History of Science and Technology in the Philippines

8/14/2019 History of Science and Technology in the Philippines

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A HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

By: Olivia C. Caoili

Introduction

The need to develop a country's science and technology has generally been recognized as one of theimperatives of socioeconomic progress in the contemporary world. This has become a widespread concernof governments especially since the post-world war years.

!mong Third "orld countries# an important dimension of this concern is the problem of dependence inscience and technology as this is closely tied up with the integrity of their political sovereignty and economicself-reliance. There e$ists a continuing imbalance between scientific and technological developmentamong contemporary states with %& per cent of all research and development facilities located indeveloped countries and almost wholly concerned with the latter's problems. ependence or autonomy inscience and technology has been a salient issue in conferences sponsored by the (nited )ations.

t is within the above conte$t that this paper attempts to e$amine the history of science andtechnology in the *hilippines. +ather than focusing simply on a straight chronology of events# it see,s tointerpret and analyze the interdependent effects of geography# colonial trade# economic and educationalpolicies and socio-cultural factors in shaping the evolution of present *hilippine science and technology.

!s used in this paper# science is concerned with the systematic understanding and e$planation ofthe laws of nature. cientific activity centers on research# the end result of which is the discovery orproduction of new ,nowledge. This new ,nowledge may or may not have any direct or immediateapplication.

n comparison# technology has often been understood as the systematic ,nowledge of the industrialarts. !s this ,nowledge was implemented by means of techni/ues# technology has become commonlyta,en to mean both the ,nowledge and the means of its utilization# that is# 0a body# of ,nowledge abouttechni/ues. 1odern technology also involves systematic research but its outcome is more concrete thanscience# i.e. the production of a thing# a chemical# a process# something to be bought and sold.

n the past# science and technology developed separately# with the latter being largely a product oftrial and error in response to a particular human need. n modern times# however# the progresses of scienceand technology have become intimately lin,ed together. 1any scientific discoveries have been facilitatedby the development of new technology. )ew scientific ,nowledge in turn has often led to further refinementof e$isting technology or the invention of entirely new ones.

*recolonial cience and Technology

There is a very little reliable written information about *hilippine society# culture and technology beforethe arrival of the paniards in 2342. !s such# one has to reconstruct a picture of this past usingcontemporary archaeological findings# accounts by early traders and foreign travelers# and the narrativesabout conditions in the archipelago which were written by the first panish missionaries and colonialofficials. !ccording to these sources# there were numerous# scattered# thriving# relatively self-sufficient and

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autonomous communities long before the paniards arrived. The early 5ilipinos had attained a generallysimple level of technological development# compared with those of the Chinese and 6apanese# but thiswas sufficient for their needs at that period of time.

!rchaeological findings indicate that modern men 7homo sapiens8 from the !sian mainland firstcame over-land and across narrow channels to live in *alawan and Batangas around 39#999 years ago.

5or about 9#999 years# they made simple tools or weapons of stone fla,es but eventually developedtechni/ues for sawing# drilling and polishing hard stones. These tone !ge inhabitants# subse/uentlyformed settlements in the ma;or *hilippine islands such as ulu# 1indanao 7#999 B.C.#they were producing adzes ornaments of seashells and pottery of various designs. The manufacture ofpottery subse/uently became well developed and flourished for about 4#999 years until it came intocompetition with imported Chinese porcelain. Thus over time pottery ma,ing declined. "hat has survivedof this ancient technology is the lowest level# i.e.# the present manufacture of the ordinary coo,ing potamong several local communities.

?radually# the early 5ilipinos learned to ma,e metal tools and implements -- copper# gold# bronze and#

later# iron. The ron !ge is considered to have lasted from the second or third century B.C. to the tenthcentury !.. @$cavations of *hilippine graves and wor, sites have yielded iron slags. These suggest that5ilipinos during this period engaged in the actual e$traction of iron from ore# smelting and refining. But itappears that the iron industry# li,e the manufacture of pottery# did not survive the competition with importedcast iron from arawa, and much later# from China.

By the first century !..# 5ilipinos were weaving cotton# smelting iron# ma,ing pottery and glassornaments and were also engaged in agriculture. =owland rice was cultivated in di,ed fields and in theinterior mountain regions as in the Cordillera# in terraced fields which utilized spring water.

5ilipinos had also learned to build boats for the coastal trade. By the tenth century !..# this had

become a highly developed technology. n fact# the early panish chroniclers too, note of the refinedplan,-built warship called caracoa. These boats were well suited for inter-island trade raids. The paniardslater utilized 5ilipino e$pertise in boat-building and seamanship to fight the raiding utch# *ortuguese#1uslims and the Chinese pirate =imahong as well as to build and man the galleons that sailed to1e$ico.

By the tenth century !..# the inhabitants of Butuan were trading with Champa 7Aietnam8 those of1a-i 71indoro8 with China. Chinese records which have now been translated contain a lot of references tothe *hilippines. These indicate that regular trade relations between the two countries had been wellestablished during the tenth to the fifteenth centuries. !rchaeological findings 7in various parts of thearchipelago8 of Chinese porcelains made during this period support this contention. 5rom the ung 7%9-24D&8 and Euan 7249-2>&8 ynasties# there are descriptions of trade with the *hilippines# and from theung and 1ing 72>9-28 ynasties there are notices of 5ilipino missions to *e,ing.

The most fre/uently cited Chinese account in *hilippine history te$tboo,s is that of Chao 6u-Fua in2443. Ge described the communities and trading activities in the islands of 1a-i 71indoro8 and an-hsu7literally three islands which present-day historians thin, refer to the group of *alawan and Calamianslands8. The people of 1a-i and an-hsu traded beeswa$# cotton# true pearls# tortoise shell# medicinalbetelnuts# yu-ta cloth 7probably ;ute or ramieH8 and coconut heart mats for Chinese porcelain# iron pots#lead fishnet sin,ers# colored glass beads# iron needles and tin. These were practically the same

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commodities of trade between the islands and China which the first panish colonial officials recordedwhen they came to the *hilippines more than two centuries later.

The 5ilipinos in 1indanao and ulu traded with Borneo# 1alacca and parts of the 1alay *eninsula.This trade seems to have antedated those with the Chinese. By the time the paniards reached thearchipelago# these trade relations had been firmly established such that the alliance between the rulers of

1anila and Brunei had become strengthened by marriage. t was through these contacts that Gindu-Buddhist# 1alay-ans,rit and !rab-1uslim Cultural and technological influences spread to the *hilippines.There have also been some references 7by early travelers during the precolonial period8 to trade relationsbetween 6apan and the *hilippines. To date however# *hilippine historians have not found any prehispanicreferences to the *hilippines in 6apanese literature of the period.

