The End of Majapahit. Majapahit was the last and greatest of the HIndu-Buddhist Empires in pre-16th century Island Southeast Asia. The Rise factors: location manpower of Majapahit in the end of the 13th century was motivated by three (1) Java's volcanic soil (2) rainfall suitable for growing rice (3) on the plains of the Solo and Brantas Rivers; and mobilization of of for the development of land for ricefields or paddies.

Political authority was used to manage the land on the Brantas river plain and the Island of Madura. The Founder of Majapahit was Raden Vijaya, heir and son of Kertanagara, often described as an aspiring empire builder. Raden defeated the MOngols in 1293 but later made peace with them in order to establish trade relations with Yuan China. Gaja Mada's successor, Hayam Wuruk (Rajasanagara) (14th cent) conquered all of Eastern Java, Madura and Bali. Majapahit as empire was even able to establish relations with Samudra-Pasai, Northern Sumatra, then a pepper depot, with direct access to the Straits of Malacca. Coasts of Sumatra - copper coins became a local currency. Precious metals remained important not as currencies but commodities and merchandise for the market. The King of Majapahit was devaraja and chakravartin he received various donations in kind and cash. The king had the right to share goods produced in his realm. This insured the king's supply of rice, salt, sugar, meat, cloth, oil and bamboo. The international traders: Chinese and Indians brought gifts for the king. But the just king (ratu adil) was measured by his generosity. The ruler was expected to redistribute these gifts in return for works or services of artisans. A portion of local and imported luxury goods would be distributed to the king's allies, thus wealth was dispersed throughout the kingdom. His wealth and power created his prestige. The monarch both ruled wet-rice (sawah) and maritime realms. But it was his association with the royal military and wet-rice farmers that insured control. Generous contributions were made to generals, the Senapati, commander in chief, coming from the rich commercial elite. Peasant farmers were of great importance. Neither the royal house nor the market could survive without the farming villages.

The international position of Majapahit (which was in Java) was based on rice. It was the major commodity harvested from the Moluccas. SPice Islanders came to Java for rice. The glory of Majapahit is celebrated in an epic poem, the Nagarakertagama, composed in 1365 by the Buddhist monk Prapanca in order to glorify Majapahit rulers. It begins with the reign of Kertanagara. He was an ascetic saint, a devotee of a Shiva-BUddha cult. Majapahit rapidly declined in importance after the death of Hayam Wuruk. A war of succession between rival lords (1401-06) weakened the kingdom, at that time when the ISlamic state of Malacca in the Malay peninsula emerged. Struggle for control of the spice trade. By the beginning of the 16th century, Majapahit had fallen into a local polity. It faded from view as Moslem polities from the North Coast of Java (known as the Pasisir), appeared and seized control of the affairs of Java. Pasisir consists of Cirebon, Semarang and Pekalongan (batik town). Majapahit at this time was no longer able to secure the straits of Malacca. Ming China intervened to police the Straits with Majapahit approval. Admiral Ch'eng Ho was sent, a Yunanese Muslim from Southern China to clean out a Chinese pirate nest at Palembang. Economic forces ultimately weakened Majapahit's control of its maritime realm. The Spice business grew so great that Majapahit could no longer contain it. Early 16th century: Sumatran pepper ports: such as Banda Aceh were exporting pepper primarily to China in competition with INdian pepper traders from the Malabar coast. In 1513, a coalition of Javanese coastal communities attacked Majapahit. Independent coastal trading communities with international links to Indian Muslims from the State of Gujarat in the Malabar coast; Chinese Muslims from Yunan; Persians and Arabians. Coastal communities converted to Islam. 1527 - Majapahit was defeated by several north coast ISlamic state under the sultanate of Demak (Central Java). 1528 Majapahit royal family fled to Bali; followed by Islamization of Java, and the Emergence of the sUltanates in the Island World. With the arrival of Islam, different architectural forms were needed. Anthropomorphism of Hindu-Buddhism was taboo. Since the 16th century, Islam became firmly established in Java. However, syncretism remained strong. ISLAM 'submission' its faith requires complete submission to the law of a single God, al-Lah. Its adherents believed that its priciples were revealed in the 7th century to his Rasul (prophet), Muhammad. Muhammad incorporated his revelations into the Qur'an. Around the end of the 13th century, Sunni Islam was adopted among port cities. This conversion extended northwards to Malay Peninsula even reaching Champa, Borneo, Mindanao, Sulu (tausug, maranao, maguindanao). In the case of Burma, Islam spread to the Arakhan region overland from INdia. They are called Rohingya(s), name of Muslim community. They are descendants of Arab and Persian traders from India who settled and inter-married since from the 9th century in several hundred years. Muslims do not eat pork. They were commanded as their first duty, to build a community, an UMMAH, characterized by social justice, practical compassion, where

there was a fair distribution of wealth. The Ummah was the community, a religious one, a community of believers. Outside of the uMmah, were the Kafir(s), infidels, unbelievers, enemies of the Islamic faith that threaten the Ummah. Its political and social welfare would have sacramental value to Muslims. If it is prosperous, they were following God's will in a truly Islamic community. Islam began in Mecca in 610 AD, not among nomads, but among city-dwellers in which long distance trade between Mediterranean and Indian Ocean via West Coast of Arabia by caravan trade route. 570 - around this time was the birth of Muhammad, year of the Elephant according to tradition. His mother, Aminah, died when he was six (thus orphans have a special place in Islam), for a time he had been given to a wet nurse, belonging to a nomadic tribe, bedouins, later called Arabs. When he was old enough, he made his living as caravan manager for a wealthy widow named Khadija, who went on trading journeys to Syria. Maritime Islam of SOutheast Asia. Camels made the desert passable. the camel is able to carry 25o kg and even up to 600 kg. It can cover 160 kilometers a day. Maximal temperature of 57 degrees celsius up to 8 days without drinking. The camel made tribal migrations possible. It made the camel-breeding Bedouins the lords of the Arabian peninsula. The camel must have spread very quickly to tribes in need of it. Its adoption had never had military significance. It did not lead to the establishment of Empires, unlike the Horse. Khadija offered Muhammad her hand in marriage, he accepted. He is said to have been 25; she 40 to 45. She bore him, it is said, at least 6 children, of whom, only four daughters survived, including Fatimah (one of the four perfect women in Islam). Muhammad had 11 marriages. Polygamy was common in Arabia, as security against loss of men in the numerous wars. Khadija was the first wife and the first convert to Islam. 610 AD - Muhammad came to believe he is receiving messages from God which e was to convey to his fellow Meccans. His revelations were lated collected, forming the Qur'an. Muhammad sincerely believed his revelations were not his, but the actual words of God conveyed through JIBRAIL. THE RISE OF ISLAM The rise of Islam marks the end of the Jahiliyya, 'age of innocence, originally used to describe pre-Islamic period. The term is now applied to any society, even nominally Muslim, who has turned its back upon God and refused to submit to God's will. Munafiqun - nominal Muslims, branded in the Qur'an as hypocrites. The Qur'an means 'recitation.' Muhammad himself was illiterate. Public readings of the Qur'an made sure that even those who cannot read can also hear of the words of Muhammad. The chapters of the Qur'an are called SURA(s). Short chapters: God was one, both merciful and powerful, controlling the course of events. The Qur'an speaks of al-Lah as having these attributes: (1) will (2) knowledge (3) hearing (4) sight (5) speech. God's goodness is shown by the way he provides sustenance for his followers. He created the world and would judge men in the last days. "There will be a day in the future, the day of judgement when God would judge human beings according to their acts. The dead would be awakened and the good will go to FIRDAUS (paradise) or SORGA (heaven) and the evil to hell (NERAKA), the abode of SAITAN and JINN(s). They have no purgatory. The day of judgement is certain and indisputable. it is not enough to believe in it. The pious man trembles before the final hour. The signs of the final hour are:

(1) knowledge shall dwindle and ignorance shall appear in the form of atheism, disbelief, refusal to submit to al-Lah (2) Fornication: sexual intercourse between partners not married to each other (3) Women will abound in number and men will decrease in number, until there shall be one man for every fifty women, as a result of war. Muhammad was called the Prophet, the NABI; he sought to end tribalism with an Islamic community: Ummah (Islamic Globalism / Internationalism); he became leader of those who accepted his words. Messenger of God "Rasul." He is said to be the last and the greatest of the prophets. THe Seal. the most intelligent. he was not divine. His message was the same as that of David, Solomon and Abraham. He simply built upon and perfected their examples and teachings. He never asked Jews and Christians to accept Islam, unless they wanted to, because Jews and Christians received perfectly valid revelations of their own. There shall be no coercion in matters of faith. Respect Jews and Christians, whom the Qur'an calls the "People of the Book" or "People of an Earlier Revelation." The Qur'an tells that God expects people to be generous with their wealth. "As for the orphans, oppress not; as for the beggars refuse not." Widows and orphans because of war. The Qur'an talks that generous use of wealth should be an aspect of human conduct. "Islamic HUmanism." it was wrong to build a private fortune but good to share wealth and create a society where the weak and vulnerable were treated with respect. If people did not mend their ways, their society would collapse because they were violating the fundamental law of existence. "you do not exist for yourself alone, but for others." Attitude to wealth was condemnation, especially to those who do nothing but gather more wealth, thinking wealth will make them immortal. The miser, the greedy and avaricious would be treated adversely on the last day, because they treated the poor with ridicule. On the last day, they will have no friend. Meccan merchants who are after profit were aroused to vigorous opposition by Muhammad's criticisms. Pagans or infidel merchants spoke of the pagan Gods. He emphasized one God. Merchants were often described as pecuniary, often spoke of money and profit. The Qur'an emphasized charity and generosity. We must all be givers. Persecution of Muslims by Meccan merchants followed. This made it impossible for Muhammad to continue preaching in Mecca. 622 A.D. Muhammad, along with 70 Muslim families immigrted to Medina (Yathrib) al-Madinah 'the city.' This flight of the 1st Muslim community was known as the Hegirah (Hijrah); an event marking the beginning of the Muslim era. Year of the Prophet. June 16, 622 was the year of the Hijrah. In Medinah, Muhammad became a sayyid (chief) and he is to have a big harem. His wives have occassioned a great deal of interest. His 11 marriages were for a variety of reasons. SOme for personal affinity, some were widows with no one to turn to, while others were politically motivated to create and maintain alliances. AISHA was only 9 years old and was possibly an orphan. She was born in 614, daughter of ABu Bakr, it seems then that the marriage was politically motivated. Abu Bakr was one of the first converts to Islam. Other wives: ages ranged from 1851. They were without protectors, or were related to the chiefs who became allies of the ummah; but none of them bore him any sons. he also had two concubines: Raihana (a Jew) and Marya (a Christian slave who was a gift from the ruler of Egypt). Muhammad's wives were sometimes more of a hindrance than a pleasure. In a squabble following the division of booty after a raid, Muhammad threatened to divorce them all.

