RAYKO PETROV

100 YEARS OF OLYMPIC WRESTLING FILA

RAYKO PETROV

100 YEARS OF OLYMPIC WRESTLING

This history of Olympic wrestling is dedicated to the 100th anniversary

of modern Olympic Games

m сюр

FILA

Copyright International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles 1997

Publisher: International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles

(IAWFS)

President: Milan Ercegan

Av. Juste-Olivier 17, CH-1006 Lausanne, Suisse

Editor: Mihály Biro

Design: László Mészáros

Cover: János Mihályfi

5WERK Printing & Publishing & Distributing Co. Ltd. H-1037 Budapest, Királylaki út 47.

Director: László Mészáros

CONTENTS

Page Page

PREFACE 7

FORWARD 9

1. THE HISTORICAL ROOTS 11

1.1. Wrestling - Personality - Civilization 11

1.2. The Immortal Olympic Ideas 15

1.3. The Renaissance and a New Pedagogical Approach 20

1.4. Stength and Inertia of the Tradition . 24

1.5. Legends Inspired by Wrestling 32

2. MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES 43

2.1. Introduction 44

2.2. The Beginning 46

3. GREAT TRANSFORMATION

OF WRESTLING 51

3.1. The Challenge of the Time 51

3.2. Failure of New French Ideas 51

3.3. The First Steps of Free Style Wrestling 54

3.4. Both Wrestling Styles on the Olympic Programme 54

3.5. The Scandinavian Wave 57

4. THE BIRTH OF FILA 61

4.1. The Foundation of FILA 61

4.2. Decline and Revival 64

4.3. Renewal of FILA 65

5. OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL EUROPEAN AND WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS 67

6. GREAT STRIDES FORWARD 69

7. DIVERSITY OF STYLES 79

8. OLYMPIC WRESTLING

ON THREE CONTINENTS 89

9. PROGRESS IN THE SHADOW OF POLITICS 97

10. LOOKING FORWARD 111

10.1. Balance, Imbalance and Progress 111

10.2. The Start of the XXth Century 130

10.3. Modern Spirit of Competition 141

10.4. Strategy and Pragmatism 148

11. THESE IMPORTANT PERSONS HAVE ATTENDED WRESTLING EVENTS 151

12. ANNEXS 156

5

Milan Ercegan

PREFACE

In 1996 the sporting community solemnly marked the centenary of the Renaissance of the Olympic Movement. Modern Olympic Games have attained global importance. Thanks to the powerful influence of mass media all sports disciplines on the Olympic programme are disseminated worldwide.

As an organization representing wrestling, the corner stone of the Olympic Games since ancient times, FILA has appropriately marked this important jubilee of the most popular social movement of the XX-th century.

Among its numerous initiatives taken towards that aim stands the book: 100 Years of Olympic Wrestling by prof. Rayko Petrov, ranking among Fl-LA's most outstanding contributions to the celebra­tion of this lofty event.

This book may be considered as a follow up to the already published monography: Olympic Wrestling Throughout the Millennia, very popular with the readers.

On the grounds of a historical and logical analy­sis, the author brings to the attention of the reader a number of facts and important trends within the de­velopment of wrestling and its international bodies, by focusing on the continuity of wrestling, its evolu­tion and process towards modernization.

I firmly believe that this book will not only gain popularity with the readers, but also make them reflect on the past, present and future of wrestling.

Milan Ercegan President of FILA

7

<

8

Ray ko Petrov

FORWARD

In spite of the millennia long tradition of wrestling as part of Olympism, the last 100 years may be considered a "golden century" in its evolu­tion. In ancient times Olympic wrestling was restrict­ed to the Hellenic world. Nowadays it has attained a global level encompassing and embodying all ethi­cal values of our time. Actually, the wealth of modern wrestling-both Greco-Roman and free-style-epito­mizes hundreds of traditional forms. It is thanks to creative and resourceful coaches and athletes that a whole range of outstanding techniques and tactics have been developed. By adopting the Rules of Wrestling the international bodies have also signifi­cantly encouraged the development of modern wrestling.

It is always very difficault to deal with recent his­tory. Due to lack of historical distance the field of vi­sion is restricted, abundance of facts makes selec­tion very difficult and the criteria for evaluatioan is often affected by emotions. Moreover, every in­dividual has his, or her, own vision of the ex­perienced events. This is, probably, the reason why most authors prefer to compile compediums and statistical data on wrestling, or write about distant historical periods, rather than comment about the current performance on the mat. FILA has decided to fill in that gap by publishing four different books on the history of wrestling: 50 Years of Greco-Roman and Free-Style Wrestling Within the Interna­tional Amateur Wrestling Federation (1912-1962): Sixty Years of the FILA (1912-1972) by Sten Svens-son ; 75 Years of Amateur Wrestling by R Strömbäck and The 75-th Anniversary-1912-1987-of Modern Wrestling by Milan Ercegan.

Attempts at historical analysis can also be found in the works of: E.N. Gardiner, H. Lehmusto, G. Kent, A. Castelli, M. Fitta, D. Padovan, E. Touny, G. Lukas, R. Petrov and some others.

In their excellent publications the National Fed­erations of Italy, Germany, Finland, Sweden, France, Poland, the Check Republic, etc. have tried to keep alive the memory of their traditional wrestling. A great number of biographies and memoirs published in different countries have also contributed to the promotion of wrestling as a popu­lar sport and encouraged future research into its history.

This book is not a historical document and has no such aspirations. Its sole aim is to reflect the general atmosphere surrounding the development of wrestling. Actually, the factors that have affected the development of wrestling are not only more than numerous, but also inconsistant and versatile. Moreover, due to a limited scope of such books, on the one hand, and on the other, the necessity to deal with an impressive number of competitions, ath­letes, coaches and sports leaders who have marked the period under review, it was simply impossible to devote due attention to, or to even mention, all those who would merit it.

There is another problem. In official documents the transcription of names is not uniform, and there­fore without uniformity in this book as well. So, as it is, we submitt it to your attention, in the hope that in spite of its deficiencies, it will help you visualize that since its marked continuous evolution during the last 100 years, modern wrestling is well armed to cope with the challenges of the forthcoming century.

The author

9

1. THE HISTORICAL ROOTS

Modern wrestling embodies eternal features, ow­ing to the fact that man has practiced it since times im­memorial as part of his daily life, closely linked to his customs and habits, his culture, his preparation for

Competition wrestling is an intricate activity, some kind of a clash between physical and mental abilities of the wrestlers involved. On the mat the wrestler is all alone, face to face with his opponent. His victory depends only on his strength, his strong will and clever mind. During combat the circum­stances change within split seconds, which also en­tails emotional changes in the contestants. Actually, it is difficult to simultaneusly practice offensive and defensive wrestling, attack and defend oneself, dis­guise one's own intentions and try to anticipate the opponent's plans and reaction, keep calm and col­lected in spite of strained nerves, and take decisions within the shortest possible time in spite of a lack of relevant information. During the training sessions and wrestling matches all groups of muscles are in­volved, all articulations, all sensorial organs, the will, the mind the overall personality of the wrestler. According to Gerald Anton Vieth, one of the most outstanding founders of the German school of gym­nastics, "there is no other sport which helps de­velop the strength of the muscles better than wrestling; wrestling is the very best of all forms of gymnastics".

Wrestling is a natural sport, accessible to all, since no special equipment, or expensive appara­tuses are required for its practice. On the other hand, the division of the wrestlers into weight cate­gories provide to all competitors-men and women-equal opportunities to assert themselves and excel at this sport. Moreover, wrestling plays a crucial role in the physical development of the individual, main-

warfare and his vital needs. An outstanding amount of rich and diversified sources of reference have provid­ed for the wealth, vitality and beauty of the revived Olympic Games during the last hundred years.

tenance of personal hygiene, and promotion in all fields of education.

Outstanding physical, mental and intellectual abilities required for success in wrestling are not only crucial for earning sports titles and winning me­dals, but these abilities greatly help the wrestler to enhance his social status and be competitive in vari­ous walks of life. (Table 1.)

Modern society is an increasing threat to in­dividualism. Some outstanding thinkers, such as Thomas Carlyle, opposing that trend, claim that the hero cult represents a driving force in society, whereas José Ortega y Gasset protests against this development, "reducing man to an average quanti­ty", and believes that sports, including wrestling, should serve as vehicle for asserting one's own per­sonality and individuality, for creating a public name and boosting morale. It is also a well known fact that many outstanding personalities have practiced wrestling, including: Plato, A. Dürer, Avicenne, A. Lincoln, G. Washington, A.S. Pushkin, R. Tagore, N. Wiener, etc.

There is no symbol that embodies our times better than Rodin's THE THINKER. This remarkable statue has aroused numerous controversies and was even compared to the ancient sculpture HER­CULES RESTING. Actually, the resemblance is only apparent. Hercules is taking a rest and preparing his muscles for the forthcoming combat, whereas THE THINKER, created over two thousand years la­ter, leaves the impression of mental power, a strong will and creative spirit reflecting modern times.

1.1. Wrestling-Personality-Civilization

11

Strengthening of health

Handsome and well built body

Physical and mental potentials

Increased working capacity

Volitive and mental qualités

Social and mental status

Social activities

Competition fitness

Self-defense

Active rest

S O C I E T Y

Healthy individual

Productivity of labour

I

National prestige

X

Military potential

I Recreation

J_

Helps remove social and nervous tension

Table 1. Effects of wrestling on the individual and society

Single combat was born and has developed its numerous forms within a historical process involv­ing all humankind. The first artificial movements in wrestling, both against animals, or other humans (holds, locks, blows) represent an outstanding achievement of the human mind. On the other hand, a repeated and constantly improving implementa­

tion of these movements has stimulated the intellec­tual development of the human mind. Single com­bat (in its various forms) has played a crucial role in human development, in the preservation of the hu­man species and its evolution. Single combat is one of the primary cultural factors directly linked to the ability to work and be engaged in combat, directly

12

Lisippus: Hercules, Roman replica, 2nd century, The Historical Museum, Vidin

August Rodin: The Thinker

linked to the religious rituals, folklore, etc. The most prominent development of single combat took place within the so called great civilizations, which in order to survive and prosper, had to rely on outstanding creative individuals.

The first authentic evidence of the development of wrestling can be traced back 5000 years among

the Sumerians. The epic poem GILGAMESH in cuneiform writing, the base-reliefs, sceaux-cylindre (cylinder seals) and sculptures provide evidence of the first competitions in wrestling with officiating and musical accompaniment. The wrestlers and holds shown in these works of art also provide information on various schools of wrestling existing at that time.

13

Archeological and historical traces of wrestling in Ancient Egypt are also numerous. Wall-paintings discovered in the Beni-Hassan tomb are particularly significant, showing 400 pairs of wrestlers. These wall-paintings, along with numerous other material proofs, reveal that Ancient Egypt had its Wrestlers' Association, organized international wrestling com­petitions attended by the pharaohs and had its own rules of wrestling and officiating at competitions. It was thanks to the Egyptians that a military skill had been transformed into a sports discipline.

The island of Crete and Micenae are the cradle of the European civilization and the intermediate link between the Eastern and Western forms of wrestling. Crete is actually, the source of the rich Greek heritage in this field. Homer is the first histori­an of wrestling with his most impressive descrip­tions in the ILIAD and the ODESSY, of the combat between Nestor and Archaïs and between Ajax (Aias) and Ulysses (Odyseus), the wrestling match­es of the Phaeaciens, etc.

Written proofs on the development of wrestling can also be found in the Indian epic poems RIGVE-DA, RAMAYANA, FURANA and others. In China a dozen different forms of wrestling were very popular, including: Djaoli, tchich-ushi, goü-ti, ou-chou, etc. In Eastern civilizations sports events were part of mili­tary preparation and an aspect of various religious and philosophical doctrines and teachings.

During the millennia that followed, wrestling continued to play an important cultural role as an in­tegral part of all civilizations existing in those times.

Drawings of wrestlers. Beni-Hassan (2500 B.C.)

Sumerian wrestling. The Bagdad Museum (3000 B.C.)

Gilgamesh is actually the embodiement of a philosopher, statesman and wrestler who has im­bued all the knowledge available in his time, and thus equiped, was able to build temples and irriga­tion systems and face the challenge of the divine Enkidu.

1.2. The Immortal Olympic Ideals

The Olympic ideals have very deep roots in an­cient history and have always had a great social im­pact. Their ethical attributes and great popularity can be compared to the preaching and philosophies of the most widespread religions. After a period of 1,170 years these ideals were relegated to silence only to be reborn 1500 years later, to once again serve mankind and to promate the qualities of his physique, spirit and moral. The Olympic Games were linked to Zeus and his Pantheon and their tri­umphs under these auspices served the purpose of promoting religion and its unification. The Olympic Games also contributed to the unity and solidarity of Greek cities (city-states), to an overall harmonious development of the individuals involved, to the de­velopment of sports, and to the development of science and arts.

In Ancient Greece wrestling was held in high esteem as a divine sport based on divine science and art. Legend has it that wrestling derives its di­vine origin from the goddess Athena Pallas who en­dowed this sport whit its rules. According to other legends the author of the rules of wrestling was either Hermes, Prometheus, Hercules, Theseus, Ja­son, or Palestra. Thus, that the origin of the rules of wrestling were divine remained uncontested.

All unbiased historians of ancient times recog­nize the fact that Ancient Greeks, including their most outstanding philosophers, writers, sculptors, army commanders and many others, obtained their training in palestras and gymnasia where wrestling was one of the main activities in the curriculum.

At the Olympic games single combat was a cru­cial part of the competition and was practiced in three different forms: Orthopalê, as part of the pen­tat lon, was introduced in the Olympic programme in 708 B.C. and as part of the pancracium in 648 B.C. Later on, all forms of single combat for seniors can be found on the programme of the Olympic, Isthmi­an, Pythian and Nemean Games.

In order to win in single combat the wrestler had to bring down his opponent or throw him three times on his back, hip, chest, knees or elbows. The victory could be earned by a 3:0, 3:2 and 3:1 score. The athletes wrestled naked, their skin oiled with rubbed in olive oil and then powdered with fine sable or spe­

cial types of fine dust. Judging by the wall-paintings and written descriptions from that distant past, an­cient wrestling was similar to modern free- style wrestling. It is a great mistake to look for the origin of the Greco-Roman wrestling in ancient Greece, which some authors do. Actually, this style was de­veloped in the XIX-th century and its name only reflects a belated interest in the classical values of ancient times.

The pancratium (a combination of wrestling and boxing) was most popular with the spectators. In this type of combat the point was to, in standing po­sition, perform various holds and exchange blows. The performance of the holds was allowed only on the ground including painful locks and strangle holds.

The pentathlon was a complex event consisting of five different disciplines: discus, javelin, long jump, running and wrestling. The exact order in which these disciplines were practiced at the Olym­pic Games and the rules and requirements govern­ing victory have not yet been identified, and their es­tablishment is still a controversial issue. However, there is no doubt that wrestling was the cruicial dis­cipline of the pentathlon, among other things, be­cause it was the last in the programme of the com­petition.

At the time, different forms of wrestling were practiced, including: acrocheirismos (based on finger locks) alindêsis (widely practiced during train­ing sessions) and many other regional forms.

The methodology of wrestling was highly deve­loped. The training was conducted by the coaches (panditribes). A training cycle consisted of four days of practice and one day of rest. Before each compe­tition, training session were more intensive and last­ed 10-12 hours a day. In addition to being engaged in training, the athletes also had to observe strict rules of sporting life. The Greeks were familiar with most of the basic holds.

The engravings on the amphorea originating from Andokides, and Exekias, a GROUP OF WRES­TLERS (the Uffizi Museum in Florence), and other works of art demonstrate a perfect performance of wrestling holds according to modern standards. The Greek and Roman way of throwing the opponent

15

Wrestlers in Ancient Egypt (1400 B.C.)

16

over the shoulder could even nowadays serve as a pattern of how these actions should be performed.

