and with computers

(AI)(AI) Focus on acquisition of knowledge and Focus on acquisition of knowledge and

knowledge structuresknowledge structures Model of learnerModel of learner

Learning is active, constructive, and goal-Learning is active, constructive, and goal-oriented process depending upon the mental oriented process depending upon the mental activities activities

Schema theorySchema theory How acquired knowledge is organized How acquired knowledge is organized

in the mindin the mind How cognitive structures facilitate the How cognitive structures facilitate the

use of knowledgeuse of knowledge SchemataSchemata

knowledge that we experience knowledge that we experience (interrelationships between situations (interrelationships between situations and events)and events)

Prototypes in memory of frequently Prototypes in memory of frequently experienced situationsexperienced situations

Internal models that professionals Internal models that professionals useuse

Type of Type of schemataschemata

Declarative knowledgeDeclarative knowledgeProcedural knowledgeProcedural knowledge

Declarative KnowledgeDeclarative Knowledge

Knowledge thatKnowledge that Such as 2 + 2 = 4Such as 2 + 2 = 4 Knowledge about thingsKnowledge about things Represented in memory as an interrelated Represented in memory as an interrelated

network of factsnetwork of facts Academic knowledge, technical rational Academic knowledge, technical rational

knowledgeknowledge

Procedural KnowledgeProcedural Knowledge

Knowledge know-howKnowledge know-how Such as producing the correct sum when Such as producing the correct sum when

given an addition problemgiven an addition problem Practical knowledge; repertoire of examples, Practical knowledge; repertoire of examples,

metaphors, images, practical principles, metaphors, images, practical principles, scenarios, or rules of thumbscenarios, or rules of thumb

Developed primarily through prior Developed primarily through prior experienceexperience

Debate about which knowledge learned Debate about which knowledge learned firstfirst

Given or by doing?Given or by doing? The way a problem is posed determines The way a problem is posed determines

the way in which it is solvedthe way in which it is solved

Learning is an active processLearning is an active process Educator must take into account Educator must take into account

professionals’ prior knowledgeprofessionals’ prior knowledge Understanding and interpretation of the Understanding and interpretation of the

information depend on the availability of information depend on the availability of appropriate schemataappropriate schemata

Discussion will formed new schemataDiscussion will formed new schemata What the learner does is importantWhat the learner does is important

SCHON’S MODEL OF SCHON’S MODEL OF PROFESSIONAL PRACTICEPROFESSIONAL PRACTICE Based on studies of architecture, town Based on studies of architecture, town

planning, management, and planning, management, and organizational consultingorganizational consulting

Can be used to analyze other Can be used to analyze other professionals practices to suggest new professionals practices to suggest new ways of educating professionalsways of educating professionals

Professional knowledgeProfessional knowledge

Technical Rationality (TR)Technical Rationality (TR) Dominant concept of professional Dominant concept of professional

knowledgeknowledge Knowledge as results form basic and applied Knowledge as results form basic and applied

research within the university settingresearch within the university setting Each profession has a body of knowledge Each profession has a body of knowledge

with four properties: specialized, firmly with four properties: specialized, firmly bounded, scientific, and standardizedbounded, scientific, and standardized

Professionals select the appropriate Professionals select the appropriate information to apply in practiceinformation to apply in practice

No different between excellent No different between excellent practitioner and merely adequate onepractitioner and merely adequate one

TR can’t explains the process of TR can’t explains the process of professional artistryprofessional artistry

According to Schon professional practice According to Schon professional practice is characterized by turning complex is characterized by turning complex situations to situations that the situations to situations that the practitioner knows how to solve practitioner knows how to solve

Schon suggests to examine professional Schon suggests to examine professional artistry (how practitioners actually artistry (how practitioners actually successful in solving indeterminate zones successful in solving indeterminate zones of practice) rather than just application of of practice) rather than just application of research-based knowledge.research-based knowledge.

