History of India - uniqueshiksha.com · 3.1 The Wahabi Movement 136 3.2 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and the...

History of India

Topic-wise Strategy

Part A: Ancient India

1. Pre-Historic Period 1

1. Introduction 12. Palaeolithic Age

(5,00,000–10,000 BC) 13. Mesolithic Age (10,000–6,000 BC) 24. Neolithic Age (6,000 BC) 25. Chalcolithic Age 36. The Copper Phase 47. Iron Age 5Self–Evaluation Test 5

2. Indus Valley Civilization (2500–1700 BC) 6

1. Discovery of Indus Valley Civilization 62. Geographical Extent 63. Town Planning 84. Economic Life 95. Social and Religious Life 116. Political life 137. Relation with Other Civilizations 138. Decline and Disappearance 13Self–Evaluation Test 14

3. Vedic Age 15

1. Early Vedic Age (1500–1000 BC) 152. Origin of the Aryans 153. Aryans’ Arrival in India 154. Rig Vedic Polity 165. Socio-Economic Life in Rig

Vedic Period 166. Rig Vedic Gods 17

7. Later Vedic Phase: Period and Spread 18

8. Later Vedic Polity and Economy 189. Later Vedic Society 1910. Religion in Later Vedic Period 20Self–Evaluation Test 20

4. Emergence of Mahajanapadas 21

1. Mahajanapadas 212. Prominent Republics 223. Rise of Magadha 224. The Persian Invasion 225. Alexander’s Invasion 226. Socio-Economic Conditions

During Mahajanapadas 23Self–Evaluation Test 24

5. The Mauryas (321 BC–185 BC) 25

1. Source Materials 252. Chandragupta Maurya

(321–293 BC) 253. Bindusara (293–273 BC) 264. Ashoka (273–232 BC) 265. Later Imperial Mauryas 266. Causes of the Decline of

the Mauryans 277. Mauryan Administration 27

7.1 Central Administration 277.2 Provincial Administration 277.3 District Administration 277.4 Judicial Administration 297.5 Army 297.6 Revenue Administration 29

History of India 1-304

Contents

8. Socio-Economic and Religious Conditions 29

Self–Evaluation Test 30

6. India After the Mauryas (200 BC–100 AD) 31

1. Local Powers 312. Sunga Dynasty (184–75 BC) 313. Kanva Dynasty (75–30 BC) 314. Cheta (Chetis) Dynasty of Kalinga 315. Age of Satavahanas (235–100 BC) 31

5.1 Administration 325.2 Trade and Commerce 325.3 Art and Architecture 32

6. Invasions from the Central Asia 336.1 The Indo-Greeks (190 BC) 336.2 The Indo-Scythians or Shakas

(90–100 AD) 336.3 The Indo-Parthians (19–45 AD) 336.4 The Kushanas (45–73 AD) 33

7. Crafts, Trade and Towns in the Post-Maurya Age 34


7. The Sangam Age (1st to 3rd Century AD) 35

1. Introduction 352. The Cholas 353. The Pandyas 354. The Cheras 355. Sangam Polity 366. Law and Justice 377. Economy 378. Religion 37Self–Evaluation Test 37

8. The Age of the Guptas (320–550 AD) 38

1. Classical Age 382. Chandragupta I (320–335 AD) 383. Samudragupta (335–375 AD) 384. Chandragupta II (380–412 AD) 385. Kumaragupta I, Mahendraditya

(415–455 AD) 39

6. Skandagupta Vikramaditya (455–467 AD) 39

7. Decline of the Gupta Empire 398. Gupta Administration 399. Economic and Social Developments 4010. Development of Science

and Technology 4011. Was it a ‘Golden Age’? 41Self–Evaluation Test 41

9. The Post-Gupta Era (up to 750 AD) 42

1. North India 421.1 Harshavardhana (606–647AD) 42

2. Deccan 432.1 The Vakatakas (225–510 AD) 432.2 The Chalukyas (543–753 AD) 432.3 The Ikshavakus 44

3. South India 443.1 The Pallavas (600–757 AD) 44


10. Transformation from the Ancient Phase to Medieval Phase 46

1. Social and Economic Changes 462. Trade and Commerce 463. Education, Science and Learning 47Self–Evaluation Test 48

Practice Set-Ancient History 49

Important Historical Facts 57

Part B: Medieval India

1. Early Medieval India (750–1200 AD) 59

1. North India and the Deccan 591.1 Gurjara-Pratiharas 591.2 Palas 591.3 Rashtrakutas 601.4 Tripartite Struggle 601.5 Kashmir 60