By the time the paniards came to colonies the *hilippines in 233 they found many scattered#autonomous village communities 7called barangays8 all over the archipelago. These were ,inship groups orsocial units rather than political units. They were essentially subsistence economies producing mainly whatthey needed.

These communities e$hibited uneven technological development. ettlements along the coastalareas which had been e$posed to foreign trade and cultural contacts such as 1anila# 1indoro# Cebu#outhern 1indanao and ulu# seem to have attained a more sophisticated technology. n 23D9# fore$ample# the paniards found the town of 1indoro fortified by a stone wall over fourteen feetthic,# and defended by armed 1oros -- bowmen# lancers# and some gunners# linstoc,s in hand. Therewere a large number of culverins all along the hillside of the town. They found 1anila similarly defendedby a palisade along its front with pieces of artillery at its gate. The house of +a;a oliman 7which wasburned down by paniards8 reportedly contained valuable articles of trade -- money# copper# iron# porcelain#blan,ets# wa$# cotton and wooden vats full of brandy. )e$t to his house was a storehouse which contained:much iron and copper as well as culverins and cannons which had melted. ome small and large cannonhad ;ust begun. There were the clay and wa$ moulds# the largest of which was for a cannon seventeen feet

long# resembling a culverin...

These reports indicate that the 5ilipinos in 1anila had learned to ma,e and use modern artillery.The panish colonizers noted that all over the islands# 5ilipinos were growing rice# vegetables andcotton raising swine# goats and fowls ma,ing wine# vinegar and salt weaving cloth and producingbeeswa$ and honey. The 5ilipinos were also mining gold in such places as *anay# 1indoro and Bicol.They wore colorful clothes# made their own gold ;ewelry and even filled their teeth with gold. Their houseswere made of wood or bamboo and nipa. They had their own system of writing and weights and measures.ome communities had become renowned for their plan,-built boats. They had no calendar but countedthe years by moons and from one harvest to another.

n the interior and mountain settlements# many 5ilipinos were still living as hunters. They gatheredforest products to trade with the lowland and coastal settlements. But they also made ron lance-points#daggers and certain small tools used in transplanting.

On the whole# the pre-colonial 5ilipinos were still highly superstitious. The paniards found notemples or places of worship. !lthough the 5ilipinos ,new how to read and write in their own system# thiswas mainly used for messages and letters. They seem not to have developed a written literary tradition atthat time.7498 This would have led to a more systematic accumulation and dissemination of ,nowledge# acondition that is necessary for the development of science and technology. Because of the abundance of

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natural resources# a benign environment and generally sparse population# there seemed to have beenlittle pressure for invention and innovation among the early 5ilipinos. !s governor 5rancisco de andeobserved in 23D3# the 5ilipinos do not understand any ,ind of wor,# unless it be to do something actuallynecessary -- such as to build their houses# which are made of sta,es after their fashion to fish# accordingto their method to row# and perform the duties of sailors and to cultivate the land...

Developments in Science nd Tec!nolo"#

uring the panish +egime

The beginnings of modern science and technology in the *hilippines can be traced to thepanish regime. The paniards established schools# hospitals and started scientific research and these hadimportant conse/uences for the rise of the countryIs professions. But the direction and pace of developmentof science and technology were greatly shaped by the role of the religious orders in the con/uest andcolonization of the archipelago and by economic and trade adopted by the colonial government.

The interaction of these forces and the resulting socio-economic and political changes must#therefore# be analyzed in presenting a history of science and technology in the *hilippines.

panish con/uest and the colonization of the archipelago were greatly facilitated by the adoption ofan essentially religious strategy which had earlier been successfully used in =atin !merica. Fnown asreduccion# it re/uired the consolidation of the far-flung# scattered barangay communities into fewer# largerand more compact settlements within the hearing distance of the church bells. This was a necessaryresponse to the initial shortage of panish missionaries in the *hilippines. This policy was carried out by acombination of religious conversion and military force.

The net result of reduccion was the creation of towns and the foundation of the present system of

local government. The precolonial ruling class# the datus and their hereditary successors# were adoptedby the panish colonial government into this new system to serve as the heads of the lowest level oflocal government i.e. as cabezas de barangay. The colonial authorities found the new set-up e$peditiousfor establishing centralized political control over the archipelago -- for the imposition and collection of thetribute ta$# enforcement of compulsory labor services among the native 5ilipinos# and implementation ofthe compulsory sale of local products to the government.

The 5ilipinos naturally resisted reduccion as it too, them away from their rice fields# the streamsand the forests which were their traditional sources of livelihood and also sub;ected them to the onerouseconomic e$actions by the colonial government. Thus the first century of panish rule brought aboutserious socio-economic dislocation and a decline ,in agricultural production and traditional craftsin many places. n the region surrounding the walled city of 1anila# 5ilipinos migrated from theirbarangays to the city in order to serve in the convents and thus avoid the compulsory labor services in theshipyards and forests. Over the centuries# this population movement would greatly contribute to thecongestion of 1anila and its suburbs.

The religious orders li,ewise played a ma;or role in the establishment of the colonial educationalsystem in the *hilippines. They also influenced the development of technology and promotion of scientificresearch. Gence# these roles must ne$t be e$amined.

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Aarious decrees were issued in pain calling for the establishment of a school system in the colonybut these were not effectively carried out. *rimary instruction during the panish regime was generallyta,en care of by the missionaries and parish priests in the villages and towns. Owing to the dearth of/ualified teachers# te$tboo,s and other instructional materials# primary instruction was mainly religiouseducation. Gigher education was provided by schools set up by the different religious ordersin the urban centers# most of them in 1anila. 5or e$ample# the 6esuits founded in Cebu City the Colegio

de an ldefonso 723%38 and in 1anila# the Colegio de an gnacio 723%38# the Colegio de an 6ose 72928and the !teneo de 1anila 72&3%8. The ominicans had the Colegio de an 6uan de =etran 7298 in1anila. !ccess to these schools was# however# limited to the elite of the colonial society -- the@uropean-born and local paniards# the mestizos and a few native 5ilipinos. Courses leading to theB.!. degree# Bachiller en !rtes# were given which by the nineteenth century included science sub;ects suchas physics# chemistry# natural history and mathematics.

