Homelessness

Introduction

Adequate shelter has always been one of man’s basic needs; it is a significant component for

human survival and a useful barometer for gauging societal development. As a unit of the

environment, it has a profound influence on the health, efficiency, social behavior, satisfaction,

productivity, and general wellbeing of the individual and the entire community. However, one of

the critical challenges to sustainable development in the developing countries wherein Nigeria

belongs is the lack of adequate shelter expressed in quantitative and qualitative terms. This

problem has been necessitated by several factors, including persistent population increases,

inadequate housing, and uncontrolled urban growth pattern resulting in “homelessness” among

the vast majority of urban dwellers. The need to ensure decent and affordable shelter to the

people, particularly the urban poor, is therefore central to the achievement and improvement of

both human living standards and societal development (Jiboye, 2011a).

Homelessness describes the condition of people without a regular dwelling. People who are

homeless are unable or unwilling to acquire and maintain regular, safe, and adequate housing, or

lack "fixed, regular, and adequate night-time residence." The legal definition of "homeless"

varies from country to country, or among different entities or institutions in the same country or

region. The term homeless may also include people whose primary night-time residence is in a

homeless shelter, a warming center, a domestic violence shelter or other ad hoc housing

situation. American Government homeless enumeration studies also include persons who sleep

in a public or private place not designed for use as a regular sleeping accommodation for human

(Wikipedia 2011). Wright (2007), in his definition of the term “homelessness”, describes it as

“the condition of people who lack regular legal access to adequate housing”.

United Nations definition

The United Nations, either via one of its agencies or via a vote in the General Assembly has

agreed upon various minimum conditions for a person to be countable as homeless. It is

understood that these legal definitions for homelessness may date back to the beginnings of the

UN in the late 1940s. The definition of a person being a refugee is at least partly linked to the

definition of homelessness as many refugees may have been or are homeless.

In 2004, The United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, defined a homeless

household as:

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Homeless households are those households without a shelter that would fall within the scope of

living quarters. They carry their few possessions with them, sleeping in the streets, in doorways

or on piers, or in another space, on a more or less random basis.

In 2009, at the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Conference of European

Statisticians (CES), held in Geneva, the Group of Experts on Population and Housing Censuses

defined homelessness as:

In its Recommendations for the Censuses of Population and Housing, the CES identifies

homeless people under two broad groups:

(a) Primary homelessness (or rooflessness). This category includes persons living in the streets

without a shelter that would fall within the scope of living quarters;

(b) Secondary homelessness. This category may include persons with no place of usual

residence who move frequently between various types of accommodations (including dwellings,

shelters and institutions for the homeless or other living quarters). This category includes persons

living in private dwellings but reporting ‘no usual address’ on their census form.

The CES acknowledges that the above approach does not provide a full definition of the

‘homeless’.

Shelter is a basic necessity of life. It is the social right of every individual to have access to

adequate shelter. The problem of inadequate housing has long been a concern, not only of

individuals but of governments in many parts of the world, particularly in developing nations. In

most urban centres, the housing problem is not only that of quantity but also of the poor quality

of available housing units. The consequence of this is overcrowding in the cities leading to;

increased pressure on available infrastructural facilities, poor and deplorable living conditions,

and degraded environment, and to a large extent, outright homelessness among most urban poor

(Jiboye 2011b).

Difficulties in classification: lack of generally agreed nomenclature

The "unsheltered" are that segment of a homeless community who do not have ordinary lawful

access to buildings in which to sleep. Such persons frequently prefer the term "houseless" to the

term "homeless". Others may use the term street people which does not fully encompass all

unsheltered in that many such persons do not spend their time on urban "street" environments,

and to the contrary shun such locales and prefer to convert unoccupied buildings, or to inhabit

mountains or, more often, lowland meadows, creeks and beaches.

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A significant portion are generally in transit, but there is no generally accepted terminology to

describe them; some nomenclature is frequently associated with derogatory connotations, and

thus the professional and vernacular lingo to describe these persons is both evolving and not

lacking in controversy. Much of the concern stems from the European situation, where

"homeless" persons of Roma, Sinti and other ethnic descent have rejected the term "gypsy".

Other terms which some use regarding in-transit persons are: transient, vagabond, tramp or

"railroad tramp". Occasionally these terms are interchanged with terms not necessarily implying

that the person is a traveler, i.e. hobo. The term "bum" is used for persons lacking a work ethic,

or ethics generally, but its application to persons purely on the basis of homelessness is strictly a

form of prejudicial labeling. The term "transient" is frequently used in police reports, without

any precise definitions across jurisdictions.

Many jurisdictions have developed programs to locate such persons in short term emergency

shelter, often in churches or other institutional real property, during particularly cold spells.

These are referred to as warming centers, and are credited by their advocates as life saving.

Housing is a basic human right and a critical component in the social and economic fabric of all

nations. Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 December 1948 by

the UN General Assembly, contains this text regarding housing and quality of living:

Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself

and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social

services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood,

old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.