Actually, the sculptors used the wrestlers as models for their works of art, because as Hegel rightly said, "it was their bodies that created the sculptures". Milo of Crotone (Pythagora's student of philosophy) was one of the most famous wrestlers, six times Olympic Champion, ten times winner of the Isthmian Games, nine times winner of the Ne-mean games and five times winner of the Pythian Games. Many Triumphal odes were dedicated to him, extolling his exploits and his victories which were also the topics of numerous legends. But, in spite of all his lofty deeds he was punished for haughtiness. Legend has it that he wanted to split a tree into two with his naked hands, but his fingers got caught between the two halves which clasped back. Unable to disentagle his fingers he was thus imprisoned in the forest and eaten up by the lions. Many writers and two sculptors, Pierre Puget and Etienne Falconet, inspired by this legend, turned it into the topic of their respective works of art. Also, an outstanding number of wrestlers were repeatedly Olympic champions: Cahiron four times, Stratôn three times, and so on. The list of names is rather long. The interest in wrestling was widespread and many outstanding personalities excelled in this sport, including: the philosophers Socrates, Plato, Cleanthes, Chrysippes, Democritus, Anaxágoras

о ce

18

and Prodikos, physicians Hippocrates and Hippias, a dark shadow on all other sporting events, statesmen Clisthenes, Alcibíades, Philip II of Mace- Wrestling with its rude rules was a favourite sport donia, etc. not only of young Roman aristocrats, but also of the

Wrestling in Rome was based on a rich Etrus- soldiers and shepherds. According to Classius can and Greek heritage and it owes its development Dion, the Romans owe their military success to the to the revival of the Olympic Games. Numerous en- palestras. Among a plethora of outstanding names gravings representing wrestling were found in Etrus- those of Marcus Aurelius Guermarius, Euriches and can tombs, evidence testifying of the Greek influ- Aurelius Guelicus deserve special mention. Also, enee in this sport fostered in Rome. The integral na- many statesman and army commanders were ture of gladiatorial fights in public events, the priority prominent in wrestling, patricularly: Scipio Africa-placed on military training within Roman civilization, nus, Marcus Anthony, Marcus Aggrippius, Marcus the emphasis placed on stoicism and violent be- Aurelius, Lucius Aurelius Commodus and Anthoni-havior in the education prevailing at the time, cast nus Pius.

Isaiah. Reproduction (XIV-th centry)

/іті т<пхш*пх сь A(¡TJ¡ Mхат xt«<¿¿« ^¿

^л* < wTTtnou in- rmVtи О и rUcTcV«Lri J < ti і ^ Д

¿Іл m**tt*ju<re , ««iti ¿i SWH** ut Г«Д ewtnru ,

«ÁMiSs й. ижЪХйЛіЪ *xÍTtVbSVtVU«¿t\\\A ., ¿L\y«*JÍ*Jí

tu « i i l ^ f f H c ^ . Д&ьдеыиш Л р Ц(е<*л two J

НЪЛЛЧАЫІАЬ sky-*eí*TTttíf«Mn.tax3fc H Í I O J ^ J ^ M A

juuu ¿¿¿i . I f r fUtt-InriTti» - * j f u с.«мді£ f *>-«ef * i l <u * i f ' ('/

MA».«

t t,\*M*A. ІАІ i t i

/N* f̂*** t<«AiX ÌTTMcianfe . >Í4Í |W< elf/nut*

H¿».4J1

In 394 the Roman Emperor Theodosius I is­sued a degree by which he prohibited the Olympic Games. This decision seriously jeopardized the Olympic Ideals which began to gradually lose their glow, obscured by the darkness of the Middle Ages. Fortunately however, these ideals were never totally relegated to oblivion. Already in the XIV-th century Pietro Vergerò and Rambaldon raised their voice in favour of the Olympic Games. At the same time a Bulgarian writer Isai'e speaks in his texts about the Olympic Games and sports. In 1430 Matéo Ralieri raises the issue of the revival of the Olympic Games, which was later on supported in their written texts by Massuros (1516), Fober (1500), Mendes (1532), Mer-curialis (1573), Fubrus (1590), Korsini (1838), Krauss (1838), etc.

In 1793 the German pedagogue Johann Chris­topher Friedrich Guts Muths very strongly support­ed the idea of reviving the Olympic Games, but in spite of the wholehearted support from numerous

The main feature of wrestling is the variety of its forms fostered in practice, its constant and stable evolution and its adaptibility to the changes and re­quirements of the time. Modern wrestling actually comprises the wealth of hundreds of different forms of traditional wrestling, both the existing and these of the past, which numerous outstanding athletes, gifted for creative activities, succeed in mastering through training and practical experience.

The Renaissance rediscovered man as a physi­cal being and replaced the ideal of asceticism with one of an individual bursting with health, strength and joy of life. The nude bodies depicted by the Renaissance painters reveal a special kind of rela­tionship between the body and spirit, thus giving a different meaning to the value system. Therefore, it is only natural that the presentation of ancient heroes and athletes engaged in single combat could provide a new incentive and approach to art, by placing emphasis on the ideal image of a strong and handsome body. Antonio Pollaiolo portrays the combat between Hercules and Antheus, the master­piece in front of which Kennet Clark, an outstanding art critic, exclaimed : "One of the most extraordinary

partizans for this idea, he did not succeed in his cause. On the other hand, already in 1604, an En­glishman by the name of R. Dorer, with the support of King James I of England, planned the holding of the Olympic Games within four years time, renamed as the Cotswold Games, with wrestling, fencing, rid­ing and some other sports on the programme. Un­fortunately this idea was nipped in the bud by British conservatives. In 1772 Prince Leopold-Friedrich-Franz von Dessau organized the Games in the vicin­ity of Dresden, which as a sporting event lasted for only seven years.

Some sparks were also coming from Olympia with the idea of firing up the Olympic flame. Archeo-logical excavations in the XVIII-th and XIX-th century, conducted by Richard Chandler from Great Britain and Favuel from France, on a French expedition in Morea, and the excavations conducted by two Ger­man archeologists: Curtius and Adler, also contribut­ed to the revival of the Olympic spirit and ideals.

pictorial presentation of muscular strength." Porta della Mandorta paints his SAMSON, B. Cellini his PERSEUS, Canova his HERCULES and THESE­US, and Verrocchio and Donatello have each left us a vision of DAVID. Later on, these same topics were taken up by Vincenzo de Rossi, Tintoretto, Caravag­gio, Nicolas Poussin, Guido Reni, Dürer, Van Dyck, Rembrandt and many others. Michelangelo's wall-paintings representing Biblical heroes and saints with athletic bodies, and particularly his sculptures: DAVID, HERCULES AND ANTHEUS, and HER­CULES AND CACUS, inspire our most sincere and lasting admiration. The sculptures of Falconet and Puget representing the outstanding wrestler Milo, JACOB'S COMBAT WITH GOD by Van Dyck, Rem­brandt and Delacroix, the wrestlers of Gustave Courbet, and others, are primarily the portayal of genuine single combat with allegorical meaning, embodying and reflecting man's social and spiritual aspirations. The impact of these works of art was particularly great on the social elite involved in wrestling in their respective closed circles. In the castles and palaces, wrestling coaches were very much in demand. In the Far East wrestling coaches

1.3. The Renaissance and the Pedagogical Approach

20

*

уГ*"%

Pollaiolo: Heracels and Antheus. The Uffici Museum, Florence

21

5IUÕ Ьсш (іоЬсх. beo $>ans SxtÜíjofer, bes größten ^cd)tmciftcrs. im 15.^aljrfyunbert

taught their skills both in the palaces and monaster­ies. In the Middle East the strongest wrestlers were recruited into the Shah's guard and the Sultans offered them high positions within the army. In some CODES OF CHIVALRY wrestling is one of the com­pulsory disciplines. Up until the Xll-th century wrestling and fencing were taught together. Around 1300 Liberta da Primeracco wrote a CODE OF NON-ARMED COMBAT. THE WALLERSTEIN CODE enumerates all basic holds performed in the XV-th century. Similar holds can be found in some texts from remote periods, among which the best known are those by: Paul Kahl, Liechtenauer, Ott, Thal-hofer, Walhausen, PH. Meier, etc. The first printed book was issued in 1500 and the first printed MANU­AL OF WRESTLING in 1512. It contained colour pic­tures of 120 holds by the famous German painter Al-brecht Dürer. THE ART OF WRESTLING by Fabian von Auerswald, state minister, was published in 1539, another notable book on this sport. These two books depict complex offensive and defensive holds. WRESTLING IN THE TRENCH by Hans Wurm, from around 1500, still provokes animated discussions. This book describes various aspects of wrestling : as a sports activity, as a comic sports per­

formance combined with hobbling, as a means for resolving various differences instead of going to court, etc.

In the XVI-th century interesting and precious books on wrestling were written by Peter Hlötner, V. Solks, Nicolais Peter, Léon Alberti and by the most outstanding of them all, Romeyn de Hooghe, a Dutch engraver. Numerous books on wrestling testi­fy to the importance of its social role at the time. Court writers have left a great number of written descriptions of wrestling contests between the no­bles. Among the kings famous for their physical strength Charlemagne, Richard I the Lion-Hearted, Maximilian I, Henry II, Francois I, Auguste II the Strong, Peter the Great, Henry VIII and Abdülizaz deserve to be mentioned by name.

The members of the German orders: BRO­THERS OF SAINT LUKE and BROTHERS OF SAINT GEORGE also practiced wrestling in Saint Mary's College in Winchester (founded in 1384) and Martin Luther, the great religious reformer, recom­mended it to his disciples and followers. Vittorino de Feltre, an Italian pedagogue, used to teach basic wrestling to children. In the XVI-th century this sports disciplines can be found in the Zwickau and

22

Romain de Hooge: Wrestling

Magdeborough school curriculums. James I, King of England, wrote A BOOK ON SPORTS. Under the influence of this book many eminent pedagogues supported the idea of teaching wrestling as part of the curriculum. Rabiais' hero Gergantua and Rous­seau's hero Emile also practiced wrestling. Motaigne, J.J. Rousseau, RH. Pestalozzi, J.A.

Komensky, J.B. Basedow, G.A. Vieth, Francois Amoros, Franz Nachtegal, M. Tirsch, P.F. Lesgaft and many others were keen supporters of wrestling. John Locke, a great English philosopher and teacher, once said: "I would rather prefer my son to become a good wrestler than a good fencer".

23

1.4. Strength and Inertia of the Tradition

Traditional (folklore) forms of wrestling stem from traditional culture, ethnic features, historical memory, weather conditions, the ruling system of values and the social and individual needs and re­quirements. Various factors, including the weather conditions, have determined the nature of wrestling practiced among the peoples living in the North (GLIMA in Iceland, Eskimoan wrestling, Swedish wrestling styles: CUVBIRLAND, BISCAST etc.) with the holds of the cloths and waist. Gripping of clothes is also widespread among the peoples practicing wrestling on horseback (the Mongolian BOKH, the Kourdish, Tartar and Kazakh KURESH). Actually, wrestling on horseback is popular all over the Middle East. Peoples physically taller prefer wrestling in standing position on the ground and practice holds of the body and clothes (The Scan­dinavians, the Kelts, the Georgians, Germanic and Slavic groups, etc.). Some others, on the other hand, place special emphasis on agility and speed (the Japanese, Turks, Koreans).

Each traditional form of wrestling has its own name, some of which can be found in Table 2.

Competitions in wrestling as part of various so­cial and religious events and traditional customs were organized within the celebrations of religious and non-religious holidays, at funerals, within bap­tism rites and magic rituals, the rite of circumcision in the Muslim world, etc. As part of everyday life wrestling was practiced: during times of sowing and harvest at various social gatherings and events, (such as fairs, etc.), as one of the ways of solving controversial issues, as a means for winning a lead­ing position (that of a commander, leader of a group, etc.) as an opportunity to win an object of status in­cluding even a beautiful girl, etc.

The organizers, or sponsors of these competi­tions were outstanding individuals, or groups (com­mittees), chiefs of administration, knights and no­bles, even kings. The winners were awarded all

sorts of prizes, including animals, different objects, money, even beautiful girls. There were no weight categories. Most often the classification was based on qualification categories (in BOKH, GÜRESH and some other forms of wrestling).

The wrestling events were surrounded by a noisy atmosphere, accompained with music, danc­ing, prayers, solemn taking of oath (Keltic tradition), magic rituals (Africa), singing of odes, music played on various traditional instruments, kettle drums, gongs, etc.

The rules of wrestling did not exist in the strict sense. Victory was scored by fall of the opponent (the fall with 3 points of contact of his body with the ground), by throwing down the opponent three times, by pushing him out of the combat area, by lift­ing him, ex-aequo, on points, etc. The wrestling technique was very diversified and greatly depend­ed on the style practiced, on the clothes the wres­tlers were wearing, the way of greasing the body be­fore combat, the restrictions provided for by the Rules, etc.

In some countries traditional wrestling is very similar to modern styles currently practiced and therefore remains a permanent source of inspiration to top wrestlers. Actually, many top wrestlers, includ­ing: Baladavzé, Dagistanly, Takhti, Stantchev, Sirakov, Kaplan, Movahed, Tediashwilly, Andiew, etc. have started their sports career by practicing traditional wrestling.

As a very popular sport it was celebrated in many epic songs, such as: NIBELUNGEN, CID, CHAH-NAMÉ, KALEVALA, MANAS, the epic songs about ILYA MUROMETS, King MARKO and many others, in numerous works of art and literature. Actu­ally, all these works glorify man's heroic spirit and strength.

Highly appreciating the values of traditional cul­tures, FILA has decided to award traditional wrest­ling the status of independent styles.

24

Traditional (Folklore) Wrestling Table 2

Lancashire (Great-Britain) Cornwall (Great-Britain) Cumberland (Great-Britain) Westmorland (Great-Britain) Loosehold (Great-Britain) Norfolk (Great-Britain)

Shooting (Great-Britain) Catch-gold (Great-Britain) Devonshire (Great-Britain)

Ou-chou (China)

Kio-li (China) Shinji-zumo (Japan) Toja-zumo (Japan) konaki-zumo (Japan) Karasu-zumo (Japan) Gorai (Brittany) Mazendarani (Iran) Guilan (Iran) Kochti perse (Iran) Kordi (Iran) lliati (Iran) Psarani pata (India) Hanoumantée (India)

Bhimcencée (India) •\zura (India) Djarazandji (India) Nara (India) Bando (Thailand) Letoussi (Burma) Nabast (Burma) Berslate (Malaysia) Pendjak-silette (Indonesia) Arias da mene (The Philippines) Rangeln (Tyrol)

Galfava (Portugal) Moulapta (Arab wrestling) Mossara taban (Arab) Istlish taban (Arab) « A la ceinture >• (Russia) « Né v skhvatkou » (Russia) Trinta dreapta (Moldavia) Trînta kunedika (Moldavia) Kouriach (Tartar wrestling) Kourach (Ouzbékistan) Sais (Kazakstán) Schwingen (Switzerland) Oodarich (Kirghisia)

Koures (Kirghisia) Khourech (Tuva) Gouchti (Tadjikistan) Gulech (Azerbaïdjan) Gurech (Turkmenia) Lutte de Khiva (Turkmenia) Ristines (Lituania) Kokh (Armenia) Kourdstan-tustuu (Yakut wr.) Khapsagai (Yakut wr.)

Gouchti de Boukhara (Tadjikistan) Goutzanguiri (Tadjikistan) Khatkabi (Daghestan) Ankoumara (Abkhasia) Toutouch (Tcherke wrestling) Kestik (Afghanistan) Kusag-güres (Turkey) Yagli-güres (Turkey) Kouchti (Pakistan) Barilda (Mongolia) Bokh (Mongolia) Koures (Kazakstán) Mundje vence (Albania) Rvanje (Serbia)

Glima (Iceland) Lutte populaire (Bulgaria) Ssirium-ha-ki (Korea) Lutte bretonne (France) Lutte léonine (Spain) Lutte canarienne (Spain) Tchidaoba (Georgia) Biscast (Sweden) Beigtag (Sweden) Bondetag (Sweden)

Rigcats (Sweden)

Beltescast (Sweden) Cragtag (Sweden) Armtag (Sweden) Akseltag (Sweden) Boukatag (Sweden) Livtag (Sweden) Rintapaïni (Finland) Ritpaïni (Finland) Viopaïni (Finland) Toubata (The Sudan) Béri (Senegal) Olva (Senegal) Zvaha (Togo)

25

Hokusai: Sumo

Teh. Badamjavin: Mongolian wrestling

&&m 26

Cumberland and Westmorland wrestling

Breton wrestling

27

Swiss wrestling

The korean "Ss/reum" wrestling

28

great number of sumo, güres, Persian koshti and other wrestlers the practice of this activity was their only occupation.

France is the first country of organized profes­sional wrestling in modern times. The wrestlers, who were not allowed to mix with the social elite, or­ganized their first professional companies already in the first half of the XIX-th century (in Bordeaux, Lyon and Paris). They also participated in various shows. According to German sources between 1830 and 1850 French wrestlers used to organize in Ger­many travelling shows demonstrating "standing wrestling". Later on, under the French influence, wrestling became popular in Austria-Hungary, Italy, Denmark, Russia and many other countries, promoting a new style called: Greco-Roman, classi­cal or French.

The most outstanding names in wrestling at that time were: Jean Dubois (France), Basilio Bar-toletti (Italy), and Ladislaus Pytlasinski (Poland). They were masters of their sport and guiding lights to a great number of young and talented wrestlers in many countries. At first professional wrestling was faithful to all sport qualities and wrestlers were

Jan Dubois

Basillio Bartoletti

33

1.5. Legends Inspired by Wrestling

All outstanding wrestlers-from Milo of Crotona to the Russian "bogatiry" (knight) Alexandre Karelin-were personalities with a legendary halo of fame. Professional athletes were particularly popu­lar, thanks to their beautiful bodies, attractive public events and experience they offered to their fans.