He was very lenient towards his wives, they answered him back, male companions of Muhammad were astonished. Muhammad helped with the chores, mended his own clothes. he often took one of them on expeditions. On one occasion, his most intelligent wife, Umm Salamah, helped to prevent a mutiny. The Qur'an gave women rights of inheritance and divorce. The Qur'an prescribesa degree of separation, segregation, and veiling the Prophet's wives, but there is nothing in the Qur'an advocating that all women should veil their faces, or their seclusion in a separate part of the house. These customs were adopted some 3 or 4 generations after Muhammad's death. They were copying the Greek byzantium Christians who veiled and secluded their women. Purdah - 'seclusion' - is a Hindu/Muslim practice of social seclusion for women.The Qur'an makes men and women partners before God. It permitted polygamy when men were being killed by infidels. Men were permitted up to four wives provided he treat them all with absolute equality. Later, women had to wear the LITHAM, a veil that cover the lower part of the face up to the eyes. BURQU - a long garment which covers the whole body except they eyes. In Medinah, Muhammad formed and consolidated his forces into an Islamic Federation. By 630, Muhammad's Islamic ARmy was strong enough to take MEcca. He marched with his armies along with his tribal allies. He took the city without bloodshed, without forced conversion. he destroyed 360 idols arranged around the Ka'aba and rededicated the shrine to al-Lah. Kaaba "square building" is where the faithful pray towards. Muhammad died in 632 and was buried in Medina. (1) SHAHADAH - profession of faith, a short creed which runs: "there is no God but God, Muhammad is the Prophet of God," the act of testimony (2) SALAT - formal worship - 5 obligatory times of worship: before sunrise, noon, afternoon, sunset and evening. The faithful is summoned by a muezzin - "crier" - calling from the minaret of the mosque; the prayer- leader is the imam. Salat is usually performed in large numbers together., but can also be performed in isolation; preceded by ablutions, so that he is ritually pure. Performance in the masjid is not compulsory but is recommended, especially the Friday noon worship at which there is usually a sermon; they must face the direction of MEccah (compass is used). Public participation in Salat tends to be predominantly for men. In some mosques, a space is reserved for women. Salat includes kneeling and touching the ground with one's forehead in acknowledgement of God's awesome powers and one's own littleness before him. (3) ZAKAH/ZAKAT - an Arabic word sometimes translated as 'poor tax' or legal alms. The term is used for a tax of fixed proportion from one's income: 2.5% which must be paid by earning Muslims for the poor. Zakat is also used to feed orphans around the world, maintenance of mosques, and helping jobless and disabled persons. In Muhammad's time, zakah was collected and used to free slaves from their masters. When they were set free, they converted to Islam and helped in freeing other slaves. (4) SAUM - fasting, excepted from fasting are the sick and the dying; throughout the lunar month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar, which calculates months using the moon. It wsas during Ramadan that alLah revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad through JIbrail. Fasting for 30 days and consists of abstaining from smoking, drinking, eating and sexual intercourse from before sunrise and after sunset, permissible only during night. SUHUR - early meal Muslims eat before sunrise, to start their fast; IFTAR -

meal Muslims eat at sunset to break their fast during Ramadan. "Ramadan Mubarak" greeting - "have a happy and blessed Ramadan" - Eid Ul-Fitr (Indonesian: Idulfitri) - holiday after Ramadan during which Muslims celebrate successful fasting. "Eid Mubarak' Zakat is generally given at the end of Ramadan. (5)HAJJ - "greater pilgrimage" - takes place in Mecca itself; every adult Muslim who has the means is required to make the hajj at least once in his lifetime. He who has done so is called Hajji/Hajja; considered elite in INdonesia. But out of humility, some don't use the term. Those making the Hajj wear two simple white garments known as the IHRAM, signifying purity. Violence is forbidden at all times. Pilgrims are forbidden to carry arms, to argue, to kill animals, even insects, or speak an irritating word. Pilgrims would circle the kaaba seven times following the direction of the sun, then kiss the black stone embedded in the wall of the kaaba, which was probably a meteorite that had once hurtled to the ground, linking the kaaba to the heavenly world. JIHAD - political Islam, very occasionally said to be the 6th pillar of Islam, making it a militant faith. "holy war" but probably means "effort" or "struggle"; Al-Jihad ul AKbar - "the greater warfare" is the war against one's lusts (nafsu), an internal effort to reform bad habits in individuals and the Islamic community. Al-Jihad ul-asghar, war waged in the service of religion, to protect Islam against the infidels, unbelievers or opponents of Islam. Jihad is also used to purify Islam from heresies. For those who suffered, eternal life is endowed; the martyr can partake of pleasures denied in this world: gambling, drinking, etc. Heaven is highly attractive to human desires. Paradise is free from menstruation, urine, sputum, phlegm. Wine is mentioned as one of the delights of paradise. In the pillars, prohibitions were added against incest and sodomy. Sodom is also mentioned in Islamic texts, which was destroyed by its depravity. Homosexuality is a deviance which is most unnatural, deviating from social behavioral norm; does not contribute to the expansion of the Ummah because no offspring is produced. Gambling is also prohibited; also games of chance; usury also prohibited; exorbitant interests; alcohol is also prohibited; image representation; slavery and polygamy were permitted; slaves are to be treated kindly. The freeing of a slave "mamluk" was seen as a noble deed; prohibitions against usury had to do with Muhammad's dealings with the Jews. Consumption of flesh Muslims don't eat lions, tigers and animals of prey. The more civilized the people, the more choosy they are with their food. Blood is dirty, has lots of uric acid. Jews also don't eat pork. Usury - prohibition of usury related with Muhammad's dealings with the jews of Medina. TO muhammad, one aspect of the Jews' wrongdoing was usury. They were forbidden to do so. Halal - pertaining to food and dietary laws, same with Jews. It gives a detailed account of what is allowed. Man is born innocent. Good and bad grow up in man according to: education, upbringing, and environment. A human being has natural desires: food, sleep and sex. Man has natural emotions: happiness, anger, love, fear, appetite, desire. Desire is brought about by the instinct of possession which breeds envy and eventually develops jealousy and avarice. Islam does not recommend the annihilation of desires and emotions, but offers a method of controlling them. For as long as man lives, so does his emotions exist.

A Muslim is obliged to be clean physically and spiritually: abstention from eating pork is one of the steps in practicing hygiene and attaining purity of human nature. A forward step in material education. Blood is virtually our life. What we consume ultimately affects our blood system. It is therefore necessary to exercise selection in what we eat. Forbidden by Islam is the eating of animals which died a natural death. As a matter of principle, Muslims do not eat flesh of predatory animals. In Islam, cannibalism is associated with pre-Islamic Africans. No cats, dogs, rats, and insects are to be eaten. Prohibition is based on purification of one's nature. When food enters the body, it does not merely enter the body and is excreted; it is absorbed in the system. Dog is symbol of greed and gluttony. "Dogs and angels cannot live together." Dogs have 52 characteristics, according to Islamic tradition, half of them evil, half of them holy. But dogs' loyalty are praised. If a man has a dog, he has a brethren, even though he does not have brothers. Dogs are also regarded as unclean. The djinn often appears in the form of a black dog. Dogs howling in a house presaged death. If you consult the sunnah, the prophet was supposed to have prohibited the killing of dogs except black ones with two white patches above the eyes. Killing a dog makes the person unclean. It is as bad as killing seven men: belief that dogs have seven lives. Clean flesh, never encourages vegetarianism, Islam. However, in the consumption of flesh, they are required to be selective. Even if you feed the pig with clean food, it still remains a pig. Pig is naturally lazy and indulgent in sex, dislikes sunlight, lacks spirit and will to fight unlike the horse. The older it goes, the lazier it gets. Eats almost anything. Prefers dirty places to clean ones. Eats and sleeps only. Hates moving around. Most avaricious of all animals. Amongst animals, pig is the biggest haven of harmful germs. Pork is bringer of harmful diseases, for this reason it is not suitable for consumption. SHARI'A - Islamic LAw. Body of sacred laws derived from the Qur'an. Covers every aspect of human life: legal, moral, ritual, hygiene. Circumcision. Shaving of the pubic hair. Within Islamic law, attempt was made to make property safer by ordering that a thief should have his hand cut off. There was also hanging. To some, this constituted primitive law, violation of human rights. Pracititioners are called ULAMA [plural] ALIM [singular]. The ulama are scholarjurists, learned intellectuals. They are the guardians of the religious traditions of Islam. THE FITRA - central idea in ISlam. Natural, innate disposition of all true Muslims and human beings. FIVE THINGS: (1) Circumcision (2) shaving of the pubic hair (3) plucking of armpit hair. Sweat is an impure substance and gathers in such areas. (5) clipping of the moustache away from the mouth, so food and drink do not get caught up in it. The two main branches of Islam are the SUnni and the SHiite Muslims. Shiite "sectarians." Shia constitutes the minority, 1/5 of all Muslims. Shiites are a majority in Iran where it is the state religion. ALso in Yemen, Syria, Lebanon, East Africa, Northern INdia and Pakistan. Shia are partisans of ALi and his descendants. ALi is the cousin and son in law of Muhammad. Ali was regarded as the true leader of the UMmah. He is the first Imam, according to the shiites. Imam denotes descendant of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima marrying ALi. Fatimah is a common name in the ISlamic world. SHe is muhammad's favorite daughter. SHe is one of the five perfect women, together with Mary,

