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Holt McDougal Psychology

Research Base Report

Holt McDougal Psychology Research Base Report Table of Contents

Page Introduction 1 Strand 1 – Reading Informational and Expository Texts 2

Vocabulary Development 2 Comprehension Strategy Instruction 7 Graphic Organizers 12 Considerate Texts 15

Strand 2 – Effective Instructional Approaches 19

Direct/Explicit Instruction 19 Scaffolding 22 Modeling 24 Cooperative Learning 26 Technology 29

Strand 3 – Meeting the Needs of All Students 32

Differentiated Instruction 32 Special Populations 34

Strand 4 – Assessment 37

Multiple Approaches to Assessment 37 Diagnostic and On-going Assessment 39 Self-Monitoring for Understanding 43 On-line Assessment 46 AP Exams Support 48

Strand 5 – Teaching Psychology 50

Content-Area Literacy: Reading, Writing, and Thinking like a Psychologist 50 Content-Area Literacy: Researching like a Psychologist 55 Active Learning 58 Making Connections to Students’ Experiences and Interests 60 Real-World Applications 62

Organization

Research Base Report for Holt McDougal Psychology

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Holt McDougal Psychology Research Base Report Introduction On January 8, 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. This law contains the most comprehensive reforms of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) since it was enacted in 1965. One fundamental principle of the law is that schools and teachers should implement teaching methods that have been proven to work—effective teaching methods that have been identified through sound research. The purpose of this document is to demonstrate clearly and explicitly the scientific research upon which Holt McDougal Psychology is based. The Holt McDougal Psychology program makes use of a number of pedagogical approaches that are based on research findings unique to social studies education and that have been proven effective across the content areas. Therefore, this report encompasses references specific to the teaching of psychology in particular and social studies and social sciences more generally, and that are relevant to teaching and learning across the content areas. Organization of the Report The document is organized by five major instructional strands. These strands describe the key components of high quality instruction as identified by research specifically focused on psychology, social sciences, and social studies, and by research on teaching and learning across the content areas. The strands are: • teaching students to read informational and expository texts; • using effective instructional approaches; • differentiating instruction to meet the needs of all students; • using assessment effectively in order to guide instruction; • using effective strategies for teaching psychology. To show how the strands are connected to research and the contents of Holt McDougal Psychology, this booklet is organized by the following sections within each strand: ○ Defining the Strand. This section summarizes the terminology and findings of the research. ○ The Research that Guided the Development of the Program. This section is organized by

subtopics within each strand and provides data or summary evidence from relevant research on each subtopic within the strand.

○ From Research to Practice. Each table with research evidence includes a column that shows how or where the research data is exemplified in the Holt McDougal Psychology program.

Strand 1 – Reading Informative and Expository Texts


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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Strand 1 - Reading Informational and Expository Texts? Defining the Strand The ability to read informational and expository texts is essential for success at school, home, and work. To be successful and prepared for the future, high-school students must develop their abilities to read and comprehend increasingly challenging content-area texts. Research suggests that an effective program for high-school students requires: • support for students’ vocabulary development; • comprehension strategy instruction; • the use of graphic organizers to communicate ideas; and • considerate texts to support comprehension.

The Research that Guided the Development of the Program Vocabulary Development To comprehend content-area texts at the secondary level, students must possess a large body of vocabulary and a set of skills and strategies for determining the meaning of unknown words that they encounter. Researchers have identified key elements of effective vocabulary instruction and have demonstrated the effect of high-quality instruction on students’ vocabulary development.

Research on Vocabulary Development Features of Effective Vocabulary Instruction as Identified by Research

Research From Research to Practice: How is This Research Applied in the Holt McDougal Psychology Program?

Elements of effective vocabulary instruction:

• Vocabulary should be taught both directly and indirectly.

• Repetition and multiple encounters are needed before a word is known.

• Instruction should connect to students’ prior knowledge of the word(s).

• Instruction should show the relationship of the new word(s) and other words.

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: The Guilford Press.

Durkin, D. (2003). Teaching them to

read (6th ed). Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

National Institute of Child Health

and Human Development. Report of the National Reading Panel: Reports of the subgroups. Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment



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• Context and technology enhance vocabulary acquisition.

• Instruction should be designed to actively engage students’ interests.

• Assessment of vocabulary development can have an impact on student learning.

• Varied instructional methods should be used to promote vocabulary development.

of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. NIH pub. no. 00-4769. Washington, DC: GPO, 2000. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/report.cfm

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Vocabulary Instruction

Study Study Overview Results/Conclusions From Research to Practice: How is this Research Applied in the Holt McDougal Psychology Program?

Kamil, Borman, Dole, Kral, Salinger, & Torgesen, 2008

A research synthesis was done to provide evidence-based recommendations for educators to support adolescent literacy. The recommendation to directly teach vocabulary suggests these elements: • Devote instructional time to explicit vocabulary instruction; • Repeat exposure to new vocabulary in varied ways; provide time for practice; • Provide opportunities for students to use new words (in discussion, writing, and reading); • Provide students with vocabulary acquisition strategies.

Found strong level of evidence to support providing explicit vocabulary instruction. Characterizing the evidence as strong required studies with high internal validity (i.e., studies whose designs can support causal conclusions) and studies with high external validity (i.e., studies that in total include enough of the range of participants and settings on which the recommendation is focused to support the conclusion that the results can be generalized to those participants and settings).

Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986

A meta-analysis of studies conducted to examine the

N = 52 Average effect size = 0.90



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effects of vocabulary instruction on learning and comprehension concluded that vocabulary instruction had a positive impact on student achievement.

Klesius & Searls, 1990

A meta-analysis of studies conducted to examine the effects of vocabulary instruction on learning and comprehension concluded that vocabulary instruction had a positive impact on student achievement.


Marmolejo, 1990

A meta-analysis of studies conducted to examine the effects of vocabulary instruction with poor readers on word knowledge and comprehension concluded that vocabulary instruction had a positive impact on student achievement.


Baumann, Edwards, Font, Tereshinski, Kame’enui, & Olejnik, 2002

An examination of the effects of instruction in morphemic analysis (prefixes) and contextual analysis on recall and application to new words suggests that students taught the meanings of prefixes and how to analyze context clues are able to infer the meanings of untaught words immediately after instruction. (In this study, these findings did not transfer to greater comprehension of texts, but researchers conclude that this may be a result of the limitations of the study design and the necessity for instruction in multiple strategies in concert to improve reading comprehension.)

N = 88 students Students receiving instruction in morphemic and contextual analysis outperformed students who did not; effect sizes (d) were large (.8 or higher) for production tests (application with new words).

Brett, Rothlein, In an experiment to N = 175 students



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& Hurley, 1996 examine the effects of three different conditions on students’ acquisition of word knowledge: listening to stories with a brief explanation of the words, listening to stories with no explanation of the words, and control (no exposure to words or stories), the study findings suggest that providing brief explanations of words in the context of an interesting story is an effective method of vocabulary instruction.

Students in the story-and-word-explanation group performed significantly higher on vocabulary tests designed to assess taught words: F(2,173)=55.17, p <.0001 for one text/set of words; F(2,173)=18.96, p < .0001 for second text/set of words.

Nelson & Stage, 2007

In a study designed to evaluate the effects of contextually-based multiple meaning vocabulary instruction on the students’ knowledge of vocabulary and text comprehension the findings suggest that students who receive contextually-based multiple meaning vocabulary instruction show statistically significant gains in word and text understanding.

N = 283 students Students in the low-achieving group showed the most marked improvements in vocabulary skills (F(1,285)=20.35, p <.001). Effect sizes for students with low initial vocabulary and comprehension achievement were .67 and .57 at the two grade levels under study.

Baumann, J. F., Edwards, E. C., Font, G., Tereshinski, C. A., Kame’enui, E. J., & Olejnik, S. (2002). Teaching morphemic and

contextual analysis to fifth-grade students. Reading Research Quarterly, 37(2), 150-176. Brett, A., Rothlein, L., & Hurley, M. (1996). Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories and explanations of target words.

The Elementary School Journal, 96(4), 415-422. Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, C. C., Salinger, T. & Torgesen, J. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy: Effective

classroom and intervention practices: A practice guide (NCEE #2008-4027). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc.

Klesius, J. P., & Searls, E. F. (1990). A meta-analysis of recent research in meaning vocabulary instruction. Journal of Research

and Development in Education, 23, 226-235. Marmolejo, A. (1990). The effects of vocabulary instruction with poor readers: A meta-analysis (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia

University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(3), 807A. Nelson, J. R., & Stage, S. A. (2007). Fostering the development of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension through

contextually-based multiple meaning vocabulary instruction. Education and Treatment of Children, 30(1), 1-22. Stahl, S. A., & Fairbanks, M. M. (1986). The effects of vocabulary instruction: A model-based meta-analysis. Review of

Educational Research, 56, 72-110.



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Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Effective Instruction to Support Students’ Vocabulary Development Preteaching vocabulary supports students’ understanding of specific ideas in texts.

Wixson, K. (1986). Vocabulary instruction and children’s comprehension of basal stories. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(3), 317-329.

Preteaching vocabulary supports students’ understanding of content-area passages.

Carney, J., Anderson, D., & Blackburn, C. (1984). Preteaching vocabulary and the comprehension of social studies materials by elementary school children. Social Education, 48, 195-196.

Teaching students to analyze word affixes, and other meaningful linguistic elements, can support students’ understanding of content-area vocabulary.

Milligan, J., & Ruff, T. (1990). A linguistic approach to social studies vocabulary development. The Social Studies, 81, 218-220.



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Comprehension Strategy Instruction Effective psychology programs use instructional approaches that have been proven effective by research across the content areas. One such approach is explicit instruction in comprehension strategies. Content is expressed through words and students learn the content of the disciplines largely through reading. Students must learn that reading is an active process of making meaning, and they must practice using the various skills and strategies involved in that process. Explicit instruction in strategies that will facilitate students’ comprehension of psychology texts is important.

Research on Comprehension Strategy Instruction Features of Effective Comprehension Strategy Instruction as Identified by Research


The steps of explicit comprehension strategy instruction typically include the following:

• Direct explanation of what the strategy is, how it can be helpful, and when it can be applied.

• Teacher modeling of the strategy in action, perhaps through thinking aloud while reading.

• Repeated opportunities over time for guided practice

• Independent application of the strategies to new texts and reading contexts

Allington, R. (2001). What really matters for struggling readers: Designing research-based programs. New York: Addison-Wesley.

Center for the Improvement of Early

Reading (CIERA). (2003). Put reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read. Ann Arbor, MI. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/ publications/Cierra.pdf



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Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Comprehension Strategy Instruction


Kamil, Borman, Dole, Kral, Salinger, & Torgesen, 2008

A research synthesis was done to provide evidence-based recommendations for educators to support adolescent literacy. The recommendation to directly and explicitly teach comprehension strategies suggests these elements: • Show students how to apply the strategy they are learning to different texts; • Choose texts of an appropriate reading level for students; • Teach students strategies directly and explicitly; • Provide time for guided practice; • Talk about comprehension strategies.