Professional wrestlers existed already in an­cient times. Mighty rulers, emperors, kings, sultans, shahs, rajahs, feudal lords, etc. always endeavoured to have in their courts wrestlers specially trained for attractive wrestling performances, which was part of their master's social status and promotion. For a

Eugene Sandow

32

great number of sumo, güres, Persian koshti and other wrestlers the practice of this activity was their only occupation.

France is the first country of organized profes­sional wrestling in modern times. The wrestlers, who were not allowed to mix with the social elite, or­ganized their first professional companies already in the first half of the XIX-th century (in Bordeaux, Lyon and Paris). They also participated in various shows. According to German sources between 1830 and 1850 French wrestlers used to organize in Ger­many travelling shows demonstrating "standing wrestling". Later on, under the French influence, wrestling became popular in Austria-Hungary, Italy, Denmark, Russia and many other countries, promoting a new style called : Greco-Roman, classi­cal or French.

The most outstanding names in wrestling at that time were: Jean Dubois (France), Basilio Bar-toletti (Italy), and Ladislaus Pytlasinski (Poland). They were masters of their sport and guiding lights to a great number of young and talented wrestlers in many countries. At first professional wrestling was faithful to all sport qualities and wrestlers were

Jan Dubois

Basillio Bartoletti

33

Kazakh wrestling

30

Senegalese wrestling

Braslllan wrestling

31

1.5. Legends Inspired by Wrestling

All outstanding wrestlers-from Milo of Crotona to the Russian "bogatiry" (knight) Alexandre Karelin-were personalities with a legendary halo of fame. Professional athletes were particularly popu­lar, thanks to their beautiful bodies, attractive public events and experience they offered to their fans.

Professional wrestlers existed already in an­cient times. Mighty rulers, emperors, kings, sultans, shahs, rajahs, feudal lords, etc. always endeavoured to have in their courts wrestlers specially trained for attractive wrestling performances, which was part of their master's social status and promotion. For a

Eugene Sandow

32

great number of sumo, giires, Persian koshti and other wrestlers the practice of this activity was their only occupation.

France is the first country of organized profes­sional wrestling in modern times. The wrestlers, who were not allowed to mix with the social elite, or­ganized their first professional companies already in the first half of the XIX-th century (in Bordeaux, Lyon and Paris). They also participated in various shows. According to German sources between 1830 and 1850 French wrestlers used to organize in Ger­many travelling shows demonstrating "standing wrestling". Later on, under the French influence, wrestling became popular in Austria-Hungary, Italy, Denmark, Russia and many other countries, promoting a new style called : Greco-Roman, classi­cal or French.

The most outstanding names in wrestling at that time were: Jean Dubois (France), Basilio Bar-toletti (Italy), and Ladislaus Pytlasinski (Poland). They were masters of their sport and guiding lights to a great number of young and talented wrestlers in many countries. At first professional wrestling was faithful to all sport qualities and wrestlers were

Jan Dubois

Basillio Bartoletli

33

Ladislaus Pytlasinsky

proud of their beautiful and strong bodies which they abundantly displayed in public. Frederic Müller the Saxonian was the best of all. Under the as­sumed name of Eugene Sandow he appeared in numnerous circus and music-hall performances demonstrating his outstanding mastership in wrestling. Jean Exbroyat founded the first modern company of circus wrestlers. After his death in 1872 Rossignol Rollin, barrister from Lyon, took over the company and become the boss. He had a great ta­lent for publicity, "arranged" matches, for distribut­ing awards alledgedly coming from the "public", for

selection of high sounding nick-names given to his wrestlers, such as : Heracles, Apollo, The Monster of Sahara, etc. The names of Felix Bernard, Pietro Dalmasso and Abdullah Jeffery also remain memorable. Sometimes amateur wrestlers would defeat professionals. This is how Rabier, Ambroise le Berger, Charles Arpin and later on Nicholas Petrov, Ivan Paddubny and others began their wrestling careers, until later on, after some time of amateur practice, becoming professionals.

The Rules and the programmes of competi­tions varied to suit the taste of the wrestlers, their

34

Georg Hackenschmidt

35

Kara Osman, F. Nurulas, К. Yusuf and F. Doublier

36

ш І Ь Ь Е IDE R O U B 7 S I X ШШЁш

B r a s s e r i e " U n i v e r s e l l e , ггяе d e la. G - a r e

I

programme Officiel de la 2щг Journée DIMANCHE 14 AVRIL 1901

DU

ai

1 |

î

lib i i І " i l v -

fc'i

••ет.ЧІІ

Sfa

TOURNOI INTERNATIONAL DE LUTTE Organise sous Its auspices

D E LA

FEDERATION ATHLÉTIQUE DE BELGIQUE

President Шт ; Le cenerai wiLüERT

ET DE

L'UNION DES SPORTS ATHLÉTIQUES

Ш m m

DU ItOl'BALV

4000 FRANCS BE PRIX В (Toi ,

РЙІХ DE LA FINALE: -'ODO fr — Deuxième P Troisième Pris. 500 Гг.

• 2 ^ ^ % ^ ' - - " -: f a l s i l l a

Пэт*

tes. Premier Prix. 2000 Гг. — Deuxième Prix. IOOO Гг. H & Ï S :

lïï-'-.Ч. ?

PRIX DE CONSOLATION : < ^ й І | Ь >

Premier Prix. -i.">0 fr. — Deuxième Prix. 150 fr. ( ¿ p í ^ > Troisième Prix. IOO Гг. FÍ=*4A'-''

Шт fe-'f.

±л

LES SÉANCES DU CHAMPIONNAT

AL'RONT I . IEL

du Samedi i3 A vril inclus

au Vendredi ig Avril inclus

à 8 heures précises du soir

L e s D i m a n c h e 14 e t L u n d i 13 A v r i l

* HAT1HÄB * à 3 heures précises de l 'après-midi ш^л^^,

SSV*-' I L Y A U R A E N T O U T N E U F S É A N C E S *»-'•/»« JULES LESAUVAGE

Toutes les lut tes sa feront chaque jour jusqu'à résultat

P R I X D E S P L A C E S

iibonnemenis aux places réscrcces pour les neuf séances

'liéscrcées . 3 Fr. — <Pr . 2 Fr.

2Q Fr.

•Galerie • • 1 Fr.

O n p e u t p r e n d r e s e s p l a c e s e n l o c a t i o n d e 1 О h e u r e s d u m a t i n à m i d i

e t d e 2 h e u r e s à 4 h e u r e s

- «M-

fc<fei I ИН"-* С! te tel

Programme of Wrestling Competitions

37

Ivan Poddubny

managers and their fans. The Rules published by Paul Pons provided for a break of combat every ten minutes. The lifted wrestler was allowed to lock his opponent's legs (Article 5); on the ground the wres­tler was only once allowed to perform a lock with his legs; the wrestler was allowed to jump on the back of his opponent in bridge position; it was forbidden to lock the opponent's legs with hands; victory was proclaimed in case of instantaneous fall. The wres­tlers coming from the East were allowed to use their legs in combat, but in a limited way, in order to make allowance for their lack of skill in French (Greco-Roman) wrestling.

At the end of the XIX-th century wrestling was the trendiest sport in Europe. Thanks to the efforts of Dr. J. Reour, count Saint-Martin and Léon Bill the As­

sociation of French Athletes (Société des Athlètes Français) was founded in 1890 with almost 200 members. A similar association, Wandsbeker Ath­leten Club (Hamburg) was founded in Germany even before France, in 1879. Fifteen years later it was an important sports organization with an out­standing membership of 1,300. Following in these footsteps athletic clubs have been founded in many other countries with the view of promoting and sup­porting the interests of wrestling and providing ap­propriate sports preparation to amateur wrestlers.

At the time the heroes of the international mat were: Colossus, nick name of the French wrestler Paul Pons (195 cm), the Monster of the Orient, nick name of the Turkish wrestler Kara Ahmed: Lion of the Balkans, nick name of the Bulgarian wrestler Ni-

38

Omer de Bouillon

colas Petrov; Champion of Champions, nick name of the Russian wrestler Ivan Paddubny, etc. Many outstanding names in wrestling at the time still arouse interest in their sports mastership and feel­ings of admiration for their achievements. They were international wrestlers in the truest sense of the word. Many of them did not live in their native coun­tries, but wherever the most interesting competi­tions were being organized, or else in the countries where they had the most numerous and ardent fans. French and Belgian wrestlers: Jean Dubois, Paul Pons, Constant le Boucher (the butcher), Constant le Martin, Laurent le Beaucairrois, Orner de Buillon, etc. were very popular with wrestling fans. Outstand­ing German wrestlers at the time were: E. Siegfried, O. Scheider, J. Koch, M. Hitzler, Burghard, Sturm, Strange, K. Abe, Schwartz, etc. Among the names of outstanding Turkish wrestlers were: Coca Yussuf, Kara Ahmed, Kurtdeley and Ibrahim who deserve to be specially mentioned for their outstanding perfor­mance. Nicolas Petrov and A. Dobritch were out­standing Bulgarian wrestlers; Pytlasinski and Cyganiewicz, father and son, were outstanding Pol­ish wrestlers; Delmasso and Raichevich were out­standing wrestlers from Italy; Smeskhal and Frit-stensky were outstanding Czech wrestlers; J. Pedersen, V. Petersen, A. Anderson, V. Tominen, V. Jearwinen and T. Koskinen, among many others, were ouststanding Scandinavian wrestlers. The Russians also had a great number of top masters in wrestling, among whom three Ivans: Ivan Paddoub-ny, Ivan Zaïkin and Ivan Vakhturov were particularly notable. Georg Hackenschmidt, Georg Lurich and A. Aberg (Estonia) were the most outstanding masters of wrestling technique. Wrestling in Great Britain and the USA was constantly following an up­ward trend. Competitions were organized in the

Jacob Koch

39

Jess Pedersen

Lancashire "catch", the Scottish "dinnie", with va­rious forms of traditional wrestling and in the Greco-Roman style. In the USA the first championships in wrestling were already being organized in the mid-XIX-th century. Armstrong McLaughlin, Tibault Baur and many others mark the history of American wrestling as legendary heroes of the mat. In 1890 William Muldoon won the American Championship in Greco-Roman style. Donald Dinnie from Scotland decided to make a trip round the world covering all his expenses with the money earned from wrestling matches. In catch Monraou, A. Cameron, T. Jenkins, F. Gotch and as of recently J. Stecker and K. Lewis, have achieved outstanding results. Jim Londos, Dan Kolov, Henry Deglane and Charles Rigoulot should be mentioned as being internationally famous.

Wrestlers in Greco-Roman style were masters in wrestling technique and tactics, which can be proven by consulting the books published at that time by Pytlasinski (1896), M. Kister (1897), L. Will (1903), A. Oenaska (1907), G.M. Solovyov (1910), etc. Dr. Georg Zadig is the author of the most impor­tant book on wrestling published at the time, illust­rated with holds performed by the most outstanding

40

Georg Lurich

Stanislav Zbyszko-Cyganiewicz

Dan Kolov-Charles Rigoulot (1934). H. Deglane officiating Ilya Bechlov: Wrestlers

*V4s вЛр\ IT j^jg/ ) У

.Ж

\

" ^ • • ' ^ ? * 3 * * ^

41

Joe Stecker

professional wrestlers: Omer de Buillon, Nicolas Petrov, Alexander Aberg, Cyganiewicz, Koch, Lurich, Strange, Schwarz, Romanow, etc. According to Aleks Aberg, a wrestler should be familiar with the anatomy and psychology of the human body almost as if they were psychicians. Laurent and Desbonnet, also coaching at some special schools of wrestling in Paris, guaranteed to their trainees an increase of the volume of chest by 8 cm, of the biceps by 3 cm of the neck by 3 cm, etc. after three months of training.

Anthropometric data of

Name and SURNAME Height Weight

Professional wrestling and its reputation were seriously jeopardized by "arranged" matches, fixed scores, presentation of wrestlers under false names and false nationality, brutality and rudeness of com­bat, unbecoming quarrels, etc. At first the winners were determined behind closed doors. As of recent­ly the approach to professional wrestling matches has been completely changed. Now, like plays and films, they are directed.

The life of professional wrestlers was very hard, many of them suffered serious injuries, did not have a family, lived the lives of emigrants and died in poverty and oblivion... in his story In the Circus, A.S. Kuprine describes the sad life and destiny of Ar-buzov, a professional wrestler. He was forced to compete in spite of a serious heart condition and died after a short match against the American wres­tler Reber. "Everything happened so simply and so quickly, like blowing upon a candle burning in a dark room, to extinguish it."

Professional wrestling was not accessible to average people. An increasing number of amateur wrestling clubs and training schools actually served the purpose of meeting their requirements in this sport.

Evaluation of professional wrestling at the end of the XIX-th and beginning of the XX-th centuries from the point of view of Olympic amateurism is very often too severe and unjust. From the historical point of view, professional wrestling has its merits within the development of this sport. Its competitions con­tributed to the popularity of the sport: professional wrestlers were models of physical strength and cor­poral beauty for the young to imitate; under its in­fluence the training system was improving, etc. In numerous professional clubs the amateurs also could receive sports training and their coaches were former professional wrestlers. Even Paul Pons had his wrestling school, opened in 1886, where he him­self wery often coached young wrestlers. Thus, in many countries the experience acquired in profes­sional wrestling was very early transmitted to amateur wrestlers.

outstanding wrestlers Table 3.

Name and SURNAME Height Weight

Sizes

Name and SURNAME Height Weight

Thorax Waist Neck Shoulder Leg Fémur

E. Sandow

G. Lurich

G. Hackenschmidt

. Poddubni

N. Jerebtsov

170

176

176,5

183,5

181,5

78

90

93

118

101

122

122

125

134

123

80

88

85

104

88

41

45

50

48

49

41

40

47

43

43

40

40

44,5

44

44

60

59

68

68

68

42

2. MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES

A pillar In the Olympic Museum In Lausanne

43

2.1. Introduction

The revival and evolution of the Olympic Games was actually brought about by a number of ideological, structural and functional activities un­dertaken towards that aim.

To begin with the model of the ancient Olympic Games served as a guiding light. It was this model which Pierre de Coubertin wished to revive, but with an updated interpretation of the Olympic ideals suit-

Pierre de Coubertin

44

ed to modem times and requirements. In his en­thusiastic efforts to revive the Games, de Coubertin combined the ideals of the Renaissance with those of the most outstanding French intellectuals, fitting them into the framework of social movements in the XIX-th century and enriching them with the latest achievements in different fields of pedagogical science. He rejects Rousseau's concept of educa­tion for an isolated individual, embodied in his EMILE and suggests the transformation of sports into a social force, a social activity serving the well-being of all.

In the XIX-th the century the revival of the Olym­pic Games was one of the almost constant topics and issues. A results of the archeological excavations and a nine volume book, "OLYMPIA", by Ernst Curtius was to provide a valuable support to these efforts.

Among numerous initiatives in favour of the revival of the Games, those originating from Greece had the brightest prospects for success. In 1838 the municipality of Letrini, in the vicinity of Olympia, adopted a plan according to which the competitions were organized already the in following year. While Curtius was using his best efforts to shed light on ancient Greek values, Evaghelos Zappas, a Greek general living in Romania, was taking practical steps to revive the Games. In 1858 he set up and adundantly founded the FOUNDATION OF THE FRIENDS OF OLYMPIA. The FOUNDATION im­mediately embarked on a project of building an exhi­bition hall designed by Teophil von Hansen, a Dan­ish architect. The first competitions took place already in the following year, with the participation of Greek athletes only. Success was moderate. Com­menting on this initial effort Pierre de Coubertin said : "It was a premature and clumsy revival." Simi­lar competitions were also organized in 1870, 1875, 1888 and 1889. Evaghelos Zappas wanted to lead the way and set an example, but did not succeed in going beyond the Hellenic framework. This initiative has however, been appraised as a logical link bet­ween the dark past and uncertain future.