No country is yet satisfied that adequate housing has been delivered to the various economic

groups that make up its populace. Thus, most nations, in one form or another continue to claim a

housing problem (Ajanlekoko, 2001;

Ademiluyi and Raji, 2008). Although studies have shown that the problem of housing is

universal, it is however more critical in less developed countries including Nigeria (Olotuah and

Bobadoye, 2009). The most adversely affected in this regard are the urban poor who constitutes

the majority in the developing countries of

Africa and Asia, wherein most cities now account for over 90 percent of the world’s urban

population growth

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(UN –Habitat, 2006). The need to ensure adequate housing thus constitutes one of the critical

challenges facing development and this has been a source of concern for most national

governments world over.

In recognition of this global housing challenge, the United Nations Centre for Human

Settlements (UN-Habitat) wrote in its Global Report on Human Settlements in 1995 that

“homelessness is a problem in developed as well as in developing countries.” The Report noted

that poor urban housing conditions are a global problem, but conditions are worst in developing

countries; and that today, 600 million people live in life and health threatening homes in Asia,

Africa and Latin America. The threat of mass homelessness is greatest in these regions because

of their very rapid population growth (UNCHS 1996). Specifically, in Nigeria, there is acute

shortage of houses for the poor; not only are houses in short supply, but most of the existing ones

are in deplorable condition. Consequently, the majority of those who lack access to any form of

dwellings are homeless (Ademiluyi and Raji, 2008).

Homelessness is a global problem. According to a 1996 United Nations report, 500 million

people worldwide were homeless or residing in low-quality housing and unsanitary conditions in

1995. The number of homeless continues to rise, however, and quantifying this population is

difficult. Most homelessness rates are reported by service providers, and countries with the best-

developed service systems will therefore report the highest number of homeless, a condition

referred to as the service-systems paradox. Various other problems, such as double-counts, over-

counts, the problem of mobility, and hidden homelessness also affect estimates.

A way to get at the root of the problem is to understand the causes of homelessness. Worldwide,

homelessness is caused by a breakdown in traditional family support systems, continued

urbanization, the effects of structural adjustment programs, civil wars, and natural disasters. A

shortage in affordable rental housing and an increase in poverty are thought to be two major

factors contributing to the rise of homelessness. Other potential causes are the lack of affordable

health care, domestic violence, mental illness and addiction disorders. Often, individuals will

have several risk factors causing them to "choose between food, shelter, and other basic needs"

(National Coalition for the Homeless 1989). Shelter is often the lowest priority, and is often

unaffordable, and thus homelessness becomes a problem. Similar risk factors affect both the

homeless and those who are experiencing poverty. Because homelessness and poverty are linked,

efforts to improve poverty will inevitably decrease homelessness.

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Refuges for homeless people

There are many places where a homeless person might seek refuge.

1). Outdoors: On the ground or in a sleeping bag, tent, or improvised shelter, such as a large

cardboard box, dumpster, in a park or vacant lot

2). Tent cities: Ad hoc campsites of tents and improvised shelters consisting of tarpaulins and

blankets often near industrial and institutionally zoned real estate such as rail yards, interstates

and high transportation veins. A few more elaborate tent cities, such as Dignity Village, are

actually hybrids of tent cities and shantytowns. Tent cities frequently consist of only tents and

fabric improvised structures, with no semi-permanent wood structures at all.

3). Shantytowns: Ad hoc dwelling sites of improvised shelters and shacks, usually near rail

yards, interstates and high transportation veins. Some shanty towns have interstitial tenting areas,

but the predominant feature consists of the hard structures. Each pad of site tends to accumulate

roofing, sheathing, plywood, and nailed two by fours.

4). Derelict structures: abandoned or condemned buildings

5). Squatting in an unoccupied house where a homeless person may live without payment and

without the owner's knowledge or permission.

6). Vehicles: cars or trucks are used as a temporary or sometimes long-term living refuge, for

example by those recently evicted from a home. Some people live in vans, sport utility vehicles,

covered pick-up trucks, station wagons, sedans, or hatchbacks . Many cities now have safe

parking programs in which lawful sites are permitted at churches or in out of the way places.

7). Public places: Parks, bus or train stations, public libraries, airports, public transportation

vehicles (by continual riding where unlimited passes are available), hospital lobbies or waiting

areas, college campuses, and 24-hour businesses such as coffee shops. Many public places use

security guards or police to prevent people from loitering or sleeping at these locations for a

variety of reasons, including image, safety, and comfort.

8). Homeless shelters: such as emergency cold-weather shelters opened by churches or

community agencies, which may consist of cots in a heated warehouse, or temporary Christmas

Shelters. More elaborate homeless shelters such as Pinellas Hope in Florida provide their

residents with a recreation tent, a dining tent, laundry facilities, outdoor tents, casitas, and shuttle

services that help inhabitants get to their jobs every day.

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9). Inexpensive boarding houses: Also called flophouses, they offer cheap, low-quality

temporary lodging.

