How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper

7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper

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Marine Debris Research

How Plastic AffectsMarine Life

Prepared by Constantinos Akrivos Summer 2013


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Table of Contents

Introduction................................................................................................................4

Ocean Benefits Earth and Human Communities.........................................................5

What is Marine Debris.................................................................................................7

Sources of Marine Debris............................................................................................8

Mechanical Debris Removal.......................................................................................9

Plastic Decomposition................................................................................................11

Effects on Marine Life...............................................................................................12

Examples of Plastic Pollution....................................................................................12

Categories of Marine Pollution.................................................................................13

Direct Environmental Impacts...................................................................................14

Ingestion Impact........................................................................................................14

Entanglement Impact.................................................................................................15

Ecosystem Alteration.................................................................................................15

Indirect Environmental Impacts................................................................................16

Ecosystem Alteration.................................................................................................16

Transportation of Invasive Species Impact................................................................16

More dangerous in Ocean rather Than in Land........................................................18

Effects on Human Communities................................................................................19

Health Impacts...........................................................................................................19

Economical Impacts..................................................................................................20

Tourism......................................................................................................................20

Fishing.......................................................................................................................20

Navigation.................................................................................................................21

Prevent the Destruction.............................................................................................22

Activism.....................................................................................................................23

International Law about Marine Debris...................................................................23

European Law for Marine Debris.............................................................................24

United States Law for Marine Debris.......................................................................25

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Other Types of Law for Marine Debris.....................................................................25

Methodology..............................................................................................................26

Conclusion................................................................................................................27

Bibliography...............................................................................................................28

Online Resources.......................................................................................................30

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Introduction

Over the last decades the marine pollution has become a very important threat to water

habitats and to human communities. The oceans benefit the whole planet but the marine

debris seems to be an unstoppable foe to its procedure. Marine debris is dangerous for all

marine animals. Its main component is human made waste, usually plastic, which does not

biodegrade easily. Plastic bags, cloths, tins, cans, landfills, garbage transportation and

other such items are the main sources of this anthropogenic debris. The consequences of

the plastic debris affect the human societies although there are always ways to prevent the

entire destruction of marine ecosystems. Many activists such as Greenpeace organization

have tried to sensitize citizens and governments for the protection of the marine

environments. For this reason it have been prepared conventions for preventing the

pollution from ships and ocean dumping. Yet, the effects of marine debris in marine life and

as an expansion the effects of marine debris in human communities can be devastating if

drastic measures do not be taken soon.

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Ocean Benefits Earth and Human Communities

All societies rely on the ocean and its resources, whether is the food we eat or the oxygen

we breath. Before we start analyze the effects of plastic in marine life, lets check briefly the

services that ocean provides us.

Ocean transfers the heat from the equator to the poles and moderates carbon dioxide

levels in the atmosphere, affecting climate and weather patterns. Seafood is a major

source of protein and ocean offers this staple food to us. Seafood helps in economical

terms, because it has alter to one of the most exported items in the global market today.

More than 90 percent of global trade is account on ocean-bound shipping. Marine plants

and animals sources provides new biochemical or medical products that accounts human

health.

More specific all the benefits that ocean offers to the planet life:

Climate Regulation

Food

Economy

Transportation

Medicine

Hence aqua ecosystems are a great fount of aid for our planet, in terms of climate

regulation or in food, economical issues, which aftermaths in helping us. But the marine

debris bottle prevent this process. Before though, we analyze what are actually the effects

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of plastics in water environments, we have to definite marine debris first.

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What is Marine Debris

Marine litter is human waste that has been thrown on purpose or accidentally in water

ecosystems like lakes, waterways or in oceans. Now and again, ocean debris tends to

conglomerate on coastlines or at the center of gyres. It is known as beach litter too.

Although the waste at sea is called ocean dumping or marine debris.

Humans have played a major role in the creation of many types of plastic, along with the

increase of plastic itself, which does not biodegrade. Obviously, the marine debris is

comprised of plastic materials. The average proportion varies between 60 to 80 percent of

total marine plastic debris. The 90 to 95 percent of the total amount of marine debris in

many regions, constitute plastic materials.

This waterborne plastics are not only a threat to most marine animals such as fishes,

seabirds, marine reptiles and marine mammals but are threat to boats and coasts as well.

The effects of marine debris in aqua life will be discussed later on, but keep in mind that

the ocean dumping posses danger to the human communities too.

