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How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions? The Scientific Method
Description
Correlation
Experimentation
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Psychology’s RootsAristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Aristotle, a naturalist and philosopher, theorized about psychology’s concepts. He suggested that the soul and body are not separate and that knowledge grows from
experience.
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Psychological Science is Born
Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students
studied the “atoms of the mind” by conducting
experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. This work is considered the
birth of psychology as we know it today.
Structuralism- used introspection
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FunctionalismWilliam James- Father of “modern psychology”
Early approach that emphasized the function or purpose of behavior and consciousness
Interested in how and why something happens- predecessor to behaviorism
Functionalists broadened field of psychology to include the study of children, animals, religious experiences, and stream of consciousness
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Psychological Science is Born
Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, and his followers emphasized the importance of the
unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.
Fre
ud
(1856
-1939)
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PsychoanalysisA theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy, originally formulated by Sigmund Freud
Emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts
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The biological perspective
Psychological approach that focuses on how bodily events affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts
This perspective involvesHormones
Brain chemistry
Heredity
Evolutionary influences
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Psychological Science DevelopsBehaviorists
Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt- observable- behavior as the
subject matter of scientific psychology.
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The cognitive perspective
Psychological approach that emphasizes what goes on in people’s heads
This perspective involvesBehaviorism
Social-cognitive learning theories
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Psychological Science Develops
Humanistic Psychology
Maslow and Rogers emphasized current environmental influences on our growth
potential and our need for love and acceptance.
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Humanist psychology
Psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of human potential, rather than the scientific understanding of behavior
This approachRejected behaviorism and psychoanalysis
Emphasized creativity and achieving potential
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The sociocultural perspective
Psychological approach that emphasizes social and cultural forces outside the individual
This perspective involvesSocial psychology or the study of rules, roles, groups, and relationships
Cultural psychology or the study of culturalnorms, values, and expectations
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Psychology Today
We define psychology today as the scientific study of behavior (what we
do) and mental processes (inner thoughts and feelings).
The best of psychology takes a combined approach to looking at any
given phenomenon- The biopsychosocial approach
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Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis
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Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Perspective Focus Sample Questions
Neuroscience How the body and brain enables emotions?
How are messages transmitted in the body? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives?
Evolutionary How the natural selection of traits the promotes the perpetuation of one’s genes?
How does evolution influence behavior tendencies?
Behavior genetics
How much our genes and our environments influence our individual differences?
To what extent are psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression attributable to our genes? To our environment?
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Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Perspective Focus Sample Questions
Psychodynamic
How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts?
How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained in terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?
Behavioral How we learn observable responses?
How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say to lose weight or quit smoking?
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Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Perspective Focus Sample Questions
Cognitive How we encode, process, store and retrieve information?
How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Problem solving?
Social-cultural
How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures?
How are we — as Africans, Asians, Australians or North Americans – alike as members of human family? As products of different environmental contexts, how do we differ?
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Psychology’s Subfields: Research
Psychologist What she does
Biological Explore the links between brain and mind.
Developmental Study changing abilities from womb to tomb.
Cognitive Study how we perceive, think, and solve problems.
Personality Investigate our persistent traits.
Social Explore how we view and affect one another.
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A clinical psychologist (Ph.D.) studies, assesses, and treats troubled people with
psychotherapy.
Psychiatrists on the other hand are medical professionals (M.D.) who use treatments
like drugs and psychotherapy to treat psychologically diseased patients.
Clinical Psychology vs. Psychiatry
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Four Big Ideas in Psychology
1. Critical Thinking is Smart Thinking2. Behavior is a Biopsychosocial Event3. We Operate with a Two-Track Mind
(Dual Processing)4. Psychology Explores Human
Strengths as Well as Challenges
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Why Do Psychology?
1. How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions?
2. The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do!
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What About Intuition & Common Sense?
Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth
answers regarding human nature.
Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.
Example: Personal interviewers may rely too much on their “gut feelings” when
meeting with job applicants.
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Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.
After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have
predicted that very outcome. Example: We only knew the dot.com stocks (housing market) would plummet after they
actually did plummet.
Hindsight Bias
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Overconfidence
Sometimes we think we know more than we
actually know. Anagram
BARGEGRABE
ENTRYETYRN
WATERWREATHow long do you think it
would take to unscramble these
anagrams?People said it would
take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took
about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).
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Critical Thinking
Critical thinking does not accept arguments and
conclusions blindly.
It examines assumptions,
discerns hidden values, evaluates
evidence and assesses
conclusions.The Amazing Randi
Courtesy of the Jam
es Randi E
ducation Foundation
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Critical thinking guidelines
Ask questions
Define your terms
Examine the evidence
Analyze assumptions and biases
Avoid emotional reasoning
Don’t oversimplify
Consider other interpretations
Tolerate uncertainty
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How Do Psychologists Ask & Answer Questions?