mother of jesus, and Khadija, also included is ASiya, who was the woman who saved the infant Moses while floating in a basket on the NIle RIver, the Egyptian Queen. MIllennarian expectation of the Mahdi permeates much of SHiite thinking. Mahdi is a spiritual and temporal leader. He is to rule before the world's end, restoring justice and religion. A hoped for period of peace, prosperity and justice. The Mahdi is male. NOV 27, 2008, THURSDAY 'Sunni' from 'Sunnah' which means tradition or custom. This is the belief and practice of mainstream ISlam. 80% of all Muslims. They validate or justify the existing political system where the leader is both the religious and political leader. Sunni recognized the order of succession of the first 4 caliphs who were the companions and immediate successors of Muhammad: (1) ABU BAKR (2) UMAR (3) UTHMAN (4) ALI. ALi is the only one accepted by the SHiites, the rest are considered as usurpers. Sunni has a mystical tradition called SUFISM. Developed first in Baghdad, "the city of peace" in the 8th and 9th centuries, later spreading throughout the ISlamic world. Arose as a reaction against strict orthodoxy, against puritanism. Individuals could find salvation only through meditation and prayer and by cutting ties with society. PIR - the sufi master, is a teacher who could guide the disciple along the mystical path --ecstacy through dancing and trance, singing, poetry and music. Intense joy which carries one beyond rational thought and self-control. Frenzy, rapture through mystic exultation. To be a sufi is to detach from fixed ideas and from pre-conceptions and not to try to avoid what is your luck or fortune in life. It is philosophical Islam dealing with epistemology, nature and forms of knowledge. (1) intellectual knowledge which is only information and collection of facts. (2) knowledge of emotions: sentimental and emotional feelings (3) knowledge of reality in which man can perceive what is right, what is true, beyond the boundaries of thought and sense. Knowledge of reality is also the science of knowledge. The real sufi know how to connect themselves with reality which lies beyond intellectual knowledge. God is one but wise people know it by many names. God's kindness is universal, divine truth and reality. " In addition to creating cold, God placed before man the means to protect himself from it." ISLAM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Islam is the predominant religion of maritime southeast asia, except for most of the Philippines. After the decline of the Hindu-BUddhist states, Islam began to appeal to southeast asian islanders. Muslims who overthrew the Majapahit empire were local converts. The earliest Muslim kingdom arose in PASAI on the North Coast of ACEH, just before the end of the 13th century. The earliest Muslim tombs appeared in Eastern JAva at around the same time. If we base our knowledge by tradition, Islamization of Java is attributed to 9 preachers, wali-sanga /songo/, 1st of whom was the historical figure: Malik IBRAHIM whose tomb is dated 1419. Tombstone indicates he was a trader from Gujarat, but of Persian origin and involved in missionary. They were considered saints, acting on behalf of Allah or semi-legendary apostles of Islam in Java. He also took part in the construction of the oldest mosque in Java, which is at Demak (east of Semarang) at the beginning of the 16th century.

Islamization brought new institutions: rural religious school: PESANTREN (pondok) /pondo/ or madrasah, where they study Koran and Islamic law. Pupil: "murid" lives with the master and studies Koran and how to reconcile law and custom. Often travel a network of schools following teachings of learned men called ULAMA or KIAI (Javanese). They form a special and greatly respected group. Pesantren might also enjoy endowment of land, or other sources making them economically independent. REgular donations. Islam spread as Muslim traders moved along established trading routes: Straits of Malacca. PASISIR (northwest of Java) - these brought them to clove - producing islands of Moluccas, where the Kings became MUSLIMS at about mid 15th century. There is no priestly class as such in Islam. Muslim merchants were the most obvious transmitters of Islam. Muslim merchants from INdia and Persia. hukum(indonesian) - "law." As a result, sultanates were established in Malacca, Malay Peninsula, Aceh, Ternate, Brunei. Sultanate refers to the office or reign of sultan. Muslim kingdoms and principalities. The word sultan is mentioned in the QUran. In tradition it means 'authority.' The term became a general title for holders of political and religious power. It was also used as a mark of respect. Used to refer to centers of Muslim power ex. Sultanate of Malacca - most progressive commercial urban center after middle of 15th century. Sultan of Malacca was also engaged in trade, termed "helper of the world," "defender of Islam." Propagation was carried out under the royal patronage of the king. Marriages betwen Muslims and infidels (kafirs) were arranged to attract new converts. APOSTASY was forbidden. Abandonment of one's beliefs: APOSTASY. Malacca was regarded as center of Islamic scholarship with Malay as its language. it was the lingua franca. malay was simplified. Vehicle of islamic transmission. Arabic script applied to Malay - called JAWI. In many cases, masuk melayu "to become a Malay" also came to mean "to become a Muslim." Much of the traditional Hindu rituals survived. Such as the (1) white umbrella (2) reservation of gold as exclusively for royalty (3) sacredness of elephant mounts. Sanskrit word: bendahara, was used for chief minister and treasurer. Sultans were no longer reincarnation of Hindu Gods. They now ruled under the sanction of the Quran. They could command royal works and enslave war captives, obliged vassals to pay tribute in tin. Principal income came from duties from foreign trade and presents, license fee, tax on domestic trade, food sales. Sultans were also involved in shipbuilding. Sultans were Malay-Indonesian and Tamil in origin. He is the commander in chief of the Malaccan army and navy composed of Malay and BUgis (ex-pirates recruited from the Malacca straits region). Sultan also relied on the office of the TEMENGGONG head of police and courts. LAKSAMANA - commander of the fleet or Admiral. And also of the four SHAHBANDAR(S) (persian in origin) - harbor masters, deals with foreign trading communities in Malacca: Chinese, Indian, CHam, Siamese, Javanese, Minangkabau (West Sumatra). Shahbandar presented arriving merchants to bendahara (who was a treasurer as well). He alloted necessary harborage and warehouse services, receipt for presents, and bribes for sultan, judges, police and other officials of Malacca. Officials lived on princely estates out of the city, under circumstances of extreme luxury. Javanese traders at Malacca were involved in the Spice Trade. They direct work of thousands of slaves and other Javanese laborers. Minangkabau - small traders, craftsmen and fruit-growers. Minangkabau - migrating - "merantau" - "look beyond" - farmer migrant workers and traders

DECEMBER 2, 2008, TUESDAY From Madras (Chenai), SOuthern INdia, came the chettyars or money-lenders who provided financial assistant for interest to small traders. Also provided financial assistance to Malay farmers and fishermen. Indian Muslims from Gujarat comprised the largest commercial community doing business in Malacca. Malacca source of spice and outlet for Indian cotton cloth froom Cambay (Northwest coast of INdia). OPIUM was imported at that time in large quantities from the Red Sea Area - from Aden (South Arabia) and was brought in by Arab traders. Two Malaccan sultans were addicted to Opium: Sultan ALauddin and Sultan Mahmud. From Malacca, Islam spread to other centers, in particular to those Malacca had close commercial connections, sultanates emerged on West Coast of Malay Peninsula in 15th century: sultanates of PERAK, KEDAH, PAHANG, KELANTAN, TRENGGANU, also in Pattani (Southern Thailand), as well as in the east coast of Sumatra. Sultanate of Malacca maintained predominant influence in Strait of Malacca until the Portuguese Conquest of 1511. Alfonso de ALbuquerque led a successful attack on Malacca. In the aftermath of the conquest, the great walls of Malacca were destroyed and Muslim traders were expelled. Albuquerque - great figure of early Portuguese colonial expansion; was governor of the Indies from 1509 - 1515. Goa, India. Conquest closed the ports to Muslim traders where they patronized other ports more sympathetic to their faith. One such place - ACEH - northern tip of Sumatra. Mid-14th century - adopted ISlam. After the fall of Malacca, Aceh quickly developed into a trading center for Muslims. According to Portuguese sources, Turkish soldiers were incorporated into Aceh's armies, and participated on several attacks on Portuguese Malacca in the 16th century. ISKANDAR MUDA (Alexander the Young) (1607-1636)- a sultan of Aceh, is thought to have been inspired not only by the Turks but also by Akhbar of the Mughal dynasty of India who extended the Empire and initiated a stable fiscal and administrative system. PRose narrative - HIKAYAT ACEH - 'the story of Aceh', recounts the deeds of Iskandar Muda who was inspired by the Persian Akbarnama, written in praise of Akhbar the Great well-known for ecumenical outlook on faith, religion and religious practice. In 1556, sultans of aceh sent missions to istanbul to gain interest of ottoman in an attack against the portuguese. The Turks were active participants of three major events: (1) siege of Constantinople (2) defeat of the Hapsburgs (3) conquest of Hungary by Sulaiman the Magnificent. Turkish soldiers had knowledge of muskets and large siege cannons. These reports would have impressed local rulers. Another beneficiary of Malacca's fall was Brunei. The ruler of Brunei converted between 1514 - 1521. he sponsored muslim missionaries in the Philippine archipelago. Well before the arrival of LEgaspi, the ports of SUlu and Maguindanao were under MUslim Kings. By this time, a Muslim family related to the King of Brunei assumed control in the Manila - were related to Rajah Soliman. In java, the forces of the sultan of Demak took to the field, asserting supremacy over the neighboring ports: BANTEN developed into an Islamic center and soon expanded across Southern Sumatra. From Demak, it spread to South Borneo and East Java. 1550s - decline of Demak, other ports such as GRESIK continued to foster missionary efforts in KUTAI, East Kalimantan on the Island of Borneo. Also spread to MAKASAR in Southern Sulawesi. Makasar's patronage gave new base for missionary work in Sulawesi, East Indonesia

