HISTORY OF POST INDEPENDENCE INDIA...states with the newly independent Indian Union. However, under...

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B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY

HISTORY OF POST INDEPENDENCE INDIA

Civil Services Examination

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History of Post Independence IndiaContents

(iii)

Chapter - 1Nehruvian Era ............................................................... 1

1.1 Integration of India ................................................... 1

Classification of Indian States .................................. 1

Integration of Princely States .................................... 2

Partition and its Aftermath ........................................ 7

Linguistic Reorganization of States .......................... 8

Integration of Tribals in India .................................. 11

Issue of Official Language ...................................... 12

Hindu Code Bill ...................................................... 14

Criticism ................................................................. 15

1.2 Political Developments ........................................... 15

Parliamentary Democracy ...................................... 15

One Party Dominated System ................................. 15

Decline of Indian National Congress ...................... 15

1.3 Foreign Policy ......................................................... 18

Bandung Conference (1955) .................................. 18

Non-Alignment Movement ...................................... 19

The Panchsheel Agreement ................................... 20

1.4 India-China Relations ............................................. 21

Tibetan Crisis .......................................................... 21

1962 War ................................................................ 22

1.5 Analysis of Nehruvian Era ....................................... 23

Achievements ......................................................... 23

Shortcomings ......................................................... 23

Conclusion .............................................................. 23

Chapter - 2Lal Bahadur Shastri Era .............................................. 24

2.1 Introduction ............................................................ 24

Challenges ............................................................. 24

Response ............................................................... 24


Kamaraj Plan .......................................................... 24

Rise of Regional Politics ......................................... 25

2.3 Tashkent Agreement .............................................. 25

Indo-Pak War (1965) ............................................... 25

Tashkent Declaration .............................................. 26

2.4 White Revolution ..................................................... 26

Background ............................................................ 27

Amul ....................................................................... 27

National Dairy Development Board ........................ 28

Operation Flood ...................................................... 28

Critical Analysis ...................................................... 29

2.5 Green Revolution .................................................... 29

Threat from the USA ............................................... 30

Towards Self-Reliance ............................................ 30


Conclusion .............................................................. 31

2.6 Food Corporation of India ....................................... 31

Achievements ......................................................... 31

Challenges ............................................................. 31

Prospects ............................................................... 31

2.7 Lal Bahadur Shastri Years: Critical Analysis ................. 31

Achievements ......................................................... 31

Criticism ................................................................. 32

Conclusion .............................................................. 32

Chapter - 3Indira Gandhi Era ........................................................ 33

3.1 Introduction ............................................................ 33

Challenges for Indira Gandhi.................................. 33


Split in Congress .................................................... 34

Single Party to Multi-party System .......................... 34

Era of Coalition Governments ................................. 35

Politics of Defections .............................................. 35

J P Narayan and Total Revolution ........................... 36

Janata Government: Coalition at Centre ................. 36

Analysis of Coalition Politics ................................... 36

3.3 Economic Developments ........................................ 37

PL-480 Program...................................................... 37

Nationalization: Banks and General Insurance ....... 37

Public Distribution System (PDS) ............................ 38

Abolition of Privy Purse ........................................... 38

Garibi Hatao ........................................................... 39

3.4 Other Major Developments ..................................... 39

The Naxalites .......................................................... 39

3.5 Bangladeshi Refugee Crisis ................................... 41

3.6 Indo-Pak War, 1971 ................................................ 41

Strategy of War ....................................................... 42

(iv)

Simla Agreement,1972 ........................................... 42

Indo Soviet Treaty of Peace .................................... 43

3.7 JP Movement .......................................................... 43

3.8 National Emergency ............................................... 44

Events that led to Emergency ................................. 44

Course of Emergency ............................................. 45

Tussle with Judiciary .............................................. 45

Forced Sterilization ................................................. 45

Jail Bharo Andolan ................................................. 45

Raj Narain Case ..................................................... 46

3.9 Analysis of Emergency ........................................... 46

Chapter - 4Janta Government ...................................................... 47

