Honors Biology Reading Guide Chapter...

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Honors Biology Reading Guide Chapter 10 Fredrick Griffith When he killed bacteria and then mixed the bacteria remains with living harmless bacteria some living bacteria cells converted to disease causing form all of the descendants of transformed bacteria inherited ability to cause disease Some chemical component of the dead bacteria could act as a transforming factor that brought about a heritable change in live bacteria Hershey and Chase Worked with bacteriophages Marked the DNA and the protein in T2 with radioactive tracers Proved that it is the viral DNA that contains the instructions for making phages and that DNA is the molecule of heredity Watson and Crick Three major fundamental principles discovered DNA’s shape is a double helix Individual structures of the bases dictate pairing Sugar and phosphate backbone Purines are paired with pyrimidine Chargaff’s rules A always pairs with T G always pairs with C Amount of A is equal to the amount of T and the amount of G is equal to the amount of C Rosalind Franklin Produced an Xray crystallographic image Helping Watson and Crick As a result they discovered that DNA had a double helix and the shape of the DNA Archibald Garrod Genes dictate phenotypes through enzymes, an inherited disease reflects persons inability to make a particular enzyme and he was right George Beadle and Edward Tatum They proposed the one gene one protein hypothesis The idea that the function of a gene is to dictate the production of a specific enzyme DNA and RNA are polymers Basic structure They are covalently bonded Nucleic acids Polymers nucleotides Polynucleotide Have sugar phosphate and nitrogenous base

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Honors  Biology  Reading  Guide  Chapter  10  v Fredrick  Griffith    

Ø When  he  killed  bacteria  and  then  mixed  the  bacteria  remains  with  living  harmless  bacteria  some  living  bacteria  cells  converted  to  disease  causing  form  all  of  the  descendants  of  transformed  bacteria  inherited  ability  to  cause  disease  

Ø Some  chemical  component  of  the  dead  bacteria  could  act  as  a  transforming  factor  that  brought  about  a  heritable  change  in  live  bacteria    

v Hershey  and  Chase    Ø Worked  with  bacteriophages    Ø Marked  the  DNA  and  the  protein  in  T2  with  radioactive  tracers    Ø Proved  that  it  is  the  viral  DNA  that  contains  the  instructions  for  making  

phages  and  that  DNA  is  the  molecule  of  heredity    v Watson  and  Crick    

Ø Three  major  fundamental  principles  discovered    § DNA’s  shape  is  a  double  helix    § Individual  structures  of  the  bases  dictate  pairing    § Sugar  and  phosphate  backbone    § Purines  are  paired  with  pyrimidine    

v Chargaff’s  rules    Ø A  always  pairs  with  T  Ø G  always  pairs  with  C  Ø Amount  of  A  is  equal  to  the  amount  of  T  and  the  amount  of  G  is  equal  to  the  

amount  of  C  v Rosalind  Franklin    

Ø Produced  an  X-­‐ray  crystallographic  image    Ø Helping  Watson  and  Crick    

§ As  a  result  they  discovered  that  DNA  had  a  double  helix  and  the  shape  of  the  DNA    

v Archibald  Garrod    Ø Genes  dictate  phenotypes  through  enzymes,  an  inherited  disease  reflects  

persons  inability  to  make  a  particular  enzyme  and  he  was  right    v George  Beadle  and  Edward  Tatum    

Ø They  proposed  the  one  gene  one  protein  hypothesis    Ø The  idea  that  the  function  of  a  gene  is  to  dictate  the  production  of  a  specific  

enzyme    v DNA  and  RNA  are  polymers    

Ø Basic  structure    § They  are  covalently  bonded    § Nucleic  acids    

• Polymers  nucleotides    • Polynucleotide    • Have  sugar  phosphate  and  nitrogenous  base    

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     v Bases    

Ø Pyrimidine    § Single  strand    § Cytosine  (C)  § Thymine  (T)  

Ø Purines    § Double  strand    

• Adenine  (A)  • Guanine  (G)  

v Comparing  DNA  and  RNA  Ø DNA  

§ G,  T,  A,  C  § Deoxyribose  sugar    

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Ø RNA  § G,  U,  A,  C  § Ribose  sugar    

v Watson  and  Crick  discovered  how  DNA  appears  the  major  structural  components  are    Ø Sugar  phosphate    Ø Nitrogenous  bases    

v Chromosome  theory  of  inheritance  says  that  these  influence  phenotype    § Gene    § Chromosome    

v The  double  helix  is  held  together  through  hydrogen  bonds    v Base  pairing  explains  how  DNA  is  replicated  the  three  main  steps  are  as  follows    