and Maluku. 17th century - at least two mainland rulers converted to Islam in order to foster alliance against Thai and Vietnamese. Most CHams were at least nominal Muslims. In Cambodia, where Thai were constant threat, Khmer king (1643) converted to Islam and was circumcised [haha sucker]. The Khmer prince took the name sultan Ibrahim, but was called by the people King Rama who converted to Islam. IN Islamic communities, circumcision was a rite of passage for MUslim males. they and their families gained prestige because the ceremony was performed by respected religious leaders in the masjid / mosque / langgar "Village mosque." From about the 13th century, mystical schools called TARIQA had begun to develop focusing on SUFISM. They recited passages of the Koran together. Dancing, singing and meditation were their methods to attain union with God who was absolute. ZIKIR - were magic words in the form of Koranic passages. Members of the Tariqa were often drawn from the mercantile community: Traders, where Islamic schools imparted basic ideas Early 17th century in JAMBI, imam was responsible for running the mosque, he was a trader from PAHANG. He was both a SUfi and a trader. SUFISM expressed its willingness to assimilate other beliefs within the bounds of Islam. Certain preIslamic practices were thus tolerated. In Malacca, there were two penalties for the same crime, one following the custom (adat) and the other the SHARIA, law of GOd. New ideas were introduced - angels, prophets and saints. It expanded the number of heroes and superhuman figures who could be invoked for help. 'Abd Al-Qadir Al-Jilani' - founder of the Sufi QADIRIYYA order. He was person of particular veneration in part because of his descent from Prophet Muhammad. Interesting BANTEN document (17th Century) - it was said that Abd al-Qadir was so pious that when he was a baby, he even refused to drink his mother's milk during Ramadan. Local heroes such as DATO RI BANDANG whom folklore claims spread Islam in Makasar, came riding on a swordfish. Condemnation of the pig received attention in Moluccas where this animal had been accorded great importance as a ritual animal. In Moluccas, according to Pigafetta, the Spaniards killed all the pigs they carried on board to please the sultan of Ternate. Was Malay Literature dominated by Islam? No. Hindu stories survived ISlamization. Ex: Hikayat Seri Rama "Story of the Lord Rama." Hindu stories also formed the basis of wayang plots. Javanese form of Islam had been described as ABANGAN (red) (merahan); a term distinguished from SANTRI (putihan) (White) "Pure Islam." Moderate versus Liberal Islam. Putihan - obedient practicing Muslim. Abangan - peasantry; majority of rural populace who had absorbed Islam with animism and Hindu-Buddhist elements with mystical content. The distinguishing feature of Abangan culture is its syncretic quality, expressed in the refusal to define identity solely as Muslim. SANTRI - deriving from PESANTREN - name of the village Islamic school. Primarily employed in Java to distinguish from those practicing strict orthodoxy. SANTRI - Muslims who take their being Muslims seriously. They were more strict in their observances. Within Java, the Santri element was represented by the ULAMA or KIAI. Ulama -

propagators of the faith at the village level. SANTRI - exclusivist outlook, devout Muslims, puritan, fanatic, fundamentalists. THe refusal of the abangan to identify with exclusivity to Islam assumed importance in Indonesian independence in 1947 when an attempt was made to impose a consstitutional obligation to Sharia and the establishment of an Islamic State. It was frustrated by SUKARNO, insisting on religious pluralism. Later, Sukarno sided with the communists, leading to his unpopularity with the army, antagonizing the United States. He also sent emissaries. REligious pluralism protected abangan cultural identity. This principle is still at work today, ex: the Island of Bali. DECEMBER 4, 2008, Thursday Religious pluralism entrenched in Indonesian Constitution. The Island of Bali was not caught up by the advance of Islam. Consolidation under the Hindu kingdom of GELGEL which extended its control not only in Bali but also in East Java, Lombok and Sundawa of the lesser Sundas. 16th century - influence of Majapahit manifested itself in the Balinese social hierarchy characterized by the 4 castes of Hindu society. Caste system was reshaped and enforced by rules and punishment when infringements occur. The 4 Castes: BRAHMANA - priestly caste; KSHATRIYA - warrior kings (Satriya); WESIA (nobles). These three are collectively known as the "trivangsa" "the three castes." However, this caste system was not as strict as in India. The bulk of the population are the SUDRA(s) - simply common people. There were no untouchables/outcasts. There were also important improvements in the field of religion. Local temples survived and became ... originally local centers for invocation of divinities, ancestors, and agents of fertility. Rituals stress the worship of SIWA, manifested by the sun. Also stressed the making of holy water, recitation of mantra and ceremonial feasting known as the GALUNGAN. Temple priests "pamangku" were often relegated to commoner status [Sudra], while priests of SIWA "padanda" came exclusively from BRahmana caste. Padanda presided over rituals central to religious observances. Bali thus had a revitalized Hinduism, explaining why Islam had little headway. One tradition claims that Balinese spears were smeared with pig fat in Battle of Sultanate of Makasar and kingdom of Gelgel over control of Lombok SINICIZATION China's special relationship with Vietnam. Cultural, political, and economic. Vietnamese were a non-Chinese people, considered by the Chinese as southern barbarians, with linguistic and cultural affinities with the Mon-Khmers. Their language acquired a tonal structure: it has 7 tones, as a result of prolonged exposure to CHinese cultural influence. Until the widespread use of the QUOC NGU form of writing in 20th century, vietnamese was the only script in Southeast ASia which used the chinese script. QUOC NGO is the Vietnamese national language written in the Latinized/Romanized form. EARLY HISTORY OF VIETNAM - Van Lang and Au Lac; 800-258 BC and 257 - 208 BC. Both are located in Northern Vietnam - Tonking. Bronze working at DOng-Son. Under these kingdoms, there was increasing technological innovation: double-cropping of rice. HUONG VUONG - was the first king of Van Lang, he taught techniques of agriculture

to his people with the help of the god, known to the Chinese and Vietnamese as, THAN-NONG. THAN-NOng exterminated hostile forces of nature such as floods which destroyed crops. TAN VIEN - regarded as the first of the divinities whose place of worship is on the peak of Mt. Tan Vien. TAn vien has the power to regulate rains and droughts. He is also a beneficient god of the mountain, patron god of hunters. Creation of human beings was to the Chinese JADE EMPEROR. they were commanded to light and other beings followed by attributed to a supreme deity NGOC HOANG, equivalent The sun and the moon are the daughters of NGOC HOANG, and warm the surface of the Earth. Appearance of men rice and cotton.

Ngoc Hoang wanted to provide human beings with food and clothing. RICE COUPLE god and goddess. All Vietnamese readily call themselves LAC VIET "sons of the dragon" also "grandsons of the immortal mountains and Earth Goddess Au-CO." The Vietnamese term for kingdom "Dat-Nuoc" means "earth-water" representing the national territory. (TANAH AIR in INdonesian). The Vietnamese, known to the Chinese as YUEH, probably originated in what is now Southern China in the lower Yangtze Valley. They were pushed southwards by the advancing Chinese into the REd River DElta where they established AU LAC in 257 BC at CO LOA, an ancient bronze site near HANOI (known then as THANG-LONG) Thang-Long "ascent of the dragon" was named by the founders of the LY dynasty 1009 - 1225 AD because a yellow dragon had risen to the sky to indicate to the king an era of prosperity. The dragon was a symbol of prosperity. The dragon was a rain or sea god. This image was borrowed from China. A mythical monster traditionally represented as a gigantic reptile with a lion's claws, a serpent's tail, wings, and a scaly skin. The chinese dragon is a sacred and noble animal, emblem of royal power. Represented on court costumes, throne and imperial junks. Early Vietnamese society consisted of small communal groups or villages who farmed the area above the Red River DElta (RRD) who used it for irrigation. They developed elaborate dike and irrigation systems to control the raging monsoon-fed waters of the RRD. Nuoc-mam - fish sauce Au Lac wsa conquered by a Chinese warlord who gave the name NAN YUEH to his territories "Southern YUeh," which is "NAM VIET" in Vietnamese. Nam Viet included only the North and with it the Chinese provinces of Guandong and Guanxi. In 111 BC, emperor Wu DI of the Han Dynasty completed the conquest of the area as the southern frontier of the Han Empire. Early Chinese interest - desire by Han rulers to secure trade routes and to gain access to southern luxury goods - pearls, incense, elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shell, corral, exotic birds and fishes, parrots, kingfishers and peacocks. The Vietnamese were subjected to full impact of Chinese culture. But in general they appropriated Chinese loanwords in areas of philosophy, business and formal education. Vietnam's eventual separation from China occurred in the declince of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Attacks by Nanchao Thai were not stopped by the Tang rulers. 9th century (862-863) - raided the REd River Valley. 939 A.D. - complete