At the end of the XIX-th century, social and historical circumstances favoured the revival of the Olympic Games. Cultural, economic and trade rela­tions between and among the countries were boom­ing. The individuality of Man was fully recognized. New scientific discoveries about the human being were outstanding, particularly favouring the practice of sports. This approach was translated into practice by the creation of national sports organizations, such as: the A.A.U. in the United States (1888) and the following international sports organizations: Eu­ropean Gymnastics Union (1881), The International Federation of Rowing Associations (1892), The Inter­

national Skating Union (1892), The International Gymnastics Federation (1897), etc. The setting up of the International Olympic Committee in 1894 actual­ly encouraged and accelerated the creation of new international sports federations and national Olym­pic Committees. In his book THE OLYMPIC GAMES 776. B.C-1895 Pierre de Coubertin gives a very faithful description of all activities initiated in view of reviving the Olympic Games. He also says: "The XIX-th century is characterized by a revived interest in physical exercise; at its dawn in Germany and Sweden, at its mid day in England and at its sun set in the USA and France. Moreover, the big technical inventions such as the railway and telegraph, have shortened geographical distances, which greatly changed life-styles. The races began to mix, got to better know one another and consequently, very soon developed the desire to compare with one another." In his book entitled A TWENTY ONE YEAR LONG CAMPAIGN (1908) de Coubertin gives a flash-back account of his life. With the aim of win­ning a wider social support for his ideas he says: "Germany has brought to light the remnants of Olympia. It is now up to France to restore its splendour!"

The first Olympic Congress was convened by the initiative of Adolphe de Pallisaux and Pierre de Coubertin. Baron de Coubertin (France), С Herbert (G.B.) and W.M. Sloane (USA) were members of the Organizing Committee. The Congress was officially opened at the Sorbonne, on June 16, 1894. At the very last moment it was named a Congress for the revival of the Olympic Games. Twelve countries were represented. The Congress was opened by the Hymn to Apollo. In his address Coubertin placed the emphasis on the Olympic idea, which like a ray of light had pierced through the thick fog of centuries re-emerging to illuminate the threshold of the XX-th century with the brightness of hope. De Coubertin's idea got full support. On the other hand, the Con­gress rejected his proposal to start the new century by organizing the New Olympic Games in Paris. It was decided to revive the Games in 1896, in Athens. Dimitrios Vikelas, a Greek writer, was elected Presi­dent of the I.O.C. in line with the principle that its President should come from the country hosting the following Games. According to Carl Diem it was a brilliant move to set up the Olympic Committee whose main message should be "independence with regard to all contemporary forces". The idea of a total autonomy of the I .O.C. was severely criticised, but in spite of all obstacles both the principle and the Games have survived to this day.

In his MEMOIRSde Coubertin describes all the difficulties connected with the organization of the

45

First Modem Olympic Games and the opening scenario. First, King George I pronounced the ritual words: "I declare the First Olympic Games of the Modern Age open". Then followed cannon shots, release of doves and the choir singing the Cantata by the Greek composer Samara, specially com­posed for the occasion. The competitions began im­mediately after the ceremony. It is with a feeling of relief and pride that de Coubertin also notes: "Our efforts have now become part of history". In case of failure, all the bright projects connected with the revival of the Games would have turned into ashes, thus sharing the destiny of Plato's utopias in the REPUBLIC, the SUN CITY by Tommaso Campanel­la, and the VOYAGE TO ICARIA by Etienne Cabet. According to Arnold Toynbee, an outstanding histori­an, de Coubertin was successful thanks to his Renaissance erudition based on Hellenism.

With regard to his predecessors, de Couber-tin's achievement is outstanding. He has created a philosophy of Olympism which has assigned the Games a new role within the democratization and internationalization process of sports in general, in promoting friendship among the athletes and peace among the nations of the world, in encouraging a harmonious development of physical, mental and moral qualities in man and in offering a unique feel­ing of joy and happiness which can only be ex­perienced through the practice of sports...

2.2. The

The first modern Olympic games were solemn­ly opened on April 6, 1896, in Athens. The atten­dance was outstanding: 120,000 spectators. It is only at the X-th Olympic Games in Los Angeles, in 1932, that this impressive figure has been exceed­ed. At the Olympic Games in Athens the number of participating athletes (males only) amounted to 285, from 13 different countries. Competitions took place in the following ten sports on the Olympic prog­ramme: track-and-field, wrestling, rowing, cycling, fencing, gymnastics, weight lifting, swimming, tar­get shooting and tennis.

Many athletes covered their own travel and ac­comodation expenses in Athens, others were subsi­dized by their respective clubs, universities, various foundations, etc. At the opening ceremony only the Hungarian delegation was in uniform.

Wrestling competitions were announced on official posters and wrestling as a sport was men­tioned on the first page of the Olympic Hymn com-

46

Dimitrios Vikelas, first President of the C.I.O. (1894-1896)

Beginning

posed for this occasion (music by E. Samara, lyrics by K. Palloma).

In Athens there were no weight categories in wrestling. The rules were similar to those adopted for professional Greco-Roman wrestling. During the first round of competitions Christopulos (Greece) defeated Popavicza (Hungary) and Schuman (Ger­many) pinned down the shoulders of his opponent Elliot (G.B.). The durations of the matches were not limited and they lasted until one of the competitors was victorious. It was also allowed to interrupt the match and resume it the following day. In the French paper "JOURNAL" in his article on wrestling com­petitions at the Olympic games James Léon Olivier says: "Tsitas and Schumann were fighting with equal strength for a long time, but they had to inter­rupt the match after sunset and resume it the next day". The following day he writes: "The match which was interrupted yesterday has been resumed this morning. Both Schumann and Tsitas were using

**•»..

—Г" gSC'C-er. ¿¿ •. «^U—- -ÄSpWf«

-Жа»: ч .»

Poster of the First Olympic Games in Athens ( 1896)

47

. І Ф Н Л О Т Н Т А топ JklAAOXJQN

ÛNSTANTINON

nKÙOiSIÏ MOYZIKOY OIKOY MIX. KONZTANTINIAH ГЛАІПСМОІ fi ZTOA <3>B=H

А НЫАІ

Front page of the Olympic Hymn ( 1896)

48

their very best efforts to perform holds. They are champions worthy of each other, but the German seems to be more skilfull and smarter. For some time the score remained ex-equo, but all of sudden Schuman managed to defeat his opponent and win the Olympic Gold Medal." Tsitas was a famous wrestler in traditional wrestling, and altough heavier and stronger, he lost the match against the Ger­man, who was better trained in Greco-Roman style. His winning hold was the waist lock and fire-

Shuman and Tsitas holding each other

man's carry throw. The fans also requested a match between Schumann and Christopulos, but due to a serious injury, he was content to remain in third place.

After so many centuries the strongest men and the olive branch were together again. Carl Schumann, from Berlin, became the first wrestling champion of the modern Olympic Games. His desti­ny was rather sad. He did not deserve to be unjustly forgotten, but that's the way of the world...

Shuman and Tsitas holding each other

49

3. GREAT TRANSFORMATION OF WRESTLING

3.1. The Challenge of the Time

The Olympic Games have been revived after an interruption of over 1600 years. During that very long historical span wrestling has had its ups and downs, has been changing its forms, but in spite of all the challenges has remained an integral part of human life. Historical, political and ethnic changes have en­couraged, or jeopardized the promotion of wrestling and brought about the transformation of hundreds of its traditional forms, in many schools and centers of education in Europe, the USA, Japan and many other countries, wrestling was practiced as part of the curriculum.

The golden period of professional wrestling ac­tually started at the beginning of the XIX-th century, with Paris as it center. In Hamburg competitions in wrestling were organized behind closed doors. It is also behind closed doors that it was customary to establish the rating of the wrestlers and determine the winner of the following competitions, prizes, etc. St. Petersburgh was the third most important wrestling center at that time. Following in the foot­steps of Ancient Greeks, Russian wrestlers main­tained social contacts with outstanding personali­ties in the field of culture: A.P. Chekhov, Maksim Gorky, A.I. Kuprin, Feodor Chaliapin, Stanislavski, Vakhtangov, chessplayer Alekhin, even with the French sculptor Auguste Rodin when he visited Russia. Chekhov used to organize wrestling compe­titions for members of athletic clubs.

There was no wrestling on the programme of the second Olympic Games in Paris (1900), for various reasons, but above all because of the impregnable stronghold of professional wrestling. The organizers of the World Exhibition wanted an attractive accompay-ing programme for the event and even thought of or­ganizing competitions in the game of billiards, chess, and even fishing. A poster from that time shows the Eiffel Tower with two wrestlers engaged in combat. For that very occasion a play entitled The Philosopher and

Professional and traditional wrestling dominat­ed a significant portion of social space and exer­cised pressure on amateurs. At the time wrestling still had no international center, no uniform rules, not even an organized group of supporters to lobby for its promotion with the I.O.C. Yet, in spite of all obsta­cles and shortcomings, wrestling was developing and strengthening its position. For wrestling the XIX-th century was a period of great challenges, and of a keen struggle against conservatism and tradi­tion, and a period of new solutions, of international cooperation, a period of tolerance and compromise. History should be fair in evaluating the work per­formed during that period and its positive achieve­ments, including:

1. The development of both Olympic wrestling styles;

2. Establishment of greater stability within the Rules of wrestling;

3. Recognition of wrestling as an Olympic dis­cipline;

4. Definition of amateur sports and its prin­ciples;

5. Foundation of national wrestling organi­zations;

6. Increased number of international competi-tons, and

7. The revival of Olympic cultural and moral values through wrestling.

Athletes, with wrestling on the stage, was performed at the Sorbonne.

After the Olympic Games in Athens the number of national and international competitions had con­siderably increased, particularly in France, Germany, Sweden, Hungary and Finland. The Rules of Wrestling were not uniform, but they had a common basis. The Rules of a wrestling championship held in France, on April 14, 1904 given below will shed more light on that issue.

3.2. Failure of New French Ideas

51

*£№Aip¡^SfZ¡S¡¡¡Sk В К Ш Н ^ - А 1 № ^ Ш Ц №

Wrestling. Paris, 1900

Домр!** e $?

Poster of the first European Championship in Greco-Roman Wrestling, Vienna, 1898

52

RULES OF THE CHAMPIONSHIP Article 7. - The wrestler loses the match if he leaves the mat under any pretext whatsoever.

Article 1. - The Referee is the absolute master of the wrestling competition. He imple­ments the adopted Rules at his discre­tion. His decisions are final.

Article 2. -The Championship is based on classifi­cation points. Each victory is awarded 1 point. The wrestlers defeated in the first match fight against one another for participa­tion in the semi-finals. After two falls in semi-finals the wrestler may be eliminated. The title of the CHAMPION OF NOR­THERN FRANCE is awarded to the win­ner of the finals. The title CHAMPION OF ROUBAIX is awarded to the wrestler living in the region of Roubaix (Northern France) who has earned the greatest number of points in the semi-finals.

Article 3. - Only holds above the waist are allowed, and only those performed with an open hand. It is prohibited to grasp the opponent's hand below the fist and perform the fol­lowing holds: - throat hold, - twisting of the arms, - twisting of the fingers, - leg trip, and - stretching the opponent's spinal co­

lumn.

Article 4. - After throwing down his opponent the offensive wrestler should also go into "per-terre".

Article 5. - The duration of the first bout is 15 minutes. When the winner cannot be de­termined the referee decides to continue the match for one or more bouts, even for an unlimited duration. If again the winner cannot be determined the referee may disqualify the wrestlers, or decide that they change opponents. The winner will be the wrestler with the highest number of points scored for ac­tive, offensive wrestling.

Article 6. - Victory "by fall" is scored only if the op­ponent remains in contact with the mat with both his shoulders, for a given peri­od of time.

Article 8. - The Time Keeper is in charge of keeping the time of the duration of bouts, dura­tion of breaks and interruptions.

Article 9. - The Referee will disqualify the wrestler and request the Belgian Athletic Federa­tion to procede accordingly, in the fol­lowing cases: - when he violates the Rules; - when there is proof that he has "ar­ranged" the match with his opponent, - when he places bets on his, or his op­ponent's victory, and - breach of discipline, or insubordina­tion during the Championship.

At the Olympic games wrestling enjoyed out­standing social support. In his magazine "Biceps" (1902) J. Metrel, writing about championships in amateur wrestling, says: "Wrestling is not just one of the sports; it is an eminent athletic sport which deserves support in order to secure among ama­teurs the place it deserves..."

Metrel emphasizes that "in order to be suc­cessful, wrestling should have good guidance." He, therefore, reiterates the idea already published in his magazine that "an international federation should be set up for providing guidance within the efforts made to develop amateur wrestling".

"This idea deserves attention and it would be normal for the athletes to support it. Unfortunately, this was not the case. Some even protested against the implementattion of that concept. This great idea was simply nipped in the bud by ill-meaning and in­competent sectarians and imbeciles, but above all, by unsuccessful! athletes!"

"Fortunately, these protests will not impede the regular development of amateur wrestling, because the idea to set up an international amateur wrestling federation has been endorsed by all those who want to enjoy sports as such, and to encourage its de­velopment through sports associations."

"All those eager to see wrestling on the top of the list of sports strongly support the idea to set up an international wrestling federation which would secure a successful future for this sport," concludes Metrel in his article.

Most probably the above article was a reaction to the deletion of wrestling from the programme of the Paris Olympic Games. Wrestling did not have its Coubertin. It needed time to respond to the require­ments of modern times.

53

3.3. The First Steps of Free Style Wrestling

The Third Olympic games held in Saint Louis (1904) were successful and meant a step forward in the development of the Olympic movement. They were the first Games held outside Europe, with the participation of 496 athletes, out of whom 430 were from the USA. For the second time the Games were

3.4. Both Wrestling Styles

Competitions in both wrestling styles were or­ganized for the first time at the Fourth Olympic Games in London (1908). The mats were installed in the stadium, parallel to the pool for swimming com­petitions.

54

linked to a World Exhibition, even placed under its patronge. The Games were opened on August 23, 1904 without a solemn halo, without speeches and without an attractive show.

Free-style wrestling was on the Olympic programme for the first time, with the participation of 40 wrestlers, all of them from the USA. At that time wrestling was one of the most popular sports in the United States. According to R. Dilinger more than six presidents of the United States used to practice wrestling (George Washington, Zachary Taylor, Ulysses Grant, Andrew Johnson and Theodor Roos-velt). Abraham Lincoln, one of the greatest presi­dents of the United States, among the many other talents which he had, was also gifted for wrestling. He was even of one time the US national wrestling champion. At the time, the Rules of Wrestling were similar to those of "catch as catch can", but prohibit­ing dangerous holds. The wrestlers were divided into 7 categories, which was a significant novelty.

Here are the names of the champions in free­style wrestling of the Third Olympic Games: Curry (47.6 kg), Mehnert (52.2 kg), Niflot (56.7 kg), Brad-shaw (61.2 kg), Roehm (65.3 kg), Erickson (71.7 kg) nad Hansen (+71.7 kg). "Anthropological Days" was a special competititon in various sports disciplines, including wrestling, held within the Olympic Games with the participation of African Americans, Ameri­can Indians, the Philippinoes, etc. According to Pierre de Coubertin, the "Anthropological Days" put the Olympic principle into jeopardy.

Two years later Extraordinary Olympic Games were organized in Athens. The tournament in Greco-Roman style had 57 participants from 13 countries. All three champions came from the Scan­dinavian countries: 75 kg - KARLSEN (Denmark), 85 kg - WECKMAN (Finland) and +85 kg - JEN­SEN (Denmark).

on the Olympic Programme

Out of 74 wrestlers in Greco-Roman style, from 13 countries, only the competitiors from 5 countries arrived to the finals and no country won more than one gold medal ; Porro (Italy) in the 66.6 weight cate­gory, Martensson (Sweden) demonstrated an origi-

THE GREAT S T A D I U M SHEPHERDS. BUSH LONDON*

Enrico Porro ITA

nal wrestling style in the 73 kg category, Weckman (Finland) 93 kg category displayed his best sports abilities. In the "Heavy weight" category Weisz (Hungary) demonstrated admirable strength and original wrestling. In the finals the Swedish and Fin­nish wrestlers had the members of their respective teams for opponents. Out of 19 British wrestlers in Greco-Roman style not a single one managed to ar­rive even at fourth place. Russia was not very happy with the silver medals of Orlov and Petrov, in view of its rather long tradition in this sport. Doctor Krayev-sy's CIRCLE OF HEAVY WEIGHT AMATEUR WRESTLERS was founded in 1856 and the champi­onships had been organized all over Russia as of 1897. The country of the famous champions Pad-

V. Veckman FIN

dubny and Zaykin, the critics claimed, could have secured a much better rating.

These Games are also known for numerous protests filed against the decisions of the officals. According to Klaus Ulrich the Swedes had even with drawn some of their wrestlers from some of the com­petitions. According to official reports the scandals surrounding the competition in both wrestling styles received a great deal of media coverage and aroused great public interest.

55

R. Weisz HUN

The discussion about the Rules of Free-Style Wrestling held on the eve of the competitions was a very hot one. The Americans as favourites with seven Olympic champions from the previous Games, proposed the Rules of "catch as catch can".... The position of the British was not consis­

tant, in view of the differences among their regional wrestling styles fostered in: Cornwall, Cumberland, Westmorland, Scotland, etc. Thanks to small con­cessions here and there the American proposal was finally adopted.