Ø Two  strands  of  DNA  separate    Ø Nucleotides  line  up  one  at  a  time  along  the  template  strand  in  accordance  to  

base  pairing  rules    § Each  becomes  template  assembly  of  complimentary  strand  from  a  supply  

of  free  nucleotides  always  in  the  nucleus    Ø Enzymes  link  nucleotides  to  form  new  DNA  strands    

v Semiconservative  model  of  DNA  duplication    Ø Types  of  DNA  replication  in  which  the  replicated  double  helix  consists  of  one  

old  strand  derived  from  the  old  molecules  and  one  newly  made  strand    Ø Half  of  the  parent  DNA  molecule  is  conserved  while  half  of  the  DNA  molecule  

is  new    

 v Replication  of  DNA  begins  in  a  place  called  the  origins  of  replication  -­‐  short  

stretches  of  DNA  with  specific  sequence    

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Ø Here  nucleotides  then  proteins  attach  to  DNA  and  separate  strands    Ø Replication  then  proceeds  in  both  directions    Ø On  the  parent  DNA  replication  bubbles  are  formed    

   v In  eukaryotes  there  can  be  hundreds  and  thousands  of  replication  bubbles  at  a  

time  Ø The  more  bubbles  that  are  present  the  faster  the  replication  time    

v The  process  of  DNA  replication  differs  on  the  two  strands    Ø The  names  oft  h  two  ends  of  the  DNA  backbone  is  3  prime  and  5  prime    Ø How  they  are  different    

§ Prime  refers  to  the  carbon  atoms  of  the  nucleotide  sugars    § 3’  carbon  attached  to  an  OH-­‐  group    § 5’  carbon  attacked  to  phosphate  groups    § Opposite  sides  o  the  DNA  molecules    

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       v DNA  polymerase  inks  nucleotides  in  the  growing  daughter  strands    v The  enzymes  add  nucleotides  only  to  the  3’  end  of  the  DNA  v Daughter  strands  grow  in  the  5’  à  3’  direction    v One  of  the  daughter  strands  can  be  synthesized  in  one  continuous  piece  by  a  

DNA  polymerase  working  toward  the  forking  point  of  the  parental  DNA  but  to  make  other  daughter  stand  polymerase  molecules  must  work  outward  from  the  forking  point  any  way  this  can  be  accomplished  if  a  new  strand  is  synthesized  in  short  pieces  as  fork  opens  up,  Okazai  fragments    

v DNA  ligase  links  of  ligates  pieces  together  into  a  single  DNA  strand    

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   v Other  functions  of  polymerase  and  ligase    

Ø Polymerase:  proofreading  step  removes  nucleotides  that  have  base  paired  incorrectly  during  replication    

Ø Both:  also  repairing  DNA  damages  by  harmful  radiation  (X-­‐rays  and  UV  light)  or  toxic  chemicals  from  the  environment  

v How  does  DNA  (genotype)  determine  physical  traits  (phenotypes)    Ø Proteins  are  links  between  the  genotypes  and  the  phenotypes  gene  doesn’t  

build  a  protein  directly  protein  dispatches  instructions  to  form  RNA  which  programs  protein  synthesis    

v Central  dogma    Ø Molecular  chain  of  command  is  form  DNA  in  the  nucleus  of  the  cell  RNA  to  

protein  synthesis  in  the  cytoplasm  two  main  stages  are  transcription  and  the  synthesis  of  RNA  under  the  direction  of  DNA  and  translation,  the  synthesis  of  protein  under  the  direction  of  RNA  

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v Beadle  and  Tatum  discovered  the  one  gene  to  one  enzyme  hypothesis,  the  idea  that  the  function  of  a  gene  is  to  dictate  the  production  of  a  specific  enzyme    Ø Expansion    

§ Includes  all  proteins    § Functions  of  genes  is  to  dictate  the  production  of  a  polypeptide    

v The  chemical  language  of  the  DNA  is  translated  into  the  chemical  language  of  proteins  because  the  bridge  between  DNA  and  protein  synthesis  is  nucleic  acid  RNA,  DNA  transcribed  into  RNA  which  is  translated  into  a  protein  –  DNA  à  RNA  à  protein    

v Transcription    Ø The  synthesis  of  RNA  under  the  direction  of  DNA  Ø DNA  is  the  template  to  create  the  RNA  strand    

v Translation    Ø The  synthesis  of  proteins  under  the  direction  of  RNA  

v Codon    Ø A  3  nucleotide  sequence  in  mRNA  that  specifies  a  particular  amino  acid  or  

polypeptide  termination  signal  the  basic  unit  of  the  genetic  code    v Triplet  code:    