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct
theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
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A theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes
and predicts behavior or events.
For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
Theory
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A hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable
us to accept, reject or revise the theory.
People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.
Hypothesis
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Research would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and
depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our
hypothesis.
Research Observations
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Research Process
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Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral
principles.
Is language uniquely human?
Susan K
uklin/ Photo R
esearchers
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Descriptive methods
Methods that yield descriptions of behavior, but not necessarily causal explanations
IncludeCase studies
Observational studies
Psychological tests
Surveys
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Case studies
A detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated, which may be used to formulate broader research hypotheses
Most commonly used by clinicians; occasionally used by researchers
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Observational studies
Researchers carefully and systematically observe and record behavior without interfering with behavior
Naturalistic observationPurpose is to observe how people or animals behave in their natural environments.Laboratory observationPurpose is to observe how people or animals behave in a more controlled setting.
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Surveys
Questionnaires and interviews that ask people about experiences, attitudes, or opinions
Requires a representative sampleGroup of subjects, selected from the population for study, which matches the population on important characteristics such as age and sex
Popular polls and surveys rely on volunteers
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Survey
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs.
forbid)
Wording Effects
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Survey
Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a
sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is
biased, its results are not valid.
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.
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Descriptive Methods
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation describe
behaviors.
They are difficult to replicate therefore cannot be used as
evidence to prove a psychological theory
Summary
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Correlational study
A descriptive study that looks for a consistent relationship between two phenomena
CorrelationA statistical measure of how strongly two variables are related to one another.
Correlational coefficients can range from 0.0 – 1.0.
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Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two
correlate.
Correlation coefficient
Indicates directionof relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)
r = 0.37+
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two
variables.
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Direction of correlations
Positive correlationsAn association between increases in one variable and increases in another, or decreases in one variable and decreases in the other.
Negative correlationsAn association between increases in one variable and decreases in another.
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or
Correlation and CausationCorrelation does not mean causation!
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Explaining correlations
Start with three variables (X, Y, Z)X might cause YY might cause XX might be correlated with Y, which alone causes Z
Correlations show patterns, not causes. Illusory Correlation The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Examples…
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Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
Order in Random Events
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
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Experimentation
Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychological research. Experiments isolate causes and their
effects.
Exploring Cause and Effect
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Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept
under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
Exploring Cause & Effect
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In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter’s assistants should
remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the
placebo treatment.
Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
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Assigning participants to experimental (breast-fed) and control (formula-fed)
conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences
between the two groups.
Evaluating Therapies
Random Assignment
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Variables of interestIndependent variables Variables the experimenter manipulates
Dependent variables Variables the experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable(s)
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An independent variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the
focus of the study. For example, when examining the effects of
breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable.
Independent Variable
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A dependent variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a
behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence,
intelligence is the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable
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An experiment
A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another.
An experiment includes variables of interest, control conditions, and random assignment.
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ExperimentationA summary of steps during
experimentation.
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Your turnAn experimenter wants to study the effects of music on studying. He has some students study while listening to music and others study in silence, and then compares their test scores. What is the independent variable in this experiment?1. The students2. The presence of music while studying3. The kind of music4. The test scores
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ComparisonBelow is a comparison of different
research methods.
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Control conditions
In an experiment, a comparison condition in which subjects are not exposed to the same treatment as in the experimental condition.
In some experiments, the control group is given a placebo, an inactive substance or fake treatment.
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Random assignment
For experiments to have experimental and control groups composed of similar subjects, random assignment should be used.
Each individual participating in the study has the same probability as any other of being assigned to a given group.
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Experimenter effectsUnintended changes in subjects’ behavior due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter.
Strategies for preventing experimenter effects include single- and double-blind studies.
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Descriptive statisticsStatistical procedures that organize and summarize research data
ExamplesArithmetic mean
Standard deviation
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Inferential statisticsStatistical procedures that allow researchers to draw inferences about how statistically meaningful a study’s results are.
The most commonly used inferential statistics are significance tests.Statistical tests that show how likely it is that a study’s results occurred merely by chance
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Choosing the best explanation
Interpretation of results may depend on how the research was conducted.
Cross-sectional studiesSubjects of different ages are compared at a single time.
Longitudinal studiesSubjects are periodically assessed over a period of time.
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Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology
Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
Ans: Artificial laboratory conditions are created to study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to find underlying
principles that govern behavior.
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FAQ
Q5. Is psychology free of value judgments?
Ans: No. Psychology emerges from people who subscribe to a set of values and
judgments.
© Roger Shepard