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Ancient Egyptian architecture

Ancient Egyptian architecture is the architecture of ancient Egypt, one of he most influential civilizations throughout history, which developed a vastrray of diverse structures and great architectural monuments alonghe Nile, among the largest and most famous of which are the Great

Pyramid of Giza and the Great Sphinx of Giza. 

CharacteristicsDue to the scarcity of wood,[1] the two predominant building materials usedn ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone,ut also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities.[2] From theOld

Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of emple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in templeomplexes. The core of the pyramids came from stone quarried in the arealready while the limestone, now eroded away, that was used to face theyramids came from the other side of the Nile River and had to beuarried, ferried across, and cut during the dry season before they coulde pulled into place on the pyramid.[3] 

Ancient Egyptian houses were made out of mud collected from the Nilever. It was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use

n construction.

Many Egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near 

he cultivated area of the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bedlowly rose during the millennia, or the mud bricks of which they were builtwere used by peasants as fertilizer. Others are inaccessible, new buildingsaving been erected on ancient ones. Fortunately, the dry, hot climate of gypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include theillageDeir al-Madinah, the Middle Kingdom town at Kahun,[4] and theortresses at Buhen[5] and Mirgissa. Also, many temples and tombs haveurvived because they were built on high ground unaffected by the Nileood and were constructed of stone.

hus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainlyn religious monuments,[6] massive structures characterized by thick,loping walls with few openings, possibly echoing a method of constructionsed to obtain stability in mud walls. In a similar manner, the incised andatly modeled surface adornment of the stone buildings may have derivedrom mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the arch was developeduring the fourth dynasty, all monumental buildings are post andntel constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocksupported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns.

xterior and interior walls, as well as the columns and piers, were coveredwith hieroglyphic and pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliantolors.[7] Many motifs of Egyptian ornamentation are symbolic, such ashescarab, or sacred beetle, the solar disk, and the vulture. Other common

motifs include palm leaves, the papyrus plant, and the buds and flowers of he lotus.[8] Hieroglyphs were inscribed for decorative purposes as well aso record historic events or spells. In addition, these pictorial frescoes andarvings allow us to understand how the Ancient Egyptians lived, statuses,

wars that were fought and their beliefs. This was especially true whenxploring the tombs of Ancient Egyptian officials in recent years.

Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significantvents, such as solstices and equinoxes, requiring precise measurementst the moment of the particular event. Measurements at the mostignificant temples may have been ceremonially undertaken byhe Pharaoh himself .[9] 

he Giza pyramid complexhe Giza Necropolis stands on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirtsf Cairo, Egypt. This complex of ancient monuments is located some 8ilometres (5 mi) inland into the desert from the old town of Giza on the

Nile, some 20 kilometers (12 mi) southwest of Cairo city center.his Ancient Egyptian necropolis consists of the Pyramid of Khufu (alsonown as the Great Pyramid  and the Pyramid of Cheops), the somewhatmaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren/Chefren), and the relatively modest-

ized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus/Mycerinus), along with a number 

of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, and theSphinx.[10] 

The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the of the pharaonic religion and state. They were built to serve both assites and also as a way to make their names last forever .[11] The sizsimple design show the high skill level of Egyptian design and enginon a large scale.[12] The Great Pyramid of Giza, which was prcompleted c. 2580 BC, is the oldest and largest of the pyramids, andonly surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the AWorld.[13] The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been comaround 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign.[14] Khafre ambitiously his pyramid next to his fathers. It is not as tall as his father's pyramid

was able to give it the impression of appearing taller by building it onwith a foundation 33 feet higher than his father's.[15]  Along with buildpyramid, Chefren commissioned the building of the giant Sphguardian over his tomb. The face of a human, possibly a depiction pharaoh, on a lion's body was seen as a symbol of divinity amonGreeks fifteen hundred years later .[16] The Great Sphinx is carved huge blocks of sandstone and stands about sixty-fivetall.[17] Menkaure's pyramid dates to circa 2490 BC and stands 21high making it the smallest of the Great Pyramids.[18] 

Popular culture leads people to believe that Pyramids are highly conwith many tunnels within the pyramid to create confusion for grave roThis is not true. The shafts of pyramids are quite simple, mostly ledirectly to the tomb. The immense size of the pyramids attracted robthe wealth that lay inside which caused the tombs to be robbed rel

soon after the tomb was sealed in some cases.[19]

 However, thesometimes additional tunnels, but these were used for the buildunderstand how far they could dig the tomb into the crust of the

 Also, it is popular thought that due to grave robbers, future Kingsburied in the Valley of the Kings to help keep them hidden. This false, as the Pyramid construction continued for many Dynasties, jussmaller scale. Finally, the pyramid construction was stopped deconomic factors, not theft.

It is widely believed that the pyramids were able to be constructed slave labor. Some scholars believe that they were essentially bfarmers during the off season.[20] Either way, the pyramids reprelifestyle of the nobles that could not exist without the presence oflabor .[21] 

KarnakThe temple complex of Karnak is located on the banks of the Rivesome 2.5 kilometers (1.5 mi) north of Luxor. It consists of four mainthe Precinct of Amon-Re, the Precinct of Montu, the Precinct of Mthe Temple of Amenhotep IV (dismantled), as well as a few stemples and sanctuaries located outside the enclosing walls of thmain parts, and several avenues of ram-headed sphinxes connectiPrecinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amon-Re and Luxor Temple.

The key difference between Karnak and most of the other templesites in Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed andConstruction work began in the 16th century BC. Approximatepharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach acomplexity and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the individual feof Karnak are unique, but the size and number of features is overwhe

Luxor TempleThe Luxor Temple is a huge ancient Egyptian temple complex locathe east bank of the River Nile in the city today as Luxor (ancient Thebes). Construction work on the temple began the reign ofAmenhotep III in the 14th cBC. Horemheb and Tutankhamun added columns, statues, and friand Akhenaten had earlier obliterated his father's cartouches and ina shrine to the Aten – but the only major expansion effort took under Ramesses II some 100 years after the first stones were put inLuxor is thus unique among the main Egyptian temple complexes in only two pharaohs leave their mark on its architectural structure.

The temple proper begins with the 24 metre (79 ft) high First Pylon, bRamesses II. The pylon was decorated with scenes of Ramesses's m

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riumphs (particularly the Battle of Qadesh); later pharaohs, particularlyhose of the Nubian and Ethiopian dynasties, also recorded their victorieshere. This main entrance to the temple complex was originally flanked byix colossal statues of Ramesses – four seated, and two standing – butnly two (both seated) have survived. Modern visitors can also see a 25

metre (82 ft) tall pink granite obelisk: this one of a matching pair until 1835,when the other one was taken to Paris where it now stands in the centre of he Place de la Concorde. 

hrough the pylon gateway leads into a peristyle courtyard, also built byRamesses II. This area, and the pylon, were built at an oblique angle to theest of the temple, presumably to accommodate the three pre-existingarque shrines located in the northwest corner. After the peristyle courtyard

omes the processional colonnade built by Amenhotep III  – a 100 metre328 ft) corridor lined by 14 papyrus-capital columns. Friezes on the wallescribe the stages in the Opet Festival, from sacrifices at Karnak at theop left, through Amun's arrival at Luxor at the end of that wall, andoncluding with his return on the opposite side. The decorations were put

n place by Tutankhamun: the boy pharaoh is depicted, but his names haveeen replaced with those of Horemheb.

eyond the colonnade is a peristyle courtyard, which also dates back toAmenhotep's original construction. The best preserved columns are on theastern side, where some traces of original colour can be seen. Theouthern side of this courtyard is made up of a 36-column hypostyle courthat leads into the dark inner rooms of the temple.

Ancient Greek architecturehe architecture of Ancient Greece is the architecture produced by

he Greek-speaking people (Hellenic people) whose culture flourished onhe Greek mainland and Peloponnesus, the Aegean Islands, and inolonies in Asia Minor and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1stentury AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating fromround 600 BC.[1] 

Ancient Greek architecture is best known from its temples, many of whichre found throughout the region, mostly as ruins but many substantially

ntact. The second important type of building that survives all over theHellenic world is the open-air theatre, with the earliest dating from around50 BC. Other architectural forms that are still in evidence are therocessional gateway ( propylon), the public square (agora) surrounded bytoried colonnade (stoa), the town council building (bouleuterion), theublic monument, the monumental tomb (mausoleum) and the stadium. 

Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalisedharacteristics, both of structure and decoration. This is particularly so inhe case of temples where each building appears to have been conceiveds a sculptural entity within the landscape, most often raised on highround so that the elegance of its proportions and the effects of light on itsurfaces might be viewed from all angles.[2] Nikolaus Pevsner refers to "thelastic shape of the [Greek] temple.....placed before us with a physicalresence more intense, more alive than that of any later building".[3] 

he formal vocabulary of Ancient Greek architecture, in particular theivision of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, 

he Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have profound effectnWestern architecture of later periods. The architecture of AncientRome grew out of that of Greece and maintained its influence in Italynbroken until the present day. From the Renaissance, revivalsf Classicism have kept alive not only the precise forms and orderedetails of Greek architecture, but also its concept of architectural beautyased on balance and proportion. The successive styles of Neoclassicalrchitecture and Greek Revival architecture followed and adapted Ancient

Greek styles closely.

nfluencesGeography

he mainland and islands of Greece are rocky, with deeply indentedoastline, and rugged mountain ranges with few substantial forests. The

most freely available building material is stone. Limestone was readily

vailable and easily worked.