On the whole# however# higher education was pursued for the priesthood or for clerical positionsin the colonial administration. t was only during the latter part of the nineteenth century thattechnicalJvocational schools were established by the paniards.748

Throughout the panish regime# the royal and pontifical (niversity of anto Tomas remained as thehighest institution of learning. +un by the ominicans# it was established as a college in 222 by 5ray1iguel de Benavides. t initially granted degrees in theology# philosophy and humanities. uring theeighteenth century# the faculty of ;urisprudence and canonical law was established. n 2&D2# the schools ofmedicine and pharmacy were opened. 5rom 2&D2 to 2& the (niversity of anto Tomas granted thedegree of =icenciado en 1edicina to 4 graduates. 5or the doctorate degree in medicine# at least anadditonal year of study was re/uired at the (niversidad Central de 1adrid in pain.

The study of pharmacy consisted of a preparatory course with sub;ects in natural history and generalchemistry and five years of studies in sub;ects such as pharmaceutical operations at the school ofpharmacy. !t the end of this period of the degree of Bachiller en 5armacia was granted. The degree of

licentiate in pharmacy# which was e/uivalent to a master's degree# was granted after two years of practicein a pharmacy# one lof which could be ta,en simultaneously with the academic courses after the secondyear course of study. n 2&D# the university granted the bachelor's degree in pharmacy to its first si$graduates in the school of pharmacy. !mong them was =eon 1a. ?uerrero# who is usually referred to asthe 5ather of *hilippine *harmacy becuase of his e$tensive wor, on the medicinal plants of the *hilippinesand their uses. The total number of graduates in pharmacy during the panish period was 2.

There were no schools offering engineering at that time. The few who studied engineering had to goto @urope. There was a )autical chool created on 2 6anuary 2&49 which offered a four-year courseof study 7for the profession of pilot of merchant marine8 that included sub;ects as arithmetic# algebra#geometry# trigonometry# physics# hydrography# meteorology# navigation and pilotage. ! chool ofCommercial !ccounting and a chool of 5rench and @nglish =anguages were established in 2&>%.

n 2&&D# the 1anila chool of !griculture was created by royal decree but it was able to open onlyin 6uly 2&&%. The chool was designed to provide theoretical and practical education of s,illed farmersand overseers and to promote agricultural development in the *hilippines by means of observation#e$periment and investigation. !gricultural stations were also established in sabela# locos# !lbay# Cebu#loilo# =eyte and parts of 1indanao. The professors in the chool were agricultural engineers. The choolwas financed by the government but it appears that its direction was also left to the priests. The certificates

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of completion of the course were awarded by the (niversity of anto Tomas or the !teneo 1unicipal. tseems that the chool was not successful as 5ilipinos did not show much inclination for industrial pursuits.

n 2&># the colonial authorities issued a royal decree designed to reform the e$isting educationalsystem in the country. t provided for the establishment of a system of elementary# secondary andcollegiate schools# teacher-training schools# and called for government supervision of these schools.

The full implementation of this decree# however# was interrupted by the coming of the !mericans in 2&%&.

Gigher education during the panish regime was generally viewed with suspicion and feared bythe colonial authorities as encouraging conspiracy and rebellion among the native 5ilipinos. 5or thisreason# only the more daring and persevering students were able to underta,e advantaged studies. Theattitude of the panish friars towards the study of the sciences and medicine was even more discouraging.!s one +ector of the (niversity of anto Tomas in the 2%9s said: 1edicine and the natural sciences arematerialistic and impious studies. t was not surprising# therefore# that few 5ilipinos ventured to study thesedisciplines. Those who did were poorly trained when compared with those who had gone to @uropeanuniversities. cience courses at the (niversity of anto Tomas were taught by the lectureJrecitation method.=aboratory e/uipment was limited and only displayed for visitors to see. There was little or no training in

scientific research. ir 6ohn Bowring# the British ?overnor of Gong,ong who made an official visit to the*hilippines in the 2&39s wrote:

*ublic instruction is in an unsatisfactory state in the *hilippines--the provisions are little changedfrom those of the mon,ish ages.

n the (niversity of anto Tomas... no attention is given to the natural sciences... nor have any ofthe educational reforms which have penetrated most of the colleges of @urope and !merica found theirway to the *hilippines.

n spite of the small number of 5ilipino graduates from the (T in medicine and the sciences they

still faced the problem of unemployment. This was because the colonial government preferred to appointpanish and other @uropean-trained professionals to

!t the start of the !merican regime# a ?erman physician of 1anila submitted a report to theauthorities on the conditions at (T's medical college. The report mentions# among others# its lac, oflibrary facilities# the use of outdated te$tboo,s 7some published in 2&38# that no female cadaver had everbeen dissected and the anatomy course was a farce# that most graduates never had attended evenone case of confinement or seen a case of laparotomy and that bacteriology had been introducedonly since the !merican occupation and was still taught without microscopesK 1any of thesegraduates later ;oined the revolutionary movement against pain.

"ith the opening of the uez Canal in 2&% and the conse/uent ease in travel and communicationsthat it brought about# the liberal ideas and scientific ,nowledge of the "est also reached the *hilippines.The prosperity that resulted from increased commerce between the *hilippines and the rest of the worldenabled 5ilipino students to go to @urope for professional advanced studies. These included 6ose +izal whowas able to pursue studies in 1edicine and specialize in ophthalmology in pain and ?ermany ?raciano!pacible who studied medicine in 1adrid !ntonio =una who obtained his *h.. in pharmacy in 1adrid andlater wor,ed with renowned scientists in ?hent and *aris 6ose !le;andrino who too, up engineering inBelgium# and others. t was this group of students which set up the *ropaganda 1ovement in @urope thateventually led to the *hilippine revolution against pain.

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The religious orders provided most of the teaching force and institutions of learning in the colony. Thiswas similar to the situation that had earlier prevailed in @urope 7where they had come from8 during themedieval ages. nevitably# members of the religious orders also too, the lead in technological innovationand scientific research. This involvement invariably arose from their need to provide for basic necessitiesas they went around the archipelago to perform their missionary wor, of propagating the Catholic faith

and to finance the colleges# hospitals and orphanages that they had established.

The paniards introduced the technology of town planning and building with stones# bric, and tiles. nmany places# religious 7such as Bishop alazar in 1anila8 personally led in these underta,ings. Because ofthe lac, of s,illed 5ilipinos in these occupations# the paniards had to import Chinese master builders#artisans and masons. The native 5ilipinos were drafted# through the institution of compulsory labor services#to wor, on these pro;ects. n this manner# the construction of the walls of 1anila# its churches# convents#hospitals# schools and public buildings were completed by the seventeenth century.