In the free style tournament 5 countries took part with 59 athletes, 49 of whom were from Great Britain. There were 5 weight categories with a large span between the lower and upper weight limit. Mehnert (USA) 54 kg won the championship for the second time, together with Dole (60.3) from this team. De Relwyskow an Bacon (Great Britain) be­came champions in their respective weight categories after having defeated their fellow coun­trymen.

The match between the huge fireman O'Kelly (Ireland) and Gundersen (Norway) in the "Heavy" category (over 73 kg) aroused enormous interest. The Irish wrestler very easily defeated his opponent and earned his second gold medal. He also earned his first gold medal in rope pulling.

The supremacy of the British wrestlers was evi­dent. They took two gold, four silver and three bronze medals. From all European countries only Gundersen from Norway, a resident of the USA, and otherwise a wrestler with an outstanding reputation, took one medal. The British regional wrestling styles proved very efficient, but their devotion to tradition prevented them from taking steps in new directions.

The London Olympic Games will be remem­bered for having both wrestling styles on the programme, by the improved pattern of weight categories, by the fact that they brought to an end the American monopoly in free-style wrestling, and by ex-aequo results of several European countries in Greco-Roman wrestling.

Saarela and Veckman, London, 1908

56

3.5. The Scandinavian Wave

The Olympic Games in Stockholm (1912) epitomized the triumph of the Olympic movement. After Paris, Saint Louis and London, this time the Games had not been organized as an event accom­panying an International, or National Exhibition. The number of participants was outstanding : a total of 2,541 athletes from 18 countries. The duration of the event was shortened, but its organization was perfect. An impressive number of 444 accredited journalists covered the event.

This time there was no free-style wrestling on the Olympic programme, probably because of the supremacy of the British and American wrestlers in this style. Instead, competitions in Icelandic GLIMA wrestling were organized to fill in the vacancy.

Out of 171 wrestlers in Greco-Roman style from 18 countries 37 of them came from Finland and 34 from Sweden. The number of weight categories was increased from 4 to 5, but still with a great difference between the lower and upper limit.

The Rules of all Olympic competitions were an­nounced rather late, when the Games had already

een in full swing and revealed a number of defi-iencies related to some unanticipated practical

problems and situations. This resulted in numerous protests being filed, and hot discussions, particular-

international Jury (Wrestling) in Stockholm, 1912. Sitting: F.X. Markones AUT, Longhurst GBR, Kissling GER, Radvany HUN and Lindsted FIN Standing: Czaplinsky RUS, Preuss GER, Nielsen DEN, Schindler AUT, Csanady HUN and Borg SWE

V*< Щ^Ш. 8

- w vM

57

Georg Hackenschmidt

E. Vare FIN

Match between Asikainen FIN and Klein RUS at the Stockholm Olympic Games In 1912 which lasted over 11 hours

58

Asikainen and Klein (1912)

Voiyama FIN against Hauptman GER, in 1912

59

ly with regard to competitions in wrestling, tennis and fencing. In view of this negative experience, in his report Baron von Beningen, member of the I.O.C., suggests some improvements in the organi­zation and officiating of the Olympic Games.

There were three mats available for wrestling competitions, all of them in the open. The duration of the match was limited to 1 hour, except in the fi­nals (unlimited duration). The envisaged decisions were: victory by fall, victory on points, elimination af­ter two defeats and disqualification. The rating was based on the points scored. E.g. The match be­tween Ahigren (Sweden) and Bohling (Finland) was interrupted after six hours of undetermined combat and the decision was taken to award a silver medal to each of the wrestlers. It was the very first and only such decision in the history of the Olympic Games. Klein (Russia) and Asikainen (Finland) fought a marathon match. It lasted for 11 hours and 40 minutes upon ending and is recorded in the Guiness Book of Records. According to another source, the first match lasted 10 hours and 30 minutes. It started at 11 o'clock on July 14, 1912, with the first interrup­tion for a religious mass. At the beginning the breaks were much longer, 30 minutes, but later on gradually decreased to 5, 3 and finally 1 minute. The officials allowed a 30 minute overtime, which again did not decide on the winner. The number of points was equal. Upon that the contestants were given the last chance-two bouts in "par-terre", 3 minutes each. Finally Klein managed to defeat an 8 kg heavier world champion. The victory was decided after 21 h. and 51 min. Evidently, after so many hours of com­bat Klein was too exhausted to face Johansson (Sweden). Some Russian authors contest his title of champion. It is true that with regard to Klein he com­peted in a much smaller number of matches and was lucky to score several victories by forfeit. Even the famous Russian wrestler Al. Severov surren­dered him the match. This is how the Swedish

wrestler managed to compile the points required for the champion title and to quite legally win the gold medal.

The Finnish and Swedish wrestlers were abso­lute masters of this Olympic tournament. Their ath­letic performance was reminiscent of the exploits described in Swedish epic poems and in the Finnish KALEVALA. These achievements were actually the results of the great effort which the Scandinavian countries were investing in the development of wrestling already in the last decade of the XIX-th century. King Gustave V personally handed over the prizes to the champions : Koskeio - 60 kg (FIN), Vare - 67.5 kg (FIN), Johanssoon - 75 kg (SWE) and Saarela - 82.5 kg (FIN). The champions in wrestling actually came from a small number of countries: three gold, two silver and two bronze medals went to Finland and one gold, two silver and one bronze me­dal to Sweden. Germany and Russia won only one silver medal each and Hungary and Denmark one bronze medal each.

It was a decision of the I.O.C. to also organize a competition in arts along with the Games in Stock­holm. The prize in literature was awarded to an anonymous poet with a French-German pen name, for his ODE TO SPORTS... Actually, this unknown poet was no other than Pierre de Coubertin. He was not a poet, but like Rouget de Lisle, author and com­poser of la MARSELLAISE, he had many talents. In poetry, since Pindar in ancient Greece, there was no better ODE TO SPORTS written than this one by Pierre de Coubertin.

The X-th Olympic Games showed that the tech­nical and tactical qualities of amateur wrestlers were in no way inferior to those of the professionals. The public was particularly impressed by the throws over the shoulder, performed by Scandinavian wrestlers. Wrestlers from other countries took quite a long time to catch up with the Scandinavian "wave" in wrestling.

60

4. THE BIRTH OF FILA

Research into the history of FILA reveals a number of controversial issues. E.g. The European Championship (Vienna, 1898) and the world cham­pionship (Vienna, 1904) had taken place before the International Federation of Amateur Wrestling was founded. In most books on the history of wrestling these championships are treated as un-

The first group in charge of organizing and con­ducting the wrestling competitions was set up for the purpose of the Olympic games. It was a provi­sional organisational group which operated accord­ing to the Statues and decisions taken by the I.O.C. and its organizing committees. At the time, our sport was not fortunate enough to have a strong personal­ity who would bring together under one umbrella the already existing national wrestling federations, un­ions and clubs. All efforts made in this regard in France, Hungary, Austria, Denmark and Sweden did not bear fruit. Ad hoc organizing committees of the European and World championships did not enjoy an international status and did not elect their mem­bers according to a democratic procedure. There­fore the I.O.C. did not recognize them as legal bod­ies. To make a long story short, the first international organization for the development of wrestling and weight lifting was founded in 1905, in Duisburg, on the initiative of the Deutsche Athleten-Verband (DAV). A committee set up with the task of establish­ing order in the organization of world championship, was composed of the following members : Monticelli (Milan), the van Els brothers (the Hague), Koetten (Kein) and Stolz (Munich).

The exact date of the foundation of FILA is still controversial. By the way, the abbreviation FILA has been generally accepted because of frequent changes of the official title. Many authors connect the foundation of FILA with the Congress held in Lausanne on June 2-7,1921 (See: The Oxford Com­panion to Sports & Games, Oxford university Press, 1975; Enciklopedija Fizicke Kulture, Zagreb, 1977;

official and it is only as of recently that a new classification of championships has shed a dif­ferent light on this issue. We shall discuss it later on in the text. At present we shall only deal with the problems connected with the foundation of FILA and its evolution as an international wrestling or­ganization.

le Dictionnaire Ecyclopedique, Moscou, 1963, Deutscher Ring-Bund Handbuch 1988/89). On the other hand, the Hungarian historian L. Kun, la Petite Encyclopédie Sovetique (Moscou, 1982) and some other sources place the foundation of FILA in the year 1914 and some even in 1913. Some recent bib­liographical sources go even further back in history and place the foundation of FILA in the year 1912, but fall into their own trap mentioning Einer Raberg as its first president who actually served his term in the 1921-1924 period.

Fifty Years of Greco-Roman and Free-Style Wrestling Within the International Federation of Amateur Wrestling- 1912-1962, published by FILA, is the first official book in which we find 1912 as the year of the foundation of FILA. But, in the book there is no mention of any official document supporting this statement. In FILA 1912-1972, a book published later, an attempt has been made to explain the historical development of FILA. In 1992, at the offi­cial celebration of the 80-th Anniversary of FILA, its President, Mr. Milan Ercegan, submitted a well documented report.

It is true that the exact date of the foundation of an organization, or movement, cannot always be de­termined according to the established rules. The for­mal approach is based on the existing legal docu­ments and the recognition on the part of other organizations (in this case the I.O.C). Actually, the arguments in favour of the year 1912 are historically opportune because they take into account the activi­ties preceding and leading to the foundation of FILA, whereas the functional and structural ap-

4.1. The Foundation of FILA

61

proach takes into account the already existing or­ganization and its activities.

The first International Wrestlers' Union (Interna­tionaler Ringer Verband) was founded for the pur­pose of the Stockholm Olympic Games. The Or­ganizing Committee entrusted the Swedish Athletic Federation with the task of the convening of a Con­gress at which the representatives of all countries participating in the Games would adopt the Statues and Rules of procedure of a supreme international organization. According to Dr. Per Stroembaeck, specimens of the invitations to this Congress are stored in the Swedish Wrestling Federation archi­ves. J. Lindstedt (FIN) and R. Preuss (GER) have al­ready taken steps to obtain these documents for FILA.

The delegates to the Stockholm Congress were heads of the Olympic Delegations, members of the main jury, judges, referees and coaches. Most of them did not have valid credentials. After the discus­sion about the Statues and Rules of Wrestling the delegates decided to convene their constitutional congress the following (1913) year in Berlin. In addi­tion to that, an Interim Committee was set up with Dr. Peter Tatits, as President and M. Csanady Mor, as Secretary General, both from Hungary.

The setting up of a supreme international wrestling organization was a logical step, a natural outcome of a number of preceding activities and a recognition of current and future requirements in wrestling on the global level.

Actually, it is thanks to a number of factors that this organisation came into being, namely:

- The I.O.C. and the Organizing Committee fully recognized the need to set up an international or­ganization for that purpose;

- The need to secure a good organization of the Berlin Olympic Games (1916);

- A number of problems and difficulties en­countered at the previous national and international competitions;

- The fact that numerous national organiza­tions had already been founded: in Austria (1889), Sweden (1900), Denmark (1901), Italy (1902), the Netherlands (1903), Great Britain (1904), Hungary (1905), Norway (1909), etc.;

- The example set by other already founded in­ternational sports organizations, and

- Emergence of a new generation of sports leaders with a supranational mentality in their ap­proach to sports.

A letter by M. Julius von Muzsa (Hungary), President of the I.O.C. to Pierre de Coubertin reveals some very precious information. Actually, the Presi-

. i ÜÍ0YAH State»»»« 4a» 7.Dee«»!>«r 1312.

0LYUPIAI BIZ0TTSAG. ^_ (

и .',Л*^

üezugnehmend auf den Beschluss unsere- Coaitas

in Stockholm, nehmen wir uns die Freiheit Ihnen die samnt-

lichen Erfahrungen und Studien welohe unsere ungarischen

Teilnehmer in den einzelnen Sportivo igen erfahren hauen

Ihnen höflichst mitzuteilen, so Jene Principien darzulegen

welche durch die gemachten Erfahrungen, bei deu Arrange­

ment der Serliner Olympiad unbedingt vor Augen ли.halten

sein wird.

Ich erlaube mir Ihre н .Auf пег к san ice it darauf zu

lenicen, dass die hier niedergelegten Meinungen, die Mei­

nungen der einzelnen führender, ung ari echen Sportíorumen

sind, daher derart betrachtet «erden Können, ali> die of fi-

olelen Wünsche der ganzen ungarieohen Sportwelt , deren

Erfüllung ein aufrichtiger Wunsch würe bei den Arrangement

der Deutschen Olympiad.

Die se Pachine i nungen sind laut den einzelnen

Sport zwe igen die Folgenden:

Я I 0 E Я

1.) Fs würe an z.iecknässigst en wenn die Regeln und Ge­

wicht seintellung des Jetzt const itulrten lïfTf Р«А?І0ЯАІ*гВ

RINGER VERBANDES aeeeptiert werden mögen- Sollte dies

nicht möglich sein, so proponieren wir.

2.) Die C-ewichtselnteilung der .Stockhol&er Olympiad-

3 . ) Classification nit Punkte let zu löschen. Sieg

soll mit 2 Punkte, und unentschiedener Kampf mit 1-1 Punk­

te gewertet werden, nach 30 Minuten langen Kampf.

4.) Die Jury-Hitglieder sollen immer fremden Nationen

Zubehören.

5.} Von einer Nation können höchstens 5 - 6 Concurren-

tan starten.

6.) Die Jury ist alltäglich zueamoen zu fcorufen um die

е ея-увііег. ?r:'.ei'-t nc = h densa!tan Tag su erleùi6e"- ÏJU

der Jury soll eine jede teilnehmende Nation mit einem Ver­

treter vertreten sein, hingegen von den Deutaoben пъг so­

viel wie die Zahl, der Vertreter der.fremden Nationen ist.

7.) Es ist unbedingt erwünscht, dass die Hingwe tlltämpfe

in einem geschlossenen Räume abgehalten *erden sollen,

daS3 die Concurranten nioht den Unbill en der Witterung

ausge se tzt sind.

In die oben Vorgestellten Heraerkungen erlaubte ich

mir die Meinungen unserer Fachleute den einzelnen Sport­

zweigen mitzuteilen und hoffe, dass der ungarische Sport­

geist auoh etwas beitragen wird, dass d a ^ V I . Olympiade

in Berlin so glänzend, als möglich reussiren soll.

Hochachtungsvoll erge ben st;

, ez; Julius v ou iñ'azsa

Re Íсhstaysabgeordne ter,

Präsident des ungari sehen Olympi sehen Comité.

62

dent of the I.O.C. proposes that the wrestlers adopt the rules and weight categories of the then recently founded Internationaler Ringer Verband (The Inter­national Wrestlers' Union). Thus from this letter we learn about the recent setting up of an International Wrestlers' Union with its own rules and also some details about the conflicts at the Stockholm Con­gress. The Hungarians proposed to the Congress to limit the duration of the match to 30 minutes, with 2 points scored for victory, or divison of points, 1 to each wrestler in case of ex-aequo. In view of improv­ing the organization of competitions they also pro­posed the restriction to 5-6 participants from each country, officiated by neutral judge-referees and holding of matches in the halls.

The Stockholm Congress proposed the holding of the First Constitutional Congress in 1913, in Ber­lin. This is the reason why some authors mention this year as the date of the foundation of FILA. The title the First Congress was only formal, because the Wrestlers Union was actually founded in Stock­holm. Was it really the First Congress? The par­ticipants did not feel that way, but nevertheless, his­tory should pay them tribute for their achievements in this field.

We must always bear in mind Aristotle's words: "The beginning is more than half of the endeavour."

The Congress in Berlin took place from the 5-th to the 9-th of June, 1913, with the participation of delegates from nine countries: Germany, Finland, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Hungary, Austria, Bohe­mia and Great Britain.

The Internationaler Amateur Verband für Schwerathletik was founded with the task of de­veloping and promoting wrestling (Greco-Roman), boxing, weight lifting, rope pulling and putting over 10 kg of weight. German was adopted as the official language. The existing rules and weight categories

remained unchanged, in spite of severe criticism. Sweden proposed a 60 minutes duration of the match, whereas Germany proposed the duration of only 20 minutes, it was, finally, decided to have two bouts of 20 minutes each with 1 minute break. The Berlin Congress had also decided on the hosts of the forthcoming championships in 1914: St. Peters­burg (World Championship) and Vienna (European Championship). An Organizing Committee was set up consisting of: President- Dr. P. Tatits (Hungary); Vice President - R. Preuss (Germany) an M. Csaná-dy (Hungary); Secretaries: James Borg (Sweden) and F. Koller (Austria); members: J. Lindstedt (Fin­land), A.R. Nielsen (Denmark), P. Longhurst (Great Britain), R. Schwindler (Bohemia) and L. Zsaplinsky (Russia).