[4]

 There is an abundance of high quality

white marble both on the mainland and isparticularly Paros and Naxos. This finely grained material was a contributing factor to precision of detail, both architectural and sculthat adorned Ancient Greek architecture.[5] Deposits of high quality pclay were found throughout Greece and the Islands, with major denear Athens. It was used not only for pottery vessels, but also roof tilearchitectural decoration.[6] 

The climate of Greece is maritime, with both the coldness of winter aheat of summer tempered by sea breezes. This led to a lifestyle many activities took place outdoors. Hence temples were plachilltops, their exteriors designed as a visual focus of gatheringprocessions, while theatres were often an enhancement of a na

occurring sloping site where people could sit, rather than a contstructure. Colonnades encircling buildings, or surrounding courprovided shelter from the sun and from sudden winter storms.[5] 

The light of Greece may be another important factor in the developmthe particular character of Ancient Greek architecture. The light isextremely bright, with both the sky and the sea vividly blue. The cleaand sharp shadows give a precision to the details of landscape, paleoutcrops and seashore. This clarity is alternated with periods of hazvaries in colour to the light on it. In this characteristic environme

 Ancient Greek architects constructed buildings that were markprecision of detail.[5] The gleaming marble surfaces were smooth, cfluted, or ornately sculpted to reflect the sun, cast graded shadowchange in colour with the ever-changing light of day.

HistoryThe history of the Ancient Greek civilization is divided into two eraHellenic and the Hellenistic.[7] The Hellenic period commenced circBC, (with substantial works of architecture appearing from about 60and ended with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. DuriHellenistic period, 323 BC - AD 30, Hellenic culture was spread wfirstly throughout lands conquered by Alexander, and then by the REmpire which absorbed much of Greek culture.[1][8] 

Prior to the Hellenic era, two civilizations had existed within the rthe Minoan and the Mycenaean. Minoan is the name given by mhistorians to the people of ancient Crete (c. 2800 –1100 BC), knotheir elaborate and richly decorated palaces, and for their pottery pwith floral and marine motifs. The Mycenaean culture occurrthe Peloponnesus (c.1500 –1100 BC) and was quite different in cha

building citadels, fortifications and tombs rather than palacesdecorating their pottery with bands of marching soldiers ratheoctopus and seaweed. Both these civilizations came to an end a1100 BC, that of Crete possibly because of volcanic devastation, anof Mycenae because of invasion from Dorian people of the mainland.[9] This led to a period with few remaining signs of culturethus often referred to as a Dark Age.

The towns established by the Dorian people were ruled initiaaristocracy, and later by ―tyrants‖, leaders who rose from the merchwarrior classes. Some cities, such as Sparta, maintained a stordered and conservative character, like that of the Mycenae. Athethe other hand, was influenced by the influx of Ionian people fromMinor. In this cultural diversity, the art of logic developed, and withnotion ofdemocracy. 

ArtThe art history of the Hellenic era is generally subdivided into four pethe Protogeometric (1100-900 BC), the Geometric (900-700 BC

 Archaic (700 - 500 BC) and the Classical (500 - 323 BC)[10] with scbeing further divided into Severe Classical, High Classical andClassical.[1] The first signs of the particular artistic character that d

 Ancient Greek architecture are to be seen in the pottery of the Greeks from the 10th century BC. Already at this period it is createdsense of proportion, symmetry and balance not apparent in similar pfrom Crete and Mycenae. The decoration is precisely geometricordered neatly into zones on defined areas of each vessel. These quwere to manifest themselves not only through a millennium of pottery making, but also in the architecture that was to emerge in tcentury.[11] The major development that occurred was in the growing

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he human figure as the major decorative motif, and the increasing suretywith which humanity, its mythology, activities and passions wereepicted.[1] 

he development in the depiction of the human form in pottery wasccompanied by a similar development in sculpture. The tiny stylisedronzes of the Geometric period gave way to life-sized highly formalised

monolithic representation in the Archaic period. The Classical period wasmarked by a rapid development towards idealised but increasingly lifelikeepictions of gods in human form.[12] This development had a direct effectn the sculptural decoration of temples, as many of the greatest extant

works of Ancient Greek sculpture once adorned temples,[13] and many of he largest recorded statues of the age, such as the

ost chryselephantine statues of Zeus at the Temple of Zeus at Olympiand Athena at the Parthenon, Athens, both over 40 feet high, were onceoused in them.[14] 

Religion and philosophyhe religion of Ancient Greece was a form of nature worship that grew outf the beliefs of earlier cultures. However, unlike earlier cultures, man waso longer perceived as being threatened by nature, but as its sublimeroduct.[8] The natural elements were personified as gods of completelyuman form, and very human behaviour .[5] 

he home of the gods was thought to be Olympus, the highest mountain inGreece. The most important deities were: Zeus, the supreme god and ruler f the sky; Hera, his wife and goddess of marriage; Athena, goddess of 

wisdom; Poseidon, god of the sea; Demeter, goddess of the earth; Apollo, od of the sun, law, reason, music and poetry; Artemis, goddess of the

moon, the hunt and the wilderness; Aphrodite, goddess of love; Ares, Godf war; Hermes, god of commerce and medicine, and Hephaestus, god of re and metalwork.[5] Worship, like many other activities, was done inommunity, in the open. However, by 600 BC, the gods were oftenepresented by large statues and it was necessary to provide a building in

which each of these could be housed. This led to the development of emples.[15] 

he Ancient Greeks perceived order in the universe, and in turn, appliedrder and reason to their creations. Their humanist philosophy put mankindt the centre of things, and promoted well-ordered societies and theevelopment of democracy.[8]  At the same time, the respect for human

ntellect demanded reason, and promoted a passion for enquiry, logic,hallenge, and problem solving. The architecture of the Ancient Greeks,

nd in particular, temple architecture, responds to these challenges with aassion for beauty, and for order and symmetry which is the product of aontinual search for perfection, rather than a simple application of a set of 

working rules.

Architectural character arly development

here is a clear division between the architecture of the precedingMycenaean culture and Minoan cultures and that of the Ancient Greeks,he techniques and an understanding of their style being lost when theseivilizations fell.[4] 

Mycenaean art is marked by its ci rcular structures and tapered domes withat-bedded, cantilevered courses.[9] This architectural form did not carryver into the architecture of Ancient Greece, but reappeared about 400 BC

n the interior of large monumental tombs such as the Lion Tomb at Cnidosc. 350 BC). Little is known of Mycenaean wooden or domestic architecturend any continuing traditions that may have flowed into the early buildingsf the Dorian people.

he Minoan architecture of Crete, was of trabeated form like that of AncientGreece. It employed wooden columns with capitals, but the columns weref very different form to Doric columns, being narrow at the base andplaying upward.[9] The earliest forms of columns in Greece seem to haveeveloped independently. As with Minoan architecture, Ancient Greekomestic architecture centred on open spaces or courtyards surrounded byolonnades. This form was adapted to the construction of hypostyle halls

within the larger temples.

The domestic architecture of ancient Greece employed walls of sunclay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous material such asor seaweed covered with clay or plaster, on a base of stone protected the more vulnerable elements from damp.[4] Roofs were prof thatch with eaves which overhung the permeable walls. It is prothat many early houses had an open porch or "pronaos" above whica low pitched gable or pediment.[7] The evolution that occurarchitecture was towards public building, first and foremost the terather than towards grand domestic architecture such as had evoCrete.[2] 

Types of buildings

Main articles: Ancient Greek temple, Ancient

theatre, Acropolis, Agora, and Stoa

The rectangular temple is the most common and best-known form of public architecture. The temple did not serve the same functionmodern church, since the altar stood under the open sky in the temesacred precinct, often directly before the temple. Temples served location of a cult image and as a storage place or strong room ftreasury associated with the cult of the god in question, and as a pladevotees of the god to leave their votive offerings, such as statues, hand weapons. Some Greek temples appear to have been orastronomically.[16] The temple was generally part of a religious prknown as the acropolis. According to Aristotle, '"the site should be seen far and wide, which gives good elevation to virtue and towers ovneighbourhood".[2] Small circular temples, tholos were also constructwell as small temple-like buildings that served as treasuries for s

groups of donors.