4.1 Introduction ............................................................ 47

4.2 Rise of Regional Parties and Coalition Governments .......................................................... 47

44th Constitutional Amendment ............................... 48

Shah Commission Report ....................................... 48

Food for Work Programme ...................................... 49

4.3 Analysis of Janata Government .............................. 49

Achievements ......................................................... 49

Failures ................................................................... 50

4.4 Returns of Indira Gandhi Government .................... 50

4.5 Unrest in Punjab ..................................................... 51

4.6 Operation Bluestar.................................................. 51

4.7 Indira Gandhi's Assassination ................................ 52

4.8 Critical Appraisal of Indira Gandhi Era ................... 52

Achievements ......................................................... 52

Failures ................................................................... 53

Conclusion .............................................................. 53

Chapter - 5Rajiv Gandhi Era ......................................................... 54

5.1 Introduction ............................................................ 54

5.2 Punjab Crisis .......................................................... 54

5.3 1984 Sikh Riots ....................................................... 54

5.4 Punjab Accord ........................................................ 55

5.5 Aftermath of the Accord and end of terrorism in Punjab .................................................................... 55

5.6 Assam Accord ........................................................ 56

5.7 Bhopal Gas Tragedy .............................................. 56

Causes of Tragedy ................................................. 57

5.8 India’s Computerization Program ........................... 57

5.9 Strengthening of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) 58

5.10 Jawahar Rozgar Yojana .......................................... 59

5.11 Shah Bano Case ..................................................... 59

5.12 National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 ............... 60

5.13 Operation Blackboard ............................................ 60

5.14 Bofors Scam ........................................................... 60

5.15 Indian Peace Keeping Force .................................. 61

5.16 Rajiv Gandhi’s Assassination.................................. 62

5.17 Rajiv Gandhi Era: A Critical Appraisal .................... 62

Chapter - 6National Front Government....................................... 63

6.1 Pre 1989 Coalition: Third Front ............................... 63

Election of 1989 ...................................................... 63

Beginning of Coalition Government ........................ 63

6.2 Events during the National Front Government ........ 63

6.3 Mandal Commission ............................................... 64

Recommendation ................................................... 64

Aftermath ................................................................ 64

Consequences ....................................................... 64

Analysis .................................................................. 64

Chapter - 7Narsimha Rao Government ....................................... 66

7.1 Introduction ............................................................ 66

7.2 Economic Crisis and Reforms ................................ 66

Crisis ...................................................................... 66

Preconditions .......................................................... 66

New Economic Policy (NEP) ................................... 66

Analysis .................................................................. 66

7.3 Babri Masjid Demolition .......................................... 67

Tension ................................................................... 67

Events Leading to Demolition ................................. 67

Aftermath ................................................................ 67

Present Status of Title Suit ...................................... 67

7.4 Bombay Bomb Blasts ............................................. 67

7.5 Panchayati Raj ........................................................ 68

Chapter - 8Interregnum Years (1996-1998) ................................. 69

8.1 Multi Party Era ........................................................ 69

8.2 New Aspirations ..................................................... 69

8.3 Instability ................................................................ 69

8.4 Gujral Doctrine ....................................................... 69

Principles of Doctrine ............................................. 69

Rationale ................................................................ 70

Application ............................................................. 70

Critical Analysis of Doctrine .................................... 70

Chapter - 9NDA Government ....................................................... 71

9.1 Introduction ............................................................ 71

(v)

9.2 Pokhran .................................................................. 71

Pokhran-II ............................................................... 71

9.3 Kargil War (1999) ................................................... 72

Background ............................................................ 72

Course of War ......................................................... 72

Combat in Tandem ................................................. 73

Significance of War ................................................. 73

Conclusion .............................................................. 73

9.4 Communalism ......................................................... 73

Communal Violence in India ................................... 74

Gujarat Riots (2002)................................................ 74

Gulbarg Society Massacre ..................................... 74

Naroda Patiya Massacre ........................................ 74

Commission of Inquiry ............................................ 74

Supreme Court Monitored Inquiry .......................... 74

Chapter - 10

Dalit Movements ........................................................ 75

10.1 Introduction ............................................................ 75

10.2 Caste System ......................................................... 75

10.3 Untouchables and Untouchability .......................... 75

10.4 Pre-Independence .................................................. 75

Adi Hindu Movement .............................................. 75

Gandhi and Dalit Movement ................................... 76

Ambedkar and Dalit Movement .............................. 76

10.5 Post-Independence Developments ........................ 76

Constitutional Provisions ......................................... 76

Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (Formerly known as Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955)...... 77