Ø A  set  of  3  nucleotide  long  “words”  that  specify  the  amino  acids  for  polypeptide  chains  

v Genetic  code    Ø Amino  acids  are  specified  by  codons    

§ There  is  no  ambiguity  although  there  is  redundancy    § Signal  polypeptide  chain  to  start  and  stop    § Complimentary  relationship  to  codons  in  DNA/RNA  § Genetic  code  is  mostly  universal    

   v Transcription  process    

Ø Occurs  in  the  nucleus  of  a  eukaryotic  cell    Ø Three  steps    

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§ Initiation  –  attachment  of  RNA  polymerase  to  the  promoter  and  the  start  of  the  RNA  synthesis    

§ Elongation  –  RNA  grows  longer  as  RNA  synthesis  continues  the  RNA  strands  peel  away  from  the  DNA  template  allowing  the  two  separated  DNA  strands  to  come  back  together  in  the  region  already  transcribed    

§ Termination  –  RNA  polymerase  reached  a  sequence  of  bases  in  the  DNA  template  called  a  terminator  this  sequence  signals  the  end  of  the  genes  at  that  point  in  time  polymerase  molecule  detaches  form  the  RNA  molecule  and  that  gene  

v Messenger  RNA  (mRNA)  Ø Conveys  genetic  messages  form  DNA  to  the  translation  machinery  of  the  cell    Ø Eukaryotic  transcripts  are  modified  or  processed    

§ Addition  extra  nucleotides  ends  of  RNA  transcript  additions  include  a  small  cap  at  one  end  and  a  long  tail  at  the  other  end,  cap  and  tail  facilitates  the  export  of  the  mRNA  from  nucleus  protect  the  mRNA  from  attack  by  cellular  organisms  and  help  ribosomes  bind  to  the  mRNA  capital  not  translated  into  protein    

§ Non  coding  stretches  of  nucleotides  that  interrupt  the  nucleotides  that  actually  code  for  amino  acids  internal  noncoding  regions  called  introns  (intervening  sequences)  coded  regions  that  are  expressed  are  called  exons  introns  are  removes  an  the  exons  are  joined  to  produce  an  mRNA  molecule  with  a  continuous  coding  sequence  –  RNA  splicing  provides  means  to  produce  multiple  polypeptides  from  single  gene    

v Transfer  RNA    (tRNA)  Ø Converts  words  nucleic  acids  (codons)  to  the  amino  acid  words  of  proteins  a  

cell  employs  tRNA    Ø tRNa  knows  which  amino  acids  to  pick  up  form  the  cytoplasm  because    

§ Recognizing  appropriate  codons  in  the  mRNA  with  unique  structure  tRNA  Ø Twisting  upon  itself  tRNA  forms  several  double  stranded  regions  in  which  

short  stretches  RNA  base  pair  with  other  stretches  via  Hydrogen  bonds    Ø Single  stranded  loop  at  one  end  folded  molecule  contains  special  triplet  bases  

called  anticodon    Ø Anticodon  complementary  to  a  codon  triplet  on  mRNA  during  translation  

anticodon  recognize  particular  codon  on  mRNA  by  using  base  pairing  rules    Ø Other  end  of  the  tRNA  molecule  is  a  site  where  one  specific  kind  of  amino  

acid  can  attack    Ø Each  amino  acid  is  joined  to  the  correct  tRNa  by  a  specific  enzyme  each  

enzyme  specifically  binds  one  types  of  amino  acid  to  all  tRNA  molecules  that  coded  for  that  amino  acid    § Use  ATP  to  drive  action    

Ø Resulting  tRNA  amino  acid  complex  then  add  amino  acid  to  goring  polypeptide  chain    

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 v Ribosomal  RNA  (rRNA)    

Ø The  type  of  ribonucleic  acid  that  together  with  proteins  makes  ribosomes  the  most  abundant  RNA  in  most  cells    

 

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v Translation    Ø Initiation  –  brings  together  the  mRNA  at  RNA  bearing  the  first  amino  acid  

and  the  two  subunits  of  a  ribosome  § Establishes  exactly  where  translation  will  begin  ensuring  that  the  mRNA  

codons  are  translated  into  the  correct  sequence  of  amino  acids    § An  mRNA  molecule  bonds  to  a  small  ribosomal  subunit  A  special  initiator  

tRNA  binds  to  a  specific  codon  called  the  start  codon  where  translation  is  to  begin  on  the  mRNA  molecule  initiator  tRNA  garries  th  amino  acid  its  anticodon  binds  to  the  start  codon    