[17]

 

During the late 5th and 4th centuries BC, town planning becamimportant consideration of Greek builders, with towns as Paestum and Priene being laid out with a regular grid of paved sand an agora or central market place surrounded by a colonnade oThe completely restored Stoa of Attalos can be seen in Athens.were also equipped with a public fountain where water could be cofor household use. The development of regular town plans is assowith Hippodamus of Miletus, a pupil of Pythagoras.[18][19][20] 

Public buildings became "dignified and gracious structures", and werso that they related to each other architecturally.[19] The propylon or formed the entrance to temple sanctuaries and other significant sitethe best-surviving example being the Propylaea on the Acropolis of A

The bouleuterion was a large public building with a hypostyle haserved as a court house and as a meeting place for the town c(boule). Remnants of bouleuterion survive at Athens, Olympia and Mthe latter having held up to 1200 people.[21] 

Every Greek town had an open-air theatre. These were used fopublic meetings as well as dramatic performances. The theatre was uset in a hillside outside the town, and had rows of tiered seating sesemicircle around the central performance area, the orchestra. Behorchestra was a low building called the skênê, which served as aroom, a dressing-room, and also as a backdrop to the action taking pthe orchestra. A number of Greek theatres survive almost intact, thknown being at Epidaurus, by the architect Polykleitos the Younger .[1

Greek towns of substantial size also had a palaestra or a gymnasiu

social centre for male citizens which included spectator areas, baths,and club rooms.[21] Other buildings associated with sports ithehippodrome for horse racing, of which only remnants have survivethe stadium for foot racing, 600 feet in length, of which examples eOlympia, Delphi, Epidarus and Ephesus, while the Panathinaiko Sta

 Athens, which seats 45,000 people, was restored in the 19th centuwas used in the 1896, 1906 and 2004 Olympic Games.[21][22] 

StructureColumn and lintel

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Parts of an Ancient Greektemple of the Doric Order:1. Tympanum, 2. Acroterium, 3.Sima4. Cornice5. Mutules7.Freize8. Triglyph9. Metope10.Regula

11. Gutta12. Taenia13.Architrave14. Capital15. Abacus16. Echinus17. Column18. Fluting19. Stylobate

The architecture of AncientGreece is of a trabeated or "post and lintel" form, i.e. itis composed of uprightbeams (posts) supportinghorizontal beams (lintels).

 Although the existentbuildings of the era areconstructed in stone, it isclear that the origin of thestyle lies in simple woodenstructures, with verticalposts supporting beams

which carried a ridged roof. The posts and beams divided the walls intoegular compartments which could be left as openings, or filled with sunried bricks, lathes or straw and covered with clay daub or plaster.

Alternately, the spaces might be filled with rubble. It is likely that manyarly houses and temples were constructed with an open porch or pronaos" above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment.[7] he earliest temples, built to enshrine statues of deities, were probably of 

wooden construction, later replaced by the more durable stone templesmany of which are still in evidence today. The signs of the original timber ature of the architecture were maintained in the stone buildings.[23] 

A few of these temples are very large, with several, such as the Temple of eus Olympus and the Olympieion at Athens being well over 300 feet in

ength, but most were less than half this size. It appears that some of thearge temples began as wooden constructions in which the columns wereeplaced piecemeal as stone became available. This, at least was thenterpretation of the historian Pausanias looking at the Temple of Hera atOlympia in the 2nd century AD.[2] 

he stone columns are made of a series of solid stone cylinders or ―drums‖hat rest on each other without mortar, but were sometimes centred with aronze pin. The columns are wider at the base than at the top, tapering

with an outward curve known as ―entasis‖. Each column has a capital of 

wo parts, the upper, on which rests the lintels, being square and called theabacus‖. The part of the capital that rises from the column itself is calledhe ―echinus‖. It differs according to the order, being plain in the Doric

Order, fluted in the Ionic and foliate in the Corinthian. Doric and usuallyonic capitals are cut with vertical grooves known as ―fluting‖. This fluting or rooving of the columns is a retention of an element of the original woodenrchitecture.[23] 

ntablature and pediment

he columns of a temple support a structure that rises in two main stages,he entablature and the pediment.

he entablature is the major horizontal structural element supporting theoof and encircling the entire building. It is composed by three parts.

Resting on the columns is the architrave made of a series of stone ―that spanned the space between the columns, and meet each othe

 joint directly above the centre of each column.

 Above the architrave is a second horizontal stage called the ―friezefrieze is one of the major decorative elements of the building and casculptured relief. In the case of Ionic and Corinthian architecture, thedecoration runs in a continuous band, but in the Doric Order, it is dinto sections called ―metopes‖ which fill the spaces between vrectangular blocks called ―triglyphs‖. The triglyphs are vertically grlike the Doric columns, and retain the form of the wooden beamwould once have supported the roof.

The upper band of the entablature is called the ―cornice‖, which is geornately decorated on its lower edge. The cornice retains the shapebeams that would once have supported the wooden roof at each endbuilding. At the front and back of each temple, the entablature supptriangular structure called the ―pediment‖. The triangular space framthe cornices is the location of the most significant sculptural decoratthe exterior of the building.

Masonry

Every temple rested on a masonry base called the crepidoma, genethree steps, of which the upper one which carried the columnthe stylobate. Masonry walls were employed for temples from aboBC onwards. Masonry of all types was used for Ancient Greek bui

including rubble, but the finest ashlar masonry was usually employtemple walls, in regular courses and large sizes to minimis joints.[7] The blocks were rough hewn and hauled from quarries to and bedded very precisely, with mortar hardly ever being used. Bparticularly those of columns and parts of the building bearing loadssometimes fixed in place or reinforced with iron clamps, dowels and rwood, bronze or iron fixed in lead to minimise corrosion.[4] 

Openings

Door and window openings were spanned with a lintel, which in abuilding limited the possible width of the opening. The distance becolumns was similarly affected by the nature of the lintel, columns exterior of buildings and carrying stone lintels being closer togethethose on the interior, which carried wooden lintels.[24][25] Door and w

openings narrowed towards the top.[25] Temples were constructed wwindows, the light to the naos entering through the door. It hassuggested that some temples were lit from openings in the roof .[24]  of the Ionic Order at the Erechtheion, (17 feet high and 7.5 feet widetop), retains many of its features intact, including mouldings, aentablature supported on console brackets. (See Architectural Decobelow)[25][26][27] 

Roof 

The widest span of a temple roof was across the cella, or internal spa large building, this space contains columns to support the rooarchitectural form being known as hypostyle. It appears that, althouarchitecture of Ancient Greece was initially of wooden constructioearly builders did not have the concept of the diagonal truss as a stab

member. This is evidenced by the nature of temple construction in tcentury BC, where the rows of columns supporting the roof the cehigher than the outer walls, unnecessary if roof trusses are employedintegral part of the wooden roof. The indication is that initially all the were supported directly by the entablature, walls and hypostyle, ratheon a trussed wooden frame, which came into use in Greek architonly in the 3rd century BC.[7] 

 Ancient Greek buildings of timber, clay and plaster constructionprobably roofed with thatch. With the rise of stone architecture camappearance of fired ceramic roof tiles. These early roof tiles showedshape, with the pan and cover tile forming one piece. They were larger than modern roof tiles, being up to 90 cm (35.43 in) long, (27.56 in) wide, 3 –4 cm (1.18 –1.57 in) thick and weighing around apiece.[28][29] Only stone walls, which were replacing

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arlier mudbrick and wood walls, were strong enough to support the weightf a tiled roof .[30] 

he earliest finds of roof tiles of the Archaic period in Greece areocumented from a very restricted area around Corinth, where fired tilesegan to replace thatched roofs at the templesf Apollo and Poseidon between 700 and 650 BC.[31] Spreading rapidly,oof tiles were within fifty years in evidence for a large number of sitesround the Eastern Mediterranean, including Mainland Greece, 

Western Asia Minor, Southern and CentralItaly.[31] Being more expensivend labour-intensive to produce than thatch, their introduction has beenxplained by the fact that their fireproof quality would have given desiredrotection to the costly temples.[31]  As a side-effect, it has been assumed

hat the new stone and tile construction also ushered in the end of verhanging eaves in Greek architecture, as they made the need for anxtended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete.[30] 

Vaults and arches were not generally used, but begin to appear in tombsn a "beehive" or cantilevered form such as used in Mycenaea) andccasionally, as an external feature, exedrae of voussoired constructionrom the 5th century BC. The dome and vault never became significanttructural features, as they were to become in Ancient Romanrchitecture.[7] 

emple plans

Plans of Ancient Greek Templesop: 1. distyle in antis, 2. amphidistyle in antis, 3. tholos, 4. prostyle

etrastyle, 5.amphiprostyle tetrastyle,ottom: 6. dipteral octastyle, 7. peripteral hexastyle, 8. pseudoperipteral exastyle, 9. pseudodipteral octastyle 

Most Ancient Greek temples were rectangular, and were approximatelywice as long as they were wide, with some notable exceptions such as thenormous Temple of Zeus Olympus in Athens with a length of nearly 2 1/2mes its width. The majority of Temples were small, being 30 –100 feet

ong, while a few were large, being over 300 feet long and 150 feet wide.he iconic Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis occupies a midpoint at 235

feet long by 109 feet wide. A number of surviving temple-like structurcircular, and are referred to as tholos.[32] 

The temple rises from a stepped base or  "stylobate", which elevatstructure above the ground on which it stood. Early examples, such Temple of Zeus at Olympus, have two steps, but the majority, likParthenon, have three, with the exceptional example of the Tem

 Apollo at Didyma having six.[32] The core of the building is a mason"naos" within which was a cella, a windowless room which housestatue of the god. The cella generally had a porch or "pronaos" beand perhaps a second chamber or "antenaos" serving as a treasrepository for trophies and gifts. The chambers were lit by a singledoorway, fitted with a wrought iron grill. Some rooms appear to have

illuminated by skylights.[24] 

On the stylobate, often completely surrounding the naos, stood rocolumns. Each temple was defined as being of a particular type, witerms: one describing the number of columns across the entranceand the other defining their distribution.[32] 

Examples:

  Distyle in antis describes a small temple with two columns at thewhich are set between the projecting walls of the  pronaos or like the Temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus. (see left, figure 1.) [32] 

   Amphiprostyle tetrastyle describes atemple that has columns at both ends which

clear of the naos. Tetrastyle indicates thacolumns are four in number, like those Temple on the Ilissus in Athens. ( figure 4.) [32]

  Peripteral hexastyle describes a twith a single row of peripheral columns athe naos, with six columns across the front, lTheseion in Athens. (figure 7.) [32] 

  Peripteral octastyle describes a twith a single row of columns athe naos, (figure 7.) with eight columns acrofront, like the Parthenon, Athens. (figs. 6 and

  Dipteral decastyle describes the temple of Apollo at Didyma, the naos surrounded by a double rocolumns, (figure 6.) with ten columns acro

entrance front.[32]   The Temple of Zeus Olympi

 Agrigentum, is termed Pseudo-periteral heptbecause its encircling colohas pseudo columns that are attached to theof the naos. (figure 8.) Heptastyle means thatseven columns across the entrance front.[32] 

Proportion and optical illusion

The ideal of proportion that was used by AGreek architects in designing temples wassimple mathematical progression using a smodule. The math involved a more co

geometrical progression, the so-called Gmean. The ratio is similar to that of the gpatterns of many spiral forms that occur in nature such as horns, nautilus shells, fern fronds, and vine tendrils and which wsource of decorative motifs employed by Ancient Greek architeparticularly in evidence in the volutes of capitals of the Ionic and CorOrders.[33] 

The Ancient Greek architects took a philosophic approach to the ruleproportions. The determining factor in the mathematics of any notablof architecture was its ultimate appearance. The architects calculatperspective, for the optical illusions that make edges of objects a

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oncave and for the fact that columns that are viewed against the sky lookifferent to those adjacent that are viewed against a shadowed wall.ecause of these factors, the architects adjusted the plans so that the

major lines of any significant building are rarely straight .[33] The mostbvious adjustment is to the profile of columns, which narrow from base toop. However, the narrowing is not regular, but gently curved so that eacholumns appears to have a slight swelling, called entasis below the middle.he entasis is never sufficiently pronounced as to make the swelling wider 

han the base; it is controlled by a slight reduction in the rate of decrease of iameter .[7] 

he Parthenon, the Temple to the Goddess Athena on the Acropolis inAthens, is the epitome of what Nikolaus Pevsner called "the most perfect

xample ever achieved of architecture finding its fulfilment in bodilyeauty".[3] Helen Gardner refers to its "unsurpassable excellence", to beurveyed, studied and emulated by architects of later ages. Yet, as

Gardner points out, there is hardly a straight line in the building. [34] Banister letcher calculated that the stylobate curves upward so that its centres atither end rise about 2.6 inches above the outer corners, and 4.3 inches onhe longer sides. A slightly greater adjustment has been made to thentablature. The columns at the ends of the building are not vertical but are

nclined towards the centre, with those at the corners being out of plumb bybout 2.6 inches.[7] These outer columns are both slightly wider than their eighbours and are slightly closer than any of the others.[35] 

tyleOrders

tylistically, Ancient Greek architecture is divided into three ―orders‖:

he Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, the nameseflecting their origins. While the three orders are most easily recognizabley their capitals, the orders also governed the form, proportions, detailsnd relationships of the columns, entablature, pediment and thetylobate.[2] The different orders were applied to the whole range of uildings and monuments.

he Doric Order developed on mainland Greece and spread to Italy. It wasrmly established and well-defined in its characteristics by the time of theuilding of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, c. 600 BC. The Ionic order co-xisted with the Doric, being favoured by the Greek cites of Ionia, in Asia

Minor and the Aegean Islands. It did not reach a clearly defined form untilhe mid 5th century BC.[23] The early Ionic temples of Asia Minor werearticularly ambitious in scale, such as the Temple of Artemis atphesus.[11] The Corinthian Order was a highly decorative variant not

eveloped until the Hellenistic period and retaining many characteristics of he Ionic. It was popularised by the Romans.[7] 

Orders of Ancient Greek architecture 

Doric Order 

he Doric order is recognised by its capital, of which theechinus is like aircular cushion rising from the top of the column to the square abacus on

which rest the lintels. The echinus appears flat and splayed in earlyxamples, deeper and with greater curve in later, more refined examples,nd smaller and straight-sided in Hellenistc examples.[36]  A refinement of he Doric Column is the entasis, a gentle convex swelling to the profile of he column, which prevents an optical illusion of concavity.[36] 

Doric columns are almost always cut with grooves, known as "fluting",which run the length of the column and are usually 20 in number, althoughometimes fewer. The flutes meet at sharp edges called arrises. At the topf the columns, slightly below the narrowest point, and crossing theerminating arrises, are three horizontal grooves known ashe hypotrachelion. Doric columns have no bases, until a few examples inhe Hellenistic period.[36] 

he columns of an early Doric temple such as the Temple of Apollo atyracuse, Sicily, may have a height to base diameter ratio of only 4:1 andcolumn height to entablature ratio of 2:1, with relatively crude details. A

olumn height to diameter of 6:1 became more usual, while the columneight to entablature ratio at the Parthenon is about 3:1. During the

Hellenistic period, Doric conventions of solidity and masculinity dropped

away, with the slender and unfluted columns reaching a height to diaratio of 7.5:1.[36] 

The Doric entablature is in three parts, the architrave, the friethe cornice. The architrave is composed of the stone lintels which spspace between the columns, with a joint occurring above the ceneach abacus. On this rests the frieze, one of the major areas of scudecoration. The frieze is divided intotriglyphs and metopes, the triglypstated elsewhere in this article, are a reminder of the timber history architectural style. Each triglyph has three vertical grooves, similar columnar fluting, and below them, seemingly connected, are smalthat appear to connect the triglyphs to the architrave below.[36]  A triglocated above the centre of each capital, and above the centre o

lintel. However, at the corners of the building, the triglyphs do not fathe centre the column. The ancient architects took a pragmatic approthe apparent "rules", simply extending the width of the last two metoeach end of the building.

The cornice is a narrow jutting band of complex moulding which overand protects the ornamented frieze, like the edge of an overhawooden-framed roof. It is decorated on the underside with projblocks, mutules, further suggesting the wooden nature of the prototyeither end of the building the pediment rises from the cornice, frammoulding of similar form.[36] 

The pediment is decorated with figures that are in relief in the examples, but almost freestanding by the time of the Parthenon.architectural sculptors found difficulty in creating satisfactory scucompositions in the tapering triangular space.[37] By the Early Claperiod, with the decoration of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, (486-46the sculptors had solved the problem by having a standing centralframed by rearing centaurs and fighting men who are falling, kneelinlying in attitudes that fit the size and angle of each part of the space. [

renowned sculptor Phidias fills the space at the Parthenon (448-43with a complex array of draped and undraped figures of deities who ain attitudes of sublime relaxation and elegance.

Ionic Order 

The Ionic Order is recognised by its voluted capital, in whcurved echinus of similar shape to that of the Doric Order, but decwith stylised ornament, is surmounted by a horizontal band that

under to either side, forming spirals or volutes similar to thothe nautilus shell or ram's horn. In plan, the capital is rectanguladesigned to be viewed frontally but the capitals at the corners of buare modified with an additional scroll so as to appear regular oadjoining faces. In the Hellenistic period, four-fronted Ionic capitals bcommon.[38] 

Like the Doric Order, the Ionic Order retains signs of having its origwooden architecture. The horizontal spread of a flat timber plate acrotop of a column is a common device in wooden construction, givingupright a wider area on which to bear the lintel, while at the samereinforcing the load-bearing strength of the lintel itself. Likewiscolumns always have bases, a necessity in wooden architecture to sthe load and protect the base of a comparatively thin upright.[

columns are fluted with narrow, shallow flutes that do not meet at aedge but have a flat band or  fillet between them. The usual numflutes is twenty-four but there may be as many as forty-four. The bastwo convex mouldings called torus, and from the late Hellenic periodon a square plinth similar to the abacus.[38] 

The architrave of the Ionic Order is sometimes undecorated, but morrises in three outwardly-stepped bands like overlapping timber plankfrieze, which runs in a continuous band, is separated from the members by rows of small projecting blocks. They are referas dentils, meaning "teeth", but their origin is clearly in narrow wslats which supported the roof of a timber structure.[38] The Ionic Oaltogether lighter in appearance than the Doric, with the columns, incbase and capital, having a 9:1 ratio with the diameter, while the entablature was also much narrower and less heavy than the entablature. There was some variation in the distribution of decoFormalised bands of motifs such as alternating forms known as "eg

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art" were a feature of the Ionic entablatures, along with the bandsf dentils. The external frieze often contained a continuous band of gurative sculpture or ornament, but this was not always the case.ometimes a decorative frieze occurred around the upper part of 

he naos rather than on the exterior of the building. These Ionic-styleriezes around the naos are sometimes found on Doric buildings, notablyhe Parthenon. Some temples, like the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, hadriezes of figures around the lower drum of each column, separated fromhe fluted section by a bold moulding.[38] 

Caryatids, draped female figures used as supporting members to carry thentablature, were a feature of the Ionic order, occurring at several buildings

ncluding the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi in 525 BC and at the

rechtheion, about 410 BC.[39] 