2. South India 602.1 The Cholas 602.2 The Pandyas 62

3. Other Dynasties of the Deccan and the South 623.1 Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi 623.2 Western Chalukyas of Kalyani 623.3 The Cheras 623.4 The Hoyasalas 623.5 The Yadavas 623.6 The Kakatiyas 623.7 The Kadambas 62

4. Emergence of the Rajputs 625. Arab Conquest of Sindh 636. Attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni 637. Attacks of Muhammad Ghori 64Self–Evaluation Test 64

2. The Delhi Sultanate 65

1. Introduction 651.1 Sultanate 65

2. Sources of Medieval History 653. The Slave Dynasty

(1206–1290 AD) 663.1 Qutb-ud-Din Aibak (1206–1210 AD)

Lakh Baksh – Siraaj 663.2 Iltutmish (1210–1236 AD) Real

founder of Delhi Sultanate 663.3 Raziya Sultan (1236–1240 AD) 673.4 Balban (1265–1287 AD) 67

4. The Khiljis Revolution (1290–1320 AD) 674.1 Jalal-ud-Din Khilji (1290–1296 AD) 674.2 Ala-ud-Din Khilji (1296–1316 AD) 674.3 Kafur (1315) 684.4 Mubarak Khan (1316–1320) 684.5 Khusrau Khan (1320) 68

5. The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 AD) 685.1 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325 AD) 685.2 Muhammad-bin Tughlaq

(1325–1351 AD) 695.3 Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388 AD) 705.4 Successors of Firoz Shah 70

6. Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451 AD) 70

7. Lodi or Afghan Sultans (1451–1526 AD) 707.1 Bahlol Lodi (1451–1489 AD) 707.2 Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517 AD) 707.3 Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526 AD) 71

8. General Administration of the Sultanate 718.1 Politcal Theory of State 718.2 Central Government 71

9. Provincial Administration 729.1 Provincial Government 729.2 Judicial System 72

10. Army 7211. Revenue Administration and

Classification of Land 7311.1 Revenue Administration 7311.2 Types of Land 73

12. Socio-Economic Life During Sultanate Administration 7312.1 Social Life 7312.2 Economic Life 73


3. Emergence of Provincial Kingdoms 76

1. Introduction 762. Jaunpur 763. Kashmir 764. Gujarat and Malwa 765. Rajasthan 766. Orissa 777. Assam and Kamarupa 778. Bengal 789. Bahmani Kingdom 78

9.1 Deccan Sultanate 7810. Vijayanagar Kingdom 79

10.1 The Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485) 7910.2 First Usurpation: The Saluva Dynasty

(1485–1505) 7910.3 Second Usurpation: The Tuluvu Dynasty 7910.4 Third Usurpation: The Aravidu Dynasty 8010.5 Vijayanagar Administration 8010.6 Land Tenures 8010.7 Vijayanagar Society and Economy 81


4. The Mughals 83

1. Introduction 832. Babur (1526–1530) 83

2.1 Babur’s Five Expeditions 833. Humayun (1530–1556) 84

3.1 Humayun’s Expeditions 844. Afghan Interruption: Rise of

Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545) 854.1 Sher Shah’s Administration 854.2 Restoration of Humayun (1556–1556) 86

5. Akbar (1560–1605) 865.1 Military Conquests of Akbar

(1556–1560) 866. Jahangir (1605–1627) 877. Shah Jahan (1627–1658) 878. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) 87