Found strong level of evidence to support providing direct and explicit comprehension strategy instruction. Characterizing the evidence as strong required studies with high internal validity (i.e., studies whose designs can support causal conclusions) and studies with high external validity (i.e., studies that in total include enough of the range of participants and settings on which the recommendation is focused to support the conclusion that the results can be generalized to those participants and settings).

Duffy, Roehler, Meloth, Vavrus, Book, Putnam, & Wesselman, 1986

Study examined whether low-level readers could develop awareness in using comprehension strategies. Explicit instruction in reading skills resulted in greater student awareness of the strategies.

N = 22 teachers; approximately 264 students Mean student awareness rating for treatment group = 6.51; Mean student awareness rating for control = 4.22 Statistically significant higher mean student awareness ratings for the experimental group: F(1, 20) = 10.616, p < .004



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Scevak, Moore, & Kirby, 1993

Researchers examined whether students taught strategies to comprehend text graphics (in this study, a map) would demonstrate increased recall of content. Training in explicitly linking features in the graphic significantly enhanced student performance.

N = 31 students Treatment effect was significant across three analyses for: Details: F(1, 27) = 11.24, p < .01 (Training mean = 19.33; Control mean = 13.19) Main idea: F(1,27) = 16.71, p < .01 (Training mean = 3.0, Control mean = 1.13) Theme: F(1,27) = 5.20, p < .05 (Training mean = 0.53, Control mean = 0.06)

Experimental Group (N = 29)

Control Group (N = 20)

+7 +3 Average (Mean) Change on Reading Assessment F(1,45) = 4.57, p < .05

+3.89 -2.2

Alfassi, 2004 Two related studies conducted to determine the impact of combined reading strategy instruction (reciprocal teaching and direct explanation) found that combined strategy instruction provided students with tools to apply higher-level thinking to texts.

Average (Mean) Change on Standardized Reading Measure F(1,45) = 4.77, p < .05

N = 80 students

Modeling-

plus-explanation

Control

+13.86 +7.35

Bereiter & Bird, 1985

Researchers found that combining think-aloud strategy modeling with instruction in identifying and using comprehension strategies (restatement, re-reading, identifying relationships, and formulating problems) resulted in increased comprehension.

Average (Mean) Change

from Pretest to Posttest

F(2,40) = 4.97, p < .05

Rosenshine, Meister, & Chapman, 1996

A review of studies on question generation as an effective strategy for increasing comprehension found that generating questions about reading led to gains in comprehension.

Median effect size on standardized tests = 0.36 (64th percentile) Median effect size on researcher-developed comprehension tests = 0.86 (81st percentile)



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Baumann, 1984

The study investigated the effects of teaching students strategies for identifying the main idea of a text through a direct instruction model. Posttesting showed that students in the experimental group were much more able to recognize and produce main idea statements than were students in the control groups.

N = 66 students Significant main effect for treatment, F (10,106) = 6.797, p < .001

Sencibaugh, 2007

A meta-analysis of research studies on interventions with LD students to improve reading comprehension concluded that questioning strategies that include self-instruction, paragraph restatements, and strategies related to text structures led to the most increased outcomes.

N = 15 studies 0.94 effect size (visual strategies – such as illustrations, graphic organizers) 1.18 effect size (auditory/language-dependent strategies – such as summarization, retelling, questioning, and text-structure based strategies)

Alfassi, M. (2004). Reading to learn: Effects of combined strategy instruction on high school students. The Journal of

Educational Research, 97, 171-184. Baumann, J. F. (1984). The effectiveness of a direct instruction paradigm for teaching main idea comprehension. Reading

Research Quarterly, 20(1), 93-115. Bereiter, C. & Bird, M. (1985). Use of thinking aloud in identification and teaching of reading comprehension strategies.

Cognition and Instruction, 2, 131-156. Duffy, G.G., Roehler, L. R., Meloth, M. S., Vavrus, L. G., Book, C., Putnam, J., & Wesselman, R. (1986). The relationship

between explicit verbal explanations during reading skill instruction and student awareness and achievement: A study of reading teacher effects. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(3), 237-252.

Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, C. C., Salinger, T. & Torgesen, J. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy: Effective

classroom and intervention practices: A practice guide (NCEE #2008-4027). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc.

Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention

studies. Review of Educational Research, 66(2), 181-221. Scevak, J. J., Moore, P. J., & Kirby, J. R. (1993). Training students to use maps to increase text recall. Contemporary

Educational Psychology, 18(4), 401-413.



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Sencibaugh, J.M. (2007). Meta-analysis of reading comprehension interventions for students with learning disabilities: Strategies and implications. Reading Improvement, 44(1), 6-22.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Comprehension Strategy Instruction A great range of students – including struggling readers and second-language learners – can benefit from comprehension strategy instruction.

Klingner, J., & Vaughn, S. (2004). Strategies for struggling second-language readers. In T. Jetton, & J. Dole (Eds.), Adolescent literacy research and practice (pp. 183-209). New York: The Guilford Press.

Learning strategies empowers readers with the tools they need for comprehension and the metacognitive awareness to know which tool to use at which time.

Nokes, J., & Dole, J. (2004). Helping adolescents read through explicit strategy instruction. In T. Jetton & J. Dole (Eds.), Adolescent literacy research and practice (pp. 162-182). New York: The Guilford Press.

Strategy instruction can have a strong impact on the reading comprehension of students with reading disabilities.

Sencibaugh, J.M. (2007). Meta-analysis of reading comprehension interventions for students with learning disabilities: Strategies and implications. Reading Improvement, 44(1), 6-22.



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Graphic Organizers Another effective instructional approach for teaching students how to read informational texts is the use of graphic organizers and other visuals as teaching aids. Traditionally, information has been presented visually in the social studies and sciences, through the study of maps, charts, and timelines. These, and other graphic organizers, assist students in understanding content by combining words and images to show the relationships between and among ideas. Research suggests that graphic organizers that are used in textbooks or are teacher-created are effective in helping students understand and make connections between ideas.

Research on Graphic Organizers Features of Effective Use of Graphic Organizers as Identified by Research


Visual organizers can be used either as a way to provide information for students or as a tool for students to use to better understand information. Six types of graphic organizers that align with common text organizational patterns have been shown to be particularly helpful in aiding student comprehension:

1. Descriptive pattern 2. Time-sequence pattern 3. Process/cause-effect

pattern 4. Generalization/principle

pattern 5. Concept pattern

Clarke, J. H. (1991). Using visual organizers to focus on thinking. Journal of Reading, 34(7), 526-534.

Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., &

Pollock, J.E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies

Supporting the Use of Graphic Organizers Study Study Overview Results/Conclusions From Research to

Practice: How is this Research Applied in the Holt McDougal Psychology Program?

Research that demonstrates the benefits of nonlinguistic representation: Study Effect

Size %-ile Gain

Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001

The authors synthesized research and combined the findings to determine the average effect of particular strategies.

Mayer 1989 1.02 1.31

34 40



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Athappilly, Smidchens, & Kofel, 1980

.510 19

Powell, 1980 1.01 1.16 .56

34 38 21

Hattie et al., 1996

.91 32

Walberg, 1999 .56 1.04

21 35

Guzzetti, Snyder, & Glass, 1993

.51 20

Use of graphic organizers was one of the nine research-based instructional strategies proven to increase learning and raise achievement levels.

Fletcher, 1990 .50 20 Horton, Lovitt, & Bergerud, 1990

A study consisting of three experiments, which sought to determine if graphic organizers are effective in content-area classrooms with three types of secondary students: students with learning disabilities, remedial students, and students in regular education classrooms found that use of graphic organizers produced significantly higher performance in pretest/posttest comparisons.

Experiment 1 LD Students: t(7) = 4.39, p <.01 Remedial Students: t(8) = 5.44, p<.01 Regular Students: t(15) = 8.06, p <.01 Experiment 2: LD Students: t(7) = 7.40, p <.01 Remedial Students: t(8) = 3.91, p <.01 Regular Students: t(15) = 7.33, p <.01 Experiment 3: LD Students: t(3) = 5.47, p <.05

Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Wei, 2004

A synthesis of research studies on the use of graphic organizers to increase reading comprehension for students with learning disabilities concluded that using graphic organizers led to improved comprehension.

N = 21 intervention studies Average (mean) effect size = .95

Darch & Gersten, 1986

An experimental study designed to evaluate the effectiveness of advance organizers found a positive impact on comprehension from

N = 24 students Effect size = 1.78



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the use of an advance organizer which showed relationships among ideas.

Griffin, Simmons, & Kame’enui, 1991

An experimental study designed to measure the impact of graphic organizers found that greater comprehension resulted from the use of graphic organizers reflecting the relationships of ideas than from the use of lists of facts.

N = 28 students Average effect size across posttests = 0.50

Darch, C., & Gersten, R. (1986). Direction-setting activities in reading comprehension: A comparison of two approaches.

Learning Disability Quarterly, 9, 235–243. Griffin, C. C., Simmons, D. C., & Kame’enui, E. J. (1991). Investigating the effectiveness of graphic organizer instruction on the

comprehension and recall of science content by students with learning disabilities. Reading, Writing, and Learning Disabilities, 7, 355–376.

Horton, S. V., Lovitt, T. C., & Bergerud, D. (1990). The effectiveness of graphic organizers for three classifications of secondary

students in content area classes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23(1), 12-29. Kim, A., Vaughn, S., Wanzek, J., & Wei, S. (2004). Graphic organizers and their effects on the reading comprehension of

students with LD: A synthesis of research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(2), 105-118. Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J.E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for

increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Using Graphic Organizers Graphic organizers are particularly helpful in content area learning, such as in social studies and science.

Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA). (2003). Put reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read. Ann Arbor, MI. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/Cierra.pdf

Graphic organizers help students

• identify and analyze text structures, • see relationships between ideas, and • identify key ideas when writing summaries of texts.

Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA). (2003). Put reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read. Ann Arbor, MI. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/Cierra.pdf



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Considerate Texts To facilitate students’ comprehension, it is important that content-area textbooks be considerate. Researchers in education and cognition have described the key features of considerate texts. Research has demonstrated the strong positive effect of considerate texts on reading comprehension.

Research on Considerate Texts Features of Considerate Texts as Identified by Research


Considerate texts include such features as:

• Coherence at the sentence level, such as through:

Connectedness within paragraphs

• Coherence at the global level, such as through:

Design Graphics that support

the content • Logical sequence of ideas • Clear, identifiable

organization, such as through:

Informative headers and subheaders

Introductions and summaries

Topic sentences Signal words and

phrases Clear and meaningful

transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and chapters

A table of contents An index

• Transparent relationships between ideas

• Explanation and elaboration of information

Considerate texts are attentive to:

• Audience appropriateness • Audience engagement

Armbruster, B. (2002). Considerate text. In B. Guzzetti (Ed.), Literacy in America: An encyclopedia of history, theory, and practice. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Armbruster, B., & Anderson, T.