Corinthian Order 

he Corinthian Order does not have its origin in wooden architecture. Itrew directly out of the Ionic in the mid 5th century BC, and was initially of 

much the same style and proportion, but distinguished by its more ornateapitals.[40] The capital was very much deeper than either the Doric or theonic capital, being shaped like a large krater , a bell-shaped mixing bowl,nd being ornamented with a double row of acanthus leaves above whichose voluted tendrils, supporting the corners of the abacus, which, noonger perfectly square, splayed above them. According to Vitruvius, theapital was invented by a bronze founder, Callimarchus of Corinth, whoook his inspiration from a basket of offerings that had been placed on arave, with a flat tile on top to protect the goods. The basket had beenlaced on the root of an acanthus plant which had grown up around.[40] The ratio of the column height to diameter is generally 10:1, with theapital taking up more than 1/10 of the height. The ratio of capital height toiameter is generally about 1.16:1.[40] 

he Corinthian Order was initially used internally, as at the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Basae (c.450-425 BC). In 334 BC it appeared as anxternal feature on the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, andhen on a huge scale at the Temple of Zeus Olympia in Athens, (174 BC -

AD 132).[40] It was popularised by the Romans, who added a number of efinements and decorative details. During the Hellenistic period,

Corinthian columns were sometimes built without fluting.[40] 

Decoration

Architectural ornament

arly wooden structures, particularly temples, were ornamented and in partrotected by fired and painted clay revetments in the form of rectangular anels, and ornamental discs. Many fragments of these have outlived theuildings that they decorated and demonstrate a wealth of formal border esigns of geometric scrolls, overlapping patterns and foliate

motifs.[41] With the introduction of stone-built temples, the revetments noonger served a protective purpose and sculptured decoration becamemore common.

he clay ornaments were limited to the roof of buildings, decorating theornice, the corners and surmounting the pediment. At the corners of ediments they were called acroteria and along the sides of theuilding, antefixes. Early decorative elements were generally semi-circular,

ut later of roughly triangular shape with moulded ornament, oftenalmate.[41][42] Ionic cornices were often set with a row of lion's masks, withpen mouths that ejected rainwater .[24][42] From the Late Classical period,croteria were sometimes sculptured figures.See "Architecturalculpture"[43] 

n the three orders of Ancient Greek architecture, the sculptural decoration,e it a simple half round astragal , a frieze of stylised foliage or the ornateculpture of the pediment, is all essential to the architecture of which it is aart. In the Doric order, there is no variation in its placement. Reliefs never ecorate walls in an arbitrary way. The sculpture is always located ineveral predetermined areas, the metopes and the pediment.[41] In later onic architecture, there is greater diversity in the types and numbers of 

mouldings and decorations, particularly around doorways, where volutedrackets sometimes occur supporting an ornamental cornice over a door,

such as that at the Erechtheum.[24][26][41]  A much applied narrow moucalled "bead and reel" and is symmetrical, stemming from turned wprototypes. Wider mouldings include one with tongue-like or pointeshapes, which are grooved and sometimes turned upward at the ti"egg and dart" moulding which alternates ovoid shapes with narrow ones.

Architectural sculpture

 Architectural sculpture showed a development from early Archaic exathrough Severe Classical, High Classical, Late ClassicalHellenistic.[1] Remnants of the Archaic architectural sculpture (700

BC) exist from the early 6th century BC with the earliest supedimental sculpture being remnants of a Gorgon flanked by hepanthers from the centre of the pediment of the Artemis TemCorfu.[45]  A metope from a temple known as "Temple C" at Selinus,shows, in a better preserved state, Perseus slaying Gorgon Medusa.[37] Both images parallel the stylised depiction Gorgons on the black figure name vase decorated by the Nessos p(c. 600 BC), with the face and shoulders turned frontally, and the legrunning or kneeling position. At this date images of terrifying monsterpredominance over the emphasis on the human figure that developeHumanist philosophy.[45] 

The Severe Classical style (500 - 450 BC) is represented bpedimental sculptures of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, (470 - 45The eastern pediment shows a moment of stillness and "impending dbefore the beginning of a chariot race, the figures of Zeus ancompetitors being severe and idealised representations of the huma.[46] The western pediment has Apollo as the central figure, "majesti"remote", presiding over a battle of Lapiths and Centaurs, in strong coto that of the eastern pediment for its depiction of violent actiondescribed by D. E. Strong as the "most powerful piece of illustrationhundred years.[46] 

The shallow reliefs and three-dimensional sculpture which adornefrieze and pediments, respectively, of the Parthenon, are the products of the High Classical style (450 -400 BC) and were createdthe direction of the sculptor Phidias.[47] The pedimental screpresents the Gods of Olympus, while the frieze shows the Panatprocession and ceremonial events that took place every four yehonour the titular Goddess of Athens.[47] The frieze and remaining fof the eastern pediment show a profound understanding of the h

body, and how it varies depending upon its position and the stresseaction and emotion place upon it. Benjamin Robert Haydon describreclining figure of Dionysus as "....the most heroic style of art, comwith all the essential detail of actual life".[48] 

The names of many famous sculptors are known from the Late Claperiod (400 - 323 including Timotheos, Praxiteles, Leochares and Skopas, but their are known mainly from Roman copies.[1] Little architectural sculptureperiod remains intact. The Temple of Asclepius at Epidauros had scby Timotheos working with the architect Theodotos. Fragments eastern pediment survive, showing the Sack of Troy. The scene appehave filled the space with figures carefully arranged to fit the slopshape available, as with earlier east pediment of the Temple of ZOlympus. But the figures are more violent in action, the central space

up, not with a commanding God, but with the dynamic of Neoptolemos as he seizes the aged king Priam and stabs himremaining fragments give the impression of a whole range of hemotions, fear, horror, cruelty and lust for conquest.[43] The acroterisculptured by Timotheus, except for that at the centre of the east pewhich is the work of the architect. The palmate acroteria havereplaced here with small figures, the eastern pediment being surmoby a winged Nike, poised against the wind.[43] 

Hellenistic architectural sculpture (323 - 31 BC) was to becomeflamboyant, both in the rendering of expression and motion, which isemphasised by flowing draperies, the Nike Samothrace which decormonument in the shape of a ship being a well known exaThe Pergamon Altar (c. 180-160 BC) has a frieze (120 metres long metres high) of figures in very high relief. The frieze represents the

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or supremacy of Gods and Titans, and employs many dramatic devices:renzy, pathos and triumph, to convey the sense of conflict.[49] 

Ancient Roman architecture

rom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ancient Roman architecture adopted certain aspects of Ancient Greekrchitecture, creating a new architectural style. The Romans were indebtedo their Etruscan neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a

wealth of knowledge essential for future architectural solutions, suchs hydraulics in the construction of arches. Later they absorbed Greek and

Phoenician influence, apparent in many aspects closely related torchitecture; for example, this can be seen in the introduction and use of he Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. Romanrchitecture flourished throughout the Empire during the Pax Romana. 

Contextactors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced thencient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. These of vaults and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building

materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in theonstruction of imposing structures for public use. Examples includehe aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, hebasilicas and Colosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in

most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structuresre almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania

arraconensis, or northern Spain. The Ancient Romans intended thatublic buildings should be made to impress, as well as perform a publicunction. The Romans did not feel restrictedy Greek aesthetic axioms alone in order to achieve these objectives.[citation

eeded ] The Pantheon is an example of this, particularly in the version rebuilty Hadrian, which remains perfectly preserved, and which over theenturies has served, particularly in the Western Hemisphere, as the

nspiration for countless public buildings. The same emperor left his markn the landscape of northern Britain when he built a wall to mark the limitsf the empire, and after further conquests inScotland, the Antonine

wall was built to replace Hadrian's Wall. 

he arch and the domerticles: Roman aqueduct, Roman bridge, and List of Roman domes

he Roman use of the arch and their improvements in the usef concrete and bricks facilitated the building of the

many aqueducts throughout the empire, such as the Aqueduct of egovia and the eleven aqueducts in Rome itself, such as Aqua

Claudia and Anio Novus. The same concepts produced numerous bridges,ome of which are still in daily use, for example at Mérida in Spain, andhe Pont Julian and the bridge at Vaison-la-Romaine, both in Provence,rance.

he dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings without crossbeamsnd provided large covered public space such as publicaths and basilicas. The Romans based much of their architecture on theome, such as Hadrian's Pantheon in the city of Rome, the Baths of 

Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla. 

Art historians such as Gottfried Richter in the 1920s identified the Romanrchitectural innovation as being the Triumphal Arch. This symbol of power 

was transformed and utilised within the Christian basilicas when theRoman Empire of the West was on its last legs: The arch was set beforehe altar to symbolize the triumph of Christ and the afterlife. The arch iseen in aqueducts, especially in the many surviving examples, such ashePont du Gard, the aqueduct at Segovia and the remains of he Aqueducts of Rome itself. Their survival is testimony to the durability of heir materials and design.

he Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans, and implemented itn their own building. An arch is a very strong shape as it transmits loadvenly and is still commonly used in architecture today.

HousingMain article: Insula (building)

The Ancient Romans were responsible for significant developmehousing and public hygiene, for example their public and private bathlatrines, under-floor heating in the form of the hypocaust, mica g(examples in Ostia Antica), and piped hot and cold water (exain Pompeii and Ostia).