Punishments for Offences ...................................... 77

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 .......................... 78

10.6 Ambedkar and Dalit Buddhist Movement ............... 80

10.7 Dalit Panthers ......................................................... 80

10.8 Bahujan Samaj Party .............................................. 80

10.9 Dalit Capitalism ...................................................... 81

10.10 Other developments ............................................... 81

10.11 Impact and Analysis ............................................... 81

Chapter - 11

Environmental Movements ....................................... 82

11.1 Introduction ............................................................ 82

11.2 Historical underpinnings ......................................... 82

Pre-History .............................................................. 82

Beginnings ............................................................. 82

India in comparison to Western countries .............. 82

Reasons for the emergence of environmental movements in India ................................................ 83

11.3 Chipko Movement ................................................... 83

Background ............................................................ 83

Protest .................................................................... 83

Demands ................................................................ 83

Government response ............................................ 83

Significance ............................................................ 84

11.4 Silent Valley Project ................................................ 84

Background ............................................................ 84

Protest .................................................................... 84


Significance ............................................................ 84

11.5 Jungle Bachao Andolan ......................................... 84

Background ............................................................ 85

11.6 Appiko Movement ................................................... 85

Background ............................................................ 85

Protest .................................................................... 85

Objectives .............................................................. 85

Significance ............................................................ 85

11.7 Narmada Bachao Andolan ..................................... 85

Background ............................................................ 86

Sardar Sarovar Project ........................................... 86

Protests .................................................................. 86


Significance ............................................................ 86

11.8 Environment and Women ........................................ 86

11.9 Critical analysis of environmental movements ........ 88

Chapter - 12Land Reforms .............................................................. 89

12.1 At Independence .................................................... 89

12.2 Phases .................................................................... 89

First phase .............................................................. 89

Second phase ........................................................ 89

12.3 Kumarappa Committee........................................... 89

12.4 Zamindari Abolition................................................. 89

Impact .................................................................... 90

Limitations .............................................................. 90


12.5 Tenancy Reform ..................................................... 90

Security of tenure ................................................... 90

Regulation of rents ................................................. 91

Rights of ownership ................................................ 91

Constitutional safeguards ....................................... 91

12.6 Land Ceiling ........................................................... 91

Limitations .............................................................. 91

12.7 Bhoodan Movement ............................................... 91

12.8 Cooperatives and Community Development Program .................................................................. 92

Types of Cooperatives ............................................ 92

Limitations of Cooperativization .............................. 93

Positives of the Cooperatives ................................. 93

11Nehruvian Era

1.1 Integration of IndiaIndia had achieved its Independence after a long struggle and sacrifices of many freedom fighters. After the revolt of 1857, freedom fighters emerged from every nook and corners of the nation. Many times, freedom fighters disagreed on means to be used to attain freedom, for instance some favoured Satyagraha, whereas others preferred use of force (example-Indian National Army). But they all realized that for India to emerge out of her debilitating and pitiful situation, freedom must be attained.

At the time of Independence, India was facing many problems like communal violence, partition and resettlement of displaced people, division of armed forces and bureaucracy as a result of partition, a weak economy, depleted resources, need of stability at political front, etc. One of the major issues was the integration of princely states without which the dream of one country would have remained unfulfilled. At the time of independence, India consisted majorly of British Indian territories, which were directly administered by the Britishers and the princely states, which were 565 in number. Before independence, although princely states enjoyed considerable freedom in the internal affairs, the British crown exercised paramount power over the states.

Classification of Indian StatesAfter Independence, the paramountcy of the British crown lapsed on these princely states, and they were free to join either Pakistan, or India, or to stay independent. Many of the larger princely states began to dream of independence and to scheme for it. They claimed that the paramountcy could not be transferred to the new states of India and Pakistan.