8.1 Revolts during Aurangzeb 889. Later Mughals 8810. Invasions of Nadir Shah and

Ahmad Shah Abdali 9010.1 Nadir Shah 9010.2 Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasion and

the Third Battle of Panipat 9011. Mughal Administrative Structure 90

11.1 Mansabdari System 9111.2 Land Revenue System 91

12. Rajput Policy of the Mughals 9213 Deccan Policy of the Mughals 9314. Foreign Policy of the Mughals 9315. Religious Policy of the Mughals 9316. Socio-economic Conditions

under Mughals 94Self–Evaluation Test 95

5. Rise of Independent Autonomous States 96

1. Bengal 962. Awadh 963. Rajput States 964. Hyderabad 965. Mysore 966. Rohilkhand 977. Punjab 97Self–Evaluation Test 97

6. The Marathas (1649–1748) 98

1. Introduction 982. Shahji Bhonsle (1594AD–1664AD) 983. Shivaji (1627–1680AD) 98

3.1 Shivaji’s Coronation 983.2 Shivaji’s Administration 99

4. Shambhaji (1680–1689) 1005. Rise of the Peshwas 100

5.1 Balaji Viswanath (1713–1720) 1005.2 Baji Rao I (1720–1740) 1005.3 Balaji Baji Rao (1740–61) 100

6. Maratha Confederacy 1017. Causes Leading to Downfall of

Marathas 101Self–Evaluation Test 101

Practice Set-Medieval History 102


Part C: Modern India

1. Advent of European Companies 114

1. The Portuguese 1142. The Dutch 1153. The French 1154. The English 1155. The East India Company and

the Bengal Nawabs 1165.1 Siraj-ud-Daulah (1756–57) 1165.2 Mir Jafar (1757–60) 1165.3 Mir Qasim (1760–64) 1165.4 Nizam-ud-Daulah (1765–72) 116

6. Other Europeans 116Self–Evaluation Test 117

2. British Expansion in India 118

1. Annexation Policies of the Company 1182. Anglo-French Rivalry 118

2.1 First Carnatic War (1746–1748) 1182.2 Second Carnatic War (1749–1754) 1182.3 Third Carnatic War (1756–1763) 119

3. The British Conquest of Bengal 1193.1 The Battle of Plassey (1757) 1193.2 The Battle of Buxar (1764) 1193.3 The Treaty of Allahabad (1765) 1203.4 Dual System of Administration

in Bengal (1765–1772) 1204. The Anglo-Maratha Rivalry 120

4.1 The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782) 120

4.2 The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805) 120

4.3 The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818) 120

5. Conquest of Mysore 1216. Annexation of Punjab 1217. The Anglo-Nepal Relations 1228. The Anglo-Burma Relations 1229. The Anglo-Pindaris War 12210. The Suppression of Pathans 122

10.1 Doctrine of Lapse 12211. The Annexation of Awadh 122

11.1 Anglo-Afghan Wars 123Self–Evaluation Test 123

3. The British Administrative Structure in India 124

1. Acts For East India Company’ Administration In India 124

2. Civil Services Setup 1252.1 The Government of India Act, 1935 125

3. Army Structure 1254. Police Structure 1255. Judicial Structure 1256. Local Self-Government 126Self–Evaluation Test 126

4. Economic Policy of British in India 127

1. Introduction 1272. Phases of Economic Policy in India 127

2.1 The Mercantilist Phase (1757–1813) 1272.2 The Industrial Phase (1813–1858) 1272.3 Finance Colonialism (1860–1947) 127

3. Agrarian Policy 1273.1 Land Revenue Policy 1273.2 Impact of Colonial Land

Revenue Systems 1284. Impact of Colonialism on Indian

Economy 1285. Development of Transport 1306. Development of Modern

Industries Up To 1947 1307. Famines During Colonial Rule 131Self–Evaluation Test 132

5. Social and Cultural Awakening in the 19th Century 133

1. Social and Cultural Policy of the British 133

2. Reform Movements Among the Hindus 1342.1 The Brahmo Samaj 1342.2 Veda Samaj and Prarthana Samaj 1342.3 Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekananda 1352.4 Arya Samaj 1352.5 Social Reforms in Western India 135

3. Reform Movements Among the Muslims 1363.1 The Wahabi Movement 1363.2 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and

the Aligarh Movement 1363.3 The Deoband School 1363.4 The Ahmadia Movement 1363.5 Ta’ayuuni Movement 136