This means that the organization had been set up and there was no reason whatsoever to look for the origins of FILA in the following year. The two con­gresses were actually an integral part of a single en­tity in form and content. The European Champion­ships held in 1913 and 1914, according to the uniform rules and weight categories, are actually the outcome of all preceding activities.

A complex evolution of the Federation after 1913 only reflects the reality of the times. Many wres­tlers were also active in other disciplines, such as: weight lifting, rope pulling, weight putting, etc. Ge­org Hackenschmidt, the first European champion in wrestling (1898) was also champion in weight lifting. This practice continued up to the thirties, when Charles Rigoulot won the championships in both these sports.

In 1914 the Federation underwent serious or­ganizational changes. Amateurism was a very hot topic and seperatism became an apparent trend. On top of all these problems a big fire jeopardized the already ongoing big projects of the Federation.

63

4.2. Decline and Revial

In Ancient Greece, sacred truce (ekachiria) was observed during the Olympic Games, and all hostili­ties between the states were suspended. In modern times, to the contrary, it was the Olympic Games that were suspended by war. Nevertheless, the sus­pended Games have not been deleted from the chronological calendar, where they can be found together with the names of their host cities to be e.g. No. 6. - Berlin (1916), No. 12. - Helsinki (1940), and No. 13. - London (1944). In spite of suspension, the two world wars have not been able to extinguish the Games, nor the Olympic spirit.

S ^ S S AUGUST -SEPTEMBER m\QQ,0 "

After the calamity of the First World War the Olympic Games were already revived in 1920, in An­vers, with many novelties accompaying the event. It is in Anvers that the white Olympic flag was flown for the first time, with its five Olympic circles symboliz­ing all five continents united in the Olympic spirit and through the national colors of all peoples. Also,

it was for the first time that the slogan : Citius, altius, fortius (quicker, higher, stronger) was launched. It was also the first time that the countries defeated in the war did not take part in the Olympic Games.

All in all, the Anvers Games symbolized a new victory of Pierre de Coubertin and his achievements, the master brain of the Olympic Charter, oath, flag and symbols, another victory of a man of great merit for the revival of the Olympic Games and the development of the Olympic spirit into one of the most powerful social and peace movements in modern history. It is also at the Anvers Games that Pierre Coubertin celebrated the 20-th Anniversary of the I.O.C.

Both wrestling styles were represented in the Anvers Games, with 105 competitors in Greco-Roman style, from 14 countries, and 61 competitors in free-style, from 13 countries. With regard to the Stockholm Olympic Games the participation of

Eino Leino FIN

64

wrestlers was much smaller, due to the absence of athletes from the countries defeated in the First World War.

Both wrestling styles were finally established on the Olympic programme. Also, it was for the first time in Anvers that the wrestlers in both styles com­peted according to the same Rules and were divid­ed into the same weight categories, according to the decisions taken by the Berlin Congress (1913).

The Scandinavian wrestlers were absolutely outstanding in all respects and their achievements had a sweeping effect. Actually, they took 15 me­dals. Some of the Olympic heroes were winners of several medals, e.g. the Finnish athlete Paavo Nur-mi, who took 3 gold and 1 silver medal. Here are the names of the champions in their respective categories: Firman (FIN) eho defeated all his oppo­

nents "by fall"; Vare (FIN), Olympic champion for the second time; Westergren (SWE); R. Johansson (SWE) Olympic champion for the second time, and Lindfors (FIN). Two Danish and one Finnish wrestler were also among the medal winners. The Belgians, hosts of the Games, had to content themselves with 4-th place.

The Anvers Games feature an unexpected turn in free-style wrestling. The Swedish wrestlers put an end to the monopoly of the British and Americans in this style. Here are the names of the champions in free style wrestling: Ackerly (USA), Antillea (FIN), Leino (FIN), Larsson (SWE), and Roth (SUI). The Swiss Courant won a silver medal in their traditional wrestler SCHWINGEN. The British took only two bronze medals, which was a far cry from their former glory.

4.3. Renewal of FILA

At the Anvers Olympic Games the I.O.C. recom­mended the foundation of independent federations for each sports discipline. The International Federa­tion of Free-Style Wrestling was founded on the in­itiative of the USA. Being completely passive, its ex­istence only serves as a proof of the unequal status of the wrestling styles.

The Olympic Congress of the I.O.C. held in Lausanne, from 2 to 7 June, 1921, devoted a special session to the foundation of the International Amateur Wrestling Federation (IAWF). The session was chaired by J.S. Egstroem (Sweden), later elect­ed President of the I.O.C, who had worked very hard

J. Sigfrid Egström, President of the I.C.O. (1946-1952) Einar Râberg, President of FILA (1921-1924)

on the implementation of this idea. The Congress ratified the Statues of 19 Federations, including that of the newly founded IAWF

Mr. Einer Raberg, Swedish army officer and former wrestler, was elected President of the IAWF English was adopted as the official language.

The new Federation was founded for the pur­pose of promoting both wrestling styles on the basis of the amended rules. It organized two world champ­ionships in Greco-Roman wrestling in Helsinki (1921) and Stockholm (1922), with absolute supremacy of the Scandinavian wrestlers, and two European championships in Offenbach (1921) and

65

A. Brüll, President of FILA (1924-1929) V. Smeds, President of FILA (1929-1950)

Neunkirchen (1924), with the most numerous partic­ipation of German wrestlers.

The IAWF was the successor of the previous in­ternational federations, but with clearly defined tasks and authority. Its main problem was to secure uniform conditions at all competitions, the appropriate calender of the events in both styles, weight categories, rules, protocol, etc. But, the new uniform standards often collided with deeply rooted traditional practices and national and individual interests. The

most imcompatible views were coming from the representatives of Sweden, Germany and Hungary.

It may be concluded that, thanks to its deep historical roots and vitality, wrestling never ceased to develop, even in the absence of its relevant inter­national bodies. However, the foundation of the IAWF has secured a legal status to wrestling vis-a­vis the I.O.C., the N.O.Cs, the national wrestling fed­erations and global public opinion. The period of in­fancy was over.

66

5. OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL EUROPEAN AND WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS

Lack of relevant documentation and often bi­ased data available from national sources make the research into this topic rather difficult. Therefore, when evaluating our recent history we often rely on personal judgement based on individual prefer­ences and specific interests, the case in point being the differences in the numeration of the World and European championships, and their division into the official and unofficial ones.

All former European and World championships are historical facts. They have been organized by the Organizing Committees set up for the purpose, they had their own rules, supporters and their ceremonial protocol. True, at the beginning the par­ticipation of the athletes was rather small, which can be explained by the developing state of wrestling at that time, absence of consolidated national organi­zations, poor communications and lack of funds. In spite of all that, by 1925, 18 European champion­ships had taken place in 9 cities of 6 European coun­tries, and 17 World championships in 9 cities of 4 countries.

As already emphasized, the development of wrestling had preceded the setting up of its interna­tional bodies. Actually, the athletes and their nation­al organizations were eager to publicly demonstrate their athletic abilities outside the Olympic Games and professional championships. Although or­ganized in Greco-Roman style, only the World and European championships have greatly contributed to the improvement of the training methods and pro­motion of publicity for wrestling and its development. Actually, they preceded the foundation of FILA. In the absence of a supreme international body the legality of these championships was grounded on the Statues of their Organizing Committees. Therefore, it does not stand to reason that these championships should be treated as unofficial. Following that logic all European championships organized before the foundation the E.C.A.W. (CELA) should be listed as unofficial. It is, therefore, difficult to understand why the world cham­pionships which had taken place before the founda­tion of the Internationaler Ringer Verband are not list­ed as official.

Following the same logic, it does not stand to reason to list as unofficial the championships which included the participation of professional wrestlers. Actually, only Georg Hackenschmidt, the first cham­pion of Europe (1898) had become a professional wrestler. It is true that some amateur wrestlers had been remunerated for competing in the matches preceding the professional wrestling programme, but, why not? Sincerely speaking, the value of the prizes nowadays awarded to athletes by far exceed the remuneration to professional wrestlers at that time.

The système of competition for amateurs was borrowed from the professionals, which remains the major problem. This system provided for two Euro­pean championships annually. In 1907 they were or­ganized in Copenhagen and Vienna, and 1912 in Budapest and Vienna. The same system was ap­plied for the World championships organized in Ber­lin and Duisburg, in 1905, and even five in 1907, in: Helsinki, Stuttgart, Berlin, Dresden and Vienna. To­day, it is not only impossible, but also superflous, to try to determine which of these championships should be listed as official.

Another problem: the World championship held in Helsinki, in 1911. is listed as official, and the European Championships held in Offenbach and Neunkirchen, organized by the IAWF, are not, in spite of a large participation of wrestlers, but only from Germany. At the Saint Louis Olympic Games, only the American athletes took part in wrestling contests and in this case, noone challenges their championship titles and medals.

The first European Championship in Greco-Roman style took place in Vienna, in 1898. The weight categories were introduced after 1905. Here are the names of the European champions at that time: Georg Hackenscmidt (Russia), 1898; Hans-Henrich Egeberg (Germany), 1902; Gustav Fristensky (Bohemia), 1903; J. Ploeger (the Nether­lands), 1904; and Franz Blonner (Bohemia), 1905. Later on, the number of weight categories had been increased, except at the championship in Vienna, in 1907. The number of participating countries was in-

67

creasing. Thus, in 1910, in Budapest, 57 wrestlers came from Austria, Bohemia, Finland, Denmark, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary and Sweden. Most wrestlers came from Central European and Scandinavian countries. As of 1913 the European championships have adopted the rules and weight categories of the Olympic wrestling tournaments. Here are the names of European champions from that period: H.H. Egeberg (Denmark), H. Christen-sen (Denmark), T. Fischer (Hungary), B. Varga (Hun­gary), G. Mlamstroem (Sweden), G. Gerstacker (Germany), etc. German wrestlers took the greatest number of medals-64, followed by the Hungarians who took 34 medals, the Danish-21, the Austrians-14, etc.

The Scandinavian wrestlers took all of the gold medals: Mertensson and Johansson from Sweden and Vare from Finland.

The first World championship in Greco-Roman style, in two weight categories, was organized in Vienna, in 1904. Here are the names of its champi­ons: Ahlqvist (Denmark) and Arnold (Austria). The Olympic weight categories were observed at the championship in Helsinki (1911), in Vienna (1920) and in Helsinki again (1921). Under the new weight category system some of the former champions have managed to demonstrate their top mastership in wrestling by winning Olympic medals: Verner Weckman, Eemeli Väre, Oskari Edvard Vesterlund and Carl Westergren.

It is difficult to compile a reliable and objective list of championships. On the other hand, there is no ethical, or legal justification for challenging the titles and medals won at these European championships. However, in case we decide to establish a formal order and numbering of the championships we should adopt one of the following three approaches:

- Recognize as a historical fact all competitions in question, without numbering them;

- Number all competitions, except those repeated in the course of the same year, or

Einar Râberg, wrestler

- List and number only the championships which have taken place after the foundation of the first international wrestling federation in 1912.

The World and European championships represent our historical asset, unique with regard to any other sport. The past is, undoubtedly, always a part of the present. But, when recognizing our past we also have to acknowledge its dark sides.

68

6. GREAT STRIDES FORWARD

Stabilization and spectacular advancement are the main features of wrestling in the period between the two wars, with the new divisions, numerous polit­ical crises and the economic crisis of 1929-1932. Throughout this period wrestling was progressing to become one of the most popular sports, thanks to the Olympic games and the European Champion­ships organized under the auspices of IAWF in Mi­lan, from 1925 and onwards. In 1929 Paris hosted the first European championship in free style wrestling. Eurpoean championships have given a strong impetus to the development of wrestling on the global level. Due to a combination of circum­stances other continents were not in a position to or­ganize official competitions. Actually, the Pan-Ame-

Oskar Friman FIN

rican and Mediterranean Games were for the first time organized only in 1951, the Asian champion­ship in 1966 and the African in 1969.

The dark side of the period under review is the absence of World championships, evidently be­cause of the high level of Greco-Roman wrestling in Europe, not yet attained by the rest of the world, which would turn these championships into a repli­ca of the European events.

At the Olympic Games in Paris (1924) both styles were represented with the participation of 146 wrestlers from 22 countries in Greco-Roman and 100 wrestlers from 13 countries in free-style wrest­ling. Once again, the German athletes were not al­lowed to take part. In Greco-Roman style the Scan­dinavians were once again, invincible.

Here are the names of the Olympic champions of the Paris Games: E. Pütsep (Estonia), K. Antila (Finland), O. Friman (Finland), E. Vesterlund (Fin­land), С Westergren (Sweden) and H. Deglane (France).

69

Friman's holds

Apart from Finland and Sweden, very few other countries managed to win medals; Estonia took two, and France and Hungary one each. The Swede Carl Westergren won the champion title for the second time and in 1932 he became the first triple Olympic champion in wrestling of the modern Olympic Games. Oscar Friman is a double Olympic champi­on but he has an outstanding place in the history of wrestling thanks to his unique wrestling technique called "Friman's series". His grateful compatriots have engraved on his tomb one of his favourite holds. Actually, Friman was 11 times national cham­pion of Finland.

Henri Deglane, French fireman, was the light­est wrestler in the "heavy" category, at the age of 22. According to French sources, in spite of the ad­vantage over his opponent, Andersson (Sweden) he lost the match. The French protest was "vehement" and the decision was taken to repeat the match. In two minutes Deglane defeated his opponent "by fall". Later on he became a professional wrestler and world champion in catch, in 1931.

At the Anvers Olympic Games all former cham­pions in free-style wrestling lost their titles. The American counterattack was crowned with success. They took a total of 6 medals and had 4 champions: R. Reed, R. Vis, J. Spellman and H. Steele. J. Pih-lajamaeki was the only Finnish champion and other Finnish wrestlers took 5 more medals. H. Gehri and Fr. Hangmann (Switzerland) once again demon­strated their strength and the potential of their tradi­tional wresting.

The Olympic tournament in Greco-Roman wrestling (1928) in Amsterdam marks a turning point

70

Kustaa Pihlajmãki FIN

in a different direction. Among 107 competitors from 23 countries, Finland took only one medal, thanks to V. Kokkinen. Other medals were divided among 5 countries: K. Leucht (Germany), V. Vali (Estonia), L. Keresztes (Hungary), I. Mustafa (Egypt) and R. Svensson (Sweden). The greatest surprise of the Games was the medal of Ibrahim Mustafa, who thus became the first Olympic champion from Africa.

In free-style, 62 athletes from 15 countries took part in the competitions. The Americans lost their leading position and took only one gold, thanks to A. Morrison. Finland was better with its gold medals won by K. Mäkinen and A. Haavisto. E. Kyburz was brilliant, but the was the last Swiss to take the Olym­pic gold. O. Kapp was the first Estonian champion in free-style wrestling. Thanks to their two gold medals taken by T. Sjöstedt and J. Richthoff, Sweden stabi­lized its position in the "heavy" category for the years to come. The medals taken by Belgian, Cana­dian, British and French wrestlers were not only a token of their respective national success, but also a proof of successful overall development of free-style wrestling.

Lajos Keresztes HUN

Ivar Johansson SWE

71

In 1932, the second Olympic Games organized outside Europe occurred. The venue of the wrestl­ing competitions was the "Olympic Hall" in Los An­geles, where 41 wrestlers from 13 counries took part in Greco-Roman style and 49 wrestlers from 15 countries in free-style wrestling. The participation was rather small, due to the economic crisis and the geographical distance, and particularly in view of the decision taken in Amsterdam (1928) to admit to the Games only one wrestler per country, per weight category.

In Greco-Roman style the supremacy of the Scandinavians remained unchallenged: E. Malm-berg, С Westergren and I. Johansson took the gold. I. Johansson was the first wrestler to win the champ­ionships in both styles and R. Svensson became double Olympic champion.

By demonstrating a new, attractive style of wrestling in swift pace the Italians won the sympathy

72

Hermanni Pihlajmäki FIN

of the public and took 4 medals: G. Gozzi-gold, M. Nizzola-silver and E. Gallegatl and M. Gruppioni a bronze each. As a team they earned the 4-th place on the unofficial rating list, but in spite of that, some journalists called these Olympic Games "Italian".

German wrestlers were outstanding. J. Brendel took the gold and thus became Olympic champion.

Vöino Kokkinen FIN

IF

73

The Germans took two more silver medals. One of the winners, J. Foldeak later won the title of Europe­an champion and became famous as coach for the German national team and founder of a company for the production of wrestling mats.

Once again the Americans were best in free­style wrestling with three champions: R. Pearce, Van Bebber and P. Mehringer. I. Johansson and J. Richtoff took two gold medals for Sweden, the latter for the second time. France took its first gold in free­style wrestling thanks to P. Pacome. H. Pihlajamäki was the only Finnish champion. The progress of Eu­ropean wrestlers in free-style wrestling was evident.