Towards the end of the si$teenth century# the religious orders had established several charity hospitalsin the archipelago and in fact provided the bul, of this public service. These hospitals became the setting

for rudimentary scientific wor, during the panish regime long before the establishment of the (niversityof anto Tomas 7(T8 college of medicine. +esearch in these institutions were confined to pharmacy andmedicine and concentrated on the problems of infectious diseases# their causes and possible remedies.everal panish missionaries observed# catalogued and wrote about *hilippine plants# particularly thosewith medicinal properties. The most notable of these was 5ather 5ernando de ta. 1aria's 1anual de1edicinas Caseras published in 2D> which was so in demand that it had undergone several editions by2&&3.

By the second half of the nineteenth century# studies of infectious diseases such as smallpo$#cholera# bubonic plague# dysentery# leprosy and malaria were intensified with the participation ofgraduates of medicine and pharmacy from (T.738 !t this time# native 5ilipinos began to participate in

scientific research. n 2&&D# the =aboratorio 1unicipal de Ciudad de 1anila was created by decree. tsmain functions were to conduct biochemical analyses for public health and to underta,e specimene$aminations for clinical and medico-legal cases. t had a publication called Cronica de Ciencias 1edicasde 5ilipinas showing scientific studies being done during that time.

There was very little development in *hilippine agriculture and industry during the first two centuries ofpanish rule. This was largely due to the dependence of the panish colonizers on the profits from the?alleon or 1anila-!capulco trade# which lasted from 233 to 2&2>. t was actually based on the trade withChina which antedated panish rule. The galleons brought to =atin !merica Chinese goods -- sil, and othercloths# porcelain and the li,e -- and brought bac, to 1anila 1e$ican silver. "hen the panish and*ortuguese thrones were united from 23&2 to 29# goods brought to 1anila by ships from 6apan and*ortuguese ships from iam# ndia# 1alacca# Borneo and Cambodia were also carried by the galleons to1e$ico. uring the time# 1anila prospered as the entrepot of the Orient.

The 5ilipinos hardly benefited from the ?alleon trade. irect participation in the trade was limited topanish inhabitants of 1anila who were given shares of lading space in the galleons. 1any of them simplyspeculated on these trading rights and lived off on their profits. t was the Chinese who profited most fromthe trade. They acted as the trade's pac,ers# middlemen# retailers and also provided services and others,ills which the panish community in ntramuros needed.

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panish preoccupation with the 1anila ?alleon eventually led to the neglect of agriculture and miningand the decline of native handicrafts and industries in the *hilippines. The deleterious effects of the trade onthe archipelago's domestic economy had been pointed out by some panish officials as early as 23%4. Butthis seems to have been largely ignored by colonial policy-ma,ers. Only the local shipbuilding industrycontinued to prosper because of necessity -- to build the galleons and other ships re/uired for internalcommerce and the defense of the archipelago. This had become /uite well developed according to a

5rench visitor in the nineteenth century. Ge observed:

n many provinces shipbuilding is entirely in the hands of the natives. The e$cellence of their wor,is proof that they are perfectly capable of underta,ing the study of abstruse sciences and that mathematicale/uations are by no means beyond their comprehension....

!gricultural development was left to the resident Chinese and the panish friars. The latter saw inthe cultivation of their large estates around 1anila a steady source of financial support for their churches#colleges# hospitals and orphanages in ntramuros. The friar estates profited from the e$panding domesticfood mar,et as a result of the population growth of 1anila and its suburbs. But the friars contribution in thedevelopment of e$isting agricultural technology was more of /uantitative than /ualitative in nature. The

profitability of their estates was largely derived from the intensive e$ploitation of native technology and theirfree compulsory personal services.

uccessive shipwrec,s of and piratical attac,s on the galleons to 1e$ico led to declining profitsfrom the trade and triggered an economic depression in 1anila during the latter part of the seventeenthcentury. This situation was aggravated by increasing restrictions on the goods carried by the 1anila ?alleonas a conse/uence of opposition coming from !ndalusion merchants and mercantilists in pain.

!t the beginning of the eighteenth century# the Bourbon dynasty ascended to the panish throneand brought with it political and economic ideas of the 5rench @nlightenment. This paved the way formore government attention to the economic development of the *hilippines. @nterprising paniards began

to e$ploit the mineral wealth of the islands# develop its agriculture# and establish industries. These effortswere further encouraged by the need to promote economic recovery after the British Occupation of 1anilain 2D4-2D.

+esearch in agriculture and industry was encouraged by the founding of the +eal ociedad@conomica de los !migos del *ais de 5ilipinas 7+oyal @conomic ociety of 5riends of the *hilippines8 by?overnador 6ose Basco y Aargas under authority of a royal decree of 2D&9. Composed of privateindividuals and government officials# the ociety functioned somewhat li,e the @uropean learnedsocieties during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and a modern )ational +esearch Council# tundertoo, the promotion of the cultivation of indigo# cotton# cinnamon# and pepper and thedevelopment of the sil, industry. uring the nineteenth century# it was endowed with funds which it usedto provide prizes for successful e$periments and inventions for the improvement of agriculture andindustry: to finance the publication of scientific and technical literature# trips of scientists from pain to the*hilippines# professorships and to provide scholarships to 5ilipinos.

n 2D&%# 1anila was opened to !sian shipping. This inaugurated an era of increasing *hilippinee$ports of rice# hemp# sugar# tobacco# indigo and others and rising imports of manufactured goods. n2&2# 1anila was officially opened to world trade and commerce subse/uently other *hilippine ports wereopened.

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5oreign capital was allowed to operate on an e/ual footing with panish merchants in 2&4%. By thismeans agricultural production particularly of sugar and hemp# was accelerated and modernized. =ocalindustries flourished in 1anila and its suburbs -- weaving# embroidery# hatma,ing# carriagemanufacture# rope-ma,ing# cigar and cigarettes-ma,ing. 1uch of the finished products of theseindustries were e$ported. Eet although *hilippine e$ports ,ept rising during the nineteenth century# importsof manufactured goods also rose and foreign# particularly @nglish capital dominated e$ternal trade and

commerce. This partly because of short-sighted panish colonial trade policies and the relativeine$perience and lac, of capital of panish colonial trade policies and the relative ine$perience and lac,of capital of panish and 5ilipino merchants.