Vietnamese independence following the collapse of the Tang dynasty. Sinicization of Vietnam - major theme in Southeast Asian History. Chinese officials and scholars were responsible for spreading CHinese culture through introduction of Confucian principles and mahayana Buddhism from China. but this did not exclude contact with Indian Buddhism and nature religion but Chinese took precedence over Indian influence. South of Tonking: LIN YI (to the Chinese) probably one or more CHam Kingdoms. The Champs were hostile to the Vietnamese. The Hindu cult of Shiva devaraja worship by Champs had no effect on Confucianized Mandarinate of Vietnam. Mandarin - national language of China. Mandarinate - composed of high bureaucrats fluent in the language of the scholar-official. Members of this group believed in the sky-god 'Emperor from Heaven.'Among the members of the Mandarinate, they taught that the Emperor was an agent of the Sky-God on earth, based on the Heavenly Mandate. The worship of the eternal heaven/ space was concern of king. He was the son of heaven, natural ruler of a great kingdom, all under heaven was his lawful domain, so long as he was just and moral. Should he become immoral and unjust, heaven would send him a warning in the form of natural and social calamities. If he failed to reform, the mandate would be given to someone else. The mandate of heaven or 'way of heaven' is a political theory central to Confucianism. Ethical ad political doctrines of Confucianism spread among the upper class Vietnamese scholars and officials. CONFUCIANISM - a series of theories applicable Formulated by Confucius and his disciples: one of Confucius appeared in Analects, The Book of The Book of Mencius, known collectively as the of relationships: (1) sovereign - minister (2) father - son (3) husband - wife (4) elder brother - younger brother (5) between friends ETHICAL PROPERTIES father son = = = = = = = = kindness to state, society and culture. of them was MENCIUS. The teachings Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, FOUR BOOKS. He identified five sets

= = = = = = = = filial piety

elder brother = = = = = goodness younger brother = = = = respect husband wife = = = = = = = = righteousness

= = = = = = = = compliance and submisiveness

sovereign = = = = = = = benevolence subjects = = = = = = = loyalty

In Vietnam, the Le monarchs enjoined wives to obey their husbands, to be chaste and enduring widows, cherish the children of their husband's concubines as if they were their own. According to Mencius, human nature is naturally good. But man had a lesser nature: food and sex cravings, which he shared with animals; but man was endowed uniquely with a greater nature which is the disposition towards the 4 virtues: (1) shared humanity (love) as the highest value of man (2) righteousness (3) propriety - polite society (4) wisdom COnfucians believed that a virtuous government produced a virtuous people. They were in a sense "revolutionary" in their respect for the common people, that the government existed for the people, not the other way around. COnfucianism reaffirmed the right of the people to rebel against an unjust ruler, those who have forfeited the mandate of heaven by their lack of virtue. This was what Mencius called "righteous opposition" to an oppressive government. But COnfucians also saw the necessity of strict authority and discipline in the government as in the family. This aspect of Confucian philosophy was later abused by totalitarian governments with the concept of the "strong man." The strong man was both king and emperor claiming sagehood. He was already morally perfect who taught others. Worship of heaven was a central ritual. Heaven had commanded the ruler to organize a harmonious political and social order which in essence is also a moral order. For the five sets of relationships, the key was righteousness. The Le (15th cent) monarchs enjoined wives to obey their husbands. Attempts were made to regulate family life, yet in practice, Vietnamese women enjoyed much greater freedom than their Chinese counterparts. Widows and deserted wives were free to remarry. It was common for chinese men to take Vietnamese wives. COnfucianism presented an optimistic view of human nature, needing education. Superiors should provide virtuous examples. By selfcultivation, then by following virtuous examples, anyone can become a sage. Sages were venerated for their experience and wisdom, and their tact when dealing with people. The idea was later incoporated into the imperial educational system. Scholars were chosen regardless of social origin. Education is the only true assurance of morality. The school was a moral institution. The leading quality of the scholarofficial was benevolence. He was a superior man, a cultivated man, an upright man, whose duty was to provide moral leadership (above the political), concerned about what is right. The petty man is concerned only with what is profitable. A gentleman must want to do right. Achieved only by internalizing morality. Confucian education was oriented to civil service exams for those who wanted to serve in the society-wide bureaucracy. This was introduced into Vietnam in the 11th century, but fell into disuse until regularized by the Le dynasty. Exams continued until the 19th century, Nguyen period, prior to French colonization. The goal of the exam was the establishment of a meritocracy. Advancement was based on ability. BEcause of the merit system, many village notables and heads of literate families, dreamed of having sons and grandsons pass the exam. The good reputation of the village rested on its interaction with the government to the extent that communal self-esteem was directly related to the number of successful examination candidates it had produced over a period of time. HIERARCHY, VIRTUE, EDUCATION - Confucianism was more of a state policy / philosophy than a popular religion. In the 20th century, Confucianism has been

subjected to challenges and affirmations. It was blamed for cultural stagnation and the low status of women in China. The CHinese Communist Party followed this line of thought. COnfucian ethics was feudalistic in content. The Party has generally rejected Confucianism as hostile to Marxism-Leninism, yet on occassion it has acknowledged certain progressive features of Confucianism such as (1) popular education and (2) application of a common set of ethics to individuals. This was not about class differences. Scholars both in China and overseas have come to a defense of Confucianism. In the last three decades, there emerged a new Confucianism - promotes harmonious families, political stability and a peaceful world. It shuns violence (does not advocate class warfare). They have also suggested that Confucianism has innate drive for transformation of life - good citizens who pay their taxes on time. More recently, they have suggested that Confucianism has contributed to the rapid growth of TAIWAN, KOREA, etc. in recent decades: Singapore, Macau, Hongkong, China, Japan after the war. Economic growth was said to be due to Confucianism's emphasis on hard work, collective effort, education, dedication of individuals to interests of a larger group: family, company, government. Economic impact - management - labor relations following the chain of command. Emphasis on education. These conditions are linked to expanding foreign investment opportunities. Pacific Basin Region - economically fastest growing region. Japan - zero defect in production output, as well as in Singapore. Perfection through hardwork. 1980s Singapore proposed to incorporate COnfucianism into school curricula. Also initiated a Confucian school...but was discontinued to maintain inter-ethnic harmony. 75% of Singapore's population is Chinese. Policies of Lee Kuan Yew developed along authoritarian socialist lines whose goal was progress. Totalitarianism to destroy corruption. Establishment of one-party rule, free market economy, tight government planning, hardworking population. Extensive social welfare system. Mencius: "concern for social welfare." The result was one of the world's most successful economies. VIETNAM - no longer guided by Confucianism. Market economy capitalism. There are Confucian temples called Van Miew (Hanoi). In Indonesia, COnfucian movement among Chinese sought to have COnfucianism recognized as a religion with worship of heaven as central ritual. In Vietnam, Mahayana Buddhism intermingled with Daoism and Confucianism in one religious compound called TAM GIAO "three religions" It was impossible for a person to practice only one. Because belief system incorporated principles from all three and was even enriched by local animists beliefs. These three were accepted as one because their teachings were not in opposition. Buddhist monks and Taoist priests do not forbid their followers to worship their ancestors COnfucian leaders don't consider it taboo to worship figures. Taoism looks at nature as source of existence. From nature comes life, art, into a religion as it merged meditation, bodily ascension immortals offering health to heaven: a pure land purified music and cure for illnesses. Taoism later evolved with folk belief, animism, superstition, levitation, to heaven. Daoism developed a pantheon of gods and people. It developed its own version of the Buddhist of evil and difficulties.

Taoists practiced magic and pursued panacea: medicinal herbs. COnfucianists often found Taoism attractive. Taoism did not facor hierarchy. Most people were work-day Confucians and weekend Taoist when injunctions to relax were followed. Old people

were Taoist - efforts to be close to nature. Nature is the final destination. They take up gardening. Whatever is, is natural and good. Buddhism represented a new way of controlling nature for the benefit of agriculture. Buddhist temples were founded for fertility deities. Buddhist temples were dedicated to local manifestations of monsoon season. Syncretic manifestation: BUddha of the Clouds, The Rain, Thunder, and Lightning. Widows and elderly women commonly joined the important order of temple nuns in every village that possessed a temple. Charitable works. Temple-worship participation. Rice dues to the temple in the same way that village men contributed dues to the village/ communal feasts. The Confucian court in Hanoi, however, feared Buddhism which they believed posed an indirect ideological threat to Confucian principle of hierarchy. In Buddhism in the state of Nirvana, the superior and lowly of this world are equal. Fear of Buddhism explains why the COnfucian court manipulated the recruitment of monks and priests. To be a Buddhist ecclesiastic in Vietnam required a peasant or a scholar required an ordination certificate. Applicants had to travel to HUE where they were given religious exams. This explains the emergence of Hue as emergence of Mahayana Buddhism. No Buddhist temple could be built without the permission of Nguyen rulers. Number of monks and acolytes are fixed according to the number of laity. Those village leaders who did not report surplus monks were punished. Outside Hanoi which was the Imperial Capital, peasant and wet-rice farmer is virtually synonymous. The Vietnamese peasant retained his or her language and religious beliefs rooted in animism, ancestor worship, and hero veneration. Strongly attached to his or her native village with its protector spirit. Village chief "xa truong" was chosen by village notables. The xa truong carries out the orders of monarchs and collects the taxes. Village notables exercised the real leadership in the village. Qualifications to be a notable - wealth, old age, educational attainment. SUI CHINESE DYNASTY (581-618) - Sui rulers gave special titles to village chiefs who helped them secure luxury goods: slaves, pearls, elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns, etc. Villages were expected to construct communal temples - symbol of village solidarity and of the community's past. THe village deity could represent the village founder or a military leader who defeated the Chinese. Ancient villages displayed limited number of family names, and seldom 12 to 16 names. "Nguyen" "Dinh" The first concern of the village (xa) as an economic unit was self-sufficiency thru rice production. Red River Delta - 300 types of rice with its own properties. Plots for peasants were assigned and re-assigned by village notables who usually kept the best ones for themselves. No village lived on rice alone - fish, animal protein, vegetables, fruit and condiments (pepper, salt): fish sauce. Salt was the most important import for inland villages from coastal villages. salt monopoly was instituted by the Chinese and Vietnamese government in their efforts to centralize production, marketing and selling of salt. The peasant only grew one rice crop a year, usually sufficient to feed their family and pay for taxes. Rice was exported to China. Chinese administrators with their COnfucian bias found it hard to accept that rice production was controlled by women. 18th century - those who entered slavery as punishment for crime (ex. theft) could become peasant farmers on the land where