They got further encouragement from M.A. Jinnah who publicly declared on 18 June 1947 that "the states would be independent sovereign states on the termination of paramountcy, and were free to remain independent if they so desired."

It was quite formidable task to integrate all these princely states with the newly independent Indian Union. However, under the skillful leadership of Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, most of the princely states were integrated with the Indian

Union using both persuasion and pressure. But three states, that is Junagarh, Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir posed problems for quite some time.

Other than simplifying the political organization of India, the territorial integration of princely states brought uniformity, simplicity and viability in the units. Thus, when the constituent assembly adopted the constitution, the constitution contained the following four categories of states in the first schedule.

Part A StatesFormer provinces of British India, Ruled by an elected Governor and state legislature.With a population of 19 million, 216 states were merged with the neighboring British Indian provinces and were designated as Part A states. These included: (1) Assam (2) Bihar (3) Bombay (4) Madhya Pradesh (5) Madras (6) Orissa (7) Punjab (8) Utter Pradesh (9) West Bengal.

Part B StatesFormer Princely StatesWith a population of about 35 million, 275 states were integrated to create new viable administrative units and were designated as Part B states. These included: (1) Hyderabad (2) Jammu and Kashmir (3) Madhya Bharat (4) Mysore (5) PEPSU (Patiala and East Punjab States Union) (6) Rajasthan (7) Saurashtra (8) Travancore-Cochin.

Part C StatesFormer Chief Commissioners Provinces and some Princely states.61 princely states, not covered under above categories due to their special conditions, were constituted into Centrally Administered areas and were called Part C states. These included: (1) Ajmer (2) Bilaspur (3) Bhopal (4) Coorg (5) Delhi (6) Himachal Pradesh (7) Kutch (8) Manipur (9) Tripura and (10) Vindhya Pradesh.

Part D StatesAdministered by a Lieutenant Governor appointed by Central Government.The islands of Andaman and Nicobar were placed under a separate category called the Part D state.

Integration of Princely StatesThe relationship of the princely states with the British India had been the product of different treaties signed with the British East India Company and the British Crown, which gave the British Raj varying degrees of control over foreign, inter-state relations and defence. This happened over the course of a century.

Rulers of the princely states had accepted the suzerainty of Britain in India. Also, these princely states were represented in the Imperial Legislative Council and the Chamber of Princes. Thus, the princes maintained a channel of influence with the British Raj.

In the run-up to independence, the important question that emerged was the nature and shape of the new state or states that would replace the British Raj. The demand for the partition to create Pakistan was the central issue, though it was not the only one. However, the ‘partition plan’ did not deal with the fate of the princely states, as it confined itself only with the provinces.

Though the rulers of princely states were technically free to join either Dominion, there were certain geographical considerations which could not be wished away. Out

of something like 565 states, the vast majority were irretrievably linked geographically with the Dominion of India. Even after the Congress leadership agreed to partition and to the establishment of Pakistan, the political geography of the new Indian state remained unclear. Before the Independence, the development of trade, commerce and communication had bound the princely states with the British India through complex agreements. Without integration of the Princely states, after the Independence, agreements relating to railways, customs, irrigation, use of ports, etc would lapse and thus, would have created a chaotic situation. At the same time, the people of these princely states had also, participated in the freedom struggle and wished to integrate with India.

Instrument of AccessionSardar Patel and V.P. Menon proposed an official treaty known as ‘instrument of accession’ to the princely states. According to the basic tenets of the treaty, the Government of India would control only foreign affairs, defence and communications, leaving all internal issues to be administered by the states.

2An initiative of Group


Nehruvian Era

3History of Post Independence IndiaAn initiative of Group


More concessions were given by guaranteeing that princes who signed willingly would be retained as constitutional heads of their state, although, they would be 'encouraged' to hand their power over to an elected government. Once the Instrument of Accession was signed, the state would be represented in the Constituent Assembly of India; thereby, becoming an active participant in framing of the new Constitution.