10). Residential hotels, where a bed as opposed to an entire room can be rented cheaply in a

dorm-like environment.

11). Inexpensive motels also offer cheap, low-quality temporary lodging. However, some who

can afford housing live in a motel by choice.

12). 24-hour Internet cafes are now used by over 5,000 Japanese "Net cafe refugees". An

estimated 75% of Japan's 3,200 all-night internet cafes cater to regular overnight guests, who in

some cases have become their main source of income.

13). Friends or family: Temporarily sleeping in dwellings of friends or family members ("couch

surfing"). Couch surfers may be harder to recognize than street homeless people

14). Underground tunnels such as abandoned subway, maintenance, or train tunnels are popular

among the permanent homeless. The inhabitants of such refuges are called in some places, like

New York City, "Mole People". Natural caves beneath urban centers allow for places where

people can congregate. Leaking water pipes, electric wires, and steam pipes allow for some of

the essentials of living.

Causes of Homelessness

Several factors have been identified globally as the primary causes of homelessness. In America

and Canada for instance, poverty, lack of affordable housing and domestic violence and abuse

are among the principal causes of family homelessness, and these have continued to increase

overtime (Rehman, and Gahagan, 2003; NCH, 2009).

Corbett (2007) defines poverty as a “condition of having insufficient resources or income. In its

most extreme form, poverty is a lack of basic human needs, such as adequate and nutritious food,

clothing, housing, clean water and health services.” The problems of urban unemployment and

the lack of necessary support by the government in many parts of the world have contributed

significantly to the increasing poverty level of the urban poor (Rehman, and Gahagan, 2003).

Also pertinent among the causes of homelessness is the issue of overpopulation in many urban

centers. Existing studies have shown the rate at which urban growth are increasing globally and

particularly in most African countries; and the major factors for these rapid increases relate to

large-scale migration into the urban centers for employment and wealth acquisition, natural

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increase of the population and lopsided concentration of investments by both governments and

private organizations (Ajala, 2005; Jiboye and Omoniyi, 2010).

According to the UNDP (2010), Nigeria ranks 142 out of 169 countries in terms of human

development index with a value of 0.423 with Ghana (0.467) and Togo (0.428) being ahead of

Nigeria and as at 2008 64.4% of the population live on ≤$1.25 a day and 15.7% face danger of

multidimensional poverty while 63.5% already suffer multidimensional poverty with 53.7%

under intense deprivation. Eight Percent of Nigerians are undernourished while there is an 11%

shortfall in minimum dietary energy requirements. Population has continued to increase and it is

estimated that by 2020, there will be 217.6×106 Nigerians (FDF 2007). The projected annual

population growth rate between 2010 and 2015 is 2.1% (UNDP 2010).

In summary, the major reasons and causes for homelessness as documented by many reports and

studies include:

1). Unavailability of employment opportunities.

2). Poverty, caused by many factors including unemployment and underemployment.

3). Lack of accessible healthcare. People who have some kind of chronic and weakening disease

but cannot get healthcare either because they don't have money to afford it or because the

government will not give it to them are simply too weak to go and work every day.

4). Abuse by government or by other people with power.

5). War or armed conflict.

6). Mental disorder, where mental health services are unavailable or difficult to access or as a

result of deinstitutionalization. A United States Federal survey done in 2005 indicated that at

least one-third of homeless men and women have serious psychiatric disorders or problems.

7). Disability, especially where disability services are non-existent or poor performing.

8). Social exclusion, including because of sexual orientation and gender identity

9). Substance abuse: A substantial percentage of the homeless population in Nigeria are people

who are chronically unemployed or have difficulty managing their lives effectively due to

prolonged and severe drug and/or alcohol abuse. Substance abuse can cause homelessness from

behavioral patterns associated with addiction that alienate an addicted individual's family and

friends who could otherwise provide support during difficult economic times.

10). Lack of affordable housing. Increased wealth disparity and income inequality causes

distortions in the housing market that push rent burdens higher, making housing unaffordable.

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11). Domestic violence.

12). Relationship breakdown, particularly in relation to young people and their parents.

13). Prison release and re-entry into society.

14). Disasters, including but not limited to earthquakes and hurricanes.

15). Forced eviction – In many countries, people lose their homes by government order to make

way for newer upscale high rise buildings, roadways, and other governmental needs. The

compensation may be minimal, in which case the former occupants cannot find appropriate new

housing and become homeless.

16). Mortgage foreclosures where mortgage holders see the best solution to a loan default is to

take and sell the house to pay off the debt. Foreclosures on landlords often lead to eviction of

their tenants.

17). Criminality—Some homeless may have committed crimes and are therefore hiding from the

authorities.

Homelessness in Nigeria

Homelessness is a social scourge most evident in Nigeria’s rapidly expanding urban cities and

swarming commercial centers.  In Nigeria the proportion of the population living within the

urban centers has increased phenomenally over the years; rising from an initial 7 percent in the

1930s to more than 10 percent in the fifties. The figure also rose from 20 percent in the seventies

to almost 27 percent and 35 percent in 1980s and 1990s, respectively. During these periods,

particularly the oil boom era in Nigeria, major cities, including Lagos, witnessed a massive

influx of the rural dwellers (Metz, 1991; Jiboye & Omoniyi, 2010). However, a United Nations

(UN-Habitat 2007) report on Nigeria had indicated an urban growth rate of 5.8% annually. The

report estimated that over 43% of Nigerians, which amounts to 62.66 million people now live in

the urban centers. This incidence of population explosion has, therefore, created severe

developmental problems, ranging from inadequate infrastructure, deterioration of available social

amenities, and more importantly, acute shortage of decent and affordable housing (Abiodun,

1997; Jiboye, 2009). Despite these rapid growths and population increases, evidences also reveal

a rapid decrease in the addition of new housing stock as well as poor state and inadequate urban

housing infrastructures to support the increasing population (Aguda and Ajala 1998; Jiboye,

2009).

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Reports by different human rights organizations seem to place the problem squarely at the door

steps of the federal and state governments in the country; they are saying that official real estate

development policy frequently includes the forcible eviction and demolition of privately owned

housing complexes, and that governments often target marginalized areas (where most of the

poorer population live) for the building of modern commercial facilities and recreation centers

for the moneyed elite.  Amnesty International says that over 1.5 million people have been ejected

from their homes and driven into street life following the wave of ejections and demolition that

began all over the country in 1995.  Arguing in a similar vein, the Social and Economic Rights

Action (SERAC) estimates that in just one location alone—Ogunbiyi village of Ikeja, Lagos,

about 12 thousand people were forcibly ejected from their homes in December 2005 by the

combined action of the Nigerian Police, Army, and Federal Task Force on Environment; and that

in other parts of the city some of the victims of forced evictions have been government workers

living in publicly owned apartment buildings. Findings by Compassionate Outreach in Lagos

give details about the condition of living and profile of the homeless in general:  all of Nigeria’s

dislocated people live like rats and cockroaches in makeshift facilities under bridges and at

abandoned buildings; some engage in petty trading for their survival, earning roughly the

equivalent of forty dollars per month, which hardly guarantees a decent meal even for a couple

of days.   Others are regular employees in government or in the commercial sectors, but are

homeless because they were forced out of their homes and cannot afford rent for apartments that

are steadily on the rise, due to high demand and real estate speculation. 

The story about educated and employed persons who also are homeless is frequently told in the

context of the country’s oil producing Niger Delta cities such as Port Harcourt, Warri, Sapele,

Agbor, and Ughelli—in these places landlords are inclined to solicit or court employees of oil

companies who can afford to pay inflated rents from their high salaries.  Yet others are forced

into criminal activities such as prostitution, pimping, drug running, robbery, and just about any

additional thing that can ensure existence on a day to day basis.  The findings show also that

roughly two hundred and fifty thousand (250, 000) homeless persons are deeply involved in

crime; and that this population consists of males, females, young boys and girls scattered over

the fifty-two development areas of Lagos, among which the marked danger zones are under

bridge sections in Ojeulegba, Orikpako at Ijora, Alaba, Ajegunle, Badagry, Ojota, and Ikorodu.

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A few organized groups and civic minded groups are currently attempting to seriously confront

the problem of homelessness in Nigeria:  a growing number of medical doctors and nurses are

working collaboratively to treat and educate the homeless about the necessity of safe sex and

why they must protect themselves against the deadly consequences of all sexually transmitted

diseases. Across the country, select church groups led by their pastors and reverends have

initiated the annual publicity ritual called “sleep out,” during which members set up tents under

various bridges to build up public attention about the plight of the homeless, and channel

pressure on government.   To its credit, Compassionate Outreach operates rehabilitation

programs which have liberated or rescued dozens from homelessness—those few who have

trained to acquire basic skills in the trades also receive some preliminary financial support.

The Health Effects of Homelessness

The health effects of homelessness include higher rates of infectious diseases, mental health

problems, physical disorders, disability, and premature death. A clear link has been established

between access to a stable living situation and health (Gilbertson et al., (2008). People living

with mental health issues and/or addictions are continuously challenged in obtaining access to

decent and affordable housing. Due to stigma, discrimination, and a variety of complex social

issues, access to appropriate housing may be compromised. (Rehman, and Gahagan, 2003;

Wright, 2007).

A United Kingdom report noted that those sleeping on the street on average lived only to their

mid-to-late forties. Higher rates of infectious disease result from overcrowding, damp and cold

living conditions, poor nutrition, lack of immunization, and inadequate access to health care

services. There has been a particular concern with increased rates of tuberculosis (TB),

particularly multiple drug-resistant TB. It has been reported, for example, that 48 percent of the

homeless in Toronto test positive for TB. Another factor leading to increases in TB and other

infectious diseases is the higher prevalence of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) in

those segments of the homeless population involved in drug abuse and prostitution.

The conditions in which homeless people live also make them more prone to trauma. A study of

street people in Toronto found that 40 percent had been the victims of assault in the previous

year, while 43 percent of the women reported sexual harassment and 21 percent reported they

had been raped in the previous year. These street people were also more than five times more

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likely to have been involved (as pedestrians) in a motor vehicle accident than the general

population, and one in twelve of them had suffered frostbite in the previous year.

Homeless people are also more likely to suffer from cardiovascular, respiratory, arthritic,

gastrointestinal, and skin disorders. The Toronto study found that arthritis and rheumatism were

twice as frequent, emphysema and bronchitis five times as frequent, asthma two and one-half

times as frequent, gastrointestinal problems twice as frequent, and epilepsy six times as frequent

as in the general population.

Mental health problems contribute to and result from homelessness. The United Kingdom report

noted that 9 to 26 percent of those living on the street have serious mental health problems

(compared to 0.5 to 2% in the general population), while Canadian estimates are that 20 to 40

percent of those using shelters have substance abuse or psychiatric problems. Alcohol abuse and

dependency is also very common in this population. But while such substance abuse and mental

health problems contribute to homelessness, homelessness also contributes to these problems.

The Toronto study, for example, found that one-third of the street people interviewed had

feelings of worthlessness, that more than one in four (and almost two-thirds of the women) had

contemplated suicide in the past year, and that one in twelve (and almost one in three of the

women) had attempted suicide in that same period.

The increase in homelessness among families in recent years has focused increasing attention on

the serious health problems faced by children living in hostels and temporary accommodation.

These problems include disturbed sleep, mood swings, depression, and developmental delays, as

well as increased rates of obesity, anemia, infections, injuries, and other health problems.

Consequences of Long-Term Under-nutrition among Homeless Children

The Institute of Medicine has estimated the number of homeless children in the United States to

be approximately 100,000 each night. Almost half of these children are younger than six years of

age. Although this is a growing population, few studies have examined the effect of

undernutrition on homeless children. However, recent studies have found that a poor diet in early

childhood has implications for long-term health and cognitive development.

Homeless children suffer several medical problems due to undernutrition, including chronic and

recurring physical ailments, and higher rates of fever, cough, colds, diarrhea, and obesity. In

addition, a greater incidence of infections, fatigue, headaches, and anemia, as well as impaired

cognitive development and visual motor integration, has been documented in homeless children.

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Homeless adults also suffer several medical problems due to undernutrition. Common problems

include anemia, dental problems, gastric ulcers, other gastrointestinal complaints, cardiovascular

disease, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, acute and chronic infectious diseases, diabetes, and

malnutrition.

Health care for homeless people

Health care for homeless people is a major public health challenge. Homeless people are more

likely to suffer injuries and medical problems from their lifestyle on the street, which includes

poor nutrition, substance abuse, exposure to the severe elements of weather, and a higher

exposure to violence (robberies, beatings, and so on). Yet at the same time, they have little

access to public medical services or clinics.

There are significant challenges in treating homeless people who have psychiatric disorders,

because clinical appointments may not be kept, their continuing whereabouts are unknown, their

medicines are not taken and monitored, medical and psychiatric histories are not accurate, and

for other reasons. Because many homeless people have mental illnesses, this has presented a

crisis in care.

Homeless persons often find it difficult to document their date of birth or their address. Because

homeless people usually have no place to store possessions, they often lose their belongings,

including their identification and other documents, or find them destroyed by police or others.

Without a photo ID, homeless persons cannot get a job or access many social services. They can

be denied access to even the most basic assistance: clothing closets, food pantries, certain public

benefits, and in some cases, emergency shelters.

This problem is far less acute in countries which provide free-at-use health care, such as the UK,

where hospitals are open-access day and night, and make no charges for treatment. In the US,

free-care clinics, for homeless and other people, do exist in major cities, but they often attract

more demand than they can meet.

The conditions affecting homeless people are somewhat specialized and have opened a new area

of medicine tailored to this population. Skin conditions, including Scabies, are common because

homeless people are exposed to extreme cold in the winter and they have little access to bathing

facilities. They have problems caring for their feet and have more severe dental problems than

the general population. Diabetes, especially untreated, is widespread in the homeless population.

Specialized medical textbooks have been written to address this for providers.

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There are many organizations providing free care to homeless people in countries which do not

offer free medical treatment organised by the state, but the services are in great demand given the

limited number of medical practitioners. For example, it might take months to get a minimal

dental appointment in a free-care clinic. Communicable diseases are of great concern, especially

tuberculosis, which spreads more easily in crowded homeless shelters in high density urban

settings.

There has been an ongoing concern and studies about the health and wellness of the older

homeless population, typically ages fifty to sixty four years of age, and even older, as to whether

they are significantly more sickly than their younger counterparts and if they are under-served.

Chronic homelessness, an area of emerging concern

The United States Housing and Urban Development Bureau (HUD) defines a "chronically

homeless" person as "an unaccompanied homeless individual with a disabling condition who has

either been continuously homeless for a year or more, or has had at least four episodes of

homelessness in the past three years." Much of the current literature takes note that such persons

often account for a disproportionately large percent of the public and private expenditures related

to homelessness. In response to this perception, there is as of early 2011 an increased

momentum, particularly on both US coasts, to "target" the chronically homeless utilizing a

vulnerability index system. These "VI's" code for conditions such as advance kidney or liver

disease, HIV-AIDS or multiple hospitalization as well as factors such as age. Criticism has been

relatively muted as parties often critical of conventional homeless service systems recognize a

window of opportunity for innovations. Common Ground is an effort which originated in NYC,

claiming high success in the Times Square area, and now proliferating its model in other areas

such as Los Angeles.

Area of emerging interest: the unsheltered

The "unhoused" are that segment of a homeless community who do not have ordinary lawful

access to buildings in which to sleep, as referred to in the HUD definition as persons occupying

"place not designed for ... sleeping accommodation for human beings. Such persons frequently

prefer the term "houseless" to the term "homeless". Recent homeless enumeration survey

documentation utilizes the term "unsheltered homeless." HUD requires jurisdictions which

participate in Continuum of Care grant programs to count their homeless every two years. These

counts have led to a variety of creative measures to avoid undercounting. Thus teams of

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counters, often numbering in the hundreds in logistically complex volunteer efforts, seek out the

unsheltered in various nooks and crannies. There has been a significant number of unsheltered

persons dying of hypothermia, adding impetus to the trend of establishing warming centers as

well as extending the enumeration surveys with vulnerability indexes

Problems of Homelessness

The basic problem of homelessness is the human need for personal shelter, warmth and safety,

which can be literally vital. Aside from these, homeless people face many problems beyond the

lack of a safe and suitable home. They are often faced with many social disadvantages also,

reduced access to private and public services and reduced access to vital necessities (NCH, 2009;

USDHUD, 2009). In Nigeria for instance, most of the people confronted with these housing

problems seek alternative form of shelter on the streets, under bridges, on top of pedestrian

bridges, churches, mosques, offices and parks, and even in filling stations (Ademiluyi and Raji,

2008). Considering the plights of the homeless who by right should have access to decent and

habitable housing; and also the fact that housing is a significant component of the social

dimension of sustainable development (NAHA, 2006); the need thus arises for government and

all stakeholders to ensure that adequate shelter is provided for the urban homeless in Nigeria.

Other basic difficulties include:

1). personal security, quiet, and privacy, especially for sleeping

2). safekeeping of bedding, clothing and possessions, which may have to be carried at all times

3). hygiene and sanitary facilities

4). cleaning and drying of clothes

5). obtaining, preparing and storing food in quantities

6). keeping contacts, without a permanent location or mailing address

7). hostility and legal powers against urban vagrancy.

8). Reduced access to health care and dental services.

9). Limited access to education.

10). Increased risk of suffering from violence and abuse.

11). General rejection or discrimination from other people.

12). Loss of usual relationships with the mainstream

13). Not being seen as suitable for employment.

14). Reduced access to banking services

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15). Reduced access to communications technology

16). Violent crimes against homeless people

Misconceptions

Many people assume that others are homeless because they're lazy and don't want to get a job.

Actually, an estimated 26 percent of them are employed---they just work low-end jobs with long

hours and little pay. Work is not necessarily a way out of poverty. Jobs that pay less than

$16,000 a year have seen the most growth, while jobs that pay a living wage are increasingly

rare. In order to afford fair market rent, a person needs to earn more than minimum wage.

Assistance and resources available to homeless people

Most countries provide a variety of services to assist homeless people. They often provide food,

shelter and clothing and may be organized and run by community organizations (often with the

help of volunteers) or by government departments. These programs may be supported by

government, charities, churches and individual donors.

a). Social supports

While some homeless people are known to have community with one another, providing each

other various types of support, people who are not homeless also may provide them friendship,

food, relational care, and other forms of assistance. Such social supports may be done through a

formal process, such as under the auspices of a non-governmental organization, religious

organization, or homeless ministry, or may be done on an individual basis.

b). Income sources

Many non-profit organizations such as goodwill Industries maintain a mission to "provide skill

development and work opportunities to people with barriers to employment", though most of

these organizations are not primarily geared toward homeless individuals. Many cities also have

street newspapers or magazines: publications designed to provide employment opportunity to

homeless people or others in need by street sale.

While some homeless have paying jobs, some must seek other methods to make money. Begging

or panhandling is one option, but is becoming increasingly illegal in many cities. Despite the

stereotype, not all homeless people panhandle, and not all panhandlers are homeless.

Another option is busking i.e. performing tricks, playing music, drawing on the sidewalk, or

offering some other form of entertainment in exchange for donations. In cities where

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plasmapheresis centers still exist, homeless people may generate income through frequent visits

to these centers.

Homeless people have been known to commit crimes just to be sent to jail or prison for food and

shelter. In police slang, this is called "three hots and a cot" referring to the three hot daily meals

and a cot to sleep on given to prisoners.

Invented in 2005, in Seattle, Bumvertising, an informal system of hiring homeless people to

advertise by a young entrepreneur, is providing food, money, and bottles of water to sign-holding

homeless in the Northwest. Homeless advocates accuse the founder, and the process, of

exploiting the poor and take particular offense to the use of the word "bum" which is generally

considered pejorative.

In October 2009, the Boston Globe carried a story on so-called cyberbegging, or Internet

begging, which was reported to be a new trend worldwide.

Tracking and counting homeless people

Actually determining and counting the number of homeless is very difficult in general due to

their lifestyle habits. There are so-called "hidden homeless" out of sight of the normal population

and perhaps staying on private property.

Various countries, states, and cities have come up with differing means and techniques to

calculate an approximate count. For example, a one night "homeless census count", called a

point-in-time (PIT) count, usually held in the early Winter, for the year, is a technique used by a

number of American cities, especially Boston, Massachusetts. Los Angeles, California uses a

mixed set of techniques for counting, including the PIT street count. In 2003, The United States

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) had begun requiring a PIT count in all

"Continuum of Care" communities which required them to report the count of people, housing

status, and geographic locations of individuals counted. Some communities will give sub-

population information to the PIT, such as information on veterans, youth, and elderly

individuals as done in Boston. In 2005, an estimated 100 million people worldwide were

homeless.

The following statistics indicate the approximate average number of homeless people at any one

time. Each country has a different approach to counting homeless people, and estimates of

homelessness made by different organizations vary wildly, so comparisons should be made with

caution.

16

S/No.

Country/Region Homeless Population

Source

1 European Union 3,000,000 UN-Habitat 20042 United

Kingdom109,209 Department for Communities and Local

Government 20053 Canada 150,000 National Homelessness Initiative – Government

of Canada4 Australia 105,000 2001 census5 U.S.A. 671,888 HUD 20086 Japan 20,000–100,000 Nil

Developing and undeveloped countries

The number of homeless people worldwide has grown steadily in recent years. In some Third

World nations such as Nigeria, and South Africa, homelessness is rampant, with millions of

children living and working on the streets. Homelessness has become a problem in the countries

of China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines despite their growing prosperity, mainly

due to migrant workers who have trouble finding permanent homes. For people in Russia,

especially the youth, alcoholism and substance abuse is a major cause and reason for becoming

and continuing to be homeless.

Strategies to reframe approaches to homelessness

a). Housing first / rapid rehousing

In the USA, the government asked many major cities to come up with a ten year plan to end

homelessness; and one of the results of this was a "Housing first" solution, also known as "rapid

re-housing", which quickly gets a homeless person permanent housing of some sort and the

necessary support services to sustain a new home. There are many complications of this kind of

program and these must be dealt with to make such an initiative work successfully in the middle

to long term.

b). Enhanced data collection and evaluation Homeless enumeration counts are mandated by

HUD for all jurisdictions participating in HUD Continuum of Care grant programs. These occur

as frequently as every two years. More recently,organizations such as [Common Ground] have

piggy-backed those counts with compilation of Vulnerability Indices (VI) which prioritize

homeless persons. The factors include the existence of late stage terminal disease, HIV-AIDS,

kidney or liver disease, frequent hospitalizations and frequent emergency room visits. The data

which is compiled which exceeds the BUD mandate is retained and held confidential by

17

Common Ground. Advocates of the system claim high rates of success in placing the most

vulnerable persons, but skeptics remain concerned with confidentiality and security issues.

Beyond homelessness

a). Transitional housing

Transitional Housing provides temporary housing for the certain segments of the homeless

population, including working homeless, and is set up to transition their residents into

permanent, affordable housing. It's not in an emergency homeless shelter but usually a room or

apartment in a residence with support services. The transitional time can be short, for example

one or two years, and in that time the person must file for and get permanent housing and usually

some gainful employment or income, even if Social Security or assistance. Sometimes, the

transitional housing residence program charges a room and board fee, maybe 30% of an

individual's income, which is sometimes partially or fully refunded after the person procures a

permanent place to live in.

b). Supportive housing

Supportive housing is a combination of housing and services intended as a cost-effective way to

help people live more stable, productive lives. Supportive housing works well for those who face

the most complex challenges—individuals and families confronted with homelessness and who

also have very low incomes and/or serious, persistent issues that may include substance abuse,

addiction or alcoholism, mental illness, HIV/AIDS, or other serious challenges to a successful

life.

c). Pedestrian villages

In 2007 urban designer and social theorist Michael E. Arth proposed a controversial national

solution for homelessness that would involve building nearly car free Pedestrian Villages in

place of what he terms "the current band-aid approach to the problem." A prototype, Tiger Bay

Village, was proposed for near Daytona Beach, Florida. He claims that this would be superior for

treating the psychological as well as psychiatric needs of both temporarily and permanently

homeless adults, and would cost less than the current approach. It would also provide a lower

cost alternative to jail, and provide a half-way station for those getting out of prison. Work

opportunities, including construction and maintenance of the villages, as well as the creation of

work force agencies would help make the villages financially and socially viable.

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Conclusion

People can find themselves without permanent housing for a number of reasons. Some people

are homeless for years, while others are without housing for a day or two. Every homeless

person's situation is different, but they are united in what they need---social services and

stability.

Homelessness is on the rise due to a growing shortage of affordable housing coupled with an

increase in poverty, all of which are directly related to the economy. When jobs are scarce,

homelessness is on the rise. Housing is out of reach for many citizens, and with a growing

number of foreclosures come an increased number of people on the streets. Subsidized housing is

available but usually has an extensive waiting list. More transient people are to be expected if

housing costs continue to climb and job opportunities continue to shrink.

Anyone can lose his home, and many families are only a paycheck away from becoming

homeless. No one sees himself on the street or in a shelter, yet very few are immune from this

temporary condition.

Reasons for a person's homelessness may include being dropped from public assistance, lack of

affordable health care, domestic violence, mental illness, addiction disorders, and lack of quality

employment. One or more of these issues may be factors in losing a home. Once a person is

homeless, it can be rough to get back on track. Homelessness is a cycle---when transient, it's

more difficult to land employment due to lack of permanent address or reliable means of

communication. If a person has a mental illness or an addiction disorder, being without housing

can cause her condition to worsen.

Recommendation

Just because homelessness is a complex issue doesn't mean it can't be prevented. For Nigeria, the

issues of major concern centered on the need to reduce the poverty level and uncontrolled

population growth resulting into spontaneous urbanization which has adversely affected the

quality of life of the people.

The urbanization process is irreversible in Nigeria (Oladunjoye, 2005); and the implication is

that rapid growth in population creates demand pressure towards shelter and efficient supply and

distribution of basic utilities and services for the city dwellers (Oduwaye, 2009).

High quality and well-managed housing is a cornerstone of sustainable communities. The quality

and condition of housing has a major impact on health and well-being. It affects access to

19

education and employment and has a considerable influence on people’s motivation and sense of

self-esteem (HC, 2003). Existing realities however show insignificant progress in realizing the

goal of achieving sustainability in housing for Nigeria. In most urban centres, the problem of

housing is not only restricted to quantity but to the poor quality of available housing units

(Oladapo, 2006). As part of effort to increasing qualitative housing for the masses in the country,

the Federal Government in 2004, pledged to adequately fund research pertaining to the

manufacture and the use of local materials in the sector, with the aim of providing 40,000 houses

with at least 1,000 per state before year 2007. Thus far, the impact of this action is yet to be felt.

One of the most important challenges facing the country is the provision of affordable housing to

the poor and low-income group. As more and more Nigerians make towns and cities their homes,

the resulting social, economic, environmental and political challenges need to be urgently

addressed (Raji, 2008; Oduwaye, 2009). In spite of a series of government policies towards

housing delivery, one thing that is clear is that; there exist a gap between housing supply and

demand (Oduwaye, 2009); this gap must be filled in other to ensure that everyone, including the

poor are adequately housed.

Over-crowding of the living space, poor sanitation, decaying infrastructure, growing rate of

unemployment and under-employment, inadequate and overstretched community and social

services are some of the indicators of the problems of rapid urbanization. The implication of all

these is that the urban poor are displaced and deprived access from decent and affordable

housing, thereby rendering most of them “homeless”. Shelter is a basic human need and a social

right of every individual – either rich or poor. It is a significant component of the social

dimension of sustainable development (NAHA, 2006). To eliminate homelessnes, government

owes it as a social responsibility to provide adequate shelter for its citizens. This is realizable if

concerted effort is made by all stakeholders in housing provision. To achieve the desired result,

the following issues also need to be addressed:

There is a need for proper definition of housing needs; and the participation of the end

users is central in this regard to ensure their satisfaction. Government policies should be

based on the real needs of the people and not informed by mere speculations and selfish

political reasons. As such, housing programmes should be vehicles for improved living

conditions of people, with serious implications on their health, welfare and productivity.

Housing provision should be conceived as a social good for the people and not as

20

investment commodity for profit making. Meeting set targets should be a priority concern

of government at every point in time irrespective of the political leaning of the initiator of

the policy.

The quantitative housing needs of the urban poor have to be realistically estimated, and

their multidimensional nature taken into consideration. This is an important component of

strategies for policy formulation and decision-making which forms a basis for setting

targets for housing development programmes.

To ensure adequate housing, there is a need for restructuring of relevant institutions and

management approaches. This requires an appropriate political will based on the

conviction of the responsibility of government to its citizens in other to create humane

and decent environment for dignified living. Achieving sustainable city’s growth should

not only be conceived as improving the physical condition of urban areas through urban

renewal schemes as it is currently the practice in Nigeria, but should also expand its

scope to cover rural development in other to control the incessant influx of the rural

population into the cities.

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