The prosperity arising from e$panded world trade and commerce in the nineteenth century led to1anila's rapid development as a cosmopolitan center. 1odern amenities -- a waterwor,s system# steamtramways# electric lights# newspapers# a ban,ing system -- were introduced into the city by the latter half ofthe nineteenth century. (ndoubtedly# commercial needs led to the panish governments establishmentof a )autical chool# vocational schools and a chool of !griculture during the nineteenth century.Aarious offices and commissions were also created by the panish government by the panishgovernment to underta,e studies and regulations of mines# research on *hilippine flora# agronomic

research and teaching# geological research and chemical analysis of mineral waters throughout thecountry. Gowever# little is ,nown about the accomplishments of these scientific bodies.

1eteorological studies were promoted by 6esuits who founded the 1anila Observatory in 2&3. TheObservatory collected and made available typhoon and climatological observations. These observationsgrew in number and importance so that by 2&D%# it became possible for 5r. 5ederico 5aura to issue the firstpublic typhoon warning. The service was so highly appreciated by the business and scientificcommunities that in !pril 2& a royal decree made the Observatory an official institution run by the6esuits# and also established a networ, of meteorological stations under it. n 2%92# the Observatory wasmade a central station of the *hilippine "eather Bureau which was set up by the !merican colonialauthorities. t remained under the 6esuit scientists and provided not only meteorological but also

seismological and astronomical studies.

The benefits of economic development during the nineteenth century were unevenly distributed in thearchipelago. "hile 1anila prospered and rapidly modernized# much of the countryside remainedunderdeveloped and poor. The e$pansion of agricultural production for e$port e$acerbated e$isting socio-economic ine/uality that had been cumulative conse/uence of the introduction of land as private property atthe beginning of panish rule. There was increasing concentration of wealth among the large landowners --the paniards# especially the religious orders# the panish and Chinese mestizos# the native *rincipalia --and poverty and landlessness among the masses. This ine/uality# coupled with abuses and in;usticescommitted by the panish friars and officials gave rise to *hilippine nationalism and eventually the+evolution of 2&%. !t the end of the panish regime# the *hilippines had evolved into a primary agricultural e$portingeconomy. *rogress in agriculture had been made possible by some government support for research andeducation in this field. But it was largely the entry of foreign capital and technology which brought about themodernization of some sectors# notably sugar and hemp production. The lac, of interest and support forresearch and development of native industries li,e weaving# for e$ample# eventually led to their failure tosurvive the competition with foreign imports. Because of necessity and the social prestige attached touniversity education# medicine and pharmacy remained the most developed science-based professionsduring the panish regime.

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Science nd Tec!nolo"# durin" t!e First Repu$lic

There was very little development in science and technology during the short-lived *hilippine +epublic72&%&-2%998. The government too, steps to establish a secular educational system by a decree of 2%October 2&%& it created the (niversidad =iteraria de 5ilipinas as a secular# state-supported institution of

higher learning. t offered courses in law# medicine# surgery# pharmacy and notary public. uring its shortlife# the (niversity was able to hold graduation e$ercises in Tarlac on 4% eptember 2&%% when degrees inmedicine and law were awarded.

Developments in Science nd Tec!nolo"#

uring the !merican +egime

cience and technology in the *hilippines advanced rapidly during the !merican regime. This wasmade possible by the simultaneous government encouragement and support for an e$tensive public

education system the granting of scholarships for higher education in science and engineering theorganization of science research agencies and establishment of science-based public services.

The !mericans introduced a system of secularized public school education as soon as civilgovernment was set up in the islands. On 42 6anuary 2%92# the *hilippine Commision# which acted as thee$ecutive and legislative body for the *hilippines until 2%9D# promulgated !ct )o. D creating a epartmentof *ublic nstruction in the *hilippines. t provided for the establishment of schools that would give freeprimary education# with @nglish as the medium of instruction. This was followed by the setting up of a*hilippine )ormal chool to train 5ilipino teachers. econdary schools were opened after a furtherenactment of the *hilippine in Commission in 2%94. The *hilippine 1edical chool was established in 2%93and was followed by other professional and technical schools. These were later absorbed into the

(niversity of the *hilippines.

The colonial authorities initially adopted a coordinated policy for the promotion of higher education inthe sciences and government research institutions and agencies performing technical functions. The(niversity of the *hilippines was created on 2& 6une 2%9& by !ct of the *hilippine =egislature. !mong thefirst colleges to be opened were the College of !griculture in =os BaLos# =aguna in 2%9%# the Collegesof =iberal !rts# @ngineering and Aeterinary 1edicine in 2%29 and the College of =aw in 2%22. By 2%22#the (niversity had an enrollment of 2#99 students# 5our Eears later# its enrollment had almost doubled 7to4#>%&8 and the (niversity included two new units# a chool of *harmacy and a ?raduate chool of Tropical1edicine and *ublic Gealth. n 2%2# the chool of 5orestry and Conservatory of 1usic wereestablished and in 2%2 the College of @ducation was opened.

@$cept in the College of 1edicine# where there were already a number of 5ilipino physicians whowere /ualified to become its faculty members when it was opened in 2%9D# most of the early instructorsand professor in the sciences and engineering at the (niversity of the *hilippines were !mericans andother foreigners. Mualified 5ilipinos were sent abroad for advanced training and by this means foreignfaculty were gradually replaced by 5ilipinos. 5or e$ample# in 2%49# 5ilipino *h.. graduates of (..universities too, over the epartment of !griculture Chemistry in the College of !griculture. By ecember2%4# the university's enrollment in all colleges had reached # and out of a total teaching staff of># only were !mericans and other foreigners.

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Before 2%29# the !merican colonial government encouraged young men and women to get higherprofessional education as much as possible in !merican colleges. n 2%9># the *hilippine commissionpassed an !ct to finance the sending of 2>3 boys and girls of high school age to the (nited tates to beeducated as teachers# engineers# physicians and lawyers. One third of these were chosen by the governor-general on a nation-wide basis and the rest by the provincial authorities. n e$change for this privilege# the

pensionados# as they came to be called# were to serve in the public service for five years after their returnfrom their studies. Between 2%9> and 2%24# 49% men and women were educated under this program in!merican schools. !fter the establishment of the (niversity of the *hilippines# scholarships foradvanced studies of a scientific or technical nature in !merican (niversities were given only in preparationfor assignment to ;obs in the public service.

