How Equal are Women and How Equal are Women and Men Now?Men Now?

Lecture 4Lecture 4

last week …last week …

The ‘linguistic or cultural turn’: ‘things to The ‘linguistic or cultural turn’: ‘things to words’words’

MaterialMaterial: inequalities in power, wealth, : inequalities in power, wealth, opportunities (education and jobs)opportunities (education and jobs)

shiftshift

SymbolicSymbolic (or cultural): focus on (or cultural): focus on language, discourse and representation language, discourse and representation

last week …last week …

Barrett charts a shift to focus on symbolic in explaining Barrett charts a shift to focus on symbolic in explaining gender differences (late 1970s onwards)gender differences (late 1970s onwards)

critique of critique of universalismuniversalism – not all women the same – not all women the same

critique of critique of rationalismrationalism and of the and of the subjectsubject – masculine? – masculine?

the the gendering of modernity-gendering of modernity- modern=masculine – is modern=masculine – is feminism indebted to modernist liberalism?feminism indebted to modernist liberalism?

critique of materialismcritique of materialism – are we determined by social – are we determined by social structure or are meanings and experiences important? structure or are meanings and experiences important?

lecture outlinelecture outline

has equality between (amongst?) women has equality between (amongst?) women and men been achieved?and men been achieved?

evidence of significant changes?evidence of significant changes?

consider evidence you collected – consider evidence you collected – summarise your findingssummarise your findings

lecture outline …lecture outline …

family, education, workplace, sexual family, education, workplace, sexual harassment, gender pay gap/age, political harassment, gender pay gap/age, political

representation, policyrepresentation, policy

‘‘Theorising Patriarchy’ and ‘Gender Theorising Patriarchy’ and ‘Gender Transformations’ (Walby 1990, 1997)Transformations’ (Walby 1990, 1997)

feminist degendering movement? feminist degendering movement?

(Lorber 2000)(Lorber 2000)

Family Status & Criticism of Family Status & Criticism of Gender Inequality at Home & Gender Inequality at Home &

at Workat Work

Emily W. Kane & Laura Sanchez Emily W. Kane & Laura Sanchez (1994)(1994)

KirstyKirsty

Criticism of Gender Inequality at Criticism of Gender Inequality at Home & at WorkHome & at Work

Family and marriageFamily and marriage breeds gender inequality. breeds gender inequality.

Women often expected to do the ‘Women often expected to do the ‘Second ShiftSecond Shift’ ’ (Hochschild, 1990) – which is suited to male interests.(Hochschild, 1990) – which is suited to male interests.

Men will accept women’s involvement in the workplace Men will accept women’s involvement in the workplace so long as their so long as their role is not alteredrole is not altered..

Yet women often experience inequality in the workplace Yet women often experience inequality in the workplace which can lead to which can lead to economic dependenceeconomic dependence on husbands, on husbands, especially where children are involved. especially where children are involved.

As a result, women are often As a result, women are often reluctant to reluctant to criticisecriticise the the situation of gender inequality in the home for fear of situation of gender inequality in the home for fear of losing their partner and economic stability. losing their partner and economic stability.

(Margaret)(Margaret)Gray & Leith (2004) ‘Perpetuating gender stereotypes Gray & Leith (2004) ‘Perpetuating gender stereotypes in the classroom: a teacher perspective’, in the classroom: a teacher perspective’, Educational Educational

StudiesStudies, 30(1), 30(1)

3 main themes:3 main themes:

the extent that the extent that teacher trainingteacher training addresses addresses gendergender

teacher perception of teacher perception of gendered behaviour in gendered behaviour in the classroomthe classroom

teacher perception of teacher perception of occupational occupational stereotypingstereotyping in the classroom in the classroom

main pointsmain points

teachers insist that children treated equally – but this has teachers insist that children treated equally – but this has been challengedbeen challenged

subjects studied by boys and girls – genderedsubjects studied by boys and girls – gendered

gender not central – training – teaching resources gender not central – training – teaching resources perpetuate gender stereotypes?perpetuate gender stereotypes?

National curriculum – ineffective in addressing gender National curriculum – ineffective in addressing gender inequality in schools?inequality in schools?

impact on future life chances and opportunities of the impact on future life chances and opportunities of the child?child?

(Alan)(Alan)Gender Gap 101(2002)Gender Gap 101(2002)

Report from News Hour Extra.Report from News Hour Extra.

College seats filled more frequently by College seats filled more frequently by females than males.females than males.

Attendance vs Power?Attendance vs Power?

Where did the guys go?Where did the guys go?

Reverse Gap behind the scenes.Reverse Gap behind the scenes.

Maintaining the Inequality Gap?Maintaining the Inequality Gap?

The Future?The Future?