Thus, by employing a potent mix of charm, bullying and cajoling, Mountbatten, Patel and Menon managed to get most of the States to accede. Princely states were engaged through social meetings and unofficial surroundings, lobbying them to forestall potential conflicts and to accede to the Indian Union in good faith before the deadline. Patel invoked the patriotism of India's monarchs, asking them to join in the freedom of their nation and act as responsible rulers who cared about the future of their people, along with issuing an implied threat, that rulers might face popular uprising of their citizens for accession to Indian Union if they did not do so before 15th August 1947.

StatesDue to these efforts, from June to August 15th, 1947, 562 of the 565 India-linked states signed the instrument of accession. Before Independence, Travancore was ruled by C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, who wished Travancore to remain as an independent country. The communists of the state revolted against the idea and made an attempt on the ruler’s life. Sensing the threat to his life, Iyer resigned. He was succeeded by P.G.N. Unithan. After several rounds of negotiations, the state was acceded to India, in 1949, forming the state of Travancore-Kochi.

At the time of India’s Independence, Jodhpur was ruled by a young King Maharaja Hanwant Singh. Exploring other options, he thought that Pakistan would give him a better deal then what India was offering and thus, delayed the accession. He even met Jinnah in Delhi where Jinnah promised him many concessions. Patel met with the King and discussed the future developments like imports of arms, need of grains and linking Jodhpur to Kathiawar by rail, etc. At the same time, Patel warned the King that If he decided to join Pakistan then India would not be able to help the state during the communal violence, which was

prevalent in Punjab and Bengal at the time. Sensing that his best interest lay in joining India, he acceded on 11th August 1947.

In return of signing the Instrument of Accession, the princes were given handsome ‘privy purses’, the amount was linked to the revenue earned by each state. The Privy Purse was the incentive given to the rulers of the princely states as part of their agreements to integrate with India. However, in the strenuous process of integration, three major conflicts arose that posed a major threat to the Union: Junagadh, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad.

JunagadhJunagadh was situated in the Kathiawar region of western India. Though over 70% of its population was Hindu, Junagadh was ruled by a muslim nawab Muhammad Mahabat Khanji III. Also, it did not have a shared land boundary with Pakistan. The Arabian Sea stood between it and Pakistan. Advised by Jinnah, the Nawab delayed the discussion of accession with India and on August 15, 1947 declared its wish of acceding to Pakistan.

Considering the fact that administrative and economic unity of Kathiawar would be endangered due to Junagadh’s accession to Pakistan, Indian leaders raised concerns, but both Junagadh and Pakistan did not respond. It was also believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go to Pakistan, it would exacerbate the communal tension already simmering in Gujarat. Thus, India imposed an embargo of essential supplies on the state, including coal, petroleum and sugar.

Later, Pakistan accepted the accession of Junagadh. To resolve the impending issue, India proposed that a



Nehruvian Era

referendum or a plebiscite be conducted to decide the future of the state by the people of the state. These kind of instruments were used before also, in the North West Frontier Province and in the Sylhet district of Assam. But Pakistan refused the idea.

Meanwhile, leaders of the state people’s organizations in Kathiawar went on to form a ‘provisional government’ of Junagadh— an organization that claimed to represent the people of Junagadh and actively worked to overthrow the Nawab’s administration. And, by the end of October 1947, it started occupying pockets of Junagadh territory.

Due to this development, the Nawab of Junagadh panicked and fled to Pakistan. As Pakistan was reluctant to send troops to aid Junagadh, the Dewan (now, the in charge after the Nawab fled) asked the Indian government to restore the law and order situation in the state and take over the administration, to which Indian Government complied with alacrity.

This move was strongly protested by Pakistan, which later raised the issue at the United Nations Security Council. Later, in February 1948, the Indian Government conducted a referendum in Junagadh, which overwhelmingly favored merger with Indian Union.

Jammu and KashmirIn Jammu and Kashmir, the situation was peculiar. It shared border with both Pakistan and India. Here, a hindu king Maharaja Hari Singh ruled over a population that was overwhelmingly muslim. The king was reluctant to join both India and Pakistan. He delayed a decision on accession, hoping to keep Kashmir independent and a neutral state. The popular political forces led by the National Conference and its leader Sheikh Abdullah, however, wanted to join India.