The *hilippine Commission introduced science sub;ects and industrial and vocational educationinto the *hilippine school system but they found that industrial and vocation courses were veryunpopular with the 5ilipinos. "hen the 1anila Trade chool was opened in 2%92# the school authoritiesfound it difficult to get students to enroll in these courses. Because of their almost 99 years of coloniale$perience under the paniards# middle class 5ilipinos had developed a general disdain for manual wor,

and a preference for the prestigious professions of the time# namely# the priesthood# law and medicine.@ducation in these professions came to be regarded as the means of ma,ing the best of the limitedopportunities in the panish colonial bureaucracy and thus of rising from one's social class. Gence# even atthe newly-opened (niversity of the *hilippines# it was difficult to get students to enroll in courses whichre/uired field wor, such as# for e$ample# agriculture# veterinary medicine# engineering and otherapplied science. cholarships were thus offered by the government to attract a sufficient number ofstudents to enroll in courses that were needed to fill up the technical positions in the governmentservice.

n the field of medicine# the *hilippine Commission provided for as many scholarships as therewere regularly organized provinces in the slands. These were awarded by the school

departments after competitive e$aminations in the provinces. ! recipient of these scholarships wasre/uired to return to the province from whence he came and to serve as a physician for as many yearsas his medical education was paid for by the government. This policy was adopted not only toassure the medical school a continuing supply of carefully selected students but also to ensure abalanced geographical distribution of physicians in the different provinces and to counteract theirtendency to settle in the large urban areas.

elected graduates of the schools of medicine and nursing were also sent on governmentscholarship to universities in the (nited tates for postgraduate courses and training in special fields.n 2%42# the +oc,efeller foundation provided for si$ fellowships for /ualified 5ilipinos in universities in the(nited tates and @urope# two each in he fields of public health 7preventive medicine8# public healthlaboratory wor, and teacher training in nursing education. Over several years# the 5oundation providedmore than thirty of these fellowships and also financed shorter observation trips of many other healthofficials.

t also greatly aided in the establishment and development of the ?raduate chool of *ublic Gealthand Gygiene in the (niversity of the *hilippines.

"hen the Bureau of *ublic "or,s was created in 2%92# the !mericans found that there were nocompetent 5ilipino engineers# and !merican engineers had to be imported. !s a conse/uence# a special

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effort was made to attract 5ilipinos to pursue advanced studies leading to careers as engineers. n manycases government financial assistance was provided to enable them to complete their professional studiesin the (nited tates. (pon achieving their professional /ualifications they were employed as ;uniorengineers in the Bureau of *ublic "or,s. 1any of them rapidly advanced in their positions. Their careerprogress can be seen from the fact that whereas in 2%2> there were only 2& 5ilipino engineers out of atotal of 23 engineers in the Bureau of *ublic "or,s# the rest being !merican by the end of 2%43# out of

2%9 engineers in the Bureau# only 2 were !mericans and 2D were 5ilipinos.

The establishment of the (niversity of the *hilippines satisfied the short-run needs for professionallytrained 5ilipinos in the colonial government's organization and programs. "hat the authorities did notrecognize was that by providing for an e$tensive public school system at the elementary and secondarylevels they had increased tremendously the social demand for professional education. The (niversity ofthe *hilippines remained the only publicly-supported institutions for higher education# and# since itcould not meet the increasing social demand for universities was left to the initiative of enterprising5ilipinos. 5or many 5ilipinos# private education became the alternative for professional education.

1any of the e$isting private nonsectarian universities were organized during the early period of the

!merican regime to help meet the increasing demand for professional education and the country's need fortrained manpower. !t the same time# these schools remained distinctively 5ilipino in orientation as theywere conceived by their founders as a means to conserve the national heritage and prevent thecomplete !mericanization of the 5ilipinos.

!t the outset of the !merican regime# there was no definite government policy on private schools.Because of the widespread disorganization that followed a more of these schools were set up# governmentregulation and control was found necessary. The first attempt to regulate private schools was throughthe Corporation =aw 7!ct )o. 23%8 enacted by the *hilippine Commission in 2%9. n effect# it treatedthe schools li,e commercial firms or business enterprises e$cept that they would be under the supervision ofthe epartment of *ublic nstruction rather than the epartment of Trade and ndustry.

n 2%2D# !ct )o. 49D 7*rivate chool !ct8 was enacted by the *hilippine =egislature. The !ctrecognized private schools as educational institutions and not commercial ventures. t re/uired theecretary of *ublic nstruction to maintain a general standard of efficiency in all private schools andcolleges so that...7they shall8 furnish ade/uate instruction to the public... and authorized him to inspectand watch these school and colleges. The supervision of these schools was entrusted to a staffof four within the epartment of *ublic nstruction -- a superintendent# an assistant superintendent andtwo supervisors.

The number of private colleges increased rapidly. n 2%43 a survey of the educational system of thesland was authorized urvey which was headed by *aul 1onroe made a comprehensive investigationof all public and private institutions of learning in the country. The 1onroe urvey found most privateschools substandard. t reported that most of these were physically ill e/uipped and with more part-timethan full-time faculty members. !mong the private colleges and universities# it found out that: Thee/uipment of all these institutions is owefully inade/uate# the laboratory for the teaching of science being buta caricature of the real thing.

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!s a conse/uence of the findings of the 1onroe urvey# the ?overnment too, steps to improvethe machinery for the supervision of private schools. The *hilippine =egislature created theOffice of *rivate @ducation to loo, into such matters as physical plant# school facilities# libraries#laboratory e/uipment and student load# and administrative wor, such as enforcement of relevantgovernment regulations# evaluating credits ta,en by students# managing admission of foreign studentsand the li,e. !s a result of the increased outlay for supervision of private schools# their standards were

improved.

uring the !merican regime# the development of science gained more government support along withefforts to establish an old e$tensive public school system and public health programs. The old =aboratorio1unicipal was absorbed by the Bureau of ?overnment =aboratories created by the *hilippine Commissionin 2%92. n 2%93# the latter was reorganized and renamed Bureau of cience. t remained the principalgovernment research establishment until the end of the econd "orld "ar. t had a biological laboratory#a chemical laboratory# a serum laboratory for the production of vaccine virus# serums and prophylactics# alibrary. 1ost of the senior scientists in the Bureau were initially !mericans but as 5ilipinos ac/uired thenecessary training# they gradually too, over their positions.