§ Large  ribosomal  subunit  bings  to  the  small  one  creating  a  continual  ribosome  initiator  tRNA  fits  into  one  of  that  of  tRNA  binding  sites  on  the  ribosome  this  site  called  the  P  site  will  bold  the  growing  polypeptide  the  other  tRNA  binding  site  called  he  A  site  is  vacant  and  ready  for  the  next  amino  acid  bearing  tRNA    

Ø Elongation    § Codon  recognition  –  the  anticodon  of  an  incoming  tRNA  molecule  

carrying  its  amino  acid  pairs  with  the  mRNA  codon  in  the  A  site  of  the  ribosome    

§ Peptide  bond  formation  -­‐  The  polypeptide  separates  from  the  tRNA  in  the  P  site  and  attaches  by  a  new  peptide  bond  to  the  amino  acid  carried  by  the  tRNA  in  the  A  site  the  ribosome  catalyzes  formation  of  the  peptide  bond  adding  one  more  amino  acid  to  the  growing  peptide  chain    

§ Translocation  –  the  P  site  tRNA  now  leaves  the  ribosome  and  the  ribosome  translocate  (moves)  the  remaining  tRNA  in  the  A  site  with  the  growing  polypeptide  to  the  P  site  the  codon  and  the  anticodon  remain  hydrogen  bonded  and  the  mRNA  and  the  tRNA  move  as  a  unit  this      movement  brings  into  the  A  site  the  next  mRNA  codon  to  be  translated  and  the  process  can  start  again  with  the  codon  recognition    

Ø Termination    § Elongation  continues  until  a  stop  codon  reaches  the  ribosomes  site  stop  

codons  don  not  code  for  amino  acids  but  as  signals  to  stop  translation  completed  polypeptide  is  freed  from  the  last  tRNA  and  ribosome  splits  back  into  its  separate  subunits    

v Polypeptides  can  be  made  in  under  a  minute    v When  the  polypeptide  structure  is  made  it  coils  and  folds  assuming  a  3-­‐D  shape  

its  tertiary  structure,  several  polypeptides  may  come  together  forming  a  protein  with  quaternary  structure    

v Proteins  in  an  organism  determine  the  appearance  and  the  capabilities  of  the  cell  and  the  organism    

v Mutation    Ø A  change  in  the  nucleotide  sequence  of  an  organism’s  DNA  the  ultimate  

source  of  genetic  diversity  can  also  occur  in  the  DNA  or  RNA  of  a  virus    v Silent  mutation    

Ø A  mutation  in  a  gene  that  changes  a  codon  to  one  that  encodes  for  the  same  amino  acid  as  the  original  codon  the  amino  acid  sequence  of  the  resulting  polypeptide  is  thus  unchanged    

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v Missense  mutation    Ø A  change  in  the  nucleotide  sequence  of  a  gene  that  alters  the  amino  acid  

sequence  of  the  resulting  polypeptide,  a  codon  is  changed  from  encoding  one  amino  acid  to  encoding  a  different  amino  acid    

v Nonsense  mutation    Ø A  change  in  the  nucleotide  sequence  of  a  gene  that  converts  an  amino  acid  

encoding  codon  to  a  stop  codon  this  results  in  a  shortened  peptide    v Reading  frame    

Ø The  way  a  cell’s  mRNA  translating  machinery  groups  the  mRNA  nucleotides  into  codons    

v Insertion    Ø The  addition  of  one  or  more  nucleotides  form  a  gene  my  a  mutation    

v Deletion    Ø The  loss  of  one  of  more  nucleotides  from  a  gene  by  mutation    

v Substitution    Ø Replacement  of  one  nucleotide  and  its  base  pairing  partner  with  another  pair  

of  nucleotides    v Mutagen    

Ø A  chemical  or  physical  agent  that  interacts  with  DNA  and  causes  a  mutation    § High  energy  X-­‐rays    § UV  light    

v The  mutations  that  have  disastrous  effects  are    Ø Deletion/insertion    

§ Because  mRNA  is  read  as  a  series  of  nucleotide  triplets  (codons)  during  translation  adding/subtracting  nucleotides  may  alter  reading  frame  all  nucleotides  down  stream  insertion/deletion  will  be  regrouped  into  different  codons,  result  is  nonfunctional  peptide    

v Mutagenesis    Ø Production  of  mutations    Ø Spontaneous  mutations  are  due  to  errors  that  occur  during  DNA  replication  

or  recombination    v Mutations  always  harmful?  

Ø No  § Cause  diversity  in  genes    § Makes  evolution  and  natural  selection  possible    § Essential  tool  genetics  create  different  alleles  needed  for  genetic  research