Multi-story apartment blocks called insulae catered to a range of resineeds. The cheapest and darkest rooms were at the bottom; the liand most desirable at the top. Windows were mostly small, facinstreet, with iron security bars. Insulae were often dangerous, unhe

and prone to fires because of overcrowding and haphazard coarrangements. There are examples in the Roman port town of  Ostdate back to the reign of Trajan. External walls were in "Opus Reticuand interiors in "Opus Incertum", which would then be plasteresometimes painted.

To brighten up the small dark rooms, tenants able to afford a degluxury painted colourful murals on the walls. Examples have been fo

 jungle scenes with wild animals and exotic plants. Imitation wi(trompe l'oeil) were sometimes painted to make the rooms seemconfined.

Common building typesMain articles: Thermae, Roman temple, Amphitheatre, List of Ramphitheatres, Roman theatre (structure), Roman Forum, and(Roman)

 All Roman cities had at least one Thermae, a popular facility for bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestlinweight-lifting, as well as swimming. Bathing was an important part Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very lowsubsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were often accomby one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as ferefreshment, guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end session, applying olive oil to their masters' body which was then scoff with a strigil, a scraper made of wood or bone. Romans didn't wassoap and water as we do now.

Roman bath-houses were also provided for private villashouses and forts. They were normally supplied with water from an ad

river or stream, or by aqueduct. The design of thermae is discby Vitruviusin De Architectura. 

Roman architecture was often at its most beautiful and impressiveadapted to the needs of Roman religion. The Pantheon in Romsurvived structurally intact because it has been continuously usworship since it was built, over 2000 years ago. Although its interiorsaltered when worship changed from paganism to Christianity, it is theand largest example of a dome built in antiquity still surviving.

Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the amphitheatre220 being known and many of which are well preserved, such aat Arles, as well as its progenitor, the Colosseum in Rome. They werfor gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and bullfightradition of which still survives in Spain.

Every city had a forum of varying size. In addition to its standard fuas a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including pdiscussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. The best example is probably in Rome, Italy.[1] and is the site of the earliest fothe empire.

Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean and the coathe empire, including the Tower of Hercules at A Coruña in northern a structure which survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse atEngland also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. Thwould have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure. 

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Materialsile covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as the primary building

material and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillarsupporting broad arches and domes rather than dense linesf columnssuspending flat architraves. The freedom of concrete also

nspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in frontf a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strengthreed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowingnvironment. Most of these developments are describedy Vitruvius writing in the first century AD in his work De Architectura. 

Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia,Roman architects perfected Roman concrete and used it in buildings where

could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of oncrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa sometime after 273 BCE.

Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of lime mortar, sand with stoneubble, pozzolana, water, and stones, and stronger than previously-usedoncrete. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames

where it hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently)ricks.

When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong with aough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed andaced with an attractive stucco or thin panels of marble or other colouredtones called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be more flexiblend less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials wereeadily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could besed more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently.

On return from campaigns in Greece, the general Sulla returned with whats probably the most well-known element of the early imperial period: he mosaic, a decoration of colourful chips of stone inset into cement. Thisling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and theecond century and in the Roman home joined the well known mural inecorating floors, walls, and grottoes in geometric and pictorial designs.

hough most would consider concrete the Roman contribution mostelevant to the modern world, the Empire's style of architecture can still beeen throughout Europe and North America in the arches and domes of 

manygovernmental and religious buildings.

Modern influence

During the Baroque and the Renaissance periods, Roman and Greekrchitectural styles again became fashionable, not least in Italy, but all over urope.

oday we still see those influences all around us, in banks, governmentuildings, great houses, even small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch

with Doric columns and a pediment, or in a fireplace or a mosaic shower oor copied from an original in Pompeii or Herculaneum. The mighty pillars,omes and arches of Rome echo in the New World too, where

n Washington DC not only do we see the Capitol Building, the WhiteHouseand the Lincoln Memorial, but there exists a Senate and the samen name) Republican and Democrat parties, who ran the Roman Empire.

All across the US the seats of regional government were normally built inhe grand traditions of Rome, with vast flights of stone steps sweeping upo towering pillared porticoes, with huge domes gilded or decorated inside

with the same or similar themes that were popular in Rome.

n wealthy provincial parts of the US such as the great plantations of 18thnd 19th century Louisiana, there too are the pillars and porticoes, theymmetrical facades with their pilasters, the domes and statuary that wouldave seemed familiar to Caesar and Augustus.

n Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construction of thousands of eo-Classical buildings over the last five centuries, both civic and domestic,nd many of the grandest country houses and mansions are purely

Classical in style, an obvious example being Buckingham Palace. 

slamic architecture

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaIslamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both seculareligious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day, influthe design and construction of buildings and structures in Islamic cThe principal Islamic architectural types are: the Mosque, thethe Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Iarchitecture is derived and used for buildings of less importanceas public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.[1][2] 

Influences

Specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon

Muhammad's time, inspired by Islam with addition of localized adaptof the former Sassanid and Byzantine models. The Dome oRock(Qubbat al-Sakhrah) in Jerusalem (691) is one of the most impbuildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzinfluence (mosaic against a gold background, and a central plaresembles that of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, although the itself was renovated several times in the Islamic period [3]), but abearing purely Islamic elements, such as the great epigraphic frifeatured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of strepeating decorative arabesque patterns. The desert pin Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and KhirbMafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and and were decorated to promote an image of royal The Germanic Visigoths in Spain also contributed to Islamic architeThey invented the inward curving horseshoe arch in Spain and usedas one of their main architectural features, After the Moorish invas

Spain in 711 AD the form was taken by the Umayyads who accenthe curvature of the horseshoe.[4] 

Religious and civic architecture were developed under the Umawhen new concepts and new plans were put into practice. Thus, theplan", with court and hypostyle prayer hall, truly became a functionawith the construction of the Umayyad Mosque, or theMosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I)[5] on the ancient temple of Jupiter and in place of the basilica of St. JoBaptist, the most sacred site in the city. This building served as a preference for builders (and for art historians) for the birth of the Arabas Byzantine Christian.

The Abbasid dynasty (750 A.D.- 1258[6]) witnessed the movement capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Sa

The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. TheMosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, was built for thcapital. Other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty inthe Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great min Tunis. Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the FortressUkhaidir (c.775-6) demonstrated the "despotic and the pleasurecharacter of the dynasty" in its grand size but cramped living quarters

The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia), considered as the anceall the mosques in the western Islamic world,[8] is one of the best preand most significant examples of early great mosques. Founded in 67it dates in its present form largely from the Aghlabid periodcentury).[9] The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a msquare minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos and ahypostyle prayer hall covered on its axis by two cupolas.[8] The

Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, comthe hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base which a huge spiralingminaret was constructed.

The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. the Ottomans captured the city from the Byzantines, they conthe basilica to a mosque (now a museum) and incorporated Byzarchitectural elements into their own work (e.g. domes). The Hagia Salso served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the SheMosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. 

Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been orepetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. Irespect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosqupalaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include co

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iers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of iches and colonnettes.[10] The role of domes in Islamic architecture haseen considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 withhe construction of the Dome of the Rock, and recurring even up until the7th century with the Taj Mahal. As late as the 19th century, Islamic domesad been incorporated into Western architecture.[11][12] 

arly history

here are few buildings dating from the era of Prophet Muhammad, butne example is the Juatha mosque in Saudi Arabia. The Rashidun

Caliphate (632 –661) was the first state to use Islamic Architecture.

he Umayyad Caliphate (661 –750) combined elements of Byzantinerchitecture and Sassanid architecture, but Umayyadrchitecture introduced new combinations of these western and easterntyles.[13] The horseshoe arch appears for the first time in Umayyadrchitecture, later to evolve to its most advanced form in al-

Andalus.[14] Umayyad architecture is distinguished by the extent and varietyf decoration, including mosaics, wall painting, sculpture and carved reliefs

with Islamic motifs.[15] The Umayyads introduced a transept that divided therayer room along its shorter axis.[16] They also added the mihrab to

mosque design.[16] The mosque inMedina built by al-Walid I had therst mihrab, a niche on the qibla wall, which seems to have represented thelace where the Prophet stood when leading prayer. This almost

mmediately became a standard feature of all mosques.[16] 

he Abbasid architecture of the Abbasid Caliphate (750 –1513) wastrongly influenced by Sassanid architecture, and later by Central Asiantyles. The Abbasid mosques all followed the courtyard plan. The earliest

was the mosque that al-Mansur built in Baghdad. since destroyed.he Great Mosque of Samarra built by al-Mutawakkil was 256 by 139

metres (840 by 456 ft). A flat wooden roof was supported by columns. Themosque was decorated with marble panels and glass mosaics.[17] Therayer hall of the Abu Dulaf mosque at Samarra had arcades onectangular brick piers running at right angles to the qibla wall. Both of theamarra mosques have spiral minarets, the only examples in Iraq.[17]  A

mosque at Balkh in what is now Afghanistan was about 20 by 20 metres66 by 66 ft) square, with three rows of three square bays, supporting nineaulted domes.[18] 