they worked when their sentence was over. Military conscription method was welldeveloped. This operated even in peace time. Peasant conscripts served for four months each year and longer during military campaigns (1120 - 1210). Vietnam War - women conscripts. 1120 to 1210 - Angkor, Champa and Vietnam were at war. Military conscription was carried out under provincial elite supervision. These elites were characterized by land, leisure and confucian learning. The accumulation of land by elites - resulted in the loss of land of peasants. Elites lived on owning. Landlordism in Vietnam was most extensive in the Southern and South Central provinces: Mekong Delta, Hue. A consistent feature of agrarian Vietnam was the struggle between landlordism and ancient Vietnamese idea of communal ownership. Village as communities ensured that peasant had lands. Provincial elites did not include all landlords. A Vietnamese landlord without education could not be considered a member of the elite. Elite = Educated. Uneducated landlord has no hope of an official career. Could not serve as intermediary between government and village. Scholars agree that Vietnamese society was based on status and wealth - ownership of land, accumulated wealth - jewelries, furnitures. Tomb remains under the Han period showed iron swords, coins, glass ornaments, bronze, earthenware vessels, musical instruments, mirrors, brush and chinese ink used in calligraphy. Model ceramic forms which illustrated local agrarian culture including horses, granaries, kilns.

DEMOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENTS 16th to 18th CENTURY SOUTHEAST ASIA

INdians and CHinese were now coming in larger numbers than previously. During the early 17th century, the Japanese traded with Southeast Asia. The most formidable foreigners were the Europeans who were determined to monopolize the spice trade. Interaction between Southeast Asian and foreign communities. Mestizo communities flourished in city centers. Transmission of ideas in shipbuilding and firearms technology. Indtroduced via China, India and Turkey. But it was the Europeans who were at the forefront of firearms technology. ASIANS - The CHinese arrived in the Philippines during the SPanish Period fromm Fujian - they were the first to establish large communities called NANYANG "southern ocean." Prominent role of Fujian due to availability of capital derived from land and labor. Prominent local family with capital usually funded junks. They were filled with merchandise and would hire a relative or servant to become managing partner. Shipowner held the largest part of investment. Rural poverty forced the Fujanese to go abroad. By the beginning of the 17th century, many of them were in the Philippines. Canton Trade aka Fujian Trade. Hainan. Guangdong / Kwantung. JANUARY 8, 2009

The Japanese wako/bahan, commercial and piratical pursuit. Ashikaga shoguns (14th - 16th cent). THe wako it seems were after the Sung and Yuan ceramic wares in the Philippines. They also traded in other articles. They sold silks, woollens, perfumes, bells, iron, tin, cotton, clothes and other small wares in exchange for Luzon gold and wax. Government side - The first Japanese boat sent to the Philippines came from the lord (daimyo) of HIRADO in 1585. The bulk of cargo consisted of wheat, flour, weapons and miscellaneous goods. In turn, they loaded mainly with Chinese raw silk textiles in Manila, also nature products: deer skin, sugar, goods imported from Spain and Mexico: tobacco. To the Manila Spaniards, Japanese was a necessity because of wheat flour (ostya ng simbahan), full of profit due to exchange between Japanese and Chinese traders. COnvenient source of Chinese silk demanded by the Japanese aristocracy. Nagasaki merchants dealt with the Portuguese of Macau, another source of silk. TOkugawa (17th century) - peacefuel trade relations policy took shape. Precautionary measure against the WAKO, Ieyaso Tokugawa declared that no Japanese ship unless those with red seal granted by the shogun are allowed to trade in the Philippines. First trade ships asked for loan of carpenters who could teach the Japanese of shipbuilding skill. The Spaniards did not send the carpenters, believing that Spanish security rested in Japanese ignorance in shipbuilding. ISOLATION POLICY - 17th century, 1st half. Not until 1868, 1st year of the Meiji, official relations with SPain and Philippines restored. First Japanese Consulate in the Philippines (1888). THe japanese were interested in tobacco, abaca and sugar. Japanese expansion to the Philippines was the concern of SUEHIRO TETCHO (JUGO): NANYO NO DAIHARAN "severe disturbance" (published 1890). one of the most popular political novelist of the Meiji. He met Rizal whom he mistook for a Japanese aboard an ENglish ship (named BELJIC) which left Yokohama to San Francisco. The two worked for several goals in each of their own countries. The setting of the novel is the Philippines. SEIKO principal female character. The novel pursues argument of Japanese expansion to the Philippines. Filipinos need succor to overthrow the SPanish government. The FIlipinos were under difficulty. The story ends with TAKAYAMA TAKESHI, the principal hero and his Filipino followers, with 300 Japanese volunteers jubilant over their overthrow of the Spanish colonial government in the Philippines. But Takayama prepares for possible Spanish reprisal, he appeals to Emperor of Japan for support. The Diet decides to convert the Philippines into Japanese territory. Takayama was appointed chief of Manila, thus Filipino security is assured. Japanese flag flies over Intramuros. Develops trade between Japan and the Philippines. The 1st Tokugawa encouraged foreign trade to strengthen shogunate finances. 16001635 - more than 350 Japanese ships went abroad to over 19 ports - Vietnam, Cambodia, islands in Malay-Indonesian Archipelago and Luzon. A measure of this importance fo trade was their export of silver. The Japanese were prominent in Ayutthaya by the late 1620s. A large colony settled in Ayutthaya, but in 1632, the new Siamese ruler, PRASAT THONG massacred the Japanese and forced the others to flee the city. Thereafter, the Chinese regained the trade dominance in Siam (the Chinese had something to do with it?) THe Chinese were interested in teakwood. 1630 - 1636 - Tokugawa gradually closed Japan to foreign traders, but link with

Siam was open. Siamese ships arrived in Nagasaki. Tokugawa policy: THREE FOREIGNER DIVISIONS: (1) The Chinese 'TO-JIN' (2) Catholic Europeans NANBAN-JIN (3) Protestant Dutchmen KOMOI-JIN 'red-haired.' OKUMINATO were able to maintain trade with Japan: Thailand, Malacca, Batavia. The CHinese migration to Southeast Asia took place in the main from the southern provinces of China. 'OVerseas chinese' - HUA-CH'IAO (Hoakiau) applies to the diaspora of around 30 million Chinese across Southeast ASia. Chinese migration tied up with colonial expansion and need for cheap labor. Lucrative Siamese rice trade and in building junks made of teakwood. 18th century - THe Chinese opened tin mines in Malay Peninsula and gold mines in Borneo. The Chinese, with these enterprises, began to sprout in coastal and inland towns. Manila became one principal destination for Chinese migrants. 630 junks from South China in the first 30 years. 1586 - The chinese population of 10,000 dwarfed the approximately 800 Mexicans and criollos (Spaniards born in the Philippines) in Intramuros. The growing disparity in numbers, caused the Spanish concern. This led to the creation of separate Chinese quarters within Intramuros called PARIAN. A fire razed it but in 1590 a new one was built, now outside Intramuros in Binondo and Sta. Cruz. THe number of Chinese continued to grow despite the periodic massacres. Attempts by the SPanish to limit the numbers of CHinese to 6,000 unsuccessful. By the 17th century, there were already 40,000 Chinese. BATAVIA - present-day Jakarta. In 1619, the Dutch East INdia Company came to harbor. Major Chinese concentration. Batavia was called by the Chinese BETAWI. Illegal immigrants eventually found their way to the PASISIR (northern Java POrts). They were primarily from XIAMEN or AMOY, also from CANTON. The Dutch found the CHinese as a source of cheap labor, they are diligent and fulfill a variety of tasks. In 1680 they feared the Chinese growth in population which dwarfed the Dutch presence in 1680. They created the office of KAPITAN CHINA in 1619 to administer the Chinese population and to collect taxes from the Chinese. The spectacular population growth of chinese population led to the creation of more offices, lieutenants and secretaries. In 1740 - There was one KAPITAN with six lieutenants holding offices in BATAVIA. ANother area of major chinese concentration was SIAM in THONBURI AND BANGKOK. The chinese population in Siam was very numerous that it had 2 leaders, called NAI. The chinese were pig-breeders, a reason why they were disliked by the Muslim traders of Siam and INdonesia. They were also artisans, physicians and actors. Some even becoming Siamese port officials. The Chinese had freedom of movement throughout SIam. They engaged in trade and were employed by the Siamese rulers to collect taxesor to run government enterprises such as tin mining, overseas trade, and export of Thai silk. They were also used as port officials, navigators of royal junks and interpreters. Chinese helped stimulate the local economy with their gold and silver. To the king, the CHinese were royal subjects. They even served as military commanders and provincial governors. The overseas Chinese distinguished themselves by their industry and acumen. They established strong positions in retail trade through familial and dialect associations. Their economic success as well as continuing ties with China attracted envy and suspicions. IN 1914, Thailand's king WACHIRAWAT, wrote a booklet entitled "THe Jews of the East" which equaled the Chinese to insect pests and locusts that devour crops and grain.