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Sources of Marine Debris

Eighty percent of the marine debris comes from plastic (Weisman (2007). This 80 percent

of marine debris comes from land-based sources like factories, as clarified in 1991, the

United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution. So,

most of the marine debris is urban runoff and through storm drains gets to the water

environments.

The main sources of types of anthropogenic debris are:

i. litter (bags, cans, singe-use disposable products, food containers)

ii. industrial discharges

iii. garbage transportation

iv. landfills

v. construction debris

vi. debris from commercial establishments and public venues.

Concurrently, the other 20 percent of marine debris comes from ocean-based sources,

such as overboard discharges from ships and discarded fishing gear.

Food containers and packaging are the largest component of the municipal solid waste

stream; 80 million tons or in terms of statistics, 31.7 percent. Together with plastic bags,

these items represent the largest component of marine debris. Lastly, packaging and

single use disposable products manage to unstable use precious resources, like oil, trees,

water or energy sources, as well as harming the water environment.

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In 1992, thousands of rubber ducks and other toys went overboard during a storm. As a

result the toys have since been found all over the world, providing a better understanding

of ocean currents. Similar incidents have happened before, such as when Hansa Carrier

dropped 21 containers (with one notably containing buoyant Nike shoes) as Marsha

Walton stated in CNN in 2008. Another notable source of marine debris was the container

ship in 2007, MSC Napoli were it beached in the English Channel, dropping hundreds of

containers, most of which washed up on the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site,

according to BBC.

As strange as it seems marine litter can be found on the floor of the Arctic ocean as 2012

CBS News article declares. Another source of debris is in Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia,

where 52 percent of items were generated by recreational use of an urban park, 14

percent from sewage disposal and only 7 percent from shipping and fishing activities

(Walker et all., 2006).

Mechanical Debris Removal

Specialized mechanical equipment such as Trash Hunter have been designed for the

removal of marine debris. These specialized boats can gather easily the manmade and

organic floating debris from the waterway. These activities take place only for emergency

reasons. Trash traps are installed as well on small rivers to capture waterborne debris

before it reaches the sea. South Australia's Adelaide operates a number of such traps, for

example, which are known as "trash racks" or "gross pollutant traps" on the Torrens River,

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which flows into the large inlet of water, Gulf St Vincent, during wet seasons.

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Plastic Decomposition

Polyethylene terephthalate or PET is a powerful, nearly indestructible morph of plastic

used to make most containers and bottles. PET like all petroleum-based plastics don't

decompose as the organic material does. Usually it takes plastic over 100 years to

biodegrade in heat temperatures and its biodegradation differs in comparison to wood,

grass or fruits like apples, which biodegrade in one to two months. Plastic is petroleum-

based and this is why it does not biodegrade easily, so it cannot be easy compostable.

In a few words Biodegradable plastic is plastic that has been treated by microorganisms,

like bacteria to be easily broken down and return to the natural enviroment. But most

commonly used plastics do not mineralize in the ocean and instead break down into

smaller and smaller pieces, the microplastics.

Plastic biodegradation in ocean is more difficult to happen than land, because ocean is a

cold place where heat temperatures are quite low. In oceans then, plastic debris do not

mineralize but instead breaks down in small pieces which cannot be seen without a

microscope.

Besides, plastic can degrade quicker at cooler temperatures rather than heat temperatures

according to Japan-based scientists. In 2009 the high school student, Daniel Burd,

managed to discover a microbe that eats plastic and manages to decomposes it. The

result either way is that the plastic when decomposes is leaching toxic chemicals into

seas, putting in danger marine animals and human communities.

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Fishing nets can be devastating as well for the water habitats. Fishermen use to leave

leave or lose their nets in the ocean. The result of this act is that sea creatures like fish,

dolphins, turtles, sharks, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs and other creatures are being

entangled on these ghost nets. These nets cause to them starvation, restrict movement,

laceration, infection and in animals such as turtles who breath air, suffocation.

According to United Nations Environment Programme plastic shopping bags can clog

digestive tracts when consumed and can cause starvation to marine animals through

restricting the movement of food, or by filling the stomach and tricking the animal into

thinking it is full. A UNEP 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets in the North-Western

Mediterranean around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported mean concentrations

of debris of 1,935 items per square kilometer. Marine debris accounted for 77 percent of

which 93 percent was plastic bags. Note that this pollution harms an estimated of 100,000

marine animals, including sea turtles, as well as 1,000,000 creatures each year (Sea Turtle

Restoration Project. 2010).