The leadership in Pakistan organized a tribal ‘lashkar’ to invade and capture Kashmir, because they feared that Pakistan’s security would be threatened if Kashmir went to India. As the army of the state was unable to cope up with this attack, Maharaja Hari Singh sought India’s military assistance.

Though, Nehru was against accession without conducting the referendum in the state, India could send its troops to Kashmir only after the state’s formal accession to India under international laws, as pointed out by the then Governor General of India, Lord Mountbatten. Thus, the Maharaja acceded to India on 26th October, 1947. In accordance with its democratic principles, India announced that it would conduct referendum on the accession decision once the situation became peaceful. After the accession, Indian leaders immediately took steps to fly troops to Srinagar. Srinagar was first held and then the raiders were gradually driven out of the valley, though,

the invaders occupied some areas of the state and armed conflict continued for a month.

The Indian government approached the United Nation Security Council against the aggression undertaken by Pakistan in Kashmir. However the UNSC converted ‘Kashmir question’ into ‘India-Pakistan dispute’. Following a resolution of the UNSC,both India and Pakistan accepted a ceasefire on 31st December,1948 which is still prevailing. In 1951, the UN passed a resolution providing for a referendum under UN supervision after Pakistan had withdrawn its troops from the part of Kashmir under its control. The resolution has remained infructuous since Pakistan has refused to withdraw its forces from what is known as Azad Kashmir.

Since then India has regarded Kashmir’s accession as final and irrevocable and Kashmir as its integral part. Pakistan continues to deny this claim.

HyderabadSimilar to Junagadh, in a way, Hyderabad was also ruled by a muslim leader, Nizam Usman Ali Khan, presiding over a population of nearly 16 million, over 80% of them being hindus. But Hyderabad carried much greater importance as it was the largest state at that time, completely surrounded by Indian Territory, located in central India. Thereby, without Hyderabad, there would be a large gap in the center of the Indian Territory, potentially posing a constant threat to India’s security in the future. Thus, Hyderabad was essential for India's unity.

After several rounds of negotiations, India signed a “Standstill Agreement”, a temporary and year-long agreement, maintaining the status quo.

India signed this temporary agreement, hoping that Nizam would introduce representative government in the state, while the negotiations continued. But, Nizam’s intentions were to delay the process and expand his military strength so as to force India to accept his independence or succeed

5History of Post Independence IndiaAn initiative of Group


22Lal Bahadur Shastri Era

2.1 IntroductionAfter the death of Jawaharlal Nehru in 1964, a question regarding his successor arose. There were two main contenders for the post of the Prime Minister namely, Morarji Desai and Lal Bahadur Shastri. Under a group of prominent Congress leaders known as Syndicate, it was

decided that Shastri will succeed to the post of Prime Minister. He was sworn in to the post in June, 1964.

ChallengesWhen Lal Bahadur Shastri took the office of Prime Minister of India, he was faced with a number of challenges, which included the following:

• Stagnating economy, worsening Balance of Payments and severe shortage of food.

• Protests in Tamil Nadu for continuation of English as official language, beyond the period of fifteen years as provided by the Constitution in 1950.

• Demands for separate states (like in Punjab) and merger of Goa with Maharashtra.

• Naga demand for independence and associated insurgency in Nagaland.

• Kashmir issue and Pakistan’s designs in Kashmir.

• Growth in China’s power with nuclear test in October, 1964.

Response• The problem of food crisis was dealt with the initiation

of Green Revolution. It has been dealt in detail in the following discussions.

• Prime Minister Shastri gave assurance to the non- Hindi speaking states that their right to transact their business in their regional language would be protected. He also assured them that the use of English as a language of correspondence between the center and the states would continue. However, he failed to find a lasting solution to the issue because he could not get convergence in the views of pro-Hindi and anti-Hindi groups.

• Demand for separate state in Punjab too was not dealt with in a decisive manner under Shastri and the matter was left to be solved by his successor Indira Gandhi.

• Though the state of Nagaland was created in 1963, peace eluded the region, as result of increase in insurgency. Under Shastri, no solution could be achieved for insurgency in the state.