He attacked the migrant Chinese for their loyalty to CHina and lack of allegiance to their country of residence. Ironically, in Thailand, their assimilation was rapid - intermarriage resulted in their integration to Thai culture. THE INDIANS - have been trading with Southeast Asia since the early Christian era. Prominent in Malaysia where there are Hindu temples today. There is an Indian district in Kuala Lumpur. Many are speakers of Tamil and Bengali. They left lasting impact. Exported cotton cloth and leather goods. Unlike the Chinese, the INdians did not settle in large numbers from 16th to 18th centuries. The vast majority of Indian traders came from 3 regions: (1) Northwest INdia - GUJARAT (2) South India - MALABAR and KOROMANDEL (3) Northeast INdia - BENGAL Lasting INdian impact on SOutheast Asian Culture. Gujarat became part of an international trading network which extended to China in the East and Europe to the West. It Later had links with the Portuguese ports of DIU and GOA. Pepper made Malabar coast attractive to international traders. By the 17th century, ports of Calicut and Travancore, had emerged as commercial center - cotton cloth. 16th century - Koromandel Hindu Traders frequented Malacca ports, also ACEH and BANTEN, where they had factors and agents. KOromandel traders suffered from Dutch restrictions and monopolistic policies in the 17th century. In the mainland SOutheast Asia, Koromandel merchants were active in ARAKHAN, AVA and AYUTTHAYA. Many of them became moneylenders. BENGAL - third major INdian area - trade was directed primarily to ACEH, Burmese and Thai coasts. The Bengal Muslim merchants were prominent in this trade in the 17th centuries. Cotton cloth, beads. Bengal Muslims were converts from Hindu Vaishya merchant class. The Europeans were the most formidable foreigners. They were determined to monopolize the Spice Trade. European traders enjoyed government support. Earliest ventures were funded by the Portuguese and SPanish royal houses. The Portuguese and Spanish crown were united from 1580 - 1640. The Portuguese were the first to undertake a systematic way to find new territories. Until his death in 1640, Prince Henry the Navigator led this campaign. A major impetus for overseas expansion was the slave trade. Also clove, pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace. POrtuguese expansion was also motivated by religious fervor, national pride and commercial profit. The Papacy had entrusted to them the conversion of heathen lands into Christianity. The Portuguese were fervent Roman Catholics; defenders of the faith, against Muslims who were in control of the Slave Trade. Muslims were seen to be blocking the passage to the East, and fattening themselves on their control of the Asian trade. Culmination of Portuguese mercantile enterprise was their arrival in India, China and Southeast Asia. FERNANDO MAGALLANES - in the service of SPain, he tried to reach ASia by sailing westward (like Columbus). Tip of SOuth America - Straits of Magellan. Across Pacific Philippines. He was killed along with 40 of his crew. The survivors took the ship VICTORIA to Moluccas, loaded a cargo of clover and then sailed to SPAIN. In 1592, Spain sold its claim on Moluccas to POrtugal. Retained Philippines, and Manila as its colonial capital in 1571. The Philippines was a major western colonial territory in Southeast Asia, the longest-lasting colonial dominion. ALFONSO DE ALBUQUERQUE, in 1511, was the architect of the Portuguese-Asian EMpire: ESTADO DA INDIA, with its administration center at GOA, Southwestern INdia (was a Portuguese territory from 1510 - 1961). It was him who conceived the strategy to control the nodes of the Spice Trade.

This meant the seizure of Malacca - principal collecting port of spices. Pepper from aceh and west java. 1509 to 1511 was the peak of Malacca's commercial prosperity when it was captured by the portuguese. The Portuguese built their fortress on the site of the sultan's former palace. Affairs of the various ethnic groups were regulateed by one of their own people appointed by the POrtuguese with the title of KAPITAN. The POrtuguese crown created a unique form of state capitalism. Following this idea, the king became the sole entrepreneur investing state resources to create trade monopoly over its territories. CROWN MONOPOLY in Spices continued until 1533 and in Moluccas until 1537. They were ousted by the Dutch. CROWN TRADE - was government monopoly, where the king was the chief merchant. Portuguese private trade identified INdian cotton cloth as crucial from of exchange in SOutheast Asia. Private trade operated in GOA, MACAU, and MALACCA. In 1522, the POrtuguese were in Timor (conquered by the friars), Pattani, Malacca and China. IN 1610 they yielded their position to the Dutch. by the end of the 17th century, the Portuguese lost all of their territory to the Dutch except East Timor. The Western Half of the Island fell under Dutch control. In 1913 - formal delineation of territory. In 1975 - Indonesia invades East Timor. 1976 - formally annexed East Timor as the 27th province of the Republic of Indonesia called TIMUR TIMUR / LORO SAE (Javanese). The Portuguese increasingly became pirates and slavers after the collapse of their mercantile empire. Arrakhan pirates were composed of Portuguese and natives operating in the Bay of BEngal. They kidnapped noblemen/women. Underwent disgrace of concubinage. Spanish enterprise in Southeast ASia was confined exclusively to the Philippines which was under the direct viceroyalty of Mexico. SPain attempted to include Moluccas through the TREATY OF TORDESILLAS of 1494, but SPain was forced to relinquish its claim to Portugal under the TREATY OF ZARAGOZA in 1529. The economic prospect of the Philippines as a colony appeared to Legazpi to be bleak. The only marketable spice was in Mindanao - cinnamon. But it was insufficient amount for commerce. There was only small quantity of gold. natives were too poor to provide ready market for manufactured products. Legazpi said that the Philippines could not be sustained by trade. But Spain later realized trade prospect with China. Legazpi was the first to suggest that trade in Chinese silk would perhaps replace the spice trade loss. CHINA - MACAU - ACAPULCO - MANILA trade Macau merchants bought Canton silk, cotton cloths and porcelain. Acapulco merchants offered silver in exchange. 1571 - the shift from Cebu to Manila as administrative center was a decisive step in the establishment of direct trade with China. The Port of Intramuros was frequented by the CHinese. Spanish merchants from Mexico settled in Manila in order to supervise the galleon trade, and assure the proper loading of goods in the large Spanish galleons. Galleon trade remained the dominant economic force until 1815 when it ended due to the opening of the Philippines to international trade. It was Philip II who tolerated the losses in the Philippines. Magnaninmously offered the Philippines as 'almacen de la fe' or warehouse of the faith. Spanish authorities relied heavily on the clergy for acceptance of Spanish rule. Their leadership in both religious and secular affairs was important.

CONQUISTA - was a religious conquest. System of direct rule in the Philippines allowed the SPaniards through friars to deal with the natives. Philippines became the only area where Christian missions had any substantial success. Dutch and English concentrated on trade - commercial empire. This was said to be a maifestation of racism. (thus, the Spanish were less racist than the Dutch and the English?). They were profit-oriented, here to conduct business, not convert people. 17th century - brought rival European communities (Dutch and English) in Asia. Both wanted to oust the Portuguese. Both wanted to enter the spice trade directly. Colonial expansion was backed solely by merchant profits. Dutch seamen travelled east on Portuguese ships once. Also learned navigation from the POrtuguese. The Dutch JAN HUYGEN VAN LINSCHOTEN sailed in a Portuguese ship to GOA and spent some six years there in the service of Portuguese archbishop. After his return to Holland he published an ITINERARIO (a geographical description of the world), his observations in Asia, and a set of sailing directions of Linschoten. This was later followed by several trading expeditions financed by several trading companies. 1602 - The various rival Dutch companies was amalgamated into one trading institution known as the VOC - Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (United Dutch East India Company) to which the Dutch government gave all trade monopoly to the East. The VOC was empowered to make (1) war or treaties (2) seize foreign ships (3) build forts (4) establish colonies (5) coin money (but pirates appear in the first place because of monopolies), all under loose government supervision from home. In their pursuit of monopoly, the Dutch fought the Portuguese and the Spanish. The First Dutch Portuguese-War (1601) led to a decisive Dutch victory. This occurred in Banten, East Java. Dutch ships already outnumbered Portuguese ships by this time. IN 1605- The Dutch removed the POrtuguese from Moluccas, and also from Ceylon in 1640. The Dutch captured Malacca in 1641. The capture signalled the end of Portuguese position and the rise of Dutch power in Southeast Asia. Main focus of the Dutch - East INdies, especially Java. The Dominance of Java was enhanced by concentration of Dutch interests and investments in Batavia. This contributed to the polarity between Java and the outlying islands (sumatra, etc.) which still continues to the present. Java was divided into spheres. 1755 - The Dutch divided central Java between the Sultanates of SURAKARTA and YOGYAKARTA. Inhabitants of Java still think of themselves either as SUNDANESE (West Java) or JAVANESE (Central and East). Dutch success was due in part to their highly able governor general JAN PIETERZOON COEN appointed in 1618 as the governer general of the East INdies. He established his administration at Batavia, where the VOC could guard the SUNDA straits. Batavia became VOC capital of the Dutch commercial empire. Their ships patrolled south of the Philippines. They eliminated rivals wherever they could. Because of Dutch monopolistic policy, many sailors turned to piracy, which was a problem in the 17th and 18th century. BUGIS - were Sulawesi pirates, 1715 - were buying tin from the port of Johore in violation of Dutch monopolistic policies. The Dutch were concerned with profits only, not with converting the natives into Protestantism. They resented participation in local issues / politics. Dutch obsession with profits ruled out avenue of alteration of culture of natives. Majority of people continued to live without significant European impact. Vicinity of Batavia came under direct Dutch rule. But in the countryside, the Dutch dealt indirectly with