Construction of the Great Mosque at Córdoba (now a cathedral known ashe Mezquita) beginning in 785 CE marks the beginning of Moorishrchitecture in the Iberian peninsula and North Africa (see Moors). The

mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish architectureeached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificentalace/fortress of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spacesdorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated withtylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with

walls covered in glazed tile. Their other, smaller, survivals such as the BabMardum in Toledo, or the caliphal city of Medina Azahara. Moorishrchitecture has its roots deeply established in the Arab tradition of rchitecture and design established during the era of the first Caliphate of he Umayyads in the Levantcirca 660AD with its capital Damascus havingery well preserved examples of fine Arab Islamic design and geometrics,

ncluding the carmen, which is the typical Damascene house, opening onhe inside with a fountain as the house's centre piece.

atimid architecture in Egypt followed Tulunid techniques and used similar materials, but also developed those of their own. In Cairo, their firstongregational mosque was al-Azhar mosque ("the splendid") foundedlong with the city (969 –973), which, together with its adjacent institution of igher learning (al-Azhar University), became the spiritual center for Ismailihia. The Mosque of al-Hakim (r. 996 –1013), an important example of atimid architecture and architectural decoration, played a critical role

n Fatimid ceremonial and procession, which emphasized the religious andolitical role of the Fatimid caliph. Besides elaborate funerary monuments,ther surviving Fatimid structures include the Aqmar Mosque (1125)[19] as

well as the monumental gates for Cairo's city walls commissioned by theowerful Fatimid emir and vizier Badr al-Jamali (r. 1073 –1094).

The reign of the Mamluks (1250 –1517 AD) in Egypt marked a breathflowering of Islamic art which is most visible in old Cairo. Rezeal made them generous patrons of architecture and art. Tradagriculture flourished under Mamluk rule, and Cairo, their capital, beone of the wealthiest cities in the Near East and the center of artistintellectual activity. This made Cairo, in the words of  Ibn Khalduncenter of the universe and the garden of the world", with majestic dcourtyards, and soaring minarets spread across the city.

Styles

Persian style

The Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century led early Iarchitects to borrow and adopt many traditions and ways ofallen Persian empire. Islamic architecture thus borrows from Parchitecture and can be some what called an extension and evolution of Persian architecture.

In Persia and Central Asia, the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznand Ghurids struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was element of this competition. Great cities were built, as Nishapur and Ghazni(Afghanistan), and the construction of the Mosque of Isfahan (which would continue, in fits and starts, over scenturies) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated.

Under the Seljuqs the "Iranian plan" of mosque construction appea

the first time. Lodging places called khans, or caravanserai, for traand their animals, or caravansarais, generally displayed utilitarian than ornamental architecture, with rubble masonry, strong fortificand minimal comfort.[20] Seljuq architecture synthesized various styleIranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions d

 Another important architectural trend to arise in the Seljuk era development of mausolea including the tomb tower such as the Gunqabus (circa 1006-7) (showcasing a Zoroastrian motif) and the dsquare, an example of which is the tomb of the Samanids in thof Bukhara (circa 943).[21] 

The Il-Khanate period provided several innovations to dome-buildineventually enabled the Persians to construct much taller structures. changes later paved the way for Safavid architecture. The pinnacleKhanate architecture was reached with the construction of the Solt

Dome (1302 –1312) in Zanjan, Iran, which measures 50 m in height am in diameter, making it the 3rd largest and the tallest masonry domerected.[22] The thin, double-shelled dome was reinforced by abetween the layers.[23] The tomb of Öljeitü in Soltaniyeh is one greatest and most impressive monuments in Iran, despite manydepredations.

Iranian architecture and city planning also reached an apogee the Timurids, in particular with the monuments of Samarkand, markextensive use of exterior ceramic tiles and muqarnas vaulting within.

The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came the Safavid dynasty, when Shah Abbas, in 1598 initiated the reconstof Isfahan, with the Naqsh-e Jahan Square as the centerpiece of hcapital.[24] The distinct feature of Persian domes, which separates

from those domes created in the Christian world or the OttomaMughal empires, was the colorful tiles, with which they cothe exterior of their domes, as they would on the interior. These dsoon numbered dozens in Isfahan, and the distinct, blue- colored would dominate the skyline of the city. Reflecting the light of the sundomes appeared like glittering turquoise gem and could be seen fromaway by travelers following the Silk road through Persia. This very dstyle of architecture was inherited to them from the Seljuq dynasty, wcenturies had used it in their mosque building, but it was perfected the Safavids when they invented the haft- rangi , or seven- colour stile burning, a process that enabled them to apply more colours to eacreating richer patterns, sweeter to the eye.[25] The colours thPersians favoured where golden, white and turquoise patterns on ablue background.[26] The extensive inscription bands of calligrapharabesque on most of the major buildings where carefully planne

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xecuted by Ali Reza Abbasi, who was appointed head of the royal librarynd Master calligrapher at the Shah's court in 1598,[27] while Shaykhahai oversaw the construction projects. Reaching 53 meters in height, theome of Masjed-e Shah (Shah Mosque) would become the tallest in theity when it was finished in 1629. It was built as a double- shelled dome,

with 14 m spanning between the two layers, and resting on an octagonalome chamber .[28] 

Persian-style mosques are also characterized by their tapered brick pillars,arge arcades and arches each supported by several pillars. In South Asia,lements of Hindu architecture were employed, but were later supersededy Persian designs.[29] 

Azerbaijani architecture 

he Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century also helped Islamicrchitecture to flourish in Azerbaijan.[30][31] The country became home of 

Nakchivan and Shirvan-Absheron architecture schools. An example of therst direction in the Azerbaijani Islamic architecture is the mausoleum of 

Yusuf, built in 1162.[32] 

he Shirvan-Absheron school unlike Nakchivan style used stones insteadf the bricks in the construction. At the same characteristics of this trend

were the asymmetry and stone carving, which includes famous landmarkske Palace of the Shirvanshahs. 

urkistan (Timurid) architecture

imurid architecture is the pinnacle of Islamic art in Central Asia. pectacular and stately edifices erected by Timur and hisuccessors in Samarkand and Herat helped to disseminate the influence of he Ilkhanid school of art in India, thus giving rise to theelebrated Mughal school of architecture. Timurid architecture started withhe sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi in present-day Kazakhstan and culminatedn Timur's mausoleum Gur-e Amir inSamarkand. The style is largelyerived from Persian architecture. Axial symmetry is a characteristic of all

major Timurid structures, notably the Shah-e Zendah in Samarkand andhe mosque of Gowhar Shad in Mashhad. Double domes of various shapesbound, and the outsides are perfused with brilliant colors.

Ottoman architecture

Main article: Ottoman architecturehe standard plan of Ottoman architecture was inspired in part by thexample of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople/Istanbul, Ilkhanid workske Oljeitu Tomb and earlier Seljuk and Anatolian Beylik monumentaluildings and their own original innovations. The most famous of Ottomanrchitects was (and remains) Mimar Sinan, who lived for approximately oneundred years and designed several hundreds of buildings, of which two of he most important are Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul and Selimiye

Mosque in Edirne. Apprentices of Sinan later built the famous BlueMosque in Istanbul and the Taj Mahal in India.

he most numerous and largest of mosques exist in [Turkey], whichbtained influence from Byzantine, Persian and Syrian-Arab designs.

urkish architects implemented their own style of cupola domes.[29]

 For lmost 500 years Byzantine architecture such as the church of Hagiaophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques such as thehehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha

Mosque.

he Ottomans mastered the technique of building vast inner spacesonfined by seemingly weightless yet massive domes, and achievingerfect harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as light andhadow. Islamic religious architecture which until then consisted of simpleuildings with extensive decorations, was transformed by the Ottomanshrough a dynamic architectural vocabulary of vaults, domes, semidomesnd columns. The mosque was transformed from being a cramped andark chamber with arabesque-covered walls into a sanctuary of estheticnd technical balance, refined elegance and a hint of heavenlyranscendence.

Indo-Islamic architecture

Main articles: Mughal architecture and Indo-Islamic architectureSee also: Indian architecture, Pakistani architecture, and Banglarchitecture

 Another distinctive sub-style is Indo-Islamic architecture in South Asa fusion of Arab, Central Asian and Persian elements with the localarchitecture. The most famous examples of Mughal architecture aseries of imperial mausolea, which started with the pivotal ToHumayun, but is best known for the Taj Mahal, completed in 16emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal who diedgiving birth to their 14th child. The extensive use of preciousemiprecious stones as inlay and the vast quantity of white marble re

nearly bankrupted the empire.[dubious –

discuss] The Taj Mahal is comsymmetrical except for Shah Jahan's sarcophagus, which is placcenter in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry extenthe building of an entire mirror mosque in red sandstone to complemMecca-facing mosque place to the west of the main structure. A faexample of the charbagh style of Mughal garden is the ShGardens in Lahore, where the domeless Tomb of Jahangir is also loThe Red Fort in Delhi and Agra Fort are huge castle-like fortified paand the abandoned city of Fatehpur Sikri, 26 miles (42 km) west owas built for Akbar in the late 16th century.[33] 

Sino-Islamic architecture

Main article: Chinese mosquesThe first Chinese mosque was established in the 7th century the Tang Dynasty in Xi'an. The Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose cbuildings date from the Ming Dynasty, does not replicate many features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, it ftraditional Chinese architecture. Some Chinese mosques in pawestern China were more likely to incorporate minarets and domeseastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like pagodas.[34] 

 An important lathan feature in Chinese architecture is its emon symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur; this appleverything from palaces to mosques. One notable exception is design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possibleChinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's compis to create enduring flow; to let the patron wander and enjoy the gwithout prescription, as in nature herself.