Categories of Marine Plastic Pollution

We must highlight that plastic pollution, is known to have two environmental impacts, each

with its own subcategories. The direct environmental impacts, which categorize to

ingestion, entanglement, ecosystem alteration and the indirect environmental impacts

which categorize to ecosystem alteration, transport of invasive species.

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Direct Environmental Impacts

Ingestion Impact

Marine animals often accidentally ingest marine debris that they mistake it with their every

day food. Ingesting human waste can serious though damage water life. Whales, turtles

sometimes mistake plastic bags with squid for instance and birds frequently

misunderstand plastic pellets with fish eggs. A study of 38 green turtles discovered that 61

percent had ingested some for of marine debris such as plastic bags or cloths. (Bugoni et

all., 2001).

Toxic substances are contained in some plastics and can lead to death or cause

reproductive failure in marine life (Moore, C., 2002). Ingestion of marine debris can cause

also to water habitats starvation or malnutrition, when the waste collects in animal's

stomach, making the marine organism to fell full. Sometimes starvation happens when

marine debris in the animal's system prevents vital nutrients from being absorbed.

Examples of marine debris ingestion:

31 species of marine

mammals are known to have

ingested marine plastic

(Allsopp et al)

Over 100 species of sea

birds are known to ingest

plastic debris (Laist, 1997).

Around 95 percent of

Fulmers have plastic in their

stomachs that affect them in

chemical and mechanical

ways according to Dr Jan

Andries van Frameker.

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Entanglement Impact

Marine pollution can cause death and injuries to marine life when they become entangled

in marine debris. Entanglement is capable of making marine animals to suffer from

suffocation, starvation, drowning, increased vulnerability to predators, or other injury.

Volunteers participated in the 2008 International Coastal Cleanup event and discovered

443 animals and birds entangled or trapped by marine debris (2008 ICC Report, Ocean

Conservancy). Approximately 80 percent plastic marine debris is responsible for the

entanglement of large numbers of Antarctic fur seals, on the remote sub-Antarctic island of

South Georgia.

Examples of entanglement impact:

Over 250 species

have been known to

have ingested in

plastic (Laist, 1997).

Sea lions and seals have

been discovered with

entanglement rates of up to

7.9 percent (Allsopp et al)

United Nations Environment

Program reports that around

300.000 cetaceans are caught in

nets each year (US EPA, 1992).

Ecosystem Alteration

Except mobile animals in oceans and generally in water ecosystems there other

organisms also, like plants. As with the mobile animals the immobile living organisms like

plants can be harmed too by marine debris. For instance corrals can be damaged by

derelict fishing gear which breaks the corral. Plants can be extinguished by fishing nets or

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plastic bags. In general, marine environments and especially ocean floor can be harmed

from marine debris.

Indirect Environmental Impacts

Ecosystem Alteration

We have refereed in this research about the mechanical marine debris removal via the

Trash Hunter but machine like these can negatively impact shoreline habitats. In this

way many marine animals like, nesting birds, sea turtles as well as other forms of aquatic

life can be harmed by this removal technique. Coastlines clean up can bring to beaches

erosion, even disturbance natural vegetation of nation when the raking is governed near a

due. Consequently, efforts to remove marine debris may actually harm the water

ecosystems.

Transport of Invasive Species Impact

Invasive species uses marine debris for their movement from one location to another.

Basically, they are carried by the floating by the floating debris in order to transport to

another place.

As a result of the above, the marine litter in particular plastic increases, resulting in a

increase in species invasion (Allsopp et all). Except this man made litter has resulted in a

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significant increase in the opportunities for the transportation of alien species. A

widespread problem that leads to the transportation of invasive species is the Biotic

Mixing which is a result of human activities (Barnes, 2002). Additionally, a study from the

British Antarctic Survey in 2002 estimated that human debris found in the oceans has

approximately doubled the number of different species found in the subtropics (Barnes,

D.K., 2002).

Non-endemic species can have a catastrophic impact on indigenous species. The non-

biodegradable material pollution and biodiversity increase will accelerate the process of

biodiversity (Gregory, 2009).

Specifically, marine plastic pollution has impacted at least 267 species worldwide,

including 86 percent of all sea turtle species, 44 percent of all seabird species and 43

percent of all marine mammal species.

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More Dangerous in Ocean Rather Than in Land

Pharmaceuticals, oil spoils, energy consumption, carbon emissions and toxic chemicals

are being thrown into the marine environments making them big threat for the human

communities.