The Bureau of cience served as a valuable training ground for 5ilipino scientists. t performed theneeded chemical and biological e$aminations for the *hilippine ?eneral Gospital and Bureau of Gealthand manufactured the serums and prophylactics needed by the latter. *ioneering research was done atthe Bureau of cience on such diseases as leprosy# tuberculosis# cholera# dengue fever# malaria andberi-beri. +esults of these studies were readily available to the Bureau of Gealth for use in its variousprograms. tudies on the commercial value of tropical products# tests of *hilippine minerals androadbuilding materials# the nutritional value of foods# and other were similarly done at the Bureau ofcience. 5rom 2%9# it published the *hilippine 6ournal of cience which reported not only wor, done inlocal laboratories but also scientific developments abroad which had relevance to *hilippine problems.

The !merican colonial authorities organized other offices which# by the nature of their operations#

contributed further to the growth of scientific research. These were the "eather Bureau 72%928# the Board7later Bureau8 of Gealth 72&%&8# Bureau of 1ines 72%998# Bureau of 5orestry 72%998# Bureau of !griculture72%928# Bureau of Coast and ?eodetic urvey 72%938# Bureau of *lant ndustry 72%4%8 and Bureau of!nimal ndustry 72%4%8 7&48 5rom 2%4D# there were proposals from professional societies for the creationof a )ational 1edical +esearch Council and a )ational +esearch Council similar to those in the (nitedtates# Canada# and !ustralia. The *hilippine =egislature passed an e$tensively emulated abroad.

!ct in 2%>> creating the )ational +esearch Council of the *hilippine slands 7)+C*8. !side fromwor,ing for the promotion of scientific research# the )+C* actively participated in the deliberations anddrafting of provisions affecting science and industry in the 2%> Constitutional Convention.

@ducational and science policy during the !merican regime was not coordinated with colonialeconomic policy. "hile 5ilipinos were provided opportunities for higher education in the sciences andengineering# the economy remained basically agricultural. To a great e$tent# *hilippine economicdevelopment was determined by free trade relations established in 2%9% between the *hilippinesand the (nited tates# and these continued long after independence was achieved in 2%. !s a resultof this policy# the *hilippine economy became tied to that of the (nited tates# remaining primarily ane$porter of agricultural crops and raw materials and an importer of !merican manufactured goods.(ndoubtedly this delayed *hilippine industrialization. The relative underdevelopment of the physicalsciences vis-a-vis the medical and agricultural sciences may be traced to this policy. Basic and applied

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research in the medical# agricultural and related sciences received much greater government support duringthe !merican regime than did industrial research.

Science nd Tec!nolo"#

uring the Commonwealth *eriod

n 2%>3# the *hilippine Commonwealth was inaugurated and ushered in a period of transition to politicalindependence. The Constitution ac,nowledged the importance of promoting scientific development for theeconomic development of the country by incorporating a provision 7!rticle N# ection 8 declaring that Thetate shall promote scientific research and invention# !rts and =etters shall be under its patronage...

The government# which was by this time completely under 5ilipino management# continued toe$pand its public school system to accommodate the increasing number of schoolchildren. The

?overnment abolished ?rade A as the terminal grade in the elementary curriculum and also institutedthe double-single session plan thus reducing the time allotment or dropping certain sub;ects in theelementary school. The government also enacted Commonwealth !ct )o. 2&9 72> )ovember 2%>8reestablishing the Office of *rivate @ducation which had been abolished in 2%>4.

On the whole# higher education was provided mainly by the private sector. By 2%># there were 43private schools recognized by the government# of which we institutions at the College level and D wereuniversities. These were Centro @scolar (niversity# 5ar @aster (niversity# )ational (niversity#*hilippine "omen's (niversity# illiman (niversity# (niversity of 1anila and the (niversity of anto Tomas.Together with the (niversity of the *hilippines these had a total of 2%#3D3 college students in all universitiesin the country. The combined significant increase in trained scientists and engineers in the *hilippines

before the econd "orld "ar.

The Commonwealth government wor,ed towards the development of economic self-reliance whichwould be necessary to sustain genuine political independence. t created the )ational @conomic Council toprepare an economic program and advise the government on economic and financial /uestions. everalgovernment corporations were reorganized and new ones were created to perform such variedfunctions as the e$ploitation and development of natural resources 7e.g.# the )ational *ower Corporation8the development and promotion of local industries 7such as the )ational evelopment Company7)C8 and its subsidiaries# the )ational !baca and Other 5ibers Corporation8 promotion of agriculturalproduction and mar,eting and the li,e. The )C was especially mandated to underta,e the developmentof successful researches of government science agencies 7such as the Bureaus of cience# !nimal ndustryand *lant ndustry8 for commercial production.

The Commonwealth government li,ewise adopted measures to encourage and provide assistance toprivate 5ilipino businessmen in the establishment of industries and manufacturing enterprises. 5ore$ample# it created new agencies# such as the Bureau of 1ines# to provide assistance to businessmenunderta,ing mining e$ploration and development. t also increased appropriations for the Bureaus ofcience# *lant and !nimal ndustry# and thereby encouraged more scientific research for industrialpurposes.

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n spite of all these efforts# the Commonwealth government was unable to achieve its goal of economicself-reliance. This was primarily because foreign trade and tariff policies remained under the control ofthe !merican government. 5ree trade relations also continued and thus perpetuated thepreferential treatment of e$ports of agricultural raw materials. 1oreover# the *acific "ar bro,e out in 2%2and the *hilippines was occupied by 6apanese troops.

The occupation of the *hilippines by the 6apanese during the "ar brought educational and scientificactivities practically to a halt as able bodied citizens ;oined the resistance movement. "orse still# much ofthe country was reduced to ruins during the battles ought for the liberation in 2%-3. 1anila# which wasthe center of all educational and scientific activities# was razed to the ground# destroying everything that hadbeen built up before. t was in this condition that the *hilippines became an independent state. Thegovernment had to contend with economic reconstruction# normalization of operations as well as the tas, ofplanning the direction of economic development.

Science nd Tec!nolo"# since Independence

The underlying pattern of education and training of scientists# engineers and physiciansestablished during the !merica regime# as well as the direction of government support for scientificresearch and development# has basically remained unchanged since independence in 2%. tatesupport for education continues to be concentrated at the elementary school level private colleges anduniversities provide education for the ma;ority of the collegiate population.

The number of state universities and colleges has been increasing since 2%. Gowever# their growthhas not been based on a rational plan. *artisan political considerations often determined the creation#location and staffing of these institutions. Gence# many of them were ill-e/uipped and ill-prepared toprovide /uality higher education particularly in the sciences and engineering. tate universities and colleges

vary in standards arising largely from the uneven distribution of faculty development programs. The(niversity of the *hilippines ystem remains the most developed with e$tensive graduate andundergraduate degree programs in the sciences and engineering. t receives over half of the nationalbudget for state universities and colleges.

*rivate universities and colleges have similarly increased in numbers since 2%. Gowever# thesevary in standards. 1ost non-sectarian universities and colleges are organized and managed li,e businessenterprises and are heavily dependent on tuition fees. To operate profitably# they tend to concentrate onlow-cost courses li,e business administration# liberal arts and education# and encourage large enrollments inthese. ectarian universities and college tend to be financially better endowed. Gence# they have beenable to impose selective admissions# lower faculty-student ratios and provide laboratory and libraryfacilities re/uires for science and engineering program. The large number of private colleges anduniversities to be supervised and the limited epartment of @ducation and Culture 7now the 1inistry of@ducation# Culture and ports8 staff to do it has hampered effective government supervision and control oftheir standards.

The number of college students and graduates from public and private universities and colleges hasshown tremendous increases since 2%. )evertheless# the proportion of those in agriculture# medicaland natural sciences# and engineering has remained relatively low. There are very few graduates in thephysical sciences. 1ost students 7and graduates8 in agriculture come from state institutions while most of

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those in engineering and medical sciences come from private institutions. n both# the ma;ority of collegestudents and graduates continue to be in teacher trainingJeducation and commerceJbusiness administrationcourses. This situation results from the fact that students tend to enroll in courses where there areperceived employment opportunities and which their families can afford. @ngineering and science coursesentail longer periods of study and have generally been more e$pensive to pursue.

The rise of professional organizations of scientists and engineers followed closely the growth of highereducation in the *hilippines. The earliest organizations were in medicine and pharmacy# professions whichwere the first to be introduced during the colonial era. !s the number of graduates in a particular disciplineincreased# associations were formed to promote professional interests and regulate standards of practiceand these were modelled after their counterparts in the (nited tates. elf-regulation by professionalassociations was eventually institutionalized in government laws which established professional e$aminingboards and licensing procedures.

n certain cases# professional organizations initiated changes in the collegiate curriculum for theirspecialization and wor,ed for improvements in educational standards. The *hilippine 1edical !ssociation7*1!8 actively wor,ed to improve standards of medical education by limiting enrollment in medical colleges

and adding courses re/uired for the medical degree. !cademic members of the profession have led in/uestioning the relevance of "estern-oriented medical curriculum to *hilippine conditions. This hasresulted in recent innovations in medical training such as more e$posure of students to communitymedicine and the e$perimental curriculum to produce doctors for rural areas. n the field ofengineering# the *hilippine nstitute of Chemical @ngineers initiated a series of conference to discusscurriculum revisions for its profession. +esults of these conferences were then endorsed to theepartment of @ducation and Culture 7@C8 for official adoption. n other branches of engineering# thegovernment through @C convened meetings of educators# members of professional e$amining boards#representatives of professional organizations and the private sector to update and adopt uniform corecurricula for all universities and colleges to follow. These developments too, place in 2%D>-2%D.

On the whole# there has been little innovation in the education and training of scientists andengineers since independence in 2%. This is in part due to the conservative nature of self-regulation bythe professional associations. Because of specialized training# vertical organization by disciplines andlac, of liaison between professions# professional associations have been unable to perceive the dynamicrelationship between science# technology and society and the relevance of their training to *hilippineconditions.

*aralleling the increasing number of state colleges and universities has been a rise in governmentscience agencies since 2%. n 2%D# the Bureau of cience was reorganized into an nstitute ofcience.7%38 n the same year# an nstituter of )utrition# and in 2%34# the cience 5oundation of the*hilippines 75*8 were created and placed 7along with the nstitute of cience8 under the Office ofthe *resident.7%8 The nstitute of )utrition was to perform research# advisory and e$tensionfunctions while the cience 5oundation was to stimulate research in the sciences and engineering andpromote science consciousness among the people. n 2%34# the Commission on Aolcanology was alsocreated and placed under the )ational +esearch Council of the *hilippines 7)+C*8. ts function wasprimarily basic research on volcanology.

cientific wor, in government suffered from a lac, of support# planning and coordination duringthe early postwar years. The (.. @conomic urvey 1ission to the *hilippines in 2%39# noted in its+eport the dearth of basic information needed by industries of the country# the neglect of e$perimental

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1athematical ciences. +elated to this efforts was the establishment of a cientific Career ystem inthe Civil ervice by *residential ecree )o. %92 on 2% 6uly 2%&>. This is designed to attract more /ualifiedscientists to wor, in government and encourage young people to pursue science degrees andcareers.

Summr# nd Conclusion

This paper has shown that the development of science and technology in the *hilippines has beengreatly influenced by its historical e$perience as a colony of pain and the (nited tates. Colonial policies#particularly those on economic development and e$ternal trade# have over the centuries fostered aprimarily agricultural# e$port-oriented economy dependent on the outside world as mar,et for its productsand a source of manufactured goods. This has led to a neglect and lac, of support forindustrialization.

This problem of colonial development has effected the historical development of *hilippinescience and technology. The agricultural science generally tended to receive more funding and support

compared to the physical sciences. This pattern of support persisted despite the introduction of the othersciences into the country's educational system during the !merican regime.

The continuing dependence of the *hilippine economy on the (nited tates even after independencein 2%# as a result of the free trade relations and the virtual imposition of the parity amendment to the*hilippine Constitution by the ( Congress has perpetuated the predominantly agricultural and ruralcharacter of *hilippine economy and society. This dependent development of *hilippine society andeconomy has had serious repercussions for the advancement of *hilippine science and technology.ncreasing social demand for higher education has led to the growth of highly-trained professionalmanpower# particularly scientists# engineers and physicians. Gowever# because of theunderdeveloped state of the economy# many of these science-based professionals have either been

unemployed or underemployed. Conse/uently# many of them have been forced to migrate todeveloped countries# thus creating a brain drain or loss of valuable human resources for the *hilippines.729&8 "orse still# this brain drain helps to perpetuate *hilippine dependent development asmany of those who leave are highly educated and better trained professionals who are needed in thecountry's development efforts. There is thus a need for the government to critically ree$amine theinterrelations between past and present education and science policies with those of its economicdevelopment policies in order to be able to redirect these towards the goal of attaining a strong# self-reliant economy and society. ! well developed national science and technology is a critical factor inthe achievement of this goal.

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History of Science and Technology in the Philippines

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