The Olympic Games in Berlin (1936) attracted an outstanding number of competitors in wrestling: 100 in free-style, from 20 countries and 110 in Greco-Roman style, from 23 countries. Defending the posi­tion of the strongest nation in Greco-Roman wrestling Sweden took three gold medals thanks to : R. Svedberg, I. Johansson (his third Olympic champion title) and A. Cadier. The gold medal taken by the Turkish wrestler Y. Erkan announced the

Werner Seelenbinder GER

bright prospects in wrestling for that country. Other gold medal winners in Berlin were: M. Lörincz (Hun­gary), L. Koskela (Finland) and Palusalu (Estonia). Germany took 4 medals, contrary to the more ambitions expectations of the organizers. They were so eager to achieve success that they even ac­claimed the performance of Werner Seelenbinder, in spite of his socialist political views. He only earned the 4-th place in his category.

In free-style wrestling for the first time the wres­tlers from 6 countries shared the medals. The Hun­garians were the surprise of the Games, with their forfeit matches and two gold medals won by О Zom-bori and K. Kárpáti. The Finnish wrestlers, K. Pih­lajamäki, double Olympic champion and national champion over twenty times, demonstrated top mastership. F Lewis (USA), E. Poilve (France) and K. Fridell (Sweden) were also the champions of the Berlin Olympic Games.

74

Károly Kárpáti HUN

Annual European championships encouraged the development and promotion of wrestling on the global level. The scope of wrestling was constantly expanding and the number of countries developing this sport increasing. This resulted in the interest of new towns to host wrestling events. Thus, the championship in Greco-Roman wrestling was or­ganized in 1925 in Milan, in 1926 in Riga, in 1927 in Budapest, in 1929 in Dortmund, in 1930 in Stock­holm, in 1931 in Prague, in 1933 in Helsinki, in 1934 in Rome, in 1935 in Copenhagen, in 1937 in Paris, in 1938 in Tallin and in 1939 in Oslo. The European championship in Paris had the highest number of participants: 92 from 19 countries.

Joh. Richthoff SWE

Atik Arikan TUR

Kurt Hornfischer GER

75

Rudolf Svedberg SWE

Denis Perret SUI

J. Földeak GER in action

76

European championships in free-style wrestl­ing were less numerous, held in Paris in 1929, in Brussels, in 1930, in Budapest in 1931, in Paris again in 1933, in Stockholm in 1934, in Brussels again in 1935 and in Munich in 1937. The championship in Brussels, in 1935, had the highest participation: 60 wrestlers from 14 countries.

At first the European championships had one weight category less with regard to the Olympic Games. It is only in 1930 that the pattern of the Olympic weight categories in free-style wrestling ob­served at the Olympic Games in Paris, in 1924, was adopted. This pattern was actually observed in both styles for the first time at the Olympic Games in 1932.

Already in 1926, the IAWF limited the participa­tion to one wrestler per weight category, per country. The European Championships were not organized in the Olympic years. The Berlin Congress (held from 25 to 30 May, 1930) recommended to interna­tional sports organizations to refrain from organizing World championships during the Olympic years and recognize the Olympic champion titles. In wrestling the Olympic titles have never been recognized. On the other hand, the continental championships were not organized in the years of the Olympic Games.

The classification at the Olympic Games and the championships is the most reliable indicator of the balance of forces in wrestling, According to un­official classification per nations at the Olympic Games, the Swedes were three times first in Greco-Roman wrestling in : 1908, 1932 and 1934, and once in free-style wrestling, in 1936. Finland was three times first in Greco-Roman wrestling in: 1912, 1920 and 1924, and twice in free-style, in: 1920 and 1928. Germany was first in Greco-Roman wrestling in 1928. In free-style wrestling the USA were first in: 1904, 1924 and 1932. Great Britain was first in free­style wrestling in 1908.

In spite of an outstanding development of free­style wrestling, particularly in Europe, classifica­tions at continental championships differed from the rating at the Olympic Games. Sweden was six times European champion: in 1929, 1930, 1934, 1937, 1938 and 1939; Finland twice: in 1931 and 1933; Germany twice: in 1926 and 1935 and Hungary in 1927. Swedish supremacy was unchallenged, par­ticularly in the championships held at the end of the period under review.

The picture of free-style wrestling was much more diversified. Hungary was champion in 1931 and 1935; Sweden in 1929 and 1934. From the historical point of view the victories of Belgium, in 1930, Switzerland in 1933 and Germany in 1937 are particularly noteworthy.

Some Olympic champions have also attained their mastery on the European mat and have become the brightest stars of XX-th century wrestling; Ivar Jo­hansson (Sweden) three times Olympic champion and ten times European champion; Custaa Pihlaja-mäki (Finland) and Carl Westergren and Johan Richthoff (both Swedes) were all three double Olym­pic champions and ten, five and four times respective­ly European champions. Moreover, Westergren won the World champion title in 1922. These giants of physical and spiritual strength have also invented new technical and tactical solutions and launched a new aesthetic approach to modern wrestling, worthy to be followed by all wrestlers of the world.

Koroly Kárpáti, Olympic champion from Hun­gary and six times European champion, and his compatriot Ödön Zombary, twice European champ­ion, have introduced a highly technical and balanced approach to wrestling, thus initiating a new trend in its development. Jacob Brendel (Ger­many), twice European champion, was a model of rational wrestling and the Italian Giovani Gozi, also twice European champion, was famous for his risky, emotional and inspired wrestling.

The ups and downs in the work of the IAWF af­fected the development of wrestling. After the resig­nation of President Einer Raberg, in 1924, in Paris, he was replaced by Alfred Brüll from Hungary. The Amsterdam Congress set up a Commission with the task of defining the philosophy of wrestling and drafting the rules of competition, consisting of the following members: Miklós Csillag, Einer Raberg and Victor Smeds. But, since they were some what distanced from the project, both geographically and in their respective approaches to the issues in­volved, it took eight years before its approval by the Berlin Congress in 1936. The Rules were published the following year.

At that time the Hungarians exercised a very strong influence on the work of the IAWF through Mr. M. Victor, elected President at the Stockholm Con­gress in 1930, who remained in office for the follow­ing twenty years. As far as the Rules are concerned, their adoption was preceded by long and hot discus­sions. Their adoption was not an easy task, particu­larly because of the great number of already adopt­ed amendments. At first, the match went on until victory by fall. Later on, in case of tied score the wrestlers were allowed to go into overtime. In this period the first situation of danger and the number of executed holds counted. In some cases the light­er wrestler was proclaimed winner. Breaks were al­lowed every 30 minutes, during which specially as­signed "water boys" used to pour pails of water on the contestants to freshen them up.

77

At first wrestling matches were held on bare surface and later on in the boxing ring, or catch, originally on rostrums made of leaves and wood chips, and eventually on canvas mats and nowa­days on mats made of synthetic fabric.

The New Rules provided solutions to a great deal of problems which had previously been cause for numerous disagreements. They also helped im­prove the organization of the competitions ; they de­termined the dress of the judge referees and com­petitors and the whole procedure from the outset to the end of combat. The Rules also established some criteria-although not very clear ones-for pas­sivity, identification of illegal holds, warnings and rating of technical holds.

The duration of the match was reduced to 20 minutes. After ten minutes the match was to be inter-ruped at the signal of the judge and referee, to de­cide which of the two wrestlers had been more ac­tive. It was the right of the more active wrestler to decide whether he wanted to continue the match in standing position or "par-terre", according to the formula: 2x3 minutes "par-terre" and 4 minutes in standing position. In case of a tied score the compe­titors were allowed to go into overtime "par-terre". In case of an ex-aequo result the officials awarded vic­tory to the wrestler whose actions on the mat had produced a better effect.

For the first time the Rules provided for the negative points affecting classification. In case of victory by fall the winner was awarded 0 points; in case of victory on points -1 negative point ; in case of

defeat by fall or on negative points -3 negative points to the defeated wrestler. The wrestler with 5 negative points was eliminated from further compe­tition. This decision particularly encouraged combat for victory by fall.

The Rules also introduced significant changes in officiating. In 1912 the officiating team consisted of three members. The referee was dressed in white sports trousers and the members of the jury in frock coats. Very often the members of the jury were selected quite by chance, which means that they were not competent and very often partial. Therefore, in 1921 a compulsory course for the officials was in­troduced in view of enhancing their level of compe­tence, by demonstrating for them various holds, in­cluding the illegal ones, by discussing officiating problems in complex situations, etc. Since the course was compulsory, all the judge-referees who did not at­tend them were not admitted to officiate.

After the Berlin Congress (1936) the IAWF could be satisfied with its rational and uniform Rules, its concept of the future development of wrestling and its concept of a more efficient way of conducting its activities. Everybody was optimistic with regards to the expected results. But, after a successful Europe­an championship in Oslo and on the eve of the Hel­sinki Olympic Games, the annexation (Anschluss) of Austria occured, followed by the annexation of the Sudeten region, the Italian occupation of Albania, etc. Like in Chostakovitch's Leningrad Symphony, the sounds of war were approaching and becoming increasingly loud...

78

7. DIVERSITY OF STYLES

Mars, the god of war, seriously jeopardized the Olympic idea, but the positive spirit of humanity fi­nally prevailed, once again. In the Second World War, 80% of the total population was directly, or in­directly involved, with over 50 million casualties. Ac­cording to the German philosopher Nieztsche, war and courage usually bring about much loftier achievements than love for your neighbours. Speak­ing of the Second World War it is difficult to identify any lofty achievement at all, but it goes without say­ing, that along with destruction all war brings about significant changes. After the Second World War new states emerged, the anti-facist coalition was dissolved, the world map reshaped, the United Na­tions Organization was founded, and new political, military and economic blocks came into being.

People, tired of war and disgusted with its ca­lamities, adhered with a passion to the religion of Olympism and sports...

Like Phoenix, wrestling re-emerged from the ashes. Already in 1946, less than a year after the end of the war, Victor Smeds, President of the IAWF convened the Congress in Stockholm, to elect new leadership: Roger Coulon, to the office of Secretary General, Treasurer and Technical Director, Vehli Emre (Turkey), Per Tamm (Sweden) and Streit Jr. (USA) to the post of Vice-Presidents, and Members of the Bureau: Ratib (Egypt), Himberg (Finland), Perrel (the Netherlands), Cortenbosch (Belgium), Mackenzie (Great Britain) and Salvatorelli (Italy). The Congress also raised the issue of the Rules of Procedure and decided to renew the European championships.

At the London Olympic Games (1948) wrestling competitions took place in new weight categories. The Congress discussed the Rules, and Roger Coulon together with Perrel and Cortenbosch were entrusted with the task of drafting new Rules of Procedure. Before the London Games two Europe­an championships had taken place: in free-style wrestling in Stockholm, in 1946 and in Greco-Roman style in Prague, in 1947. A new balance of forces was coming into view. The Turks were first in free-style, and the Soviets second, immediately behind the Swedes, in Greco-Roman wrestling.

The London Olympic Games made it clear that sports still needed time to recover. In spite of the

2 9 J U L Y 1 9 4 8 I4AUGUST

JL О N D О N

participation of 4,689 athletes from 59 countries, there was no single record broken.

In wrestling, the number of competitors was slightly higher than to that in 1936: 112 wrestlers from 19 countries in Greco-Roman and 117 wrestlers from 24 countries in free-style wrestling. In Greco-Roman wrestling the Swedes took five gold medals : K. Pettersen, G. Freij, G. Andersson, A. Grönberg and K.E. Nilsson. Gustav Freij's wrestling was nota­bly impressive. The two gold medals won by A. Kirecci and M. Oktav was an outstanding achieve­ment of Turkish wrestling. All other countries tradi­tionally strong in wrestling had a much poorer rat­ing. Only Pietro Lombardi did not disappoint and saved the reputation of Italian wrestlers in the lighter weight category.

79

Pietro Lombardi ITA

80

Gyula Bóbis HUN

It was on the Olympic mat that the Turks made their first break-through in free-style wrestling. Sin­cerely speaking, Turkish wrestlers and Egyptian weight-lifters were the biggest surprise of the Lon­don Games.

No champion of the Berlin Games managed to take a medal in London. Only Y. Dogy, former European champion, took the gold, but by demon­strating a completely different wrestling style. Out of 16 champions 11 came from the countries which were not involved in the Second World War (Sweden and Turkey). New participants in the Games were weak. Pakistan was not admitted because their wrestlers were late for weigh- in, which developed into a scandal of the Games.

The IAWF was very active. The Stockholm Con­gress (1950) adopted the new rules, and Roger Coulon organized in Paris a course in officiating with Mihaly Matura as the main instructor.

The world was quickly recovering from depres­sion and fear. It was in the spirit of optimism and peace that the Helsinki Games were held in 1954. These Games will be remembered by 49 Olympic and 15 new world records. The upward trend in

wrestling was evident. Energy of the newly emerg­ing forces was prevailing over conservative forces and former stars. At the very outset, four Soviet wrestlers took the gold by demonstrating four differ­ent wrestling styles: B. Gurevitch by performing different throws in standing position, S. Safin by in­fallible overthrows, J. Punkin by overthrows per­formed turning his back and Johannes Kotkas, Eu­ropean champion in 1938 and 1939 and Champion of the USSR in wrestling and putting, demonstrated an outstanding pre-war technique with arm and head locks... The Hungarian M. Szilvasi was brilliant in performing sit-backs and drop-backs and his compatriot I. Hodos was outstanding in balanced wrestling. Watching their performance the specta­tors were overwhelmed by emotion and admiration. Axel Grönberg (Sweden) took the Olympic gold for the second time, which he added to his titles of Eu­ropean champion in 1947 and World champion, in 1950. K. Grödahl was the only champion from the host country-Finland.

81

Miklós Szilvási HUN

A. Masur, A. Mekokishvili and J. Kotkas

Johanes Kotkas

82

The clash between the old and new school of wrestling has enriched our sport by introducing novel features and promoting a more dramatic approach.

In free-style wrestling the main battle was waged between and among the teams fostering new styles. The victories of O. Anderberg and V. Palm were actually the last exploits of the Scandinavian "wave" in wrestling. Turkish style occasionally resembled of their traditional wrestling. Kemal Ata-türk, the founding father of modern Turkey, was also a supporter of wrestling. He said: "Free-style wrestling is my favourie sport... It requires strength and intelligence. The road to lofty achievements is open to those endowed with both these qualities." H. Gemici and B. Sit were acclaimed as national heroes. W. Smith (USA) successfully demonstrated the type of wrestling practiced in his country. A. Mekokishvilli and D. Tsimakuridze demonstrated the overthrows with locks never seen before, borrowed from their tradional wrestling tchidaoba. There was a hint of a thousand year old tradition behind the title of Shohachi Ishi, first Japanese champion in wrestling. The wrestling of Iranian comptetitiors was marked by their traditional form kochti. They had to settle for two silver and three bronze medals.

It is for the first time in its history that so many wrestling techniques inspired by traditional wrestling from different periods and of different ori­gin have been demonstrated on the mat. Traditional forms performed in rationally modified versions ac­tually enriched wrestling with a wide range of new technical holds, new ideas, new energy and new spirit.

The IAWF has played an increasingly important role in the promotion of wrestling. The Helsinki Con­gress in 1952 elected Roger Coulon, a very ener­getic French officer, to the post of President and in 1954 the organization adopted the French abbrevia­tion FILA (Fédération International de Lutte Amateur) as its official name.

The second half of the century began with a new schedule of competitions. It has been decided to hold World championships in both styles biannu-ally and the World Cup in the Olympic year. Accord­ing to the new Calender three World championships in Greco-Roman wrestling took place: in Stockholm (1950), Naples (1953) and Karlsruhe (1955) and the World Cup took place in Istanbul, in 1956. The win­ners of these championships were oustanding wrestlers. The Swedes O. Anderberg and G. Freij were no longer in the prime of their youth, but they were experienced athletes for whom there were no secrets in wrestling. Already in Naples the gold me­dal ratio between the USSR and Sweden was 5:3.

Roger Coulon (1950-1971)

Beside the famous A. Ehglas and G. Kartozia, out­standing in their universal approachs to wrestling, new names emerged, such as: A. Terian, G. Gamar-nik and V. Manner, outstanding in their brilliant tech­niques based on a large variety of holds. Attractive and risky wrestling demonstrated by I. Fabra (Italy) and Polyak's (Hungary) resembling Nelson's "un­breakable chains" has been highly appreciated as true artistic wrestling. In the "heavy" category the giants: J. Kotkas, B. Antosson, A. Masur and G. Bo-bis were reminescent of professional wrestlers at their very best.