• The issue of Kashmir started simmering during Lal Bahadur Shastri’s Prime Ministership. The unrest in the Kashmir valley was exploited by Pakistan which eventually resulted in a war between India and Pakistan in 1965. It is dealt separately in the following discussions.

• As China successfully tested a nuclear bomb, Dr. Homi J. Bhabha, the Atomic Energy Commission Director, who though personally stood for universal disarmament, said that India, in eventual situations, may go nuclear. But, Shastri did not favour these statements by Dr. Bhabha.

2.2 Political DevelopmentsKamaraj PlanAfter the defeat in the war against China in 1962, the image of not only the government but also that of the Congress Party eroded . Moreover, fifteen years in power made the party complacent. There were signs that it had lost touch with the ground realities. This was evident from the defeat in the by-elections and growing strength of the regional parties like DMK.

The Chief Minister of Madras K. Kamaraj saw the threat from the DMK. In order to check its rise and in order to rejuvenate the Congress Party he recommended a measure known as ‘Kamaraj Plan’. Under it, he suggested that the senior party leaders should leave their ministerial posts and should focus

on party rebuilding. In order to walk the talk he resigned from the post of Chief Minister in October, 1963. Six Union Ministers and six Chief Ministers including Lal Bahadur Shastri, Jagjivan Ram, Morarji Desai, Biju Patnaik and S.K. Patil followed suit and resigned from their posts.

Kumaraswamy Kamaraj

Kumaraswamy Kamaraj (1903-1975) belonged to Nadar caste, one of the most depressed castes amongst the Hindus and was a well known leader of the Indian National Congress (INC). He played a leading role in shaping India's destiny since the demise of Jawaharlal Nehru till the split in Congress in 1969, and, is widely known as ‘King Maker’ due to his role behind the rise of two great Prime Ministers of India i.e., Lal Bahadur Shashtri and Indira Gandhi. He was elected unopposed to the Madras Legislative Assembly in 1937. Later, he was again elected to it, in 1946. He was, also, elected to the Constituent Assembly of India in 1946, and later to Parliament, in 1952.

He became the Chief Minister of Madras in 1954 and served till 1963 for three consecutive terms. On realizing a decline in INC’s enthusiasm, he resigned from his ministerial post and also asked other senior leaders to do so. After resigning from the post, he became a prominent leader of INC and served as its President for 4 years (1964-1967).

Rise of Regional PoliticsIndia being a diverse country, the aspirations of people vary, which resulted in formation of various regional parties in the country.

DMK in Tamil NaduFormed in 1949 by Annadurai, it was initially an anti-brahmin, anti-north and anti-hindi party, with demand for an independent nation-state of southern states, i.e. Dravidnadu. But, after realizing that its demand for the separate nation-state cannot be fulflled and it is possible to protect the Tamil culture within the sphere of unity, it toned down its demands. They also underplayed their anti-brahmin movement because it led to flight of Brahmins which affected the development of science and technology in Tamil Nadu. They began participation in the elections and formed government in Tamil Nadu in 1967, with Annadurai as the Chief Minister.

Shivsena in MaharashtraIt was formed in 1966 by Bal Thackeray with an agenda of ‘Bombay for Maharashtrians’. It sought to protect the

regional interests, with demands like jobs for sons of soil. In a similar way to protect the regional aspirations, various other regional parties were formed in other parts of the country. For example, Telugu Desam Party was formed in early 1980s, Assam Gana Parishad was formed in Assam in 1985 etc.

Impact of Rise of Regional Parties• The regional parties voiced regional interest which

strengthened the Indian federation.

• They played a role in the formation of the coalition governments at the Centre.

• Their rise led to increase in the representation of the regional interests in Lok Sabha.

• Often, the regional parties used violent means to protect the regional interests. This aroused the sub-national feelings which on various occasions created law and order problems.

2.3 Tashkent AgreementIndo-Pak War (1965)The unrest in the Kashmir valley during the 1960’s made the Pakistani leadership think that the situation could be exploited to annex Kashmir. They also thought to exploit the military preparedness going on in India after the China war. The dress rehearsal to the larger conflict came in the form of skirmish in the Runn of Kutch region.