4. Sikh Reform Movements 1374.1 Singh Sabha Movement 1374.2 The Akali Movement 137

5. Parsi Reform Movement 1375.1 Rehnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha 137

6. Independent Reform Movements 1376.1 Derozio and Young Bengal 1376.2 Theosophical Society 137

7. Lower Caste Movements 1388. Effects of Socio-Religious

Reform Movements 138Self–Evaluation Test 141

6. Education and Press Under the British Rule 142

1. Introduction 1422. Early British Efforts 142

2.1 Education and the Charter Act of 1813 1422.2 The Orientalist and Anglicist

Controversy 1422.3 Lord Macaulay’s Emphasis on English

Education 1432.4 Charles Wood’s Despatch, 1854 143

3. The Education Commissions under the rule of Crown 1433.1 Hunter Education Commission,

1882–83 1433.2 The Indian Universities Act, 1904 1433.3 Saddler University Commission,

1917–19 1433.4 Salient Feature of Education Policy

of British India 1443.5 Hartog Committee, 1929 1443.6 Wardha Scheme, 1937 1443.7 Sargeant Plan of Education, 1944 144

4. The Origins of the Newspapers in India 1444.1 The Censorship Act, 1799 1444.2 The Licensing Regulations, 1823 1444.3 The Liberation under Metcalfe, 1835 1444.4 The Licensing Act, 1857 1444.5 The Press and Registration of Books

Act, 1867 1444.6 The Vernacular Press Act, 1878 1444.7 The News paper Act, 1908 1454.8 The Indian Press Act, 1910 1454.9 The Indian Press

(Emergency Powers) Act 1454.10 Newspapers and Journals 145


Practice Set-Modern History 147


Part D: Art and Culture

1. Introduction to Indian Culture 159

1. Introduction 1592. Sources of Ancient Indian History 1603. The History Writing 1604. The Accounts of Foreign Writers 1605. Culture—An Introduction 1606. Culture and Civilization 1617. Indian Culture—An Introduction 161Self–Evaluation Test 161

2. Indian Literature 162

1. Vedic Literature 1622. Sangam Literature 1653. Vedantic Doctrine 1654. Development of Literature

during Gupta period 1665. Indo-Islamic Impact on Literature 1686. Literature during Provincial

Kingdoms 1687. Literature during the Mughals 168Self–Evaluation Test 169

3. Religions in India 170

1. Introduction 1702. Pre-Vedic Harappan Religion 1703. The Vedic Religion 1704. Various Religions in India 1715. Causes of Rise of Religious

Movements in 6th Century 1726. Jainism 172

6.1 Vardhamana Mahavira 1736.2 Teachings of Jainism

(Panch Mahavratas) 1736.3 Jain Sects 1736.4 Sacred Literature 1746.5 Jaina Philosophy 1746.6 Jaina Councils 174

7. Buddhism 1757.1 Gautama Buddha 1757.2 Teachings of Buddha 175

7.3 Schism in Buddhism 1767.4 Buddhist Scriptures 176

8. Ajivikas “Human Effort is Ineffective” 178

9. Hindu Movements 17810. Materialistic Sects 17811. Religion: The Revival of Hinduism 17912. Religious Movements and

Beliefs during 6-7th Century AD 179Self–Evaluation Test 180

4. Philosophy 181

1. Introduction 1812. Six Schools of Indian Philosophy 1813. Charvaka School of Philosophy 1824. Jain Philosophy 1825. Philosophy of the Buddha 1826. Philosophy in Medieval India 1827. Sufism or the Sufi Movement 183

7.1 SufiOrders 1838. Bhakti Movement 184

8.1 Prominent Exponents of Nirguna Bhakti 1858.2 Prominent Exponents of Saguna Bhakti 185

9. Lingayat or Vir Shaiva Movement 18510. Nayanars and Alvars 185Self–Evaluation Test 186

5. Art and Architecture 187

1. Indian Sculpture 1872. Temple Architecture 1903. Mauryan Art 191

3.1 Language of Inscriptions 1934. Art and Architecture in the

Post-Maurya Age 1935. Gupta Art 1936. Indo-Islamic Architecture 1957. Art and Architecture Under

Provincial Kingdoms 1958. Art and Architecture under

the Mughals 1968.1 Architecture 1968.2 Gardens 197

9. Modern Architecture 197Self–Evaluation Test 197

6. Indian Paintings 198

1. Introduction 1982. Genres of Indian Painting 1983. Painting during Guptan Period 1994. Paintings during the Mughals 2005. Famous Painters of India 200Self–Evaluation Test 201