Chinese buildings may be built with either red or grey bricks, but wstructures are the most common; these are more capable of withstaearthquakes, but are vulnerable to fire. The roof of a typical Cbuilding is curved; there are strict classifications of gable comparable with the classical orders of European columns.

Most mosques have certain aspects in common with each other hoas with other regions Chinese Islamic architecture reflects thearchitecture in its style. China is renowned for its beautiful mosques,resemble temples. However in western China the mosques resembleof the Arab World, with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and shaped roofs. In northwest China where the Chinese Hui have buimosques, there is a combination of eastern and western stylesmosques have flared Buddhist style roofs set in walled courtyards ethrough archways with miniature domes and minarets.[35] 

Indonesian-Malay architecture

Main article: Architecture of IndonesiaMain article: Mosques in IndonesiaThe predominantly-Muslim regions of South East Asia have been sadopt Middle Eastern architectural styles for Islamic sites. For cenmost Javanese mosques lacked a dome. Instead, they had a multroof (of Javanese or even Chinese influence) comparable with thelevel pagodas of neighbouring Bali. The architecture of Javanese mohad a clear influence on the design of other moin Indonesia,Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines. The minarthe Menara Kudus Mosque, in Central Java, demonstrated furtheIslamic influence on local Islamic architecture.

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rom the 1940s onwards, Indonesian mosques developed a moretandard, international style, with a dome and minaret.

ahelian-Islamic architecture

Main article: Sudano-Saheliann West Africa, Islamic merchants played a vital role in the

Western Sahel region since the Kingdom of Ghana. At Kumbi Saleh, localsved in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city,urrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section

which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by al-bakri), oneentered on Friday prayer .[36] The king is said to have owned several

mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long, forty-two feet wide,ontained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with thewalls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting.[37] Sahelianrchitecture initially grew from the two cities of Djenné and Timbuktu. he Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, constructed from mud on timber, wasimilar in style to the Great Mosque of Djenné. 

omali-Islamic architecture

he peaceful introduction of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia'sistory brought Islamic architectural influences from Arabia and Persia, 

which stimulated a shift from drystone and other related materials inonstruction to coral stone, sundried bricks, and the widespread usef limestone in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designsuch as mosques were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that

would continue over and over again throughout the followingenturies.[38] Concordant with the ancient presence of Islam in the Horn of Africa region, mosques in Somalia are some of the oldest on the entireontinent. One architectural feature that made Somali mosques distinctrom other mosques in Africa were minarets. 

or centuries, Arba Rukun (1269), the Friday mosque of Merca (1609)nd Fakr ad-Din (1269) were, in fact, the only mosques in East Africa toave minarets.[39] Fakr ad-Din, which dates back to the MogadishanGolden

Age, was built with marble and coral stone and included a compactectangular plan with a domed mihrab axis. Glazed tiles were also used inhe decoration of the mihrab, one of which bears a dated inscription. The3th century Al Gami University consisted of a rectangular base with a

arge cylindrical tower architecturally unique in the Islamic world. 

hrines to honor Somali patriarchs and matriarchs evolved from ancientomali burial customs. In Southern Somalia the preferred medieval shrinerchitecture was the Pillar tomb style while the North predominantly builttructures consisting of domes and square plans.

nterpretation

Common interpretations of Islamic architecture include the following: Theoncept of God or Allah's infinite power is evoked by designs withepeating themes which suggest infinity. Human and animal forms arearely depicted in decorative art as God's work is considered to be

matchless. Foliage is a frequent motif but typically stylized or simplified for he same reason. Arabic Calligraphy is used to enhance the interior of auilding by providing quotations from the Qur'an. Islamic architecture haseen called the "architecture of the veil" because the beauty lies in the

nner spaces (courtyards and rooms) which are not visible from the outsidestreet view). Furthermore, the use of grandiose forms such as largeomes, towering minarets, and large courtyards are intended to conveyower.

Architecture Forms and Styles of mosques and buildings in Muslimountries

Main article: mosqueorms

Many forms of Islamic architecture have evolved in different regions of he Islamic world. Notable Islamic architectural types include thearly Abbasid buildings, T-Type mosques, and the central-dome mosques

ofAnatolia. The oil-wealth of the 20th century drove a great deal of mconstruction using designs from leading modern architects.

 Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mopioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques are squrectangular in plan with an enclosed courtyard and a covered prayeHistorically, because of the warm Mediterranean and Middle Eclimates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large numworshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques haroofs on top of prayer halls, necessitating the usnumerous columns and supports.[40] One of the most notable hypmosques is the Mezquita in Córdoba, Spain, as the building is supby over 850 columns.[41]Frequently, hypostyle mosques

outer arcades so that visitors can enjoy some shade. Arab-plan mowere constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynsubsequently, however, the simplicity of the Arab plan limiteopportunities for further development, and as a result, these mogradually fell out of popularity.[40] 

The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th centuhave a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to havinlarge dome at the center, there are often smaller domes that exicenter over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, prayer is not performed.[42] This style was heavily influencethe Byzantine religious architecture with its use of large central dome

Sehan

The traditional Islamic courtyard, a sehan in Arabic (ar: ), is fosecular and religious structures.

1. When within a residence or other secular building is a courtyard and walled garden. It is used for: the aesthetics of water, architectural elements, and natural light; for cooler spacfountains and shade, and source of breezes into the structure, summer heat; and a protected and proscribed place where the wof the house need not be covered in the hijab clothing traditnecessary in public.

2. A sehan—courtyard is in within almost every mosque in Iarchitecture. The courtyards are open to the sky and surroundedsides by structures with halls and rooms, and often a shadedopen arcade. Sehans usually feature a centrally positioned

cleansing pool under an open domed pavilion called a how

mosque courtyard is used for performing ablutions, and a 'parest or gathering.

Gardens

Main article: Islamic Gardens

The tomb of Hafez is a primary example of a Persian garden, witypical, enclosed space, water channels and large trees that pcooling shades.The Qur'an uses the garden as an analogy for paradise and Islam cahave a significant influence on garden design. The concept of pagarden was commonly used the Persian gardens, as

as Charbaghgarden of Mughal architecture. 

Arabesque

Main article: Arabesque (Islamic art) An element of Islamic art usually found decorating the walls and wscreens of mosques and Muslim homes and buildings, the arabesquelaborate application of repeating geometric forms that often echforms of plants, shapes and sometimes animals (specifically birdschoice of which geometric forms are to be used and how they areformatted is based upon the Islamic view of the world. To Muslims,forms, taken together, constitute an infinite pattern that extends beyovisible material world.[43] To many in the Islamic world, they isymbolize the infinite, and therefore uncentralized, nature of the creatheone God ("Allah" in Arabic). Furthermore, the Islamic Arabesque

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onveys a definite spirituality without the iconography of Christian art. Arabesque is used in mosques and building around the Muslim world, and

is a way of decorating using beautiful, embellishing and repetitive Islamicrt instead of using pictures of humans and animals (which isorbidden Haram in Islam).

Calligraphy

Arabic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (the Arabesque)n the walls and ceilings of mosques as well as on the page.

Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of alligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work.

nstead of recalling something related to the reality of the spoken word, alligraphy for the Muslim is a visible expression of spiritual concepts.

Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic artecause it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with theeligion of Islam. The holy book of Islam, al-Qur'ān, has played a vital rolen the development of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy inhe Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an aretill active sources for Islamic calligraphy.

lements of Islamic style

slamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements,which were inherited from the first mosque built byr hall (originally a featuref the Masjid al-Nabawi).

  as seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus; hence the derivationof the word from the Arabic nur , meaning "light"). The minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia is considered as theoldest surviving minaret in the world.[44] It has the shape of asquare massive tower of three superimposed sections.[44] 

   A four -iwan plan, with three subordinate halls and one principalone that faces toward Mecca

  Mihrab or prayer niche on an inside wall indicating the directionto Mecca. 

  Domes and Cupolas. 

  Pishtaq is the formal gateway to the iwan, usually the main prayer hall of a mosque, a vaulted hall or space, walled on three sides,with one end entirely open; a Persian term for a portal projecting

from the facade of a building, usually decorated with calligraphybands, glazed tilework, and geometric designs.[45][46] 

  Iwans to intermediate between different pavilions.

  The use of Islamic geometric patterns and foliagebased arabesques. 

  The use of mocárabe and muqarnas, a unique Arabic/Islamicspace-enclosing system, for the decoration of domes, minaretsand portals, as used at the Alhambra. 

  The use of decorative Islamic calligraphy insteadof pictures which were haram (forbidden) in mosque architecture.Note that in secular architecture, human and animalrepresentation was indeed present.

  Central fountains used for ablutions (once used as a wudu areafor Muslims).

  The use of bright color, if the style is Persian or Indian (Mughal);paler sandstone and grey stones are preferred among Arabbuildings. Compare the Registan complex of Uzbekistan to the

 Al-Azhar University of Cairo.

  Focus both on the interior space of a building and the exterior