Schon suggests two form of knowing that Schon suggests two form of knowing that are central to professional artistry:are central to professional artistry: Knowing-in-action (KIA)Knowing-in-action (KIA) Reflection-in-action (RIA)Reflection-in-action (RIA)

Knowing-in-actionKnowing-in-action

Knowing is in the actions of professionalsKnowing is in the actions of professionals Actions are spontaneous no prior Actions are spontaneous no prior

systematic thinkingsystematic thinking Judgments and decisions made were not Judgments and decisions made were not

based on any rules or theoriesbased on any rules or theories This is the normal mode of practical This is the normal mode of practical

knowledgeknowledge

This form of knowing has This form of knowing has three propertiesthree properties

1.1. actions and judgments made actions and judgments made without prior thinking about themwithout prior thinking about them

2.2. not aware having learned to do not aware having learned to do these thingsthese things

3.3. cannot describe the knowledge that cannot describe the knowledge that the action revealsthe action reveals

Professional practice are characterized Professional practice are characterized by: uniqueness, uncertainty, and value by: uniqueness, uncertainty, and value conflictconflict

KIA will not solve a particular problemKIA will not solve a particular problem Rather, one needs to construct the Rather, one needs to construct the

situation to make it solvablesituation to make it solvable RIA is the core of professional artistryRIA is the core of professional artistry

Reflection-in-actionReflection-in-action

Professionals reflect in the midst of Professionals reflect in the midst of actionaction

Their thinking reshapes what they are Their thinking reshapes what they are doing while they are doing itdoing while they are doing it

The goal is to change indeterminate The goal is to change indeterminate situations into determinate onessituations into determinate ones

The key is to bring past experience to The key is to bring past experience to bear on current actionbear on current action

Past experience built up a repertoire of Past experience built up a repertoire of examples, images, understandings, and examples, images, understandings, and actionsactions

New situation is seeing as something New situation is seeing as something already present in the repertoirealready present in the repertoire

Past experience can make sense of the Past experience can make sense of the current situationcurrent situation

The problem will be looked in a new wayThe problem will be looked in a new way

The entire process is achieved in the The entire process is achieved in the midst of action:midst of action: Rethink some part of KIARethink some part of KIA Conduct an on-the-spot experiment to test Conduct an on-the-spot experiment to test

its utilityits utility Corporate this new understanding into Corporate this new understanding into

immediate actionimmediate action

Acquisition of Acquisition of Professional KnowledgeProfessional Knowledge RIA can generate new practical RIA can generate new practical

knowledge which add to the repertoire of knowledge which add to the repertoire of knowledgeknowledge

How RIA is acquired still open for How RIA is acquired still open for researchresearch

RIA can occur spontaneously also but RIA can occur spontaneously also but need to be reflected in order to add to the need to be reflected in order to add to the repertoirerepertoire

RIA and Implication to RIA and Implication to CPECPE

CPE should combine the teaching of CPE should combine the teaching of applied science (knowledge generated by applied science (knowledge generated by research) with coaching in the artistry of research) with coaching in the artistry of RIARIA

The teaching of applied science should The teaching of applied science should be based on a model of the learnerbe based on a model of the learner

There is a need to focus directly on the There is a need to focus directly on the acquisition of RIAacquisition of RIA

Formal CPE should be a place where Formal CPE should be a place where practitioners learn to reflect on their own practitioners learn to reflect on their own tacit theoriestacit theories

This is a repertoire-building processThis is a repertoire-building process Using the case method and case Using the case method and case

histories will connect university-based histories will connect university-based research and theories into practical ways research and theories into practical ways of knowingof knowing

Improving professionals’ ability to RIA is Improving professionals’ ability to RIA is the basis for professional artistrythe basis for professional artistry

RIA also as source of knowledge RIA also as source of knowledge

RIA must be part of CPERIA must be part of CPE Professionals would reflect on the Professionals would reflect on the

frameworks they intuitively bring to their frameworks they intuitively bring to their performanceperformance