The US hospitals and long-term facilities flush millions of pounds of pharmaceuticals

annually down the drain, according to the Associated Press. As for oil spoils, an estimated

706 million gallons of oil are leaked from ships or wash from land into the ocean every

year. Toxic mercury that ends up in marine environments, is being released by the burning

of coal for the 50 percent of U.S. energy use. The ocean acidity have seen a 30 percent

increase since the Industrial Revolution. This has happened from our carbon emissions

where the 50 percent of the carbon dioxide that has been released, have absorbed by the

oceans.

Toxic additives used in plastic manufacturing can leach into their surroundings. When

exposed to water, these toxic additives used in plastic manufacturing extract into then

ocean. That means, that plastic becomes more deadly in the ocean than in the land when

waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and augment on the surface of the plastic

debris. Carnivores can be presumed by the hydrophobic contaminants bioaccumulate,

bringing biomagnifying problems to the food chain. Some plastic additives disrupt their

endocrine system when consumed; others can suppress their immune system or decrease

their reproductive rates. In the ocean ends also, chemicals that have been implicated in

cancer, development problems or in other health issues.

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Effects on Human Communities

Plastic debris does not only harms marine life but harms human societies too, in terms of

health and in terms of economy, tourism.

Health Impacts

A research of the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, investigated the plastic in the

North Pacific Central Gyre of the Pacific Oceanm and showed that the mass of plastic

pieces was six times greater than zooplankton floating on the waters surface. Of the 672

fish caught during that voyage, 35% had ingested plastic pieces. The point of these is to

show that the plastic we throw to oceans or leave to the beaches and usually get eaten by

marine animals, returns to us via our fish food, resulting to polluting the human food chain.

With simple words human health is based upon the health of the marine life. Even for our

most basic sustenance, food and water. The seafood we eat due to the plastic debris,

ingest to our organism harmful chemicals and have serious developmental implications. As

for the water our most basic need, more than 3.5 million people die worldwide from water-

related diseases. Water transfers aqua diseases and the toxic chemicals, factories use to

throw in oceans or in lakes.

Marines debris also endangers the safety of swimmers and divers because they can

entangled in abandoned netting and fishing lines. Other than than, people who go for a

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stroll at the beach can get injured by human waste like glass or cans. If passenger's

vessels become entangled in floating marine debris and are damaged or disabled, the

wanderer may be injured or killed.

Economical Impacts

Except the harm that marine debris does to marine life and to our health, it can harm three

major economical components, tourism, fishing and navigation. So, every year tones

of money are being lost due to manmade waste as well as to costly ships maintenance.

Tourism

Beachgoers can be extremely annoyed by marine debris, which can result in loss in

tourism. In severe cases though, beaches can be completely closed due to manmade

waste. The clean up of the beaches and coastlines from the marine debris can be

expensive and lead to ever more loss in tourism's money. The Los Angeles County's

Department of Public Works and the Flood Control District spends $18 million each year

on street sweeping, catch basin cleanouts, cleanup programs, litter prevention and

education efforts, making its attempt in order to keep the beaches clean and prevent the

draining of trash to the ocean (L.A. County Boards of Supervisors Staff Report, 2007).

Fishing

When jellyfish or fishes become bycatch in lost fishing gear like nets, commercial fishing

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companies lose money, because the result of this type of bycatch is available loss in the

standing stock of available seafood. Moreover, it this catch helps fish to have negative

impacts on their reproductive ability, leading in a decrease the long-term sustainability of

the stock. The Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission made a prediction that the blue

crab ghost fishery leads to a loss of up to 4 to 10 million crabs a year in Louisiana alone,

for instance (Virginia Institute of Marine Science, 2006). Small fisheries can go completely

out of business cause of the high cost of replacing fishing gear and vessels, which were

entangled or damaged by marine debris.

Navigation

Repairing boats that have been damaged by marine debris is time consuming and

expensive. That happens because floating marine debris is a navigational hazard that

entangles propellers and clogs cooling water intake valves.

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Prevent the Destruction of Marine Life

As difficult as it seems, there are plenty ways to prevent the destruction of marine

ecosystems. Maybe we humans are actually the big threat to marine life but there are

always ways to undo this threat and instead become the protectors of aqua environments.

The cleanup of beaches and coastlines should be our usual every day work. We have to

participate in local area cleanups. We have to reduce the amount of waste we produce. A

clever way to protect the aqua environment is chose reusable items over disposable ones.