Crompton et al (1990), Crompton et al (1990), Gender Gender Relations and EmploymentRelations and Employment

How equal are men and women? – How equal are men and women? – Areas of marked improvementAreas of marked improvement

(Patrick)(Patrick)

Areas of Marked ImprovementAreas of Marked Improvement

the the economic activity rateeconomic activity rate amongst women of working amongst women of working age in Britain has grown from an inter-war plateau of just age in Britain has grown from an inter-war plateau of just under 40% to well over 60% by the mid-1980’sunder 40% to well over 60% by the mid-1980’s a lower percentage of women a lower percentage of women leave schoolleave school with no with no qualifications compared toqualifications compared to men (9% of women compared men (9% of women compared to 13% of men)to 13% of men) the number of women going into the number of women going into further educationfurther education has has also increasedalso increased 1970 women accounted for 32% of undergraduates and 1970 women accounted for 32% of undergraduates and by 1986 this figure was up to 43%by 1986 this figure was up to 43% Between 1971 and 1981 the proportion of women in Between 1971 and 1981 the proportion of women in professional and managerial jobsprofessional and managerial jobs increased by 45%, increased by 45%, compared to that of men 16%compared to that of men 16%

(Laura Murphy)(Laura Murphy)Mustafa F. OzbilginMustafa F. Ozbilgin

Is the practice of equal opportunities management keeping pace with Is the practice of equal opportunities management keeping pace with theory? Management of sex equality in the financial services sector in theory? Management of sex equality in the financial services sector in

Britain and TurkeyBritain and Turkey

Research conducted in Turkey in 1996 and Britain Research conducted in Turkey in 1996 and Britain in 1997.in 1997.– Generated 45 interviews- 25 in Britain and 20 in Turkey.Generated 45 interviews- 25 in Britain and 20 in Turkey.– Completed 362 questionnaires- 50 in Britain and 312 in Turkey.Completed 362 questionnaires- 50 in Britain and 312 in Turkey.

Looked at the differences between part and full Looked at the differences between part and full time employment and the divide between the time employment and the divide between the sexes.sexes.– Between 1973 and 1994 women’s economic activity increased from Between 1973 and 1994 women’s economic activity increased from

63% to 71% and males activity decreased from 91% to 85%.63% to 71% and males activity decreased from 91% to 85%.– Humphries 1992 suggested two reasons for the changes in Humphries 1992 suggested two reasons for the changes in

economic activity, these wereeconomic activity, these were– Technological developments Technological developments – Extended opening hours Extended opening hours

continued …continued …

This research also revealed seven different approaches four in Britain This research also revealed seven different approaches four in Britain and three in Turkey and three in Turkey

Conservative Approach Conservative Approach Liberal ApproachLiberal ApproachLiberal ApproachLiberal Approach Traditionalist ApproachTraditionalist ApproachRadical ApproachRadical Approach Progressive Radical ApproachProgressive Radical ApproachTransformation ApproachTransformation Approach

Overall research appeared to show that women had the same Overall research appeared to show that women had the same opportunities as males within their companies.opportunities as males within their companies.

– 94% of Turkish respondents believe that barriers no longer existed for 94% of Turkish respondents believe that barriers no longer existed for women in their companieswomen in their companies

– 68.8% of British respondents claimed that there were no restricting factors 68.8% of British respondents claimed that there were no restricting factors restricting equality of opportunities for women in their companies.restricting equality of opportunities for women in their companies.

(Bruce)(Bruce)The Equal Treatment Amendment The Equal Treatment Amendment

Directive (ETAD)Directive (ETAD)In the UK: In the UK: – no statutory definition of sexual harassmentno statutory definition of sexual harassment – no attempt in the UK to introduce a domestic law specifically dealing no attempt in the UK to introduce a domestic law specifically dealing

with sexual harassment in the workplacewith sexual harassment in the workplace

1998 – EU commission recognised sexual harassment as problem 1998 – EU commission recognised sexual harassment as problem throughout EUthroughout EU

Amended ETAD aimed to develop the law against sexual harassment and Amended ETAD aimed to develop the law against sexual harassment and to provide a definition. to provide a definition. – The implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and The implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and

women concerning access to employment, vocational training and women concerning access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditionspromotion, and working conditions

Interesting that article focused only on women subject to sexual Interesting that article focused only on women subject to sexual harassmentharassment– Legislation recognised equal treatment for women AND men, and Legislation recognised equal treatment for women AND men, and

need to protect both women AND men, from sexual harassment.need to protect both women AND men, from sexual harassment.

(Dawn)(Dawn)Gunning, W (2006) ‘Women still face unequal wage gap’, Gunning, W (2006) ‘Women still face unequal wage gap’,

www.nyunews.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2006/02/22/43fc05d705dabwww.nyunews.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2006/02/22/43fc05d705dab

US Survey – National Association for Female Executives – US Survey – National Association for Female Executives – gender pay gapgender pay gap

no progress despite equal pay and employment legislationno progress despite equal pay and employment legislation

problem – enforcing such legislationproblem – enforcing such legislation

ethnic minority women – even more disadvantagedethnic minority women – even more disadvantaged

but some argue that the findings are out of context – pay but some argue that the findings are out of context – pay levels linked to experience – others challenge this levels linked to experience – others challenge this

explanationexplanation

difficult to pin down an explanation for the pay difficult to pin down an explanation for the pay discrepancy?discrepancy?