CPE facilitators would teach like CPE facilitators would teach like coaches; explaining, demonstrating, coaches; explaining, demonstrating, simulation and reflecting with learners on simulation and reflecting with learners on the frameworks that underlie their workthe frameworks that underlie their work

Theories of Expertise in Theories of Expertise in Three ProfessionsThree Professions

The nature and acquisition of expertise The nature and acquisition of expertise are consistent with the critical viewpointare consistent with the critical viewpoint

Nurses, business executives, and Nurses, business executives, and teachersteachers

Studies on practical knowledge: beliefs, Studies on practical knowledge: beliefs, insights, and habitsinsights, and habits

Practical knowledge – through Practical knowledge – through experienceexperience

Practical knowledge; time-bound and Practical knowledge; time-bound and situation-specific, personally compelling, situation-specific, personally compelling, and directed toward action and it base on and directed toward action and it base on technical knowledgetechnical knowledge

CPE must build on what professionals CPE must build on what professionals already believe about their works; already believe about their works; uncover their rule of practice, practical uncover their rule of practice, practical principles, and images that guide their principles, and images that guide their practices.practices.

A Model of the LearnerA Model of the Learner

Value choice depends on the ends one wish to Value choice depends on the ends one wish to achieveachieve

Critical viewpoint aims to improve professional Critical viewpoint aims to improve professional artistry or the professionals’ ability to operate in artistry or the professionals’ ability to operate in the indeterminate zones of practicethe indeterminate zones of practice

Functionalist viewpoint stresses the importance Functionalist viewpoint stresses the importance of acquiring as much technical knowledge of acquiring as much technical knowledge (knowledge that) to be applied to practice(knowledge that) to be applied to practice

The choice of which model of the learner The choice of which model of the learner must be situation-specificmust be situation-specific

Model of learner based on the critical Model of learner based on the critical viewpoint:viewpoint: also recognize the need to learn technical also recognize the need to learn technical

knowledgeknowledge Not to be used in all situationsNot to be used in all situations Should be the dominant model Should be the dominant model To improve professional artistryTo improve professional artistry

Two forms of knowing should be Two forms of knowing should be fostered through CPE: fostered through CPE:

1.1. Practical knowledge/procedural Practical knowledge/procedural knowledge/know-howknowledge/know-how

2.2. Reflection-in-action/thinking in Reflection-in-action/thinking in action/intuition/problem finding action/intuition/problem finding

Practical knowledgePractical knowledge Repertoire of examples, metaphors, images, Repertoire of examples, metaphors, images,

practical principles, scenarios, or rules of practical principles, scenarios, or rules of thumbthumb

Unique to own practiceUnique to own practice Developed primarily through prior Developed primarily through prior

experienceexperience Most professionals are not fully aware of the Most professionals are not fully aware of the

knowledge in their repertoiresknowledge in their repertoires CPE should helps them to make this CPE should helps them to make this

knowledge explicit in order to develop new knowledge explicit in order to develop new knowledgeknowledge

Reflection-in-actionReflection-in-action Professionals use similar skills to construct Professionals use similar skills to construct

an understanding of situations both within an understanding of situations both within and outside their practiceand outside their practice

CPE strategy to foster these forms of CPE strategy to foster these forms of knowing: they can be learned but cannot knowing: they can be learned but cannot be taughtbe taught

Cognitive psychologists: what the learner Cognitive psychologists: what the learner does is more important in determining does is more important in determining what is learned that what the teacher what is learned that what the teacher doesdoes

In order to develop either kind of knowing In order to develop either kind of knowing CPE should provide experientially based CPE should provide experientially based methods such as case studies, coaching, methods such as case studies, coaching, discovery method, etc.discovery method, etc.

This knowledge also can be acquire This knowledge also can be acquire through daily practice by doing research through daily practice by doing research in practicein practice

Everyday practice not necessary rightEveryday practice not necessary right Practical knowledge must be justified on Practical knowledge must be justified on

the basis of public criteria rather than the basis of public criteria rather than private onesprivate ones