Last but not least, we should recycle as must as we can. The lack of recycle is a factor of

why the plastic debris is everywhere in ocean. In fact only 5 percent of plastics are

recycled world-wide. Bottles, cans, ink cartridges, batteries and many other items should

be recycled in order to reduce the marine debris.

Assuming we have understood why we should not litter beaches, coastlines and oceans

and we have started to recycle, produce less amount of waste etc, we can educate other

people about the problem of marine debris. This way more people will become aware of

the serious danger that plastic possess over the marine environments.

Here's a quick bulletin view of what we should do in order to protect the marine life:

Participate in local area cleanups

Produce less amount of waste

Chose reusable items over disposable ones

Recycle

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Educate other people about the problem of marine debris

Activism

Groups such as Green Peace or 5 Gyres are active in educating about marine debris. The

organization 5 Gyres for instance, aims at reducing plastic pollution from oceans and was

one of the two organizations that recently researched the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

Heal Member who is another nonprofit organization is focusing on the protection of

California's Santa Monica Bay, by sponsoring Beach Cleanup programs. Green Peace is

also involved in many activism activities about marine debris education. It has involved in

many researches about human trash and its effects on marine ecosystems. For example

Green Peace has conducted a research about Texass trash vortex. There, an estimated

six kilos of plastic for every kilo of natural plankton, along with other slow degrading

garbage, swirls slowly around like a clock, choked with dead fish, marine mammals, and

birds who get snared. Green Peace. Some plastics in the gyre will not break down in the

lifetimes of the grandchildren of the people who threw them away Green Peace indicates.

International Law about Marine Debris

Due to the dangerousness of human waste many governments have laws in order to

prevent its spreading. Ocean dumping specifically is controlled by international law

consisting: The 1972 London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by

Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter which is also common known as: The London

Convection. "The LC '72" is an United Nations agreement to control ocean dumping. It

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covers the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft, and

platforms. It does not cover though discharges from land-based waste like pipes and

outfalls. The London Convention entered into force in 1975 and as of 2013, 87 parties are

included in The LC '72.

Except The London Convection there is another convection designed to protect the seas

from ships debris, including oil and exhaust pollution and is considered one of the most

important international marine environmental conventions. This other convection is the

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973 as modified by

the Protocol of 1978, known and as MARPOL 73/78.

European Law for Marine Debris

The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic or

OSPAR Convention is the current international treaty controlling marine pollution in the

north-east Atlantic Ocean and it combines and up-dates the 1972 Oslo Convention on

dumping waste at sea and the 1974 Paris Convention on land-based sources of marine

pollution. Besides OSPAR Convection there is also the Barcelona Convection which

protects Mediterranean Sea as well as the 2000 Water Framework Directive which is a

European Union directive committing European Union member states to free inland and

coastal waters from human influence.

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United States Law for Marine Debris

The United States Congress passed the Ocean Dumping Act in 1972 which was gave the

authority to the United States Environmental Protection Agency regulate the dumping of

the sewer's sludge, industrial and radioactive waste and biohazardous materials into the

United States territorial waters. In 1988, sixteen years from the first Ocean Dumping Act,

there was a change in order to include clinical wastes. Furthermore it is illegal to dispose

any type of plastic in the U.S.A. water environments. In 2007, San Francisco was the first

city in the United States to ban petroleum-based plastic bags in large markets and

pharmacies.

Other Types of Law for Marine Debris

Certainly there are types of law for human waste around the world. Law of the sea,

property law and admiralty law consist when abandoned property is found on oceans. If

someone found this abandoned property then he will be reward by the salvage law. All

these laws are conducted because ships tend to lose their cargo which in most cases is

marine debris, something that can kill marine life. For instance in the United Kingdom,

shipwrecked goods should be reported to a Receiver of Wreck and then the goods may

return to their rightful owner.

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Methodology

The method that was used for this research was the qualitative. Mainly the data was

gathered via online research and in some cases from books. Articles, citations was read

and videos on various platforms was watched but the most cross-checked information was

used in this research paper was mainly from online sources.

Journalists and researchers have to stay away from the facts and do not take place.

Though, if they do take place in some articles or research papers, they should provide the

reader or the audience with details and a great amount of elements, just to defend their

belief. Nevertheless, in a research paper, the author aims to persuade and explain his

thesis to the readers.

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How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper

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