(Wendy)(Wendy)Ginn & Arber (1991) ‘Gender, Class and Income Ginn & Arber (1991) ‘Gender, Class and Income

Inequalities in Later Life’, Inequalities in Later Life’, British Journal ofBritish Journal of SociologySociology, 42(3): 369-396., 42(3): 369-396.

ageism ageism masks structured gender inequalitiesmasks structured gender inequalities

occupational and private occupational and private pensionspensions – linked to the – linked to the sexual division in the sexual division in the workplaceworkplace??

‘‘cost of caring’?cost of caring’?

General Household Survey data (1985-86)General Household Survey data (1985-86)

discontinuous discontinuous work record – child care etcwork record – child care etc

elderly people – elderly people – not a homogenous groupnot a homogenous group – income – income

non-state pension non-state pension perpetuateperpetuate such financial inequalities? such financial inequalities?

(Laura Cruickshank)(Laura Cruickshank)Busby & MacLeod (2001) ‘Maintaining a balance: the Busby & MacLeod (2001) ‘Maintaining a balance: the

retention of women MPs in Scotland’, Parliamentary Affairs retention of women MPs in Scotland’, Parliamentary Affairs

Website – no address givenWebsite – no address given Scottish parliament – increase access to political Scottish parliament – increase access to political

participationparticipation

compares Holyrood with Westminstercompares Holyrood with Westminster

strategy to promote equality – ‘zipping’strategy to promote equality – ‘zipping’

37% all MSPs - women 37% all MSPs - women

Scotland – 3Scotland – 3rdrd world league table whilst Westminster is 26 world league table whilst Westminster is 26thth

implications of women being more involved in implications of women being more involved in parliamentary issues?parliamentary issues?

Gender Equality and Gender MainstreamingGender Equality and Gender MainstreamingMira VakilyMira Vakily

Targets for gender equalityTargets for gender equalitywomen’s rights as human rights;women’s rights as human rights;equal participation in political and public life; equal participation in political and public life; the economic independence;the economic independence;the empowerment of girls and boys through the education systems;the empowerment of girls and boys through the education systems;remove imbalances in society;remove imbalances in society;

Gender MainstreamingGender MainstreamingGGender mainstreaming is the (re)organisation, improvement, development ender mainstreaming is the (re)organisation, improvement, development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality perspective is and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all stages, by the actors incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all stages, by the actors normally involved in policy-making.normally involved in policy-making.

Why is gender mainstreaming important (to the EC)?Why is gender mainstreaming important (to the EC)?policy-making is more people focussedpolicy-making is more people focussedit leads to better governmentit leads to better governmentinvolves both men and womeninvolves both men and womengender (in)equality becomes more visiblegender (in)equality becomes more visibleconsiders the diversity among men and womenconsiders the diversity among men and women

‘‘Fundamental transformations’?Fundamental transformations’?(Walby 1990; 1997)(Walby 1990; 1997)

See ‘See ‘Theorising PatriarchyTheorising Patriarchy’ – 6 structures of ’ – 6 structures of patriarchy -patriarchy -

(paid employment, household production, the state, (paid employment, household production, the state, male violence, culture, sexuality)male violence, culture, sexuality)

there have been many changes - shift from there have been many changes - shift from private private to publicto public patriarchy? patriarchy?

‘‘convergence’convergence’ between women and men? between women and men?

‘‘polarisation’polarisation’ between women? between women?- e.g. education (Walby 1997: see ch. 2)- e.g. education (Walby 1997: see ch. 2)

‘‘Fundamental transformations’?Fundamental transformations’?(Walby 1990; 1997)(Walby 1990; 1997)

last fifty years public form more last fifty years public form more dominant?dominant?

– age significant- generational differences?age significant- generational differences?

exclusion to segregation?exclusion to segregation?

improved by women’s political improved by women’s political participation, but male resistance?participation, but male resistance?

patriarchy affects women differentlypatriarchy affects women differentlye.g. class, age, life course, ethnicitye.g. class, age, life course, ethnicity

‘‘Feminist degendering movement’?Feminist degendering movement’?(see e.g. Lorber 2000)(see e.g. Lorber 2000)

feminists want women and men to be equalfeminists want women and men to be equal

dividing people into two unequally valued dividing people into two unequally valued categories underpins gender inequality categories underpins gender inequality

(social constructionist perspective)(social constructionist perspective)

dismantle binary gender divisions?dismantle binary gender divisions?

universally applicable? universally applicable?

Next week …Next week …

Are there gendered interests that require Are there gendered interests that require political representation?political representation?

explore two main strands:explore two main strands:

certain identities (especially gender identities) certain identities (especially gender identities) produce a certain type of politics?produce a certain type of politics?

what ‘the personal is political’ might mean.what ‘the personal is political’ might mean.