(1988). On selecting “considerate” content area textbooks. Remedial and Special Education, 9, 47-52.

Beck, I. L., & McKeown, M. G.

(1994). Outcomes of history instruction: Paste-up accounts. In M. Carretero & J. F. Voss (Eds.), Cognitive and instructional processes in history and the social sciences (pp. 237-256). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Tyree, R. & Fiore, T. (1994).

Instructional materials for diverse learners: Features and considerations for textbook design. Remedial and Special Education, 15(6), 363-377.



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Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting the Use of Considerate Texts

Study Brief Description of Study

Results/Conclusions From Research to Practice: How is this Research Applied in the Holt McDougal Psychology Program?

Dickson, Simmons, & Kame’enui, 1996

This research synthesis focused on the impact of text organization (both design features and text structures) on reading comprehension.

Seven secondary and seven primary sources reviewed. Review resulted in three areas of convergence, finding the following to be effective for diverse learners: 1. Well-presented text aids comprehension; 2. Text structure, and student awareness of structure, highly relate to comprehension. 3. Explicit instruction on text structure facilitates comprehension.

McNamara, Kintsch, Songer, & Kintsch, 1996

Two experiments investigated the impact of text coherence on students’ comprehension of texts. Experiment 1 demonstrated benefits of globally coherent text and explanatory text. Experiment 2 demonstrated that readers with little content-area knowledge benefit from coherent text, while high-knowledge readers demonstrate high comprehension with minimally coherent text.

Experiment 1 Findings: Greater recall of revised text (mean = .53) than of original text (mean = .43) (F(2,33) = 3.7, MSE = .038, p = <.05). Experiment 2 Findings: Both high- and low-knowledge participants did better with coherent text when answering text-based questions F(1, 24)=2.8, p = .11. Participants who had read texts with an explicit macrostructure answered text-based questions more accurately (M = .49) than participants who read low global-coherence texts (M = .37). However, high-knowledge



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students did well with minimally coherent text (overall change score, coherent text = .11; overall change score, not coherent text = .23), while learners with low knowledge needed fully coherent, explicit text (overall change score, coherent text=.16; overall change score, not coherent text=.00).

Wilhite, 1986 Experiment examined the effects of headings and adjunct questions embedded in expository text on delayed multiple-choice text performance. The findings suggested that headings promoted the text’s structure and organization, thus making it more available for comprehension.

N = 64 students Subjects in the headings-present group performed significantly better on the retention text than did the subjects in the headings-absent group.

Lorch, Lorch, Ritchey, McGovern, & Coleman, 1999

A series of experiments examined whether headings influence readers’ summarizations of the text. The findings showed that readers depended on headings to complete summaries of the text, a task that emphasized the text’s structure.

Experiment 1 N = 73 students Main effect of signaling with headers, F(2,66) = 3.44, MSe = 0.05, w2 = 0.61 Experiment 2 N = 104 students Main effect of signaling with headers, F(1,93) = 5.47, MSe = 0.061, w2 = 0.77

McKeown, Beck, Sinatra, & Loxterman, 1992

An experiment testing the effects of additional background knowledge instruction on comprehension of two text versions – one of which had been revised to improve coherence by explicitly elaborating cause/effect relationships – was conducted. Findings of the study

N = 48 students Students who read the revised, more coherent text recalled statistically significantly greater content than those who read the original, F(1, 46)= 7.59, p <.01, and answered more questions correctly, F (3, 138)=5.20, p <.01.



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showed that students who read the revised text demonstrated better recall and answered more questions correctly than students who read the text that had not been revised.

Dickson, S., Simmons, D., & Kameenui, E. (1996). Text organization and its relation to reading comprehension: A synthesis of

the research. Oregon: University of Oregon. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from http://idea.uoregon.edu/~ncite/documents/techrep/tech17.html

Lorch, Jr., R. F., Lorch, E. P., Ritchey, K., McGovern, L. & Coleman, D. (1999). Effects of headings on text summarization.

Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 171-191. McKeown, M. G., Beck, I. L., Sinatra, G. M., & Loxterman, J. A. (1992). The contribution of prior knowledge and coherent text

to comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 27(1), 79-93. McNamara, D. S., Kintsch, E., Songer, N. B., & Kintsch, W. (1996). Are good texts always better? Interactions of text coherence,

background knowledge, and levels of understanding in learning from text. Cognition and Instruction, 14(1), 1-43. Wilhite, S. (1986). The relationship of headings, questions, and locus of control to multiple-choice test performance. Journal of

Reading Behavior, 18(1), 23-40.

Expert Conclusions Supporting the Use of Considerate Texts Coherent texts improve recall and support readers who are learning about new content areas.

McNamara, D. S., Kintsch, E., Songer, N. B., & Kintsch, W. (1996). Are good texts always better? Interactions of text coherence, background knowledge, and levels of understanding in learning from text. Cognition and Instruction, 14(1), 1-43.

Learning is increased when students read coherent texts.

McNamara, D. S. & Kintsch, W. (1996). Learning from texts: Effects of prior knowledge and text coherence. Discourse Processes, 22, 247-288.

Retention is increased when students read texts that make use of informative headings.

Wilhite, S. (1986). The relationship of headings, questions, and locus of control to multiple-choice test performance. Journal of Reading Behavior, 18(1), 23-40.

Comprehension is improved when students read texts written with a clear organizational pattern.

Dickson, S., Simmons, D., & Kameenui, E. (1996). Text organization and its relation to reading comprehension: A synthesis of the research. Oregon: University of Oregon. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from http://idea.uoregon.edu/~ncite/documents/techrep/tech17.html

Strand 2 – Effective Instructional Approaches


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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Strand 2 - Effective Instructional Strategies? Defining the Strand Effective psychology programs use instructional approaches that have been proven to be effective by research across the content areas. A program that includes appropriate instruction for all students will include the following approaches: • providing direct and explicit instruction; • giving needed support through scaffolding students’ learning; • modeling both processes and products; • supporting group and peer collaboration; and • using technology effectively to support learning.

The Research Base Direct/Explicit Instruction Asking students to read a text, or explaining the contents of the text to students may help them learn from that text, but it will not teach students how to read and comprehend on their own. To meet the needs of all learners, educators must provide their students with direct and explicit instruction in the use of reading comprehension strategies. Educators must make visible the invisible processes of comprehension so that students can learn how to read and understand texts. The same is true for the processes of inquiry used by psychologists; teachers must teach these explicitly and directly. Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of direct and explicit instruction on student learning.

Research on Direct/Explicit Instruction Features of Direct/Explicit Instruction as Identified by Research

Research From Research to Practice: How is this Research Applied in the Holt McDougal Psychology Program?

Direct or explicit instruction consists of three basic steps:

• Teachers explain a new concept or skill;

• Students test their understandings by practicing under teacher direction;

• Students practice with teacher guidance.

Direct or explicit instruction has been shown to be particularly effective in teaching:

Brown, A. L., & Palincsar, A. S. (1982). Inducing strategic learning from text by means of informed, self-controlled training. Topics in Learning and Learning Disabilities, 2, 1-17.

Joyce, B., Weil, M. & Calhoun, E.

(2000). Models of teaching, Sixth Edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Vacca, R. T. (2002). Making a

difference in adolescents’ school lives: Visible and



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• Comprehension strategies; • Content-area reading; and • Metacognitive monitoring

strategies.

invisible aspects of content area reading. In A. Farstrup & S. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (pp. 184-204). Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association.

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Direct/Explicit Instruction


Stevens, Slavin, & Farnish, 1991

An experimental research study to determine the effect of direct instruction on students’ use of reading comprehension strategies Found that students in the experimental groups who received direct instruction on the use of comprehension strategies to identify main ideas performed better than control group students.

N=486 students Effect sizes for experimental group taught by direct instruction in reading comprehension: Main idea questions: +0.52 Inference questions: +0.15

Baumann, 1984 In a study to determine the effectiveness of direct instruction in teaching the comprehension skill of identifying main ideas, findings demonstrated a powerful treatment effect in favor of direct instruction.

N = 66 students A significant effect for treatment was shown: F(10, 106) = 6.797, p <.001

Baumann, 1986 In a study to determine the effectiveness of direct instruction in teaching anaphoric (pronoun) relationships, findings concluded that students in the experimental (direct instruction) group consistently outperformed control group students.

N = 59 students The effect of instruction was significant for each posttest: Posttest 1, F(1, 55) = 38.164, p < .001; Posttest 2, F(1, 55) = 18.855, p < .001; Posttest 3, F(1, 55) = 4.820, p < .032;



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Posttest 4, F(1, 55) = 17.404, p < .001.

Swanson & Hoskyn, 1998

The results of a meta-analysis of studies that included students with learning disabilities found that effect sizes were more positive for a combined model that included direct and explicit instruction.

N = 180 intervention studies Mean effect size = 0.79


A meta-analysis was conducted to identify instructional factors that positively influence adolescent learning and achievement. The single most effective factor was explicit practice (including repeated practice, feedback, and review).

N = 180 intervention studies Overall effect size for interventions, M = 0.79 Explicit practice contributed 16% variance to effect size.

Baumann, J. F. (1984). The effectiveness of a direct instruction paradigm for teaching main idea comprehension. Reading

Research Quarterly, 20(1), 93-115. Baumann, J. F. (1986). Teaching third-grade students to comprehend anaphoric relationships: The application of a direct

instruction model. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(1), 70-90. Stevens, R. J., Slavin, R. E., & Farnish, A. M. (1991). The effects of cooperative learning and direct instruction in reading

comprehension strategies on main idea identification. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 8-16. Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (1998). Experimental intervention research on students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis

of treatment outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 277-321. Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (2001). Instructing adolescents with learning disabilities: A component and composite analysis.

Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(2), 109-119. Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Direct and Explicit Instruction Direct instruction is particularly effective in teaching comprehension-fostering strategies, helping students see the usefulness of these strategies, and fostering metacognition to support the effective student use of strategies.

Brown, A. L., & Palincsar, A. S. (1982). Inducing strategic learning from text by means of informed, self-controlled training. Topics in Learning and Learning Disabilities, 2, 1-17.



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Scaffolding Scaffolding a student’s learning involves providing that learner with an adequate amount of support so that the instructional task is neither too challenging nor too easy. A scaffold supports a learner, moving him or her towards independence, so that eventually the scaffold can be eliminated. A scaffold might be a tool (such as a graphic organizer) or an instructional technique (such as a prereading discussion). An instructional program that provides scaffolding follows a logical structure, purposefully selecting and sequencing models and examples, and including materials to guide student learning (such as key words, worksheets, visuals, and graphic organizers). The goal of scaffolding is independence and the ability to transfer their newfound knowledge, skills, and strategies to new situations. In psychology, where the course goals include teaching content and ways of thinking, scaffolding is essential.