In April 1965, the two militaries exchanged fire in the Runn. Due to the nature of the terrain and the use of American tanks by the Pakistani army, India’s military response was weak. But with the interference by the Britain, both the sides agreed to refer the dispute to international arbitration. Meanwhile, Sheikh Abdullah was arrested as he was going too far and was talking about possibility of independence for Kashmir. For this, he had met the Chinese Prime Minister.

The arrest of Abdullah and the clash in the Runn put an idea of infiltration in the mind of Pakistani President Ayub Khan. The fight in the Runn made him think that the Indian government and the armed forces are not ready for the war.

Offensive by PakistanOperation Gibraltar: (Named after a famous Moorish victory in medieval Spain): Under it, the trained infiltrators were sent by the Pakistan in the Kashmir valley in August 1965. The aim was to foment pro-Pakistan protests and to create conditions for military intervention. In order to counter this move, Shastri ordered the army to cross the line of control and to seal the passes through which infiltrators were coming.



History of Post Independence India

Operation Grand-slam: When the idea of fomenting unrest in the valley did not succeed, the reserve plan was launched by Pakistani army. Under it, Pakistan launched a tank and infantry attack in Chhamb in south-west Jammu and Kashmir. Shastri ordered to not only defend Kashmir but also to open a new front across Lahore and Sialkot.

International ResponseThe escalation of hostilities alarmed superpowers. The US along with Britain cut off arms, food and other supplies to both India and Pakistan. The Chinese weighed in towards Pakistan and declared India as an aggressor. However, the Soviet Union discouraged China from supporting Pakistan.

The United Nations Security Council made both countries to sign ceasefire. Both the sides suffered significant losses in the form of military personnel and, also, tanks, aircrafts, etc. because of which the war is often considered inconclusive.

Gains for India(a) Infiltration of Kashmir was foiled.

(b) Indian force recovered pride, prestige and self-confidence lost due to defeat in 1962.

(c) India emerged politically stronger and united.

Jai Jawan, Jai KisanDuring the Pakistan war the Prime Minister Shastri coined this slogan hailing soldiers and farmers. Through this slogan, he wanted to motivate the soldiers to fight the enemies and inspire farmers to produce more food grains to attain self-sufficiency in food production and reduce dependence on

imports of food grains.

A Question [2013]

Write a critical note on evolution and significance of the slogan ‘Jai Jawan Jai Kisan’. (200 Words)

Tashkent DeclarationAfter the cease-fire between India and Pakistan, the Soviet Union offered to help reach a peaceful settlement. This led to a meeting of Shastri and Ayub Khan with the Soviet Prime Minister as the chief mediator, in Tashkent. They agreed to Tashkent Declaration, in January 1966. Some of the important provisions of the declaration, are as follows:

(a) Pakistan to give up on international arbitration of the Kashmir dispute.

(b) India to withdraw from key posts like Haji Pir Pass and other strategic gains in Kashmir.

(c) Withdrawal of forces by both the sides to the positions held before the war.

(d) The orderly transfer of prisoners of war.

(e) The resumption of diplomatic relations.

(f) The disavowal of the force to settle future disputes.

A Question [2013]

Analyze the circumstances that led to the Tashkent Agreement in 1966. Discuss the highlights of the Agreements. (200 Words)

Reasons for Withdrawal from Haji Pir Pass• The other option for India was the resumption of the

mutually disastrous war.

• Also, denial to agree on the withdrawal would have led to loss of support from the Soviets in UNSC on the Kashmir issue and also loss of supply of defense equipments.

During the course of the meeting, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri died on 11th January, 1966, due to heart attack.

2.4 White RevolutionAfter independence there was an emphasis on the cooperatives as a means to improve agriculture and benefit the poor. In agriculture, particularly in land-reforms, it could not achieve the desired results due to various reasons. The most successful experiment in the cooperatives was the milk cooperatives. The success of milk cooperatives in meeting the milk demands of the people and improving the life standards of the people associated with milk cooperatives has been termed as white revolution.



Lal Bahadur Shastri Era

HISTORY OF POST INDEPENDENCE INDIA...states with the newly independent Indian Union. However, under...

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