7. Indian Music 202

1. Introduction 2022. Hindustani Classical Music 2023. Carnatic Music 2034. Modern India Music 2035. Folk Music 2036. Indo-Islamic Music 203

6.1 Music during the Mughals 2036.2 Manganiyars 203

7. Regional Music 2048. Musical Instruments in India 2059. Names Associated with

Indian Music 205Self–Evaluation Test 206

8. Indian Dances 207

1. Introduction 2072. Classical Period 2073. Medieval Period 2074. Modern Period 2085. Classical Dances 2086. Folk Dances 2097. Traditional Theatre Forms of India 2138. Puppet Forms of India 2149. Personalities Associated

with Indian Dance 215Self–Evaluation Test 217

9. Miscellaneous 218

1. Government Institutions 2182. Indian Cinema 218

2.1 Evolution of Indian Cinema 218

2.2 Film Institutions of India 218

3. Classical Languages 219

4. UNESCO World Heritage Sites 2195. UNESCO World Heritage

Site In India 2206. UNESCO Intangible Cultural

Heritage of India 223Self–Evaluation Test 223

Practice Set-Art & Culture 224

Part E: National Movement

1. Early Uprisings Against Colonial Rule 2321. Introduction 2322. The Revolt of 1857 232

2.1 The Causes of the Revolt 2322.2 The Course of the Revolt 2332.3 Causes for the Failure of the Revolt 2332.4 Impacts of the Revolt 2332.5 Nature of the Revolt 234

3. Civil and Tribal Uprisings 2343.1 Eastern India 2343.2 Western India 2353.3 South India 2353.4 North India 236

4. Peasant Struggle in India 236Self–Evaluation Test 237

2. Growth of Nationalism, Political Ideas and Associations 2381. Introduction 2382. Factors Responsible for Growth

of Nationalism in India 2383. Growth of Political Ideas and

Political Associations (upto 1885) 2393.1 Political Associations in Bengal 2393.2 Political Associations in Bombay 2393.3 Political Associations in Madras 239


3. Foundation of Indian National Congress: Moderate Phase 241

1. Introduction 2412. Theories Behind the Origin of the

Congress 241

3. The First Congress Session 2414. Aims and Objectives of Congress 2415. The Moderate Phase (1885–1905) 241

5.1 Programmes of Action 2426. Analysis of Moderates 243Self–Evaluation Test 244

4. Growth of Extremism or Militant Nationalism 245

1. Introduction 2452. Causes For the Rise of

Extremism or Militant Nationalism 2453. Objectives and Methods of

Extremists 2464. Partition of Bengal in 1905 2465. The Swadeshi Movement 2476. Surat Split (1907) 2497. Assessment of Extremists 2498. Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) 250Self–Evaluation Test 250

5. Advent of Communalism 251

1. Introduction 2512. Factors Responsible for the

Growth of Communalism 2513. Formation of the Muslim League 2524. Beginning of Hindu Communalism 252Self–Evaluation Test 253

6. WW-I : Revolutionary Terrorism and Home Rule Movement 254

1. World War-I: A Boost to Indian Nationalism 254

2. The Revolutionary Terrorist Movements 2542.1 Revolutionary Activities in Maharashtra 2542.2 Revolutionary Activities in Bengal 2552.3 Revolutionary Activities in Punjab

and Delhi 2552.4 Revolutionary Activities in Europe 255

3. The Ghadar Movement 2554. Home Rule Movement 257

4.1 Tilak’s Home Rule League 257

4.2 Besant’s Home Rule League 2574.3 Montagu Declaration, 1917 258

5. The Lucknow Session of Congress (1916) 258


7. Beginning of the Gandhian Era and the Non-Cooperation Movement 259

1. Post-War Situation 2592. Gandhi’s Early Life and Ideas 2593. Gandhiji in Champaran,

Ahmedabad and Kheda 2603.1 Champaran Satyagraha 2603.2 Ahmedabad Mill Strike 2603.3 Kheda Satyagraha 260

4. Montagu-Chelmsford Reform and Government of India Act, 1919 261

5. The Rowlatt Satyagraha and Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy 2615.1 Rowlatt Satyagraha 2615.2 Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy 262

6. Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement 2626.1 Khilafat Movement 2626.2 Non-Cooperation Movement 2636.3 Nagpur Session of the Congress 2636.4 Government Response 2646.5 Chauri Chaura Incident and Withdrawal

of Non-Cooperation Movement 2646.6 Assessment of the Khilafat and

Non-Cooperation Movements 2647. The Akali Movement for

Gurudwara Reform and Temple Entry Movement 2647.1 The Akali Movement in Punjab 2647.2 The Temple Entry Movement or

Vaikom Satyagraha in Kerala 265Self–Evaluation Test 265

8. The Period of Stagnation–Swarajists, No Changers and Gandhiji 266

1. Swaraj Party 2662. Swarajists’ Actions and

Achievements 266

3. Constructive Activities of the ‘No-changers’ 267

4. Assessment of the Swarajists 2675. Upsurge of Communalism 267Self–Evaluation Test 267

9. Resurgence of Revolutionary Terrorism (1924–1934) 268

1. Factors Responsible for Resurgence of Terrorism 268

2. Revolutionary Activities in Northern India: Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) 2682.1 Kakori Conspiracy 2682.2 Lahore Conspiracy 2692.3 Delhi Central Assembly Bomb

Blast Case 2693. Revolutionary Activities in Bengal

and Other Northeastern Regions 2694. Assessment of the Revolutionary

Movement 270Self–Evaluation Test 270

10. Trade Union Movement 271

1. Formation of Associations 2712. Industrial Unrests 2713. Labour Legislations and

Commissions 2724. Limitations of Trade Union

Movements During Colonial Rule 272Self–Evaluation Test 272

11. Civil Disobedience Movement 273

1. The Run-up to the Civil Disobedience Movement 2731.1 Simon Commission 2731.2 All Parties Convention: Nehru Report 2741.3 Irwin’s Declaration 2741.4 Fourteen Points of Jinnah 2751.5 Lahore Congress Session: Poorna Swaraj 275

2. The Civil Disobedience Movement 2753. First Round Table Conference 2774. Gandhi-Irwin Pact 2775. Karachi Session of the Congress 277

6. Second Round Table Conference 2777. Civil Disobedience Movement:

Second Phase 2788. Communal Award 2789. Poona Pact

(24th September 1932) 27810. Third Round Table Conference

(17th November 1932) 279Self–Evaluation Test 279

12. Nationalist Politics (1935–1939) 280

1. The Government of India Act, 1935 280

2. The Provincial Elections of 1936–1937 and Congress Ministries 280

3. Rise of Socialistic Ideas 2814. Peasant and Worker Movements 2825. Congress Interest in World Affairs 2826. Congress and State People’s

Struggle 2827. Growth of Communalism 283Self–Evaluation Test 283

13. Second World War and the National Movement 284

1. Reaction of Indian Political Parties to the World War II 284

2. August Offer, 1940 284

3. Individual Satyagraha, 1940 2854. The Cripps Mission, 1942 2855. Quit India Movement, 1942 285

5.1 Quit India Resolution 2855.2 Spread and Suppression 2855.3 Underground Movement 286

6. Subhash Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army 286


14. The Final Phase: Independence and Partition 288

1. INA Trial, 1945 2882. Rin Mutiny, 1946 2883. Rajaji Formula and Gandhi-Jinnah

Talks (1944) 2894. Desai-Liaquat Pact (1945) 2895. Tej Bahadur Sapru’s

Conciliation Committee 2896. Wavell Plan and Shimla

Conference (1945) 2897. Provincial Elections (1946) 2908. Cabinet Mission (1946) 2909. Direct Action Campaign,

Interim Government and Constituent Assembly 290

10. Independence and Partition 29111. Integration of the Princely States 292Self–Evaluation Test 293Practice Set 297

1. IntroductIon

The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa dating about 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had a smaller brain. Homo sapiens evolved over a period of these years about 50,000 years ago. Unfortunately, except for the solitary find of a hominid fossil from Hathnora in the Narmada Valley dating back to 1.4 million years ago, no early human fossils have been found in India. Since their appearance, the humans have been using stone tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic ages.

Evolution of Man

• First Fossil — Male - Ramapithecus Female - Shivapithecus (10–14 million years ago)• These fossils were found in Shivalik and Salt range • Homoerectus: Found in Hathnora (Lower Palaeolithic) 10

lakh BC• Homo sapiens: Found in Upper Palaeolithic Regions

2. PalaeolIthIