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Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2018 Report is the 17th report on the U.S. copyright industries prepared
for the International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA) since 1990.
Citation format: Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2018 Report, by Stephen E. Siwek of Economists Incor-
porated, prepared for the International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA), (December 2018), www.iipa.org.
This latest Report updates and supplements 16 previous reports produced by Economists Incorporated for the IIPA:
• Stephen E. Siwek and Harold Furchtgott-Roth, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy (released in November 1990)
• Stephen E. Siwek and Harold Furchtgott-Roth, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: 1977-1990 (released in
September 1992)
• Stephen E. Siwek and Harold Furchtgott-Roth, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: 1993 Perspective (released in
October 1993)
• Stephen E. Siwek and Harold Furchtgott-Roth, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: 1977-1993 (released in
January 1995)
• Stephen E. Siwek and Gale Mosteller, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 1996 Report (released in
October 1996)
• Stephen E. Siwek and Gale Mosteller, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 1998 Report (released in May 1998)
• Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 1999 Report (released in December 1999)
• Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2000 Report (released in December 2000)
• Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2002 Report (released in April 2002)
• Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2004 Report (released in October 2004)
• Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2006 Report (released in January 2007)
• Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2003-2007 Report (released in July 2009)
• Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2011 Report (released in November 2011)
• Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2013 Report (released in November 2013)
• Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2014 Report (released in December 2014); and
• Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2016 Report (released in December 2016).
© 2018 Economists Incorporated
All rights reserved. Material in this Report is protected by copyright. It may, however, be reproduced for non-com-
mercial purposes or quoted with appropriate attribution to Stephen E. Siwek of Economists Incorporated and the
International Intellectual Property Alliance.
International Intellectual Property Alliance® and IIPA® are registered service marks of the International Intellectual
Property Alliance. The logo (three circles with a ‘c’ in the center and the globe design) is also a service mark of the
International Intellectual Property Alliance.
Cover design and graphic layout by Liz Holland, El Cerrito, California
ISBN 978-0-9911233-3-9
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Preface .................................................................... 1
I. Executive Summary ....................................................... 3
II. Introduction.............................................................. 4
III. The Copyright Industries .................................................. 5
IV. Value Added by the Copyright Industries ................................... 6
V. Employment in the Copyright Industries .................................... 10
VI. U.S. Copyright Materials in World Markets ................................. 14
VII. Conclusion ............................................................. 17
Appendix A: Tables of Statistics ............................................. 18
Appendix B: List of References .............................................. 20
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
ABOUT THE AUTHORStephen E. Siwek is Principal, Economists Incorporated, 2121 K Street, NW, Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20037,
www.ei.com. He is co-author of International Trade in Computer Software (Quorum Books, 1993) and International
Trade in Films and Television Programs (American Enterprise Institute/Ballinger Publishing Company, 1988) and
has written and lectured extensively on trade in media services in the United States and Europe. Mr. Siwek has
served as an economic and financial consultant to numerous communications and media corporations and trade
associations. He is the principal author of 16 prior reports on the economic contributions of the U.S. copyright
industries to the U.S. economy. Mr. Siwek has furthered the global efforts of the World Intellectual Property Orga-
nization (“WIPO”) to encourage other nations to measure the economic contribution of copyright-based industries
in their own countries. In this regard, Mr. Siwek has been closely associated with the development of the WIPO
Guide for the measurement of copyright industry contributions and has directly assisted a number of foreign gov-
ernments in the preparation of their own studies.
AUTHOR’S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSOur research assistants, Charlie Sheils and Hera Liu, performed much of the computer work that was used
throughout this Report. Economists Incorporated is grateful to the International Intellectual Property Alliance
(IIPA) and its member associations for their support and assistance in the drafting of this Report. We thank Eric
Schwartz, Kevin Rosenbaum, and Dima Budron of the IIPA for their guidance throughout this process, and we
would also like to thank Pamela Burchette for her assistance in preparing this Report.
Formed in 1984, the IIPA is a private sector coalition of trade associations representing U.S. copyright-based
industries in bilateral and multilateral efforts working to improve international protection and enforcement of
copyrighted materials and open up foreign markets closed by piracy and other market access barriers. IIPA’s five
member associations represent over 3,200 U.S. companies producing and distributing materials protected by
copyright laws throughout the world—including computer and video games for video game consoles, personal
computers, and the Internet; theatrical films, television programs, DVDs and home video and digital representa-
tions of audiovisual works; music, records, CDs, audiocassettes and digital representations of musical works; and
fiction and non-fiction books, education instruction and assessment materials, and professional and scholarly
journals, databases and software in all formats. Visit https://iipa.org/. Members of the IIPA include Association of
American Publishers, Entertainment Software Association, Independent Film & Television Alliance, Motion Picture
Association of America, and Recording Industry Association of America.
1The “core” copyright industries are those industries whose primary purpose is to create, produce, distribute or exhibit copyright materials.
PREFACEThe International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA) was founded in 1984 as an alliance of trade associations
representing creators, producers, and distributors of copyrighted material, including: movies and television pro-
gramming; music in both physical and digital formats; entertainment software and video games; and books and
journals. Since its inception, the IIPA has worked with the U.S. government, foreign governments, and rights hold-
ers to improve copyright protection and enforcement abroad and to provide fairer and more equitable market
access in foreign markets. These efforts have resulted in significant improvements in foreign copyright laws and
on-the-ground enforcement in dozens of countries, as well as lowering of market access barriers that otherwise
have made it more difficult for creators to compete on a level playing field in global markets. These legal reform,
enforcement, and market access improvements have had a substantial positive impact on how the creative indus-
tries contribute to the U.S. economy, whether measured in terms of overall contribution, employment and wages,
or foreign sales and exports, to the benefit of millions of individuals and enterprises in the United States.
In 1990, in order to quantify the contribution of the copyright industries, IIPA commissioned the first econom-
ic study of the contributions of the copyright industries to the U.S. economy and, since then, has periodically
prepared subsequent reports. Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2018 Report is the 17th such report,
all of which have been prepared by Stephen E. Siwek of Economists Incorporated. The 2018 Report covers the
period from 2014 to 2017 and is based almost entirely on U.S. government data. This 2018 Report shows that the
copyright industries: (1) make up an increasingly large percentage of value added to GDP; (2) create more and
better paying jobs than other sectors of the U.S. economy; (3) grow faster than the rest of the U.S. economy; and
(4) contribute substantially to U.S. foreign sales and exports, outpacing many industry sectors. As this Report
shows, the contribution of the core copyright industries to the U.S. economy now well surpasses one trillion dol-
lars per year.1
As international trade has increased and globalized, foreign governments and intergovernmental organizations
such as the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) have become acutely aware of the significance of the
copyright industries to national economies and the positive impact these industies have on economic growth, tech-
nological innovation and digital trade, and cultural diversity. In 2003, WIPO took a critical step forward by issuing
a Guide on Surveying the Economic Contribution of the Copyright-Based Industries. The Guide, developed by an
experts’ group of economists from many countries, including the author of this Report, Stephen E. Siwek, describes
methodologies for measuring the role of copyright industries in domestic economies. These methodologies have
now been adapted in well over 40 countries’ national reports. Subsequently, in 2015, WIPO published a revised
edition of the Guide, which can be found at: http://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=259. The revised
Guide referenced the many national copyright industry studies that have been released since the original Guide
was published. The revised Guide also included a variety of tables and charts that quantify the extent to which
the WIPO principles of copyright contributions to national economies have been adopted in national studies
1
2 The various national studies are described and compared in a WIPO document titled, 2014 WIPO Studies on the Economic Contribution of the Copy-right Industries Overview, http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/copyright/en/performance/pdf/economic_contribution_analysis_2014.pdf. National studies conducted to date include the following 42 countries: Argentina (2013), Australia (2011), Bhutan (2011), Brunei (2011), Bulgaria (2011), Canada (2004), China (2009), Colombia (2008), Croatia (2007), Dominica (2012), Finland (2010), Grenada (2012), Hungary (2010), Indonesia (2013), Jamaica (2007), Jordan (2012), Kenya (2009), Korea (2012), Latvia (2004), Lebanon (2007), Lithuania (2012), Malawi (2013), Malaysia (2008), Mexico (2006), Neth-erlands (2009), Pakistan (2010), Panama (2009), Peru (2009), Philippines (2006), Romania (2008), Russia (2007), Singapore (2007), Slovenia (2010), South Africa (2011), St. Kitts/Nevis (2012), St. Lucia (2012), St Vincent (2012), Tanzania (2012), Thailand (2012), Trinidad and Tobago (2011), Ukraine (2008), and United States (2013).
2
throughout the world. These national studies provide the economic underpinnings for efforts to reform copyright
law, improve enforcement to open markets for new and existing methods of dissemination of copyrighted materials,
and lower rates of copyright piracy.2
Despite the robust achievements of the copyright industries during the period covered in this Report, significant
challenges remain. The copyright industries derive a growing percentage of their revenue from the digital market-
place. Problems such as outdated copyright and related enforcement laws, inadequate enforcement (especially
against online piracy), unlicensed uses of copyright materials, and market access challenges inhibit the growth of
these markets in the United States and abroad. Economic reports such as this one underscore what is at stake. They
provide a compelling argument for more effective laws, improved enforcement, and market access regimes that will
promote and foster the growth of the copyright industries throughout the world for the benefit of consumers, as
well as the creators, producers, and distributors of copyrighted materials.
– Eric J. Schwartz, Kevin M. Rosenbaum, Dima S. Budron, and Pamela S. Burchette
International Intellectual Property Alliance
3 The “total” copyright industries include not only the core copyright industries but also the partial copyright, non-dedicated support, and interdependent industries. “Partial” copyright industries are those industries in which only some aspect or portion of the products that they create qualify for copyright pro-tection. These industries range from fabric to jewelry to furniture to toys and games. “Non-dedicated support” industries include those that distribute both copyright and non-copyright protected materials to businesses and consumers. Examples are transportation services, telecommunications and wholesale and retail trade. As in past studies, only a portion of the total value added by these industries is considered to be part of the copyright industries. “Interde-pendent” industries include those that produce, manufacture, and sell equipment whose function is primarily to facilitate the creation, production, or use of works of copyrighted matter. Examples include manufacturers, wholesalers and retailers of TV sets, personal computers, and other devices, and usage dependent products including blank recording material, and certain categories of paper.
4 This includes total foreign sales of the following “selected” core copyright industry sectors: recorded music; motion pictures, television, and video; soft-ware publishing; and non-software publications including newspapers, books and periodicals.
I . EXECUTIVE SUMMARYCopyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2018 Report demonstrates that the core copyright industries of the United
States–those industries whose primary purpose is to create, produce, distribute, or exhibit copyright materials–provide
significant value added to U.S. gross domestic product (“GDP”); real growth which outpaces the rest of the economy; an
increasing number of high-paying jobs; and substantial foreign sales and exports, surpassing many industry sectors.
Copyright Industries Contribute Significantly to U.S. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
• In 2017, the value added by the core copyright industries to U.S. GDP reached more than $1.3 trillion dollars ($1,328.3
billion), accounting for 6.85% of the U.S. economy.
• In 2017, the value added by the total copyright industries3 to U.S. GDP exceeded $2.2 trillion ($2,247.4 billion), ac-
counting for 11.59% of the U.S. economy.
Copyright Industries’ Real Growth Rates Outpace the Rest of the U.S. Economy
• During the period 2014-2017, the core copyright industries grew at an aggregate annual rate of 5.23%. The average
annual growth rate of the entire U.S. economy over the same period was only 2.21%. The core copyright industries
grew at a rate more than 137% greater than the remainder of the U.S. economy.
• During the same period, the total copyright industries grew at an annual rate of 4.26%, also well surpassing the
growth rate for the remainder of the U.S. economy.
Copyright Industries Employ Millions of Workers Who Earn a “Compensation Premium”
• The core copyright industries employed nearly 5.7 million workers in 2017, accounting for 3.85% of the entire U.S.
workforce, and 4.54% of total private employment in the United States.
• The average annual 2017 compensation paid to core copyright workers – $98,336 – far exceeds the average annual
compensation paid to all U.S. workers – $70,498 – amounting to a 39% “compensation premium” over the average
U.S. annual wage.
• The total copyright industries employed over 11.6 million workers in 2017, accounting for 7.87% of all U.S. employ-
ment, or 9.28% of all private employment in the United States.
• The average annual compensation paid to employees of the total copyright industries in 2017 – $86,308 – exceeds
the U.S. average annual wage by around 22%.
Copyright Industries Contribute Significantly to Foreign Sales and Exports, Outperforming Many Major U.S. Industry Sectors
• Sales of select U.S. copyright products in overseas markets amounted to $191.2 billion in 2017, a significant increase
over previous years.4
• The foreign sales of selected copyright industry sectors exceed foreign sales of other major U.S. industries, including
electronic equipment, appliances and components ($174.2 billion); agricultural products ($138.2 billion); chemicals
(excluding pharmaceuticals & medicines) ($137.0 billion); aerospace products and parts ($134.4 billion), and pharma-
ceuticals and medicines ($55.8 billion).
3
5 In this Report the values presented for 2014 and 2015 have been updated from the results presented in Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2016 Report. The updates result from data revisions published by the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (“BEA”) and by other government agencies since the last report was completed.
6 The author of this Report, Stephen E. Siwek, participated as an expert at the meeting of the “Working Group of Experts of the Preparation of a WIPO Hand-book on Survey Guidelines for Assessing the Economic Impact of Copyright and Related Rights” which was co-sponsored by WIPO and held in Helsinki, Finland, in July 2002. That meeting launched the process which resulted in WIPO’s 2003 publication of its Guide on Surveying the Economic Contribution of the Copyright-Based Industries, which describes many of the recommendations and standards used in this Report.
7Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2016 Report, Tables A.1, A.2.
I I . INTRODUCTION Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2018 Report is the 17th in a series issued over the last 28 years by Economists
Incorporated, updating and supplementing 16 earlier reports prepared on behalf of the IIPA. This latest Report presents data on the value added contributions of the copyright sector to the U.S. economy for the years 2014–2017; the percentage contri-bution of the copyright sector to the overall U.S. economy; the relative growth of the copyright industries compared with the remainder of the economy; employment levels in the copyright sector; the average compensation for workers in the copyright sector in comparison to other sectors; and the contributions of selected copyright industries to exports and foreign sales. The
underlying data used in this Report is current through 2017.5
The Report confirms once again that the U.S. copyright industries contribute significantly to U.S. GDP and continue to outpace the rest of the economy in real growth. The copyright industries also continue to employ millions of workers whose average compensation levels substantially exceed the average level of compensation paid to all U.S. workers. Indicators from select core copyright industries of the U.S. demonstrate growth in terms of foreign sales and exports, with foreign sales and exports in those sectors outperforming many key U.S. industrial sectors.
As in previous years, this Report is presented in five sections:
• The Copyright Industries
• Value Added by the Copyright Industries
• Employment in the Copyright Industries
• U.S. Copyright Materials in World Markets
• Conclusion
This Report continues to reflect the use of industry data classifications adopted under the North American Industry
Classification System (“NAICS”), which has been widely implemented by U.S. statistical agencies. It also continues to
follow the international standards and recommendations propounded by the World Intellectual Property Organization
(“WIPO”) in 2003 regarding the development of economic and statistical standards to measure the impact of domestic
copyright industries on domestic economies.6
The data in this Report quantify the size and critical importance of the copyright industries to the U.S. economy, gen-
erally using the most current information available. As in past studies, the U.S. copyright industries’ contribution to the
U.S. economy is measured by three economic indicators: (1) value added to the U.S. GDP in current dollars; (2) industry
employment and share of national employment; and (3) revenues generated from foreign sales and exports. In addition,
this Report includes two additional indicators of the importance of the copyright industries to the U.S. economy: com-
pensation per employee and real annual growth. As set forth in this Report, during the period 2014–2017, the copyright
industries, both core and total, achieved an average real annual growth rate in excess of 4.2% per year. By contrast,
during the period considered in the 2016 Report (2012–2015), the copyright industries produced real growth rates in
excess of 3.9% annually.7
Of course, the copyright industries were not the only beneficiaries of the improving economic climate after 2009. For
example, during the years 2014–2017, real GDP for the United States as a whole increased at an average annual rate of
2.21%. As this Report documents, the U.S. copyright industries continue to make a disproportionately positive contribu-
tion to real growth in U.S. GDP.
4
NON-DEDICATEDSUPPORT
$451.4
PARTIAL$39.9
CORE$1,328.3
INTERDEPENDENT$427.8
COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIES IN THE U.S. ECONOMY(VALUE ADDED IN BILLIONS OF DOLLARS) 2017
2017 TOTAL: $2,247.4 BILLION OR MORE THAN $2.2 TRILLION
5
I I I . THE COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIESIn nine of our 16 prior economic reports, we divided the copyright industries into four groups: core, partial, distribution,
and copyright related. We developed and defined these sectors in our first report that was issued in 1990. Beginning
with the 2004 Report, we still used four categories, but in order to conform to the international standard, we relied upon
the four copyright categories defined by WIPO: core, partial, non-dedicated support, and interdependent.
Core copyright industries include those industries whose primary purpose is to create, produce, distribute or exhibit
copyright materials. These industries include books, newspapers and periodicals, motion pictures, recorded music, radio
and television broadcasting, and software in all formats, including video games.
Partial copyright industries include industries in which only some aspect or portion of the products they create qualify
for copyright protection. These industries range from fabric, jewelry and furniture, to toys and games.
Non-dedicated support industries include those that distribute both copyright and non-copyright protected materials
to businesses and consumers. Examples here include transportation services, telecommunications, and wholesale and
retail trade. As in past studies, only a portion of the total value added by these industries is considered to be part of the
copyright industries.
Interdependent industries include those that produce, manufacture, and sell equipment whose function is primarily to
facilitate the creation, production, or use of works of copyrighted matter. These industries include manufacturers, whole-
salers, and retailers of CD players, TV sets, VCRs, personal computers and usage dependent products, including blank
recording material and certain categories of paper.
We refer to the four groups together – core, partial, non-dedicated support, and interdependent – as the “total” copy-
right industries.
COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIES’ VALUE ADDED(BILLIONS OF U.S. DOLLARS), 2014–2017
2014 2015 2016 2017
Core Copyright Industries $1,145.4 $1,227.8 $1,279.0 $1,328.3
Total U.S. GDP $17,427.6 $18,120.7 $18,624.5 $19,390.6
Core Share of U.S. GDP 6.57% 6.78% 6.87% 6.85%
2014 2015 2016 2017
Total Copyright Industries $1,972.4 $2,092.6 $2,162.7 $2,247.4
Total U.S. GDP $17,427.6 $18,120.7 $18,624.5 $19,390.6
Total Share of U.S. GDP 11.32% 11.55% 11.61% 11.59%
TABLE 1
6
IV. VALUE ADDED BY THE COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIESThe most appropriate way to measure an industry’s contribution to the national economy is to measure the indus-
try’s value added. Value added reflects the economic contribution of labor and capital of a particular industry. The
sum of the value added of all industries in the United States is equal to GDP, a standard measure of the size of the
U.S. economy. For this reason, value added calculations can be used to draw comparisons of the relative size and
growth rates of different industries in a way that is consistent with the federal government’s national income and
product accounting data.
In our past reports, we noted that timely estimates of the value added by individual industries were not generally
available from government sources for many of the industries considered in these studies. As a result, our prior es-
timates of copyright industry value added were derived by applying historical input-output factors to more current
data on industry sales from both government and non-government sources. By contrast, in the most recent reports,
we make direct use of the industry specific value added estimates produced by the BEA to derive the contributions
made by the core and total copyright industries to the U.S. economy. An additional benefit of using these data is
that the BEA calculates both current dollar and constant dollar value added for the industry classifications that it
analyzes. In this Report, the constant dollar value added figures are used to derive estimates of the real growth
rates achieved by the core and total copyright industries on a year-by-year basis. These data are also used to mea-
sure the contribution made by the copyright industries to the real annual growth achieved by the U.S. economy as a
whole.
Within this context, the copyright industries remain a particularly important contributor to U.S. GDP. As shown in
Table 1 below, the current dollar value added to U.S. GDP by the core copyright industries reached $1,328 billion
in 2017. That same year, U.S. GDP reached $19.391 trillion. Thus, in 2017, the core copyright industries maintained
a 6.85% share of nominal U.S. GDP. The values added by the total copyright industries in the same period are also
shown in Table 1. It illustrates the value added to U.S. GDP by the total copyright industries in 2017 was $2.247
trillion, or 11.59% of U.S. GDP.
7
As shown in Chart 1 below, our current estimates of the value added for the core copyright industries increased from
$1,145.42 billion in 2014 to $1,328.30 billion in 2017. The estimated value added for the other (non-core) copyright indus-
tries rose from $827.00 billion in 2014 to $919.05 billion in 2017.
The copyright industries’ current dollar share of the U.S. economy is provided in Chart 2 below. On the basis of the
methodology described above, we now estimate that the core copyright industries’ current dollar share of the U.S.
economy has increased from approximately 6.57% to 6.85% of the U.S. economy over the years 2014 through 2017.
Total copyright industries’ current dollar share of U.S. GDP reached 11.59% in 2017.
$1,145.42 $1,227.80 $1,278.98 $1,328.30
$827.00$864.83 $883.77
$919.05
$0
$500
$1,000
$1,500
$2,000
$2,500
2014 2015 2016 2017
COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIES' VALUE ADDED(BILLIONS OF CURRENT DOLLARS), 2014–2017
Core Copyright Industries Other Copyright Industries
CHART 1
6.57% 6.78% 6.87% 6.85%
11.32% 11.55% 11.61% 11.59%
0%
3%
6%
9%
12%
2014 2015 2016 2017
COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIES' SHARE OFCURRENT DOLLAR GDP, 2014–2017
Core Share of U.S. GDP Total Share of U.S. GDP
CHART 2
8 U.S. GDP figures from U.S. BEA, Value Added by Industry, found here: http://www.bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?ReqID=51&step=1#reqid=51&step=51&i-suri=1&5114=a&5102=1.
9 Real growth rates measure changes in constant dollar value added over time. In these estimates, current dollar value added figures are converted to “chained” dollars for the year 2009.
TABLE 2 VALUE ADDED COMPARISONS BETWEEN COPYRIGHT ANDOTHER SECTORS (BILLIONS OF U.S. DOLLARS), 2016–2017
2016 2017Core Copyright $1,279.0 $1,328.3Total Copyright $2,162.7 $2,247.4Federal Government $743.1 $759.7State & Local Government $1,656.7 $1,705.0
Construction $792.5 $826.1
Healthcare & Social Assistance $1,349.3 $1,412.6
Finance & Insurance $1,404.9 $1,454.0
8
To put these figures in perspective, it is useful to compare the economic contributions of the U.S. copyright industries to
the contributions made by other U.S. industries in the same time period. Inter-industry comparisons to the U.S. copyright
industry are shown in Table 2.
In Table 2, the total value added to the U.S. economy by the entire federal government in 2017 was $759.7 billion.8 This
amount is substantially lower than the value added by the total copyright industries in the same year. Also in 2017, the
total value added to the U.S. economy by state and local governments was $1,705.0 billion, or over $1.7 trillion. This value
is approximately 24% lower than the value added by the total copyright industries in 2017. Comparisons of the copyright
industries’ value added in 2016 and 2017, to other sectors of the U.S. economy are also provided in Table 2. These com-
parisons clearly document the size and importance of the copyright industries today.
The value added estimates for the copyright industries that are contained in this Report reflect underlying data ob-
tained from the BEA, the U.S. Census Bureau and other government statistical agencies. In particular, the estimates of
copyright industry value added make direct use of the industry-specific estimates of U.S. value added regularly pub-
lished by the BEA. These industry-specific estimates (in both current dollar and real terms) are used as starting points
to derive the contributions made by the core and total copyright industries to U.S. GDP.
Real growth rates in value added experienced during the period 2014–2017 by the U.S. copyright industries, and by
the U.S. economy as a whole, are provided in Table 3.9 For each of the periods 2014–2015, 2015–2016, and 2016–2017,
the U.S. core copyright industries experienced positive real growth of 4.00% or more annually. Over the entire period
2014–2017, the core copyright industries grew at a real annual growth rate of 5.23%.
The total copyright industries experienced a comparable pattern of real growth during the years 2014–2017. As shown
in Table 3, in 2014–2015, 2015–2016, and 2016–2017, the total copyright industries grew at annual rates in excess of
3.6% per year. For the full period of 2014–2017, the real value added by the total copyright industries grew at a rate of
4.26% per year.
REAL ANNUAL GROWTH RATESVALUE ADDED TO U.S. GDP, 2014–2017
2014–2015 2015–2016 2016–2017 Annual Growth Rate2014–2017
Core Copyright Industries 7.20% 4.51% 4.00% 5.23%
Total Copyright Industries 5.37% 3.64% 3.78% 4.26%
U.S. GDP 2.86% 1.49% 2.27% 2.21%
TABLE 3
7.20%
4.51%4.00%
5.23%5.37%
3.64%3.78%
4.26%
0%
2%
4%
8%
6%
2014–2015 2015–2016 2016–2017 2014–2017Annual Growth Rate
REAL ANNUAL GROWTH RATES COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIES AND U.S. GDP, 2014–2017
Core Copyright Industries Total Copyright Industries U.S. GDP
CHART 3
2.86%1.49%
2.27% 2.21%
9
Both the U.S. copyright industries and the U.S. economy experienced positive real annual growth during the years 2014
through 2017. In order to provide a basis of comparison, the growth patterns for the U.S. economy are also provided in
Table 3.
For the period 2014–2017, the U.S. economy grew at an annual rate of 2.21%. For the individual years 2014–2015,
2015–2016, and 2016–2017, the U.S. economy increased at annual rates of 2.86%, 1.49%, and 2.27% respectively. As
these figures make clear, for this period, the compound annual growth rate achieved by the U.S. copyright industries
significantly exceeded the compound annual growth rate achieved by the U.S. economy as a whole.
In Chart 3 we express the real (constant dollar) annual growth rates experienced by the copyright industries, compared
with the real growth rate achieved by the U.S. economy as a whole, during the periods 2014–2017. Here we illustrate that
the core copyright industries grew at a rate of 4.00% or more between 2014 and 2017. Similarly, the total copyright indus-
tries grew at a rate of 3.64% or more between 2014 and 2017. By contrast, the real growth rates achieved by the U.S. econ-
omy as a whole were 2.86% in 2014–2015, 1.49% in 2015–2016, and 2.27% in 2016–2017. Chart 3 clearly demonstrates that
since 2014, the core and the total copyright industries have grown substantially faster than the real annual rate of growth
experienced for the U.S. GDP as a whole.
COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIES AND TOTAL U.S. EMPLOYMENT(IN THOUSANDS), 2014–2017
2014 2015 2016 2017
2014 2015 2016 2017
Core Copyright Industries 5,423.0 5,535.4 5,631.0 5,690.2
Total U.S. Employment 140,381.0 143,093.0 145,437.0 147,625.0
Core Share of U.S. Employment 3.86% 3.87% 3.87% 3.85%
Total Copyright Industries 11,149.8 11,361.3 11,516.2 11,625.3
Total U.S. Employment 140,381.0 143,093.0 145,437.0 147,625.0
Total Share of U.S. Employment 7.94% 7.94% 7.92% 7.87%
TABLE 4
10
V. EMPLOYMENT IN THE COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIESIn this Report, as in the past, we estimate the number of workers employed in the core and total copyright industries
for the years 2014-2017. The procedures used to derive our estimates of employment in this Report were largely
based on the formulas derived in the earlier reports. In those reports, employee counts were derived so that the
counts would be consistent in both the NAICS and ISIC classification systems. As in the past, the actual employee
counts by NAICS code were extracted from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (“BLS”) database.
Employment figures for the core and total copyright industries for the years 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017 are provided
in Table 4 below. As shown in Table 4, the core copyright industries employed 5.423 million workers in 2014. These
workers represented 3.86% of the total U.S. workforce that year. By 2017, the number of core copyright employees
in the United States had increased to 5.690 million. These workers represented 3.85% of the total U.S. workforce in
2017. Similarly, in 2014, the total copyright industries employed more than 11.1 million workers. By 2017, employment
in the total copyright industries had increased to over 11.6 million. During the years of 2014–2017, the total copyright
industries represented more than a 7.87% share of all U.S. employment. The total U.S. employment during this period
increased from 140,381,000 in 2014 to 147,625,000 in 2017.
For U.S. private industry, employment growth during the years 2014–2017 was comparable to the employment trends
experienced for the U.S. economy as a whole. As shown in Table 5, total U.S. private employment increased from
118,432,000 in 2014 to 125,294,000 in 2017. During these years, the core copyright industries by and large maintained a
4.54% share of all private employment, while the total copyright industries’ share of private employment remained near
9.3% for the entire period.
10 As a whole, the core copyright industries have consistently been able to add jobs to the U.S. economy. Within the core however, certain component industries, particularly in the printing sector, have experienced declines in employment since the late 1990s.
COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIES AND TOTAL PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT(IN THOUSANDS), 2014–2017
2014 2015 2016 2017
2014 2015 2016 2017
Core Copyright Industries 5,423.0 5,535.4 5,631.0 5,690.2
Total U.S. Private Employment 118,432.0 120,993.0 123,131.0 125,294.0
Core Share of U.S. Employment 4.58% 4.57% 4.57% 4.54%
Total Copyright Industries 11,149.8 11,361.3 11,516.2 11,625.3
Total U.S. Private Employment 118,432.0 120,993.0 123,131.0 125,294.0
Total Share of U.S. Employment 9.41% 9.39% 9.35% 9.28%
TABLE 5
5,42
3.0
5,53
5.4
5,63
1.0
5,69
0.2
11,1
49.8
11,3
61.3
11,5
16.2
11,6
25.3
0
3,000
6,000
9,000
12,000
2014 2015 2016 2017
U.S. COPYRIGHT INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT(IN THOUSANDS), 2014–2017
Core Copyright Industries Total Copyright Industries
CHART 4
11
U.S. copyright industry employment is also expressed in Chart 4 below. This chart demonstrates graphically that the
total number of workers in the core copyright industries consistently increased from 2014 to 2017.10 Because U.S. total
employment also rose during this period, the core copyright share of employment remained at approximately 3.9%,
while the total copyright share of employment remained at approximately 7.9%, as shown in Table 4.
11See U.S. BEA, Glossary Index.
0
COMPENSATION PER EMPLOYEE(U.S. DOLLARS), 2014–2017
Core Copyright 2014 2015 2016 2017
2014 2015 2016 2017
Core Copyright Industries $90,354.73 $93,280.07 $94,474.14 $98,335.55
U.S. Average Compensation $65,878.40 $67,765.94 $68,457.46 $70,497.54
Ratio: Core to U.S. 1.37 1.38 1.38 1.39
Total Copyright
Total Copyright Industries $79,762.39 $82,273.82 $83,144.15 $86,308.34
U.S. Average Compensation $65,878.40 $67,765.94 $68,457.46 $70,497.54
Ratio: Total to U.S. 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.22
TABLE 6
CHART 5
$90,
354.
73
$93,
280.
07
$94,
474.
14
$98,
335.
55
$79,
762.
39
$82,
273.
82
$83,
144.
15
$86,
308.
34
$65,
878.
40
$67,
765.
94
$68,
457.
46
$70,
497.
54
$0
$50,000
$75,000
$25,000
$100,000
2014 2015 2016 2017
U.S. COPYRIGHT INDUSTRY COMPENSATION PER EMPLOYEE, 2014–2017
Core Copyright Industries Total Copyright Industries U.S. Average Compensation
12
In this Report, we also quantify the average compensation per employee received by workers in the copyright indus-
tries and in the United States as a whole. In these calculations, “compensation” means “wages and salary accruals and
supplements to wages and salary accruals.” These supplements include “employer contributions for employee pensions
and insurance funds and employer contributions for government social insurance.”11 These data are shown in Table 6.
During the period 2014-2017, average compensation per employee in both the core and total copyright industries
increased. As shown in Table 6, average compensation earned by core copyright employees stood at $98,335.55 in
2017. This value was 39% higher than the average compensation paid to all U.S. employees in 2017 ($70,497.54). For total
copyright industry workers, average compensation in 2017 was $86,308.34, about 22% higher than the U.S. average.
Compensation data are also reported graphically in Chart 5. The compensation “premium” paid to workers in the copy-
right industries continued and increased through 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017.
1.37 1.38 1.38 1.39
1.21 1.21 1.21 1.22
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2014 2015 2016 2017
U.S. COPYRIGHT INDUSTRY COMPENSATION RATIOSCOMPARED TO ALL U.S. EMPLOYEES (1.00=100%), 2014–2017
Ratio: Core Copyright Compensation to U.S. (All Employees)Ratio: Total Copyright Compensation to U.S. (All Employees)
CHART 6A
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
U.S. COPYRIGHT INDUSTRY COMPENSATION RATIOSCOMPARED TO PRIVATE U.S. EMPLOYEES (1.00=100%), 2014–2017
Ratio: Core Copyright Compensation to U.S. (Private Employees)Ratio: Total Copyright Compensation to U.S. (Private Employees)
2014 2015 2016 2017
1.43 1.44 1.44 1.45
1.27 1.27 1.27 1.28
CHART 6B
13
The compensation “premium” paid to copyright industry employees can also be illustrated by ratio. In Chart 6A, the aver-
age compensation paid to employees in the core and total copyright industries is compared to the average compensation
paid to all workers in the United States. For core copyright employees, the compensation premium has increased from 37%
in 2014 to 39% in 2017. For total copyright employees, the compensation premium has centered at around 21%, but ended
at 22% in 2017. In other words, in 2017, core copyright employees on average received about 39% more compensation
than the average U.S. worker, while total copyright industry employees received about 22% more compensation than the
average U.S. worker.
Copyright industry workers are also paid more than the average U.S. worker in private industry. As shown in Chart
6B, the compensation paid to workers in the core copyright industries has generally been about 44% higher than the
average compensation paid to U.S. private industry employees, and in 2017 was 45% higher. Similarly, the compensation
paid to workers in the total copyright industries has generally been about 27% higher than the average compensation
paid to U.S. private industry employees as a whole, and in 2017 was 28% higher.
12See U.S. Census Bureau, Estimated Export Revenue for Employer Firms: 2010 through 2014, Table 6.
14
VI. U.S. COPYRIGHT MATERIALS IN WORLD MARKETSConsumers in non-U.S. markets continue to demand products that embody American creativity. Copyright products that
are sold abroad may be manufactured in the United States or in foreign markets, but, in either case, the creative compo-
nents of those products are nurtured by the protection afforded under U.S. laws.
As noted in prior reports on these industries, we believe that the U.S. government’s statistics on “exports” of copyright
products generally fail to measure accurately the true value of American copyright works sold abroad. We recognize
that, in recent years, efforts have been undertaken to improve the scope of the copyright product export statistics that
are gathered in government surveys. For example, the U.S. Census Bureau now reports “Estimated Export Revenue for
Employer firms;” for a number of the copyright industries, including the motion picture industry and the sound record-
ing industry.12 However, the export statistics reported by the U.S. Census Bureau are substantially lower than foreign
market sales figures derived from non-government sources.
In this 2018 Report, we again provide estimates of foreign sales and exports for four selected core copyright sectors for
which we have data during the years 2014 through 2017: recorded music; motion pictures, television and video; software
publishing; and non-software publications including newspapers, books, and periodicals. For these years, we report
total foreign sales for these “selected” core copyright sectors of $164.35 billion in 2014, $176.97 billion in 2015, $184.01
billion in 2016, and $191.23 billion in 2017. Chart 7 illustrates these figures graphically.
$164
.35
$176
.97
$184
.01
$191
.23
$0
$50
$100
$150
$200
2014 2015 2016 2017
REVENUE GENERATED BY FOREIGN SALES AND EXPORTS OF SELECTED COPYRIGHT SECTORS (IN BILLIONS OF DOLLARS), 2014–2017
CHART 7
ANNUAL GROWTH RATE OF FOREIGN SALES AND EXPORTS
2014–2017
2014–2015 2015–2016 2016–2017
Growth Rate 7.68% 3.98% 3.92%
TABLE 7
FOREIGN SALES AND EXPORTS FOR SELECTED U.S. INDUSTRIES
(BILLIONS OF U.S. DOLLARS), 2017
2017
Selected Copyright Industries
Chemicals (excluding Pharmaceuticals & Medicines)3
Aerospace Products and Parts3
Agricultural Products2
Electronic Equipment, Appliances & Components1
Pharmaceuticals & Medicines3
$191.2
$137.0
$134.4
$138.2
$174.2
$ 55.81Source: http://www.worldstopexports.com/united-states-top-10-exports/.2Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-prod-ucts/foreign-agricultural-trade-of-the-united-states-fatus/us-agricultural-trade-data-update/.
3Source: U.S. Census Bureau: Economic Indicators Division USA Trade Online.
TABLE 8
15
In addition, the foreign sales and exports of these core copyright sectors exceed the entirety of exports of other
major industry sectors. In 2017, the core copyright industries generated non-U.S. sales of $191.2 billion, which is
generally more than the exports of the other U.S. industries, as reported in Table 8. In the same year, foreign sales
and exports for the U.S. electronic equipment industry amounted to $174.2 billion and agricultural foreign sales
and exports were approximately $138.2 billion. The U.S. chemicals manufacturing industry (excluding pharmaceuti-
cals & medicines) reached $137.0 billion in 2017 and reported foreign sales and exports for U.S. aerospace products
and parts approached $134.4 billion. Foreign sales and exports of U.S. pharmaceuticals & medicines reached $55.8
billion in 2017.
Annual growth rates for foreign sales of the selected core copyright industries are provided in Table 7. As shown, the
growth rate of foreign sales for these selected industries remained healthy throughout the 2014–2017 time period.
$191
.2
$137
.0
$134
.4
$138
.2
$174
.2
$55.
8
2017
$0
$50.00
$100.00
$150.00
$200.00
FOREIGN SALES AND EXPORTS FOR SELECTED INDUSTRIES(BILLIONS OF U.S. DOLLARS), 2017
Selected Copyright Industries
Chemicals (excluding Pharmaceuticals & Medicines)
Aerospace Products and Parts
Agricultural Products
Electronic Equipment, Appliances & Components
Pharmaceuticals & Medicines
CHART 8
16
Foreign sales and exports data by industry are also reported graphically in Chart 8. The data represent the significant
contribution made by American copyright works sold abroad to the overall trade balance of the U.S. economy, as well
as by comparison with other industry sectors.
17
VII. CONCLUSIONThe U.S. copyright industries have consistently outperformed the rest of the U.S. economy, in terms of their real
annual growth rates and their contributions to the overall growth of the U.S. economy as a whole. These indus-
tries also command significant shares of U.S. gross domestic product and employ millions of U.S. workers. In ad-
dition, the compensation paid to U.S. workers in the copyright industries consistently and substantially exceeds
the average compensation level paid to U.S. workers as a whole. Finally, copyright sectors continue to play a
prominent role in the growth of U.S. exports.
Value added in the copyright industries continues to grow. As of 2017, the value added by the core copyright
industries was $1,328.3 billion, approximately 6.85% of U.S. GDP. In the same year, value added for the total
copyright industries stood at $2,247.4 billion or 11.59% of U.S. GDP. From 2014–2017, the real annual growth
rates achieved by both the core and total copyright industries were significantly higher than the real growth rates
exhibited by the U.S. economy as a whole.
The U.S. core copyright industries now employ nearly 5.7 million workers, while some 11.6 million people are
employed by the total copyright industries. In 2017, the annual compensation paid to core copyright workers ex-
ceeded the average annual compensation paid to all U.S. workers by 39%, and the average compensation paid to
employees of the total copyright industries exceeded the U.S. average by 22%.
Sales of U.S. copyright materials continue to expand in overseas markets. For selected core copyright sectors, sales
in foreign markets exceeded $191 billion in 2017. The foreign sales of these selected copyright sectors exceeded
foreign sales of other U.S. industries including the electronic equipment, appliances and components industry; the
agricultural products industry; the chemicals manufacturing industry (excluding pharmaceuticals and medicines);
the aerospace products and parts industry; and the pharmaceuticals and medicines industry.
These consistently positive trends solidify the status of the U.S. copyright industries as a key engine of growth
for the U.S. economy as a whole. As new technologies support the development of new distribution methods for
legitimate copyrighted products, the U.S. copyright-based industries represented by the IIPA remain optimistic that
economic growth, combined with strong laws, effective enforcement, and steps to open markets, will continue to
pave the way for economic growth both in the United States and abroad.
Nominal Value Added(Billions of dollars)
2014 2015 2016 2017
2014 2015 2016 2017
Core Copyright $1,145.42 $1,227.80 $1,278.98 $1,328.30
U.S. GDP $17,427.60 $18,120.70 $18,624.50 $19,390.60Share 6.57% 6.78% 6.87% 6.85%Real Value Added(Billions of 2009 dollars)Core Copyright $1,131.70 $1,213.20 $1,267.96 $1,318.64U.S. GDP $16,013.30 $16,471.50 $16,716.20 $17,096.20Share 7.07% 7.37% 7.59% 7.71%Annual Growth in Real Value Added 2013–2014 2014–2015 2015–2016 2016–2017
Core Copyright N/A 7.20% 4.51% 4.00%
U.S. GDP N/A 2.86% 1.49% 2.27%
Compound Annual Growth Rates2014–2017
Core Copyright 5.23%
U.S. GDP 2.21%
CORE COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIESVALUE ADDED TO U.S. GDP, 2014–2017
TABLE A.1
TOTAL COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIESVALUE ADDED TO U.S. GDP, 2014–2017
Nominal Value Added(Billions of dollars)
2014 2015 2016 2017
2014 2015 2016 2017
Total Copyright $1,972.41 $2,092.63 $2,162.75 $2,247.34
U.S. GDP $17,427.60 $18,120.70 $18,624.50 $19,390.60
Share 11.32% 11.55% 11.61% 11.59%Real Value Added(Billions of 2009 dollars)Total Copyright $1,922.95 $2,026.14 $2,099.98 $2,179.35
U.S. GDP $16,013.30 $16,471.50 $16,716.20 $17,096.20Share 12.01% 12.30% 12.56% 12.75%Annual Growth in Real Value Added 2013–2014 2014–2015 2015–2016 2016–2017
Total Copyright N/A 5.37% 3.64% 3.78%
U.S. GDP N/A 2.86% 1.49% 2.27%
Compound Annual Growth Rates2014–2017
Total Copyright 4.26%
U.S. GDP 2.21%
TABLE A.2
18
APPENDIX A: TABLES OF STATISTICS
U.S. COPYRIGHT INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENTTABLE A.3
(IN THOUSANDS), 2014–2017
Core Copyright 2014 2015 2016 2017
2014 2015 2016 2017
Core Copyright Employment 5,423 5,535 5,631 5,690
Total U.S. Employment 140,381 143,093 145,437 147,625
Total Private U.S. Employment 118,432 120,993 123,131 125,294
Core Copyright Share of U.S. Employment 3.86% 3.87% 3.87% 3.85%
Core Copyright Share of Private U.S. Employment 4.58% 4.57% 4.57% 4.54%
Total Copyright
Total Copyright Employment 11,149.8 11,361.3 11,516.2 11,625.3
Total U.S. Employment 140,381 143,093 145,437 147,625
Total Private U.S. Employment 118,432 120,993 123,131 125,294
Total Copyright Share of U.S. Employment 7.94% 7.94% 7.92% 7.87%
Total Copyright Share of Private U.S. Employment 9.41% 9.39% 9.35% 9.28%
U.S. COPYRIGHT INDUSTRY COMPENSATION PER EMPLOYEE(U.S. DOLLARS), 2014–2017
Core Copyright 2014 2015 2016 2017
2014 2015 2016 2017
Core Copyright Compensation/Employee $90,354.73 $93,280.07 $94,474.14 $98,335.55
Average U.S. Compensation/Employee $65,878.40 $67,765.94 $68,457.46 $70,497.54
Average Private U.S. Compensation/Employee $63,049.26 $64,957.20 $65,620.46 $67,666.99
Ratio: Core Copyright Compensation to U.S. 1.37 1.38 1.38 1.39
Ratio: Core Copyright Compensation to Private U.S. 1.43 1.44 1.44 1.45
Total Copyright
Total Copyright Compensation/Employee $79,762.39 $82,273.82 $83,144.15 $86,308.34
Average U.S. Compensation/Employee $65,878.40 $67,765.94 $68,457.46 $70,497.54
Average Private U.S. Compensation/Employee $63,049.26 $64,957.20 $65,620.46 $67,666.99
Ratio: Total Copyright Compensation to U.S. 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.22
Ratio: Total Copyright Compensation to Private U.S. 1.27 1.27 1.27 1.28
TABLE A.4
19
APPENDIX B: LIST OF REFERENCEShttp://www.journalism.org/fact-sheet/newspapers/
http://www.worldstopexports.com/united-states-top-10-exports/
https://www.boxofficemojo.com/yearly/?view2=ytdcompare&compare=yty&p=.htm
https://www.defensenews.com/air/2017/02/13/aerospace-industry-sets-146b~export-record-in-2016/
https://www.statista.com/statistics/184124/estimated-revenue-of-us-software-publishers-since-2005/
https://www.trade.gov/mas/ian/build/groups/public/@tg_ian/documents/webcontent/tg_ian_005537.pdf
IBIS World, Software Publishing in the US, September 2018 https://www.ibisworld.com/industry-trends/market-re-search-reports/information/publishing-industries/software-publishing.html.
Independent Film and Television Alliance (IFTA), China Theatrical Market, 2010–2015. Data from Variety, Box Office Mojo, IMDB Pro and Baseline Studio.
Independent Film and Television Alliance (IFTA), Weekend Box Office for Independent Films, Week of October 14-October 16, 2016.
International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), Global Music Report, Full Report, 2016, http://www.ifpi.org/news/IFPI-GLOBAL-MUSIC-REPORT-2016.
International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), Global Music Report, Full Report, 2017, http://www.ifpi.org/news/IFPI-GLOBAL-MUSIC-REPORT-2017.
International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), Recording Industry in Numbers, 2014 Edition.
Motion Picture Association of America, International Box Office, All Films.
Motion Picture Association of America, Theatrical Market Statistics 2015, Global Box Office, All Films.
Siwek, Stephen E., Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy: The 2016 Report, November 2016.
U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Glossary of Terms, 2018.
U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Industry Data, Real Value Added by Industry, 2008–2017.
U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Industry Data, Table 6.2D, Compensation of Employees by Industry, 2008–2017.
U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Industry Data, Table 6.4D, Full-Time and Part-Time Employees by Industry, 2008–2017.
U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Industry Data, Value Added by Industry, 2008–2017.
U.S. Census Bureau: Economic Indicators Division USA Trade Online.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/foreign-agricultur-al-trade-of-the-united-states-fatus/us-agricultural-trade-data-update/.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau, Foreign Trade Division, U.S. International Trade Statistics, Census Database.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau, Information Sector Services (NAICS 51), Estimated Export Revenue for Employer Firms: 2013 through 2016.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment, Hours and Earnings from the Current Employment Statistics Survey (National).
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Subject Areas: Overview of BLS Statistics on Employment.
World Intellectual Property Organization, Guide on Surveying the Economic Contribution of the Copyright-Based Industries, 2015 Revised Edition, WIPO Publication No. 893 €, ISBN 978-92-805-2679-0.
World Intellectual Property Organization, Guide on Surveying the Economic Contribution of the Copyright-Based
Industries, WIPO Publication No. 893 €, ISBN 92-805-1225-7.
20
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