Research on Scaffolding Features of Effective Scaffolding as Identified by Research


Scaffolding consists of these basic steps:

• Teachers provide a variety of supports to students when introducing new content and skills (including, but not limited to, structured assignments, models, examples, sequencing of learning);

• Teachers provide opportunities for practice;

• Teachers gradually withdraw supports as students show readiness for independent use of skills and strategies.

Scaffolding has been shown to be particularly effective when

• teaching higher-level cognitive strategies; and

• working with struggling learners and students for whom English is a second language.

Francis, D. J., Rivera, M., Lesaux, N., Kieffer, M., & Rivera, H. (2006). Practical guidelines for the education of English language learners: Research-based recommendations for instruction and academic interventions. Houston: University of Houston Center on Instruction.

Hillocks, G., Jr. (1993).

Environments for active learning. In L. Odell, (Ed.), Theory and practice in the teaching of writing (pp. 244-270). Carbondale: Southern Illinois U P.

Rosenshine, B. & Meister, C. (1992).

The use of scaffolds for teaching higher-level cognitive strategies. Educational Leadership, 49(7), 26-33.



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Supporting Scaffolding Study Study Overview Results/Conclusions From Research to



A meta-analysis was conducted to identify components that positively influence adolescent learning and achievement. Scaffolding was found to predict positive outcomes in treatment studies for adolescents with learning disabilities (LD).

N = 93 group design studies The factor that accounted for 16% of variance in effect size includes the instructional component of scaffolding by providing advance organization (providing a structure/ scaffold for new information and relating it to prior knowledge).


A review of intervention studies was completed to determine whether teaching students to generate questions improved their comprehension. Researchers examined the prompts, or scaffolds, that were most effective and found that the signal words prompt was more effective than no prompt. Generating questions, and providing scaffolds to do so, resulted in gains in comprehension.

N = 9 studies Generic questions as scaffolds (when gain scores were measured by experimenter-developed assessments) had an overall effect size of 1.12 (89th percentile) Signal words as scaffolds (when gain scores were measured by experimenter-developed assessments) had an overall effect size of 0.85 (80th percentile)

Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of intervention studies.

Review of Educational Research, 66(2), 181-221.

Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (2001). Instructing adolescents with learning disabilities: A component and composite analysis. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(2), 109-119.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Scaffolding Long-term retention of information and skills is substantively enhanced by the opportunity for distributed practice.

Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (2001). Instructing adolescents with learning disabilities: A component and composite analysis. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(2), 109-119.



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Modeling When we learn any new skill, the first step is often to watch the performance of an expert. The next step is to take this expert performance and break it down into a set of more easily learned steps. Modeling refers to this kind of expert demonstration. In content-area reading, effective modeling may be a teacher’s verbalizations of his or her thoughts and strategy use while reading and thinking about an informational text. Students in psychology benefit from seeing and studying models of the process or performance they are trying to emulate.

Research on Modeling Features of Effective Modeling as Identified by Research


Modeling is the basic process of:

• Making learning processes visible through demonstration;

• Demonstrating how, when, and why to apply strategies;

• Providing opportunities for students to practice applying the demonstrated strategies.


Fielding, L. G., & Pearson, P. D.

(1994). Reading comprehension: What works. Educational Leadership, 51(5), 62-69.


Supporting Modeling Study Study Overview Results/Conclusions From Research to


Choi, Land, & Turgeon, 2008

In a study designed to explore the impact of teacher modeling and question prompts on students’ online discussion participation, findings suggested that a combination of modeling and question prompts was more effective than either strategy alone.

N = 14 students Descriptive statistics suggest that combined approach (modeling + questioning) most effective in guiding students.

Rubin & Norman, 1992

In a study designed to examine the effectiveness of modeling on integrated

N = 327 students Modeling had a statistically



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science process skills and reasoning, results showed a significant impact on achievement for the modeling group.

significantly larger impact on achievement than did control group instruction.

Choi, I., Land, S. M., & Turgeon, A. (2008). Instructor modeling and online question prompts for supporting peer-questioning

during online discussion. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 36(3), 255-275. Rubin, R. L., & Norman, J. T. (1992). Systematic modeling versus the learning cycle: Comparative effects on integrated science

process skill achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(7), 715-727.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Modeling Struggling learners benefit when teachers construct lessons that make comprehension processes visible.




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Cooperative Learning Effective instruction involves a combination of whole-group, small group and independent activities. Research attests to the benefits of having students learn together in collaborative and cooperative groups. Students who participate in flexible groups in which they depend on their group members and feel accountable to the group’s performance appear to learn more effectively. In addition, this kind of group and peer collaboration may help develop students’ social abilities and their understanding and tolerance of all students.

Research on Cooperative Learning Features of Effective Cooperative Learning as Identified by Research


Cooperative learning is most effective when:

1. Groups are not always organized by ability levels;

2. Groups are relatively small;

3. Cooperative learning is seen as one of many instructional strategies used in the classroom.

Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J.E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Cooperative Learning


Research that demonstrates the benefits of cooperative learning: Study Effect

Size %-ile Gain

Walberg, 1999 .78 28

Lipsey & Wilson, 1993

.63 23

Sheerens & Bosker,

.56 21


The authors synthesized research and combined the findings to determine the average effect of particular strategies. Cooperative learning was one of the nine research-based instructional strategies proven to increase learning and raise achievement. Hall, 1989 .30 12



27

Johnson, Maruyama, Johnson, Nelson, & Skon, 1981

.73 27

Overview of meta-analyses supporting the use of cooperative learning: Meta-Analysis

N Average (M) Effect Size

Johnson, Maruyama, Johnson, Nelson, & Skon, 1981

122 0.73

Hall, 1989 37 0.30

Johnson & Johnson, 1987

133 0.62

Stevens & Slavin, 1991

11 0.31

Carlson, 1987

13 0.16


Researchers examined the body of meta-analyses of psychological, educational, and behavioral interventions. Among the positive findings reported, the researchers included a summary of the meta-analyses on cooperative task structures in educational settings. Findings were positive for K-adult students; handicapped and non-handicapped; ethnically diverse students; and those with mild disabilities. When compared with non-cooperative, competitive or individualistic approaches, cooperative learning showed a positive effect on student learning.

Johnson, Johnson, & Maruyama, 1983

98 0.75

Stevens, Slavin, & Farnish, 1991

An experimental study was conducted to determine the effect of direct instruction on students’ use of reading comprehension strategies and the extent to which cooperative learning can support increased learning. Students in the experimental groups who received direct instruction with additional cooperative learning processes

N=486 students Effect sizes for experimental group taught by direct instruction with cooperative learning: Main idea questions: +0.82 Inference questions: +0.20



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performed better on a main idea posttest than students in a control group.

Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (1993). The efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment. American

Psychologist, 48(12), 1181-1209. Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J.E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based

strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

Stevens, R. J., Slavin, R. E., & Farnish, A. M. (1991). The effects of cooperative learning and direct instruction in

reading comprehension strategies on main idea identification. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 8-16.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning methods lead to greater academic achievement and higher performance than do traditional instructional methods.

Sharan, S. (1980). Cooperative learning in small groups: Recent methods and effects on achievement, attitudes, and ethnic relations. Review of Educational Research, 10, 241-271. Slavin, R. E. (1980). Cooperative learning. Review of Educational Research, 50, 315-342. Slavin, R. E. (1983a). Cooperative learning. New York: Longman. Slavin, R. E. (1983b). When does cooperative learning increase student achievement? Psychological Bulletin, 94, 429--445.

Students who work in cooperative learning groups show: • increased self-esteem, • improved relationships with others, and • more positive attitudes towards school.

Sharan, S. (1980). Cooperative learning in small groups: Recent methods and effects on achievement, attitudes, and ethnic relations. Review of Educational Research, 10, 241-271. Slavin, R. E. (1980). Cooperative learning. Review of Educational Research, 50, 315-342. Slavin, R. E. (1983a). Cooperative learning. New York: Longman. Slavin, R. E. (1983b). When does cooperative learning increase student achievement? Psychological Bulletin, 94, 429--445.



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Technology Technology has become an integral part of the operations of most businesses and workplaces and has become an important part of the delivery of instruction in our schools When used effectively, technology can support students’ classroom learning by providing opportunities for instructional support, continued learning, practice, and additional information. Research suggests that technology is one variable of classroom instruction that can support increased student learning and achievement.

Research on Technology Features of Effective Instructional Use of Technology as Identified by Research


Effective use of technology in the classroom can support:

• Differentiation by enabling teachers to identify and address student learning differences and pacing needs through technology;

• Active learning by providing a context in which students can engage in independent learning, research, and problem solving; and

• Increased motivation through increased engagement in the learning process.

Hitchcock, C., & Stahl, S. (2003). Assistive technology, universal design, universal design for learning: Improved opportunities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 18(4), 1-24. Retrieved April 29, 2008 from http://jset.unlv.edu/18.4/hitchcock/Hitchcock.pdf.

Liao, Y. (2001). Effects of computer-assisted instruction on cognitive outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 24(3).

Swan, K. O., & Hofer, M. (2008).

Technology and social studies. In L. S. Levstik & C. A. Tyson (Eds.), Handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 307-326). New York: Routledge.

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting the Use of Technology in Instruction


Overview of meta-analyses supporting the use of computer-aided/based instruction:


Researchers examined the body of meta-analyses of psychological, educational, and behavioral interventions.

Meta-Analysis

N Average (M)



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Effect Size

Gillingham & Guthrie, 1987

13 1.05

Kulik & Kulik, 1987

199 0.31

Niemiec, Samson, Weinstein, & Walberg, 1987

48 0.45

Ryan, 1991 40 0.31 Kulik, Kulik, & Bangert-Drowns, 1984

25 0.48

Kulik, Bangert, & Williams, 1983

51 0.32

Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, & Kulik, 1985

42 0.26

Kulik, Kulik, & Cohen, 1980

59 0.25

Schmidt, Weinstein, Niemiec, & Walberg, 1986

18 0.66

McDermid, 1990

15 0.57

Burns, 1982

40 0.35

Lee, 1990 72 0.38 Williams, 1990

127 0.14

Szcurek, 1982

33 0.33

Among the positive findings reported, the researchers included a summary of the meta-analyses on computer-based and computer-assisted instruction for students in grades K-higher education and for regular classroom and learning disabled students. Combination strategies (technology and non-technology based) and simulation games used in instruction were also found to be effective.

Dekkers & Donatti, 1981

93 0.28



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Liao, 1992 A meta-analysis was conducted to determine the effects of computer-assisted instruction on students’ cognitive outcomes. Results suggested that computer-assisted instruction showed a positive effect across different subjects and specific software.