the people throught the indigenous rulers who signed agreements to supply rice. Dutch-controlled territory in East India were headed by a native regent called BUPATI, or prince known as PANGERAN. Both native regent and prince had an enemy in the fanatic ULAMA native elite who advocated full application of Islamic Law. BUPATI and Prince acted as executors of VOCs demands. The indigenous elites became the means by which the colonial system was maintained. Bupati class / aristocratic class is called PRIYAYI. They were seduced by titled or ednowments. 'principalia' equivalent in the Philippines. They were also threatened with banishment or dethronement or were simply beaten. If a Priyayi was found to be trading with other European powers, the Dutch would not hesitate to dethrone him. Trade profits were augmented by tributes and taxes exacted from the natives, as well as forced delivery of commodities at artificially lowered prices. by the end of the 17th century, local rulers were required, under th LEVERINGEN system to deliver their produce to VOC FACTORIJ /faktorai/. Crops could only be sold to the VOC. Compulsory sale of products at prices fixed by the government - similar to the Philippine bandala system. The Dutch introduced into Java sugar cultivation for the Asian market and also coffee for the European market. In the 18th century, coffe became Java's largest export to Europe. West Java area - PREANGER area peasants were required to grow crops suitable for export. Peasants planted sugar and coffee to pay for taxes. VOC and the Chinese would occassionally recruit both Javanese and Sundanese thru their local lords to work in sugar plantations in the Java area. In the 1650s the Dutch introduced sugar plantation in Java called ONDERNEMING. This sugar could not compete with WEst INdies (Cuba) sugar, however. Sugar was sold to the markets of NWEst India, Persia and Japan (who paid in silver, gold and copper). Copper was highly marketable in INdia where it is used for coins, weapons, temple idols and decorations, gongs and jugs and wire. Opium trade existed in Palembang, Southern Sumatra (ex-capital of SRI VIJAYA). Rice from CEntral Java was marketed at Batavia. 1750s - coffee, sugar, indigo became as important as spice. Spice-producing regions came under direct Dutch control. Example: Ambon (Amboina), Banda Islands. Spices remained important to VOC. System of quota and crop price were determined by demands from the European markets. Surplus rice plants were systematically destroyed whenever there is danger of overproduction. Production was adjusted to market demand. Trees were actually cut down to avoid surpluses that might depress prices. After 1650, BANDA Islands could only grow nutmeg. Ambon, only cloves. Pepper plantations were prominent in West Java, Northern Sumatra and Eastern Coast of Malay Peninsula. Pepper was exported to Europe, India and China. Pepper was not subjected to monopoly control. It was prone to overproduction. System of forced labor was introduced for construction and harbor improvement projects and the construction of buildings. The Dutch introduced slavery (formerly nonexistent in Java). In Batavia, there were 13,278 slaves. Most of the manual labor were done by the slaves brought from various parts of the Archipelago.

JAN 20, 2009

Batavia's purpose - to create a base and headquarters for the expansion of VOC interest in SEASIA. The authorities in Batavia exercised considerable initiative and independence because communication between Netherlands and colony takes about three years. SPaniards in Manila. Based on Manila's established reputation in international trade network centerd in Malacca and Manila's access to rich agricultural interior and Tagalog provinces. Europeans controlled the ships and the army and the guns. Europeans led native mercenaries. Batavia relied heavily on mercenary armies: Malays, Indians and Chinese, as well as European mercenaries arranged into different groups: Dutch, English, Danish, French. MARDIJKERS /mardaikers/ - were Asian slaves that were given freedom by the Portuguese. 'freemen' merdeka means free. Freed Portuguesespeaking Malay soldiers. SPanish in Manila relied on mercenaries (Macabebe scouts). While the Spanish expulsed the Chinese from Intramuros, the Dutch lived with the Chinese to safeguard the CHinese from hostile local inhabitants, and thus insure a steady flow of income to VOC from Chinese entrepreneurial activity. The Dutch placed the Chinese in VOC supervision. So important were they in trade, that both the Japanese and the Dutch attempted to protect them through laws. To the Dutch, the presence of CHinese is essential in the prosperity of a city. In Malacca, 1641, (Dutch rule), the Chinese were involved in carpentry and masonry, but a majority are shopowners. They were teahouse proprietors. Later, opium business. The Dutch gained substantial revenue by taxing the Chinese for gambling, pig slaughter (to not antagonize Muslims) and for wearing the KUEUE. Another group that flourished: MESTIZO communities: EURASIAN. Mestizo children were socially located between the cultures of their foreign fathers and their SEASian mothers. Their halfway presence made them an ideal intermediary for trade, diplomacy, and the transmission of ideas between the two cultures. It was in Manila and Batavia that the mestizos successfuly played this role. Meanwhile, in Vietnam, Burma and Siam, the tendency was centralization and consolidation. In Burma, the founder of the TOUNGOO dynasty such as TABINSHSWETI BAYINNAUNG, aimed from the outset to create a centralized state in the Irrawaddy Basin. This was to be achieved with English assistance (guns, cannons, mortars). Portuguese mercenaries were deployed during attacks against the MONS and the PEGU in the late 1530s, and MARTABAN in 1540s. Successor of TABINSHSWETI reunited Burma in 1551. Firstly, he defeated the MONS, and then the SHAN (thai) states, even CHIANG MAI Was conquered, capital of the LAN NA kingdom. his army defeated Ayutthaya and Vientiane (capital of kingdom of Lan Sang), present-day Laos. Wars in mainland Southeast Asia. Official Burmese justification for its attack in Ayutthaya was Ayutthaya's refusal to part with several white elephants - magical abilities - provide rain. Legend has it that Prince Siddhartha Gautama's reincarnation preceding his enlightenment was as an elephant. White elephant possession was a royal prerogative of the king in Theravada Buddhist states of Southeast Asia. A monarch would part with a white elephant at great peril to his royal position. From ChiangMai to Ayutthaya, new pagodas were built at Bayinnaung's direction. He acted as a model buddhist king: he distributed copies of the TRIPITAKA. Three Basket of Buddhist teachings. (1) Vinaya Pitaka (2) Sutta Pitaka (3) Abhidhamma Pitaka. VINAYA - basket of order. Very basic. COntains material about the life of the Buddha and the origin of the sangha, rules of discipline for monks. SUTTA PITAKA - guideline or instruction book. Teachings of the BUddha and the monks. Contains 547 legends from the BUddha's previous existences. ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA -

basket of higher teaching. composed of seven books and written in a highly academic style, intended for specialists. Bayinnaung also ordained and fed monks, built and repaired monasteries and pagodas. He sent out ships to undertake commercial and diplomatic mission to Bengal, Ceylon and China. Burmese exported teak woods, Burmese rubies, sapphire. Bayinnaung also promoted peace by resolving the long-standing Burman-Mon rivalry in Irrawaddy Basin. The rule of Bayinnaung was exceptional - he extended his kingdom up to present-day Laos and Thailand. However, after his death in 1581, the tide turned in favor of Ayutthaya. The Thai monarch PRA NARET (black prince) expelled the Burmese from Ayutthaya. Invaded Burma and captured Southern Burmese ports of MOUTMEIN and TAVOY. 1585-6: heir to PRA NARET, NARESUAN declared independence of Ayutthaya from Burma. Ayutthaya thereafter was able to reassert itself as the dominant Thai state. Ayutthaya attacked LOVEK in 1594. In desperation, the Khmer king appealed to the SPaniards in Manila, asking for military assistance in exchange for submission to the Spanish crown. This effort failed however, because Spanish did not have the means. Thai incursions into Cambodian territory continued. The triumph of Ayutthaya was a reflection of Burma's fragmentation: (1) ethnic differences between Burmans and Mons became more pronounced. (2) villagers fled to escape military service. (3) many royal servicemen evaded their obligations by (a) avoiding registration (b) changing their names (c) payment instead of service (d) entering the monkhood (e) placing themselves under the protection of another king. By the 1600s, Burma had broken into a number of kingdoms: the Sangha was divided and suffered with the end of the TOUNGOO dynasty in 1752. In the Theravada states of Southeast asia, abandonment of dhamma was believed to lead to the fall of a kingdom. In 1760, ALAUNGPAYA, founder of the Burman KONBAUNG dynasty (1752 1885), attacked Ayutthaya. In 1767, Ayutthaya fell. The capture of LAN NA in 1762, gave BUrmans additional forces to attack Ayutthaya. After the Burmese invasion, Ayutthaya broke up into 5 regions. The Siamese monarch was now faced with (1) devastation by Burmans of Siam (2) depletion of population - thousands taken as captives (3) decapitation of lifesized buddhist statues. ALAUNGPAYA occupied AVA in 1752; MOns were driven south. For Alaungpaya, two essential ingredients for consolidation were: (1) Theravada Buddhism (2) Western arms. One important development was the resurgence of INWA/AVA as Konbaung dynasty's capital, during the time of ALaungpaya's son, HSINBIYUSHIN. Economic prosperity of KYAUKSE regin - chief rice granary of the Konbaung dynasty. BUrma under HSINBIYUSHIN fought off Chinese invasions from YUNNAN. Chinese interference with SHAN and LAO states. The war between Burma (Konbaung) and China (Manchu dynasty) interrupted the lucrative land trade in Yunnan which exchanged Burman cotton for Chinese silk, porcelain and jade. Within three years Alaungpaya conquered Central Burma and Pegu up to holy city of DAGON (RAngoon). BODAWPAYA - son of ALaungpaya, presented himself as chakravartin. The title of chakravartin endowed their military campaigns with messianic significance. The wars between Ayutthaya and Arrakhan were presented as a sacred mission on behalf of Theravada Buddhism. In Ayutthaya, Alaungpaya claimed he was the future BUddha, the ARIMITTIYA. His son, BODAWPAYA attempted to declare himself the buddhist messiah MAITREYA and chakravartin as well. Events in Burma may have influenced developments in Siam where the Buddhist king

PHRAYA TAKSIN, claimed himself as Bodhisattva as well. But this claim alienated the Sangha and the people. He was a son of a wealthy and influential Chinese merchant. He rose to power after the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, and founded another capital at Thonburi. The hostility he aroused within the Sangha has been seen as instrumental in his downfall in 1762. JANUARY 22, 2009, THursday Bodawpaya, upon declaring himself Maitreya, faced sangha opposition. He undermined economic independence of sangha. He reorganized the sangha and appointed monks he favored to top monasteries. An official was sent to take records of monastic lands, to limit the account accumulated by monasteries and also for the main