Due to the great geographical distance only 85 wrestlers in Greco-Roman style from 20 contries took part in the Melbourne Olympic Games in 1956. The Soviet wrestlers: N. Soloviev, R. Vyrupayev, G. Kartozia, V. Nikolayev and A. Parfenov took five gold medals. Their prudent technical approach to wrestling however, jeopardized the beauty of their performance. A 2 meter tall giant, A. Parfenov, be­came champion in the "heavy" category. During the war he was wounded crossing a river, but managed to carry with him a heavy gun and cover his comrades. Evidently, the valiant always behave appropriately, be it in every day life or on the mat. The Finnish wrestlers: R. Mäkinen and K. Lehtonen

83

won two titles, but Finland did not manage to take a single gold medal. The Turkish champion demon­strated a successful combination of strength and outstanding technique.

Progress in wrestling was characterized by a rapid shift in the title of champion. New names were emerging as Olympic champions. From among the world champions only Kartozia, Nikolae'iev, Degistanli and Sasahara managed to attain the Olympic top.

In free-style wrestling participation was better: 110 competitors from 28 countries. No World champion from Helsinki (1952) managed to win a title at the World championship in Tokyo (1954). The favourites of the event were the Soviet wrestlers. They had seven Georgians and one Estonian on their team. They took five medals, two of them gold, thanks to the invincible Georgian "crochet". At the Olympic Games, however, it was only M. Tsalkala-manidze who managed to win the title of champion. V. Balavadze, one of the most outstanding masters of wrestling technique, only come in third. The oppo­nents had discovered efficient ways and means to counteract each other's actions on the mat. It is thanks to their "thunderstorm" attacks and perfect tactics that the Japanese wrestlers won their champion titles. "Fireman's carry throws" per­formed by E. Habibi (Iran) were fatal for all his oppo­nents and the mighty G.R. Takhti mastered the mat like an ancient deity. Dagistanly (Turkey) implement­ed the technique of "riveting" his opponents to the ground. His compatriot H. Kaplan, with his harmoni­ous body, was a striking contrast to the big wrestlers of "heavy" category with their enormous bodies and bursting muscles. After a victory on points and a defeat by fall Nikola Stanchev (Bulgaria) in dramat­ic combat managed to win three matches in a row, by fall, and thus became the first Bulgarian Olympic champion. Also, some other Bulgarian wrestlers (Dobrev, Sirakov, Mehmedov) at the beginning of their wrestling careers demonstrated mastership in both wrestling styles.

It is at the Melbourne Olympic Games that the schools of wrestling which were to take the lead on the world mat in the forthcoming decade, actually asserted themselves. Also, FILA elected its new of­ficials: Emre (Turkey), Himberg (Finland), Macken­zie (Great Britain), Hatta (Japan), Katulin (USSR), De Ferrari (USA), Matura (Hungary), Bafico (Italy), Ratib (Egypt), Ströbäck (Sweden), Perrel (the Netherlands), Pascal (Spain), Ercegan (Yugoslavia) and Hergl (Germany).

84

К. Lechtonen FIN and G. Toth HUN

A. Parfenov USSR

Shozo Sasahara JPN

85

Shozo Sasahara JPN

86

Lutvi Ahmedov BUL against Hamit Kaplan TUR, (Sofia, 1958)

87

Kangasniemi FIN-Lewis USA

К. Lehtonen FIN

Hamit Kaplan TUR

88

8. OLYMPIC WRESTLING ON THREE CONTINENTS

The holding of three consecutive Olympic Games on three different continents was a testimo­ny of their increasing universally recognized import­ance at that time. Many new countries, neighbours of the host cities, took part in the Rome, Tokyo and Mexico City Olympic Games. The popularity of wrestling was growing and its athletic mastership in­creasing. Different styles from the previous period were still being fostered, but tactical novelties were also taking root with the view of counteracting the new approach demonstrated by some wrestlers. Be­sides, the coaches and their trainees were more than eager to develop a new approach to wrestling.

Rome, the host city of the Olympic Games in 1960, opened its doors to 5, 337 athletes from 84 countries. The Basilica Massenzio in the vicinity of the Coloseum, the Forum and other ancient historic-

JEUX DE LA XVII OLYMPIADE

ROMA O O O 25УШ-П.ІХ

al monuments in Rome, were the venue of the wrestling competitions. It was the right back-drop for the Olympic spirit. One could feel the effect better. The Eternal City had never had more enthusiastic and noble visitors and competitors than on that oc­casion. Aminated discussions focused not only on athletic performance, but also on the art of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangello, thus reviving the Olympic spirit and the Hellenic ideals at their best.

In Greco-Roman wrestling the number of com­petitors amounted to 174, from 32 countries. M. Bay-rak (Turkey) took his second gold and only one World champion, I. Bogdan from the USSR repeat­ed his exploit and also took the Olympic gold. D. Pir-vulescu (Rumania) and M. Siile (Turkey) were out­standing in performing overthrows in standing position. "Par-terre" О. Karayev (USSR) was invin­cible in performing waist locks in bridge, whereas A. Koridze (USSR) and M. Bayrak (Turkey) were out­standing in performing spectacular lifts by rear waist lock. D. Dobrev (Bulgaria), champion in weight-lifting, demonstrated the power of spiritual strength combined with the strength of muscles. Kiss (Tur­key) and Bogdan (USSR) demonstrated a less at­tractive wrestling than usual, but sufficient to jeopardize the victory of such stars as: G. Kartozia, I. Kozma and W. Dietrich.

The road to Rome passed through the World championships of Istambul (1957) and Teheran (1959) and the World Cup in Sofia (1959). H. Akbas, M. Dagistanly, V. Balavadze and E. Habibi offered genuinely spectacular performance in wrestling. The lame and stuttering Demosthenes, thanks to hard work and tenacity, managed to become one of the most famous orators of his time ; the lame Akbas managed to transform his handicap into a very dan­gerous and mighty weapon against his opponents. H. Kaplan, World and Olympic champion, never be­fore defeated, had to surrender the match to L. Ahmedov (Bulgaria). It is at the Olympic Games in Rome that P. Sirakov became the first Bulgarian Olympic champion.

Out of all great wrestlers only M. Dagistanly (double Olympic champion and three times World champion) passed the Olympic test. T Mc Cann, S.

89

Dimitar Dobrev BUL

Wilson and D. Blubaugh, all three from the USA, took the gold in the most unexpected, but spectacu­lar way. The Turkish wrestlers H. Güngör and I. Atli demonstrated a simple but self-confident wrestling. The results in the "heavy" category were most un­expected. W. Dietrich (Germany) was first in Greco-Roman wrestling, leaving behind him: S. Dzarassov, H. Kaplan, L. Ahmedov, etc. He also won another medal in Greco-Roman wrestling and the following year demonstrated his mastership in free-style wrestling as well.

As of 1960 the championships in both styles have been organized annually. This decision, taken by FILA, has actually contributed to the promotion of wrestling. Not a single champion of the RomeOlym-

90

pic Games managed to take the gold in Tokyo (1964).

The World championships took place in: Yoko­hama (1961), Toledo (1962) and Helsinki (1963). The Olympic champions: O. Karavayev, I. Polyak, G. Kar-tozia, I. Bogdan, A. Koridze and Ichiguchi continued their successful wrestling careers. Also, new names emerged: S. Rybalko, A. Kolessov, R. Abahidze and g. Sapunov, all from the USSR, J. Varga and I. Koz-ma from Hungary, B. Vukov and S. Horvat from Yu­goslavia, H. Mustafa from Egypt and V. Bularca from Romania.

This time the Olympic top was not accessible to champions of the previous Games. The Soviet wrestlers, able to win even six champion titles at one single championship, in Tokyo, have only A. Koles­sov who managed to take the gold. Thanks to their dynamic and technically outstanding wrestling T. Hanahara and M. Ichiguchi, both from Japan, and K. Ayvaz from Turkey, won the championships in their respective weight categories. In his wrestling the Hungarian I. Polyak once more demonstrated that there was no obsolete hold in wrestling. I. Koz-ma tried hard to use his strength as a weapon

Imre Polyak HUN ^нг̂ ^^н

г ^ ^

•»***•

1 * *••- ^^н

1 • В — ^Ш ш 1 ^ш Ш1 ^в •*• ^^и

ЦуД к» я

И Branko Simlc YUG

t4* ^ ^ H ¿ !"~~¿|

^Я A ^ Я с ^ ^ І i l V ^ш W JL. |ш| І Л ^ ^ Л ИЕя '^^ ^ ' / •

^ r 1 m

• г <4 J Г' ^ * F r ^ ^ ^ - 1 ; < -. W ,

.с -ILI

Щ £ « ^ ^ 48

^Ш ш

hM J ^ N k J¿? 51^ 91

Boyan Radev BUL

O. Watanabe JPN

István Kozma HUN

92

against his opponents, but they were equal to him in that regard. B. Simitch (Yugoslavia) demonstrated technically outstanding and mature wrestling; the victory of B. Radev was beautiful and un­challengeable.

Championships in free-style wrestling took place in Yokohama (1961), Toledo (1962) and Sofia (1963). The advent of a new generation was the most salient common feature of all these events. At the Olympic Games in Rome the Iranian wrestlers had very high aspirations in six categories, but were defeated in the 4-th and 5-th circles. This time, the rejuvenated Iranian team took five gold medals at the World championship in 1961 thanks to: M. Safepour, M. Sanatkaran, E. Habibi, M. Savarabadi and G. Takhti. In 1962 M. Mehidzadah emerged on the mat. The Turks did not perform outstandingly. They took only two gold medals: H. Akbas in 1962 and G. Yanilmaz in 1963. The Bulgarians were climbing towards the top thanks to the victories of E. Valtchev and P. Gardjev. The phenomenal O. Watanabe and his compratiot I. Horiuchi were two

new names bringing fresh blood from Japan. The Soviet champions were again the most numerous: A. Aliyev (fifth time world champion), V. Rubashvili, A. Ibragimov, G. Sagaradze, and two more: A. Med-vedev and A. Ivanitzki with brilliant prostects.

In Tokyo (1964) 163 competitors from 36 coun­tries took part in free-style wrestling competitions. Not a single former Olympic champion won this title again, at these Games. The Japanese, great ad­mirers of their sumo wrestling (in their mythology these wrestlers are compared to the mountains), with great joy and enthusiasm accaimed their champions in the lightest weight categories: I. Jochida, Uetake and O. Watanabe. E. Valtchev and R Garyev (Bulgaria), Ogan (Turkey), A. Medvedev and A. Ivanitzki (USSR) managed to win their titles of champion only after strenous and difficult matches against their worthy opponents. This event clearly revealed the trend towards the uniformity of styles. Outstanding wrestlers such as: Aliev, Yanil­maz, Movahed, Mehdizadeh, Takhti, etc., did not manage to take a single medal.

Enyu Valtchev BUL

93

Prodan Gardjev BUL Alexandre Ivanitzki and Lutvi Ahmedov

94

The XVIII-th Olympic Games in Tokyo were a true festivity of peace. It was Yonoshori Sakai, a boy born in the neighbourhood of Hiroshima on the day when the bomb was dropped, who lit the Olympic flame. His torch and the slogan "The whole world is an Olympiade" have added a new meaning to the Olympic symbols.

The Olympic Games in Mexico, in 1968, were not only a sports event but an equally important cul­tural event. The encounter with the vestiges of the Aztecan civilization, the paintings of Orozoko and Siqueiros, the song and dance performances and the impressive works of ancient and modern ar­chitecture was a unique experience for the officials, athletes and guests. During the Games, the Mexi­cans had to give up their passion for bullfighting for the benefit of sports competitions and Olympic humanism.

Because of the specific climate the preparation of the athletes for the Mexican Olympic Games had to be conducted accordingly. The altitude of 2,240 m. and lack of oxygen could cause respiratory problems for the athletes. To prepare the athletes for efforts to be sustained in such conditions, the prepa­rations had been conducted at similar altitudes.

Competitions in wrestling attracted a great number of fans. In Greco-Roman wrestling I. Kozma (Hungary) took his second gold in the "heavy" category and with his other three World champion ti­tles became one of the best wrestlers of this century. Boyan Radev (Bulgaria), World champion and fa­mous for his great physical strength and attractive wrestling, also took the Olympic gold. Actually, the Olympic gold was taken by five countries: P. Kirov (Bulgaria) thus marking the beginning of an out­standing golden career; the experienced wrestlers: J. Varga (Hungary) and R. Rurua (USSR) did not give a chance to their opponents ; and the superiori­ty of Munemura (Japan) and Metz (GDR) was un­challenged.

It is at the World championships in Tampere (1965), Toledo (1966) and Bucarest (1967) that a cluster of great champions emerged. The Soviet wrestlers: S. Rybalko, G. Sapunov, A. Kolessov, A. Anissimov, N. Chmakov, V. Igumenov, V. Olenik, V. Bakulin, N. Yakovenko, etc., have demonstrated out­standing sport mastership. They took seven gold medals. At the Olympic Games, on the other hand, it is only R. Rurua who saved the honour of his coun­try. World champions: A. Kerezov and B. Radev (Bulgaria), I. Cernea an I. Baciu (Rumania), I. Koz-

Petar Kirov BUL

Kazakov USSR and Varga HUN

ma and L. Sillay (Hungary), F. Stange (GDR), S. Hor-vat (Yugoslavia) and E. Tapio (Finland) have demon­strated top wrestling. The difference in rating at the World championships and the Olympic Games may be explained by the participation of a great number of wrestlers of equal level and the problems of adaptability connected with high altitude during the prepartions.

In free-style wrestling (164 participants from 38 countries) Uetake (Japan) and. A. Medvedev (USSR) took the Olympic gold for the second time, the latter in the heaviest category. The offensive wrestling of Nakata and Kaneko (Japan) was award­ed. After the gold medals won by M. Atalay and A. Ayik, the Turkish wrestlers had a rather long period of ineffectivennes as far as medals are concerned. Two more gold medals were taken by A. Movahed (Iran) and B. Gurevitch (USSR).

Between the two Olympic Games the world championships in free-style wrestling were or­ganized in: Manchester (1965), Toledo (1966) and New Delhi (1967). A. Medvedev, A. Ivanizki, A. Ayik and M. Koneko took the gold for the second time, thus becoming double champions. A. Movahed (Iran) managed to take gold three consecutive times, only thanks to his strength, prevailing in an unimpressive performance. P. Gardjev (Bulgaria) won his second title of World champion. A great suc­cess of D. Robin (France) and top rating of: Y. Yoshi-da, T Fukuda and M. Kaneko (Japan), San Sun Chang (Korea), S. Safepur and M. Mehdizadeh (Iran), G. Sagaradze, A. Aliev, B. Gurevitch, A. Med­vedev and A. Ivanitzki (USSR) and M. Atalay and A. Ayik (Turkey) remain memorable. It is in Mexico that the Mongolian wrestlers participated in the Olympic Games for the first time and took three bronze me­dals thanks to their picturesque traditional style bokh.

During the period under review FILA has been very active in various fields, and particularly in ad­ministration. Among its many achievements the fol­lowing points deserve special mention: notable im­provement in the exchange of information with the national federations, publication of the FILA BULLE­TIN, introduction of licences for wrestlers and de­velopment of a good qualification system for judge-

referees. Thanks to the efforts of Mr. Milan Ercegan, Secretary General of FILA, several films have been made for the education of judge-referees. However, the decisions connected with the organisation of championships for juniors and the number of weight categories increased from 8 to 10, count among the most important achievements of FILA in that period.

The scope of wrestling by far exceeded its Calendar of competitions. FILA decided to place the World championship in Machester (1965) on equal footing with the continental championships. Accord­ing to the new pattern the champions at these com­petitions retained their titles of World champion and the best rated wrestlers per continent in their respective weight categories were proclaimed champions of their respective continents. The Man­chester World Championship has not been ana­lyzed in any history of wrestling, but it was on event which was a driving force, helping to bring about the revival of European championships as independent competitions, organized already in the following year (Essen, 1966).

Sambo, as an independent style was in­troduced in the FILA system in 1966. Like judo, this sport is an artifical product. Sambo was invented in the Soviet Union, in the thirties, as a synthesis of wrestling holds recognized in the Rules as legal. In its Decree No. 6,633, from 1938 the Committee for Physical Culture and Sports of the USSR, defines sambo as a combination of the most precious forms of traditional Georgian, Tadjuk, Uzbek, Kazakh and Kirgiz wrestling and the best defensive holds prac­ticed in other varieties of this sport. Sambo is actual­ly an abbreviation standing for (in Russian) "un­armed self-defense". The first European cham­pionship in sambo was organized in Riga, in 1972, followed by the championships in: Teheran (1973), Ulan Bator (1974), Minsk (1975), etc. Later on, at­tempts have been made to establish the rules and holds of sambo by borrowing them from wrestling.

At the European championship in Skopje (1968) a festival of traditional wrestling was organized un­der the auspices of FILA. This was the first official presentation of traditional wrestling and the first ef­fort to encourage the promotion of these wrestling forms.

96