N = 31 studies Effect size = 0.48

Bayraktar, 2001

A meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the impact of computer-assisted instruction. Results indicated that use of computers is more effective than more traditional methods of instructional delivery.

N = 42 studies Effect size = 0.27

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 2003

A meta-analysis was conducted to consider student outcomes of teaching and learning with technology. Technology had a small, positive, and significant effect on student outcomes when compared with traditional instruction.

N = 42 studies, 282 effect sizes Effect size for cognitive outcomes = 0.448 Effect size for overall outcomes (cognitive, affective, behavioral) = 0.410

Bayraktar, S. (2001). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in science education. Journal of

Research on Technology in Education, 34(2), 173-188. Liao, Y. (1992). Effects of computer-assisted instruction on cognitive outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research on

Computing in Education, 24(3). Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (1993). The efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment. American

Psychologist, 48(12), 1181-1209. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. (2003). A Meta-Analysis of the Effectiveness of Teaching and Learning with

Technology on Student Outcomes. Naperville, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved October 6, 2008, from http://www.ncrel.org/tech/effects2/abstract.htm.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Technology in Instruction Eighth graders in classes in which computers were used for simulations and applications scored higher on NAEP than other students by two-fifths of a grade level.

Archer, J. (1998). The link to higher scores. Education Week, 18(5), 10-19.

Strand 3 – Meeting the Needs of All Students


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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Strand 3 - Meeting the Needs of All Students? Defining the Strand Social studies, social sciences, and literacy instruction are effective only when they successfully meet the needs of all students, regardless of their interests, learning styles, and exceptionalities. Effective instruction addresses the needs of English-language learners, advanced learners, students with modality preferences, standard-English learners, and struggling/developmental learners. The No Child Left Behind Act is inclusive: schools must reach all learners and meet their learning needs. A program that meets the needs of all students will: • provide suggestions for differentiation, or present instruction in varied ways to meet each learner’s

needs; and • include specific instructional suggestions to meet the needs of special populations of students. The Research Base Differentiated Instruction Differentiation allows a teacher to make their lessons accessible to a wider range of students. Teachers who are successful at differentiating their instruction not only approach instruction differently based on students’ individual needs, but they also allow students to demonstrate what they have learned in different and varied ways. Not all students should be expected to engage in the same processes nor produce the same products, but instead need to be given opportunities to work in different ways and on different tasks depending on their individual interests, needs, and styles. Thus differentiation is the process by which curriculum objectives, teaching and assessment methods, and resources and learning activities are planned to cater to the needs of individual students.

Research on Differentiated Instruction Features of Effective Differentiated Instruction as Identified by Research


Differentiated instruction is based on research that indicates that students learn most effectively when teachers meet their:

• readiness • interests • learning profiles

Effective instruction can meet student needs in mixed-ability classrooms by differentiating

Kapusnick, R. A., & Hauslein, C. M. (2001). The “silver cup” of differentiated instruction. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 37(4), 156-159.

Tomlinson, C. (2001). How to

differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum.

Tomlinson, C. (2004).

Differentiating instruction: A



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three elements of instruction:

1. the content, or what is to be learned.

2. the process, or how and how quickly learning is to take place.

3. the product, or how students are to demonstrate what they have learned.

synthesis of key research and guidelines. In T. L. Jetton & J. A. Dole (Eds.), Adolescent literacy research and practice (228-248). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Differentiated Instruction


Lou, Abrami, Spence, Poulsen, Chambers, & d’Apollonia, 1996

Researchers conducted a meta-analysis to determine the effects of within-class grouping on student achievement and other outcomes. Flexible grouping was found to be beneficial to student achievement and support student understanding, motivation, and social skills.

N = 145 effect sizes Average achievement effect size = + 0.17, favoring small group learning N = 20 effect sizes Average achievement effect size = +0.12, favoring homogeneous grouping

Lou, Y. P., Abrami, P. C., Spence, J. C., Poulsen, C., Chambers, B., & d’Apollonia, S. (1996). Within-class grouping: A meta-

analysis. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 423-458. Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Differentiated Instruction When teachers use varied delivery methods that can maximize individual student’s strengths, all students can learn better and more easily.

Kapusnick, R. A., & Hauslein, C. M. (2001). The “silver cup” of differentiated instruction. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 37(4), 156-159.



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Special Populations Our classrooms are more diverse with regard to race, ethnicity, culture, and language than ever before. In addition, most classrooms include students with a wide range of abilities and needs. Special education students, who were once segregated for much of the day, are now learning alongside their peers in the traditional classroom. Gifted students have unique needs as well. Meeting the needs of these diverse and special populations of students is essential to helping each child learn new content and achieve at high levels.

Research on Special Populations Features of Effective Instruction that Meets the Needs of Special Populations as Identified by Research


If instruction is to meet the needs of all learners, it must be differentiated in such a way that it takes into consideration the unique strengths and challenges of all student populations.

English language learners may benefit particularly from intensive instruction on:

• comprehension strategies • vocabulary • fluency • expository text structures • metacognition

Advanced learners may benefit from instruction that meets these criteria:

• introducing complex and abstract ideas

• facilitating investigation and research

• pacing instruction to meet student needs

• holding high expectations for precision

• modeling higher-level thinking

• engaging in discussion

Struggling learners may benefit


Au, K. (2002). Multicultural factors

and the effective instruction of students of diverse backgrounds. In A. E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (pp. 392-413). Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association.

Fitzgerald, J. (1995). English-as-a-

second-language learners’ cognitive reading processes: A review of research in the United States. Review of Educational Research, 65(2), 145-190.

Francis, D. J., Rivera, M., Lesaux,

N., Kieffer, M., & Rivera, H. (2006). Practical guidelines for the education of English language learners: Research-based recommendations for instruction and academic interventions. Houston: University of Houston Center on Instruction.

George, D. R. (1993). Instructional

strategies and models for gifted education. In K. Heller, F. Monks, & A. Passow (Eds.), International handbook of research and development of



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from:

• organizational aids • preview statements and

overviews • graphic organizers or

outlines that show relationships between ideas

• intensive instruction based on individual needs

• modeling • strategy instruction

giftedness and talent (pp. 411-425). Oxford, England: Pergamom Press, Ltd.

Johnsen, S. K., & Ryser, G. R.

(1996). An overview of effective practices with gifted students in general-education settings. Journal of Education for the Gifted, 19(4), 379-404.

Tyree, R. & Fiore, T. (1994).

Instructional materials for diverse learners: Features and considerations for textbook design. Remedial and Special Education, 15(6), 363-377.

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies on Meeting the Needs of Special Populations


Sencibaugh, 2007

A meta-analysis of research studies on interventions with LD students to improve reading comprehension concluded that questioning strategies that include self-instruction, paragraph restatements, and strategies related to text structures led to the most increased outcomes.

N = 15 studies 0.94 effect size (visual strategies – such as illustrations, graphic organizers) 1.18 effect size (auditory/language-dependent strategies – such as summarization, retelling, questioning, and text-structure based strategies)

Fitzgerald, 1995

An integrative review of research on ESL suggested that the processes and strategies that English language learners use to make sense of English-language texts are similar to those that native speakers use, and therefore ESL readers can benefit from the same strategy

N = 67 research reports Findings included: 1. Vocabulary: Vocabulary

knowledge impacts readers’ success.

2. Strategies: Types of strategies used and issues in strategy use parallel research on native speakers.



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instruction as native-language readers.

3. Schema theory: Students’ prior knowledge of content and text structure impacted their comprehension.

4. Similarities to native learners: ESL learners share many substantive qualities with native speakers. ESL learners tended to have more difficulty monitoring comprehension and using context.

Fitzgerald, J. (1995). English-as-a-second-language learners’ cognitive reading processes: A review of research in the United

States. Review of Educational Research, 65(2), 145-190. Sencibaugh, J.M. (2007). Meta-analysis of reading comprehension interventions for students with learning disabilities: Strategies

and implications. Reading Improvement, 44(1), 6-22. Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Meeting the Needs of Special Populations Language learning is an active process that relies on the opportunity to practice hearing, reading, and using language in academic settings. These structured, active opportunities will promote engagement and comprehension of disciplinary content.

Francis, D. J., Rivera, M., Lesaux, N., Kieffer, M., & Rivera, H. (2006). Practical guidelines for the education of English language learners: Research-based recommendations for instruction and academic interventions. Houston: University of Houston Center on Instruction.

Student achievement increases when instruction is tailored to student learning styles.

Dunn, R., Beaudry, J. S., & Klavas, A. (1989). Survey of research on learning styles. Educational Leadership, 46(6), 50-59.

Students who struggle with content-area reading benefit from instruction that makes the processes of reading and comprehending visible and explicit.


Strand 4 – Assessment


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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Strand 4 – Assessment? Defining the Strand Effective instruction relies on effective assessment practices. Particularly in the social studies, where there are specific and rigorous expectations for content knowledge, habits of mind and ways of understanding, one approach to assessment cannot supply a complete picture. Using a variety of assessment types has been shown to be effective for all students, but particularly those who have learning difficulties (Bell, 2002). Research has shown that students’ achievement improves when they receive frequent, consistent, specific feedback on their progress. This kind of ongoing assessment provides teachers with the information they need to effectively tailor and differentiate instruction to meet the needs of all students. A program that provides effective assessment resources in psychology will: • take multiple, varied approaches to assessment; • include diagnostic and on-going assessments; • guide students in self-monitoring; • provide on-line assessment tools; and • prepare students specifically for success on the AP exam. The Research Base Multiple Approaches to Assessment In the social sciences, where students are not only expected to have a great deal of content knowledge, but also need to grapple with and make sense of more complicated understandings, one type of assessment simply cannot provide the type of feedback needed to guide instruction or draw conclusions about student progress. A student who is given multiple opportunities on a variety of assessment types can better demonstrate both a depth and breadth of proficiency on multiple and varied learning outcomes. Assessments include observations of students in action, portfolios, written reports, independent projects, group projects, research projects, tests, quizzes, and students’ own self-assessments.

Research on Multiple Approaches to Assessment Multiple Approaches to Assessment Identified by Research


Multiple approaches to assessment allow students to show what they know and can do. Approaches includes:

• Multiple-choice, true-false, or matching items, to demonstrate learning of

Afflerbach, P. (2004). Assessing adolescent reading. In Jetton, T., & Dole, J. (Eds.), Adolescent literacy research and practice (369-391). New York: The Guilford Press.

Mid-Continent Research for

Education and Learning



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foundational knowledge (facts, terms, details)

• Performance tasks, such as writing or problem solving, to demonstrate understanding of complex ideas (concepts, generalizations, principles) and skills

(McREL). (2000). Noteworthy perspectives on implementing standards-based education. Aurora, CO: Author.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Using Multiple Approaches to Assessment In a standards-based classroom, educators must be familiar with a wide variety of assessment types and methods and thoughtfully choose the strategy that will best show evidence of student learning.

Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL). (2000). Noteworthy perspectives on implementing standards-based education. Aurora, CO: Author.



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Diagnostic and On-going Assessment Diagnostic testing is a systematic approach to good teaching. It is designed to focus on particular and important targets or outcomes that a teacher has devised for his or her students. Teachers who routinely assess students’ prior knowledge before beginning a new unit of instruction are better able to ensure that their students have the foundational knowledge and skills needed to learn new content. On-going assessment involves routine and planned assessment approaches to check a student’s progress. Effective assessment does not simply happen at the end of a unit of study but continues throughout that unit, actively monitoring the student’s progress. On-going assessment provides the student with feedback so that they can monitor their own success in learning and know how to improve.

Research on Diagnostic and On-going Assessment Effective Approaches to Diagnostic and On-going Assessment as Identified by Research


Research indicates that effective teachers:

• Monitor learning regularly; • Monitor learning in both

formal and informal ways;

• Use routine assessments to check student progress (checking students work by circulating in class, assigning and checking homework, reviewing with students, administering tests, reviewing performance data)

• Adjust instruction based on the results of on-going assessments

Cotton, K. (1995). Effective schooling practices: A research synthesis 1995 update. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/esp/esp95.html

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Diagnostic and On-going Assessment


Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986

A meta-analysis of studies was conducted to analyze the impact of formative assessment on student

N = 21 studies; 96 effect sizes Average effect size = 0.70



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achievement. All studies selected involved a comparison between experimental and control groups. Formative evaluation was found to have a significant, positive effect on achievement, particularly when it was combined with:

1. Reinforcement or modifications in instruction;

2. Explicit, systematic rules for evaluating performance data;

3. Graphing of assessment data (rather than simply reporting the data).

Yeany & Miller, 1983

A meta-analysis to evaluate the impact of diagnostic testing and feedback during science instruction was conducted; the findings suggested that regular testing and feedback increased achievement.

N = 21 studies

Effect size = 0.53

Black & Wiliam, 1998a; Black & Wiliam, 1998b

A review of the literature on classroom formative assessment reported that studies showed firm evidence that assessment and frequent feedback yielded meaningful increases in learning.

N = 8 studies; 20+ studies

Because of different emphases in studies, Black and Wiliam concluded that they could not provide an average effect size (reported ranges of 0.40 to 0.70), but concluded that research supports that formative assessment leads to significant learning gains.

Wininger, 2005 Two studies were conducted to evaluate a structured method for providing feedback to students on classroom exams. Findings concluded

N = 38 educational psychology students Experimental students improved comprehension 10% compared to control



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that providing detailed feedback/review of exams resulted in increased comprehension.

students who improved 2% (F (1,68) = 22.10, p < .01).

Fontana & Fernandes, 1994

The study was conducted to determine the effects of self-assessment on content learning. Results showed that students who used self-assessment as a routine procedure increased their mathematical learning.

N = 354 experimental group students; 313 control group students Experimental group showed statistically significant improvement over control (mean gain = two times control’s gain score).

Karpicke & Roediger, 2007

Two experiments were conducted to compare the effects of repeated testing and repeated study of content compared with dropping items from further study or testing. The study concluded that testing, more than study alone, enhanced learning and long-term retention of content.

N = 60 students Alternating study and testing was the optimal condition (68%) compared to repeated testing only (64%) and repeated study only (57%).

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998a). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy, & Practice,

5(1), 7-74.

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998b). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80, 139-144

Fontana, D., & Fernandes, M. (1994). Improvements in mathematics performance as a consequence of self-assessment in Portuguese primary school pupils. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 64(3), 407-417.

Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (1986). Effects of systematic formative evaluation: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 53(3), 199-208.

Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. III. (2007). Repeated retrieval during learning is the key to long-term retention. Journal of Memory and Language, 57, 151-162.

Wininger, S. R. (2005). Using your tests to teach: Formative summative assessment. Teaching of Psychology, 32(3), 164-166.

Yeany, R. H., & Miller, P. A. (1983). Effects of diagnostic/remedial instruction on science learning: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20, 26.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Using Diagnostic and On-going Assessment Effective use of on-going assessment specifically targets low achievers, thereby closing the gap in achievement while also raising overall achievement.




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Assessment provides teachers with the information needed to evaluate their own instruction and interventions, and plan next steps for instruction. Assessment provides students with feedback to help them monitor their successes and make plans for improvement.

National Research Council. (2001). Knowing what students know: The science and design of educational assessment. Committee on the Foundations of Assessment. Pelligrino, J., Chudowsky, N., & Glaser, R., editors. Board on Testing and Assessment, Center for Education. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

The effective use of day-to-day classroom assessment promotes high levels of achievement. Formative assessment increases learning.

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998a). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy, & Practice, 5(1), 7-74.

Stiggins, R., & Chappuis, J. (2005). Using student-involved classroom assessment to close achievement gaps. Theory into Practice, 44(1), 11-18.

Mastery learning, or the mastery of each step of learning, has been demonstrated by over 50 studies to increase student learning. Frequent assessment is an essential element of mastery learning.

Cawelti, G. (Ed.) (1999). Handbook of research on improving student achievement. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service.



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Self-Monitoring for Understanding Students who have the skills to monitor their own progress make greater achievement gains. Learners not only need to become proficient at identifying the extent to which they are being successful with an academic task, but they also need to know when and how to use a variety of strategies to help them when they become aware that they are struggling. Students can use strategies to monitor themselves that are similar to the ones the teacher uses and, in return, they can assume control of their own learning.

Research on Self-Monitoring for Understanding Effective Approaches to Increasing Students’ Self-Monitoring for Understanding as Identified by Research


Self-assessment is essential for:

• Reading comprehension: Studies show that poor readers lack awareness of when comprehension is breaking down.

• Metacognitive awareness: The ability to self-assess is fundamental to students’ developing metacognitive awareness.

Elements of effective self-assessment:

• Students are aware of the explicit goals for learning.

• Students monitor their comprehension and performance.

• Students show awareness of strategies to restore meaning or repair performance as needed.

• Students modify their strategies and processes to best fit the demands of the task.

Research shows that instruction in metacognition and self-assessment can be conducted effectively in the classroom.

Block, C., & Pressley, M. (2000). Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices. New York: Guilford Press.

Palincsar, A. S. & Brown, A. L.

(1987). Enhancing instructional time through attention to metacognition. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20(2), 66-75.

Payne, B. D., & Manning, B. H.

(1992). Basal reader instruction: Effects of comprehension monitoring training on reading comprehension, strategy use and attitude. Reading Research and Instruction, 32(1), 29-38.



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Supporting Self-Monitoring for Understanding Study Study Overview Results/Conclusions From Research to


McDonald & Boud, 2003

A study was conducted to compare the performance of students trained in self-assessment skills with students not similarly trained. A significant performance effect was found for self-assessment training.

N = 256 experimental students; 259 control students Average effect size (across content areas) = 0.22 Student participants reported that self-assessment made them: Analytical (90%) Independent (98%) Improve study habits (98%)

Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Pons, 1992

The connection between self-efficacy beliefs and academic achievement was examined in this study. Students’ evaluation of their efficacy for self-regulated learning impacted their perceptions of self-efficacy for achievement which affected their academic goals and achievement.

A path model was used to consider the different variables in self-motivation/assessment of self-efficacy along with prior performance and predicted students’ final grades in social studies, R = .56

Schunk, 1996 In two studies to determine how goals and self-evaluation relate to achievement and motivation, findings supported the idea that self-evaluation is a useful testing tool that supports self-regulated learning and increased achievement.

Student goal setting x self-evaluation interaction was significant, lambda = .638, F (4,33) = 4.68, p < .01


Question generation is an important strategy in self-monitoring. A review of intervention studies was completed to determine

N = 26 studies Median effect size (when measured by standardized tests) = 0.36



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whether teaching students to generate questions improved their comprehension. Generating questions resulted in significant gains in comprehension.

Median effect size (when measured by experimenter-developed tests) = 0.86

McDonald, B., & Boud, D. (2003). The impact of self-assessment on achievement: The effects of self-assessment

training on performance in external examinations. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 10(2), 209-220.

Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of intervention studies. Review of Educational Research, 66(2), 181-221.

Schunk, D. H. (1996). Goal and self-evaluative influences during children’s cognitive skill learning. American Educational Research Journal, 33(2), 359-382.

Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 663-676.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Increasing Students’ Self-Monitoring for Understanding Instruction in self-assessment is essential for effective formative assessment. By understanding the specific goals of learning and evaluating their own strengths and weaknesses, students take ownership of their own learning.


Students’ beliefs in their own self-efficacy and student goal setting are essential elements in effective self-monitoring and have been linked to increased academic achievement.

Dunn, D. S., McEntarffer, R., & Halonen, J. S. (2004). Empowering psychology students through self-assessment. In D. S. Dunn, C. M. Mehrotra, & Halonen, J. S. (Eds.) Measuring up: Educational assessment challenges and practices for psychology (171-186). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.



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On-line Assessment Technology has already transformed much of American society and has the power to transform assessment within classrooms. Technology today is capable of facilitating multiple forms of assessment and can allow for a level of interactivity that was previously not possible with earlier technologies. On-line assessment allows for immediate and specific feedback which is essential for students to monitor their knowledge and understanding and for teachers to re-direct instruction as needed. On-line assessment tools can suggest modifications in instruction as necessary and re-direct students during the assessment process creating a continuous and ongoing learning and assessment cycle.

Research on On-line Assessment Effective Approaches to On-line Assessment as Identified by Research


Benefits of effective on-line assessment:

• Connections: Test items can be linked with associated text, providing review and/or feedback instantly to users

• Efficiency: On-line tools can quickly and easily identify problematic areas in student learning

• Feedback: On-line assessment systems can help teachers provide frequent, regular, immediate, and informative feedback on student performance

Bischoff, A. (2000). The elements of effective online teaching: Overcoming the barriers to success. In K. White & B. H. Weight (Eds.), The online teaching guide: A handbook of attitudes, strategies, and techniques for the virtual classroom (pp. 57-72). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Grabe, M., & Sigler, E. (2002).

Studying online: Evaluation of an online study environment. Computers & Education, 38(4), 375-383.

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting On-line Assessment


Wang, Jiao, Young, Brooks, & Olson, 2008

Researchers conducted a meta-analysis to reassure educators of the comparability of assessment scores between

N = 36 independent data sets Delivery method was not statistically significant; did



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two modes (computer-based vs. pen-and-pencil based). Findings supported idea that administration mode had no significant effect on reading achievement scores.

not contribute to effect size

Grabe & Sigler, 2002

This study showed increased achievement for students who used online study tools when compared with nonusers.

N = 191 psychology students Use of the online study tool predicted first and second examination scores (sr2 = 0.096 and 0.033)

Grabe, M., & Sigler, E. (2002). Studying online: Evaluation of an online study environment. Computers & Education, 38(4),

375-383.

Wang, S., Jiao, H., Young, M. J., Brooks, T., & Olson, J. (2008). Comparability of computer-based and paper-and-pencil testing in K-12 reading assessments. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 68(1), 5-24.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Using On-line Assessment On-line assessment can be an important tool for educators when it provides frequent, targeted feedback and integrates study activities, content, and assessment for learning, review, and remediation.

Bischoff, A. (2000). The elements of effective online teaching: Overcoming the barriers to success. In K. White & B. H. Weight (Eds.), The online teaching guide: A handbook of attitudes, strategies, and techniques for the virtual classroom (pp. 57-72). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Grabe, M., & Sigler, E. (2002). Studying online: Evaluation of an online study environment. Computers & Education, 38(4), 375-383.



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AP Exams Support To effectively prepare for the Advanced Placement (AP) Exams, students need sufficient content knowledge, skills, and understandings, as well as the ability to apply and demonstrate what they know in an on-demand testing situation. The Holt McDougal Psychology program provides an in-depth resource to support students’ AP exam preparation. The Advanced Placement Review and Activities with Answer Key provides advanced level students with preparation tools for the AP exam.

Research on AP Exams Support Effective Assessment Preparation as Identified by Research


Research demonstrates that high quality assessments can lead to:

• Curricular expansion; • Integrated knowledge; and • Student-centered, active

learning pedagogies.

Au, W. (2007). High-stakes testing and curricular control: A qualitative metasynthesis. Educational Researcher, 36(5), 258-267.

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Effective Approaches to Exam Preparation


Overview of studies supporting exam preparation and coaching interventions: Meta-Analysis

N Average (M) Effect Size

Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, & Kulik, 1983

30 0.25

DerSimonian & Laird, 1983

22 0.19

Kulik, Bangert-Drowns, & Kulik, 1984

35 0.33


Researchers examined the body of meta-analyses of psychological, educational, and behavioral interventions. Among the positive findings reported, the researchers included a summary of the meta-analyses on exam preparation. Coaching programs for test performance were determined to be effective. Programs included coaching in test-taking skills, practice tests, and other coaching

Messick & Jungeblut, 1981

12 0.15



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Samson, 1985

24 0.33

Scruggs, Bennion, & White, 1984

24 0.21

for standardized tests.

Kulik, Kulik, & Bangert, 1984

40 0.32

Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (1993). The efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment. American

Psychologist, 48(12), 1181-1209.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Effective AP Exams Support Time spent teaching content and activities specific to the discipline have been shown to correlate positively with increased student performance on assessments.

Levstick, L. (2008). What happens in social studies classrooms? In L. S. Levstik & C. A. Tyson (Eds.), Handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 50-62). New York: Routledge.

Strand 5 – Teaching Psychology


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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Strand 5 - Teaching Psychology? Defining the Strand Why is the study of psychology important? According to the National Standards for the Teaching of High School Psychology (2005), “…as the science of mind and behavior, an introduction to the discipline of psychology should be part of the curriculum for high school students.” (Preface, http://www.apa.org/ed/topss/standard_preface.html) The study of psychology provides students both with content knowledge and with the understanding of complex processes, such as the scientific methods that are at the core of psychology. Psychology is a science that bridges the social and the natural sciences, and, as such, it is a content-area in which students will find much that is relevant to their other disciplines of study and to their lives outside of school. The following have been shown to be important in helping students develop a rich and deep understanding of psychology: • Content-area literacy: Reading, writing, and thinking like a psychologist; • Content-area literacy: Researching like a psychologist; • Active learning; • Making connections to students’ experiences and interests; • Real-world applications

The Research Base Content-Area Literacy: Reading, Writing, and Thinking like a Psychologist Recent research suggests that literacy differs by content area. The skills and strategies that experts in the fields of science, social studies, mathematics, or humanities use when approaching new texts or problems differ according to the discipline. Students cannot intuit these differences; they need instruction in content-area literacy. This instruction may take the form of teacher modeling, scaffolding, explicit instruction in strategies, or some other form. Whatever its form, instruction in content-area literacy is an essential part of instruction in any discipline, but particularly in psychology, which is so dependent upon communication through language.

Research on Content-Area Literacy: Reading, Writing, and Thinking like a Psychologist

Features of Effective Instruction in Content-Area Literacy as Identified by Research


Teachers of content areas should teach students to use and understand their content-area texts and to write in their content areas. Experts in different disciplines approach texts in very different ways.

Gillis, V. R., & MacDougall, G. (2007). Reading to learn science as an active process. The Science Teacher, 74(5), 45-50.

Shanahan, C. (2004). Teaching

science through literacy. In T. L. Jetton & J. A. Dole (Eds.) Adolescent literacy research and



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Effective content-area reading instruction will mirror the active learning processes in which students engage in science courses when they explore, organize concepts, and apply concepts. Effective content-area reading instruction in psychology will include:

• Explanation of strategies • Direct instruction of

quantitative and statistical literacy

• Modeling of strategies • Guided practice with

strategies • Opportunity for

independent practice • Reading that is a part of

content-area learning Effective content-area writing instruction will include:

• Instruction in the characteristics of each genre students are expected to produce

• Engagement in scientific activity that involves writing

Effective content-area thinking instruction will include an emphasis on:

• Comparisons and analogies; • Problem solving; • Metacognitive awareness; • Weighing evidence; • Constructivist, active,

learning processes; and • Real-world contexts.

practice (75-93). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C.

(2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1).

Williams, W. M., Papierno, P. B.,

Makel, M. C. & Ceci, S. J. (2004). Thinking like a scientist about real-world problems: The Cornell Institute for Research on Children Science Education Program. Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 107-126.

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Content-Area Literacy:

Reading, Writing, and Thinking like a Psychologist Study Study Overview Results/Conclusions From Research to

Practice: How is this Research



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Applied in the Holt McDougal Psychology Program?

Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989

In a set of five experiments designed to evaluate the effectiveness of an instructional strategy (comparison questions) to facilitate transfer in problem-solving skills, findings suggest that comparative training examples can facilitate transfer of scientific thinking.

If comparison instructions are extensive and problems are worded to cue these connections, transfer is greatly improved. Generalized problem-solving skills and transfer are supported by these factors: • Examples • Directive comparison

instructions • Problem-solving experience

Needham & Begg, 1991

In a study designed to compare problem- vs. memory-oriented instructional strategies for problem solving, problem-oriented processing demonstrated an advantage and made transfer to new problem solving situations more likely.

N = 586 students Advantage shown for problem-oriented training (explanation) over memory-oriented training.

Wills & Atkinson, 2007

In a study to examine the effects of instruction on students’ quantitative literacy skills, specifically table reading, findings concluded that students could be taught to more effectively read data expressed numerically and in tables.

N = 38 Statistically significant growth from pretest to posttest, p < 0.05

Graham & Perin, 2007

Based on a meta-analysis on writing instruction for adolescent students, researchers concluded that to improve students’ writing, instructors should:

1. Teach adolescents strategies for writing (planning, editing, revising);

2. Teach adolescents strategies for

N = 123 studies; 154 effect sizes Effect sizes varied by intervention:

1. Writing strategies = 0.82

2. Summarization = 0.82 3. Collaboration = 0.75 4. Goals = 0.70 5. Word processing =

0.55 6. Complex sentences =



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summarizing texts;

3. Use collaborative activities for writing instruction;

4. Set clear goals and identify explicit characteristics for products of writing;

5. Provide opportunities for word processing;

6. Teach adolescents to write complex sentences;

7. Provide opportunities for student inquiry;

8. Engage adolescents in gathering/ organizing ideas prior to writing;

9. Provide adolescents with exemplars of specific type(s) of writing expected

0.50 7. Inquiry = 0.32 8. Prewriting = 0.32 9. Study of models = 0.25

Catrambone, R. & Holyoak, K. J. (1989). Overcoming contextual limitations on problem-solving transfer. Journal of

Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 15(6), 1147-1156. Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of

Educational Psychology, 99(3), 445-476. Needham, D. R., & Begg, I. M. (1991). Problem-oriented training promotes spontaneous analogical transfer:

Memory oriented training promotes memory for training. Memory and Cognition, 19, 543-557. Wills, J. B., & Atkinson, M. P. (2007). Table reading skills as quantitative literacy. Teaching Sociology, 35(3), 255-

263. Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Teaching Students to Read, Write, and Think like Psychologists Reading becomes increasingly disciplinary as students progress through school; specific, advanced skills are needed to comprehend content-area texts.

Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy Harvard Educational Review, 78(1).



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Writing leads to greater learning in the content areas. Writing summaries leads to better recall and content understanding. Writing increases the quality of student understanding.

Shanahan, T. (2004). Overcoming the dominance of communication: Writing to think and to learn. In T. L. Jetton & J. A. Dole (Eds.) Adolescent literacy research and practice (59-74). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Connecting the processes of science to the thinking processes that are important in everyday life is a powerful approach to teaching scientific thinking.

Kuhn, D. (1993). Science as argument: Implications for teaching and learning scientific thinking. Science Education, 77, 319-337.

The thinking and reasoning skills that form the scientific method correlate with academic achievement and success in everyday life.

Williams, W., Papierno, P. B., Makel, M. C., & Ceci, S. J. (2004). Thinking like a scientist about real-world problems: The Cornell Institute for Research on Children Science Education Program. Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 107-126.



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Content-Area Literacy: Researching like a Psychologist Teaching students the methods of scientific research employed by psychologists is central to the teaching of psychology knowledge, understandings, and skills. As noted in the National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula, the science of psychology, and the methods and skills employed by psychologists, should serve as a central activity in any psychology course.

Research on Content-Area Literacy: Researching like a Psychologist

Features of Effective Instruction in Research as Identified by Research


By learning to research like psychologists, students must apply their understanding of concepts and build skills in observing, applying, predicting, explaining, and testing. Effective instruction in content-area literacy should include these six features:

1. The processes students need to acquire are identified and detailed;

2. The knowledge needed for these processes is systematically taught;

3. Most instruction occurs through active work on tasks;

4. Feedback is provided regularly;

5. Students have multiple exposures to processes;

6. Complexity is limited to an appropriate level for students.

Teaching psychological research methods is most effective when:

1. Teachers ask students to clearly explain their hypotheses and conclusions; and

2. Teachers approach hypotheses generation and testing in an inductive or deductive manner.

Larkin, J. H., & Chabay, R. W. (1989). Research on teaching scientific thinking: Implications for computer-based instruction. In L. B. Resnick & L E. Klopfer (Eds.) Toward the thinking curriculum: Current cognitive research (150-172). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., &

Pollock, J.E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).



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Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Content-Area Literacy:

Researching like a Psychologist Study Study Overview Results/Conclusions From Research to


Research that demonstrates the benefits of generating and testing hypotheses: Study Effect

Size %-ile Gain

Hattie et al., 1996

.79 28

Lott, 1983 .04 2


The authors synthesized research and combined the findings to determine the average effect of particular strategies. Generating and testing hypotheses was one of the nine research-based instructional strategies proven to increase learning and raise achievement.

Ross, 1988 .72 26

Bluestone, 2007

An expanded research methods unit was created to provide opportunities for students to explore concepts via simulations. Findings suggested that the strategy helped students develop an understanding of psychological research methods and an ability to apply concepts to other tasks.

N = 20 psychology students 87.5% reported that using the Internet helped them understand concepts 81% reported firsthand knowledge of steps in conducting research 93% reported that content would be useful in daily life Self-efficacy increased (t = -2.52, df = 13, p < .05)

Chen & Klahr, 1999

The study sought to determine how students learn a domain-general processing strategy (to control variables) and if they can generalize it to new contexts. Findings suggested that with explicit instruction, students can design unconfounded experiments and make valid inferences.

N = 87 students Children in the experimental group (who received explicit instruction in controlling variables when designing research) were the only group to increase their performance significantly, F (3, 87) = 12.8, p < .001



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Bluestone, C. (2007). Infusing active learning into the research methods unit. College Teaching, 55(3), 91-95.

Chen, Z., & Klahr, D. (1999). All other things being equal: Acquisition and transfer of the control of variables strategy. Child Development, 70(5), 1098-1120.

Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J.E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Teaching Students to Research like Psychologists A large body of research suggests that when students engage in high-level, critical thinking, their motivation and learning increase. Research suggests that the context for such critical thinking is important; students learn more effectively when they are taught in the context of the discipline and provided opportunities for relevant applications of content-area learning.


Within psychology, APA style serves as a model for students by providing them with clear and specific criteria with which they can compare their efforts. The examples found in scholarly journals can also serve as exemplars for students of content-area research.

Dunn, D. S., McEntarffer, R., & Halonen, J. S. (2004). Empowering psychology students through self-assessment. In D. S. Dunn, C. M. Mehrotra, & Halonen, J. S. (Eds.) Measuring up: Educational assessment challenges and practices for psychology (171-186). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Research methods are essential to learning in psychology. The National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula (2005) include these expectations for student learning on research methods: IA-1. Contemporary perspectives used by psychologists to understand behavior and mental processes in context IA-2. Major subfields and career opportunities that comprise psychology IA-3. Research strategies used by psychologists to explore behavior and mental processes IA-4. Purpose and basic concepts of statistics IA-5. Ethical issues in research with human and other animals that are important to psychologists IA-6. Development of psychology as an empirical science

American Psychological Association. (2005). National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved online on October 6, 2008, from http://www.apa.org/ed/topss/apa_natlstandards.pdf.



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Active Learning Instruction that involves students as active participants in their own learning, rather than as passive recipients of knowledge, results in more sophisticated learning. Research in cognition and the human brain supports the value of active learning; students learn best when they have the opportunity to take an active role in making connections between ideas and apply those ideas to new and authentic situations.

Research on Active Learning Features of Effective Active Learning as Identified by Research


Active learning is active because students: • Control their own learning

processes; • Use cognitive processes to

make meaning from data, finding and organizing patterns;

• Engage in structured, self-discovery of knowledge;

• Perform independently or in small groups.

Active learning can include: • Discussion • Writing • Problem solving • Computer simulations • Cooperative learning • Peer teaching • Role playing

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Mathie, V. A., Beins, B., Benjamin,

L. T., Jr., Ewing, M. M., Hall, C. C. I., Henderson, B., McAdam, D. W., & Smith, R. A. (1993). Promoting active learning in psychology courses. In T. V. McGovern (Ed.), Handbook for enhancing undergraduate education in psychology (pp. 183–214). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Yoder, J. D. & Hochevar, C. M.

(2005). Encouraging active learning can improve students’ performance on examinations. Teaching of Psychology, 32(2), 91-95.

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Active Learning


Rosen & Salomon, 2007

A meta-analysis was conducted to compare achievement in constructivist learning

N = 32 experiments Effect size = .46



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environments versus more traditional learning environments. Findings supported the conclusion that constructivist learning environments (active learning) are more effective than traditional learning environments.

Yoder & Hochevar, 2005

In a study designed to determine whether active learning would better prepare students for multiple-choice exams than traditional lecture-style delivery, results showed that students in the active learning group showed higher scores on test items.

N = 45 students Students scored higher on test items learned through active learning t(9) = 3.23, p = .01, r = .77 and t(8) = 3.03, p = .016, r = .79 Mean differences: Active vs. Nonactive .92 .73 .84 .75 .85 .73 .81 .72

Rosen, Y., & Salomon, G. (2007). The differential learning achievements of constructivist technology-intensive

learning environments as compared with traditional ones: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 36(2), 1-14.

Yoder, J. D. & Hochevar, C. M. (2005). Encouraging active learning can improve students’ performance on

examinations. Teaching of Psychology, 32(2), 91-95. Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Active Learning Active learning in the classroom can:

• Raise students’ awareness of the learning process, • Support students’ long-term retention of information, • Develop students’ critical and analytical thinking, and • Foster effective communication skills.

Smith, E. T. & Boyer, M. A. (1996). Designing in-class simulations. PS: Political Science and Politics, 29, 690–694.

Research from cognitive psychology supports the idea that when students are actively engaged in constructing their knowledge and understandings they learn and retain more. Key to this active learning is the guidance of a teacher with knowledge of the content and of the misconceptions students may bring to the content area.




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Making Connections to Students’ Experiences and Interests No new learning can take place unless we are able to connect the new concepts and ideas to something we already know and understand. Therefore, students should be given numerous opportunities to make connections between course content and their personal experiences and interests. Supporting students with making connections between new learning and their own experiences, prior knowledge, and areas of interest, greatly facilitates learning and achievement. By activating students’ schemata and background knowledge, educators create a supporting structure in which to fit new ideas, concepts, and skills. Finally, identifying and connecting to students’ prior knowledge is particularly important in science classes in which students may hold prior misconceptions about the content.

Research on Making Connections to Students’ Experiences and Interests Features of Effective Connections to Students’ Experiences and Interests as Identified by Research


The benefits of making connections to students’ experiences and interests include: • Increased interest • Increased motivation • Increased concentration and

focus • Increased learning

Williams, W. M., Papierno, P. B., Makel, M. C. & Ceci, S. J. (2004). Thinking like a scientist about real-world problems: The Cornell Institute for Research on Children Science Education Program. Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 107-126.


Supporting Making Connections to Students’ Experiences and Interests Study Study Overview Results/Conclusions From Research to


Alvermann & Hynd, 1989

The purpose of the study was to investigate whether activating students’ prior knowledge increased in greater learning of complex science topics. The results of the analysis showed that the most effect way to achieve greater knowledge was to activate students’ prior knowledge and explicitly direct them to read and attend to ideas that might

Means for students in nonactivation and nonrefutation groups: Short answer: 0.80 True-false: 13.40 Application: 0.10 Means for students in activation and refutation groups: Short answer: 2.73 True-false: 15.82 Application: 0.27



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differ from their own. Dole & Smith, 1989

The results of the study demonstrated that prior knowledge monitoring and integrating were more effective than traditional instruction.

N = 103 students Number of effect sizes: 2

Hynd & Alvermann, 1989

The results of the study demonstrated that, for all types of text, students in educational psychology classes overcame their misconceptions when their prior knowledge was activated.

N = 95 Number of effect sizes: 8


A meta-analysis was conducted to identify components that positively influence adolescent learning and achievement. Connecting new information to prior knowledge was found to predict positive outcomes in treatment studies for adolescents with learning disabilities (LD).

N = 93 group design studies The factor that accounted for 16% of variance in effect size includes the instructional component of providing advance organization (providing a structure for new information and relating it to prior knowledge).

Alvermann, D. E., & Hynd, C. R. (1989). Effects of prior knowledge activation modes and text structure on nonscience majors’

comprehension of physics. Journal of Educational Research, 83, 97-102. Dole, J. A., & Smith, E. L. (1989). Prior knowledge and learning from science text: An instructional study. In S. McCormick & J.

Zutell (Eds.), Cognitive and social perspectives for literacy research and instruction. (Thirty-eighth Yearbook of the National Reading Conference, pp. 345-352). Chicago, IL: National Reading Conference.

Hynd, C. R., & Alvermann, D. E. (1989). Overcoming misconceptions in science: An on-line study of prior knowledge

activation. Reading Research and Instruction, 28(4), 12-26. Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (2001). Instructing adolescents with learning disabilities: A component and composite analysis.

Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(2), 109-119.

Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Making Connections to Students’ Experiences and Interests Optimal learning takes place within students’ “zones of proximal development” – when teachers assess students’ current understanding and teach new concepts, skills, and strategies at an according level.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. When advanced organizers are used to show students connections between past learning and present learning students are better able to focus their attention and understand and remember new content.




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Real-World Applications Psychology is the study of the human mind and human behavior; as such, it has relevance to students’ lives in and out of school. Educators should make this connection explicit; students should be shown the relevance of their coursework to other disciplines and to their lives outside of school. Using anecdotes and examples that show the relevance of psychology to students’ daily lives will help to generate student interest in the content and support increased motivation and learning.

Research on Real-World Applications Real-World Applications in the Classroom as Described by Research


Real-world applications are effective because they:

• Make learning relevant; • Increase student interest and

engagement; • Engage students in

meaningful thinking; • Increase student motivation;

Real-world applications might include:

• References to practicing psychologists;

• Discussions of well-known or significant psychological studies;

• References to careers in psychology; and

• Applications of content to real-life situations.

Williams, W. M., Papierno, P. B., Makel, M. C. & Ceci, S. J. (2004). Thinking like a scientist about real-world problems: The Cornell Institute for Research on Children Science Education Program. Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 107-126.

Summary of Research Syntheses and Quantitative Studies Supporting Real-World Applications


Hynd, Holschuh, & Nist, 2000

Study results reported demonstrate that students who perceived a connection between course content and every Usefulness

of Content

Students Showing Mastery (N = 18)

Students Not Showing Mastery (N = 39)



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...in Life 48% 26%

…in Work 31% 27%

day life used various deep-thinking strategies, while students who did not see the usefulness of the content used surface-level strategies.

Not Useful – 20%

Baker & Popowicz, 1983

A meta-analysis was conducted to analyze the effects of career education and found that career education had a significant positive impact on students.

N = 18 empirical studies 118 effect sizes Average effect size = 0.50

Hynd, C., Holschuh, J., & Nist, S. (2000). Learning complex, scientific information: Motivation theory and its relation to student

perceptions. Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 36(1), 23-58. Baker, S. B., & Popowicz, C. L. (1983). Meta-analysis as a strategy for evaluating effects of career education interventions.

Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 31(3), 178-186. Conclusions of the Research Supporting the Power of Real-World Applications Research findings increasingly suggest that the use of real-life situations in instruction, through simulations, technology, or observation, increases students’ interest, abilities to solve problems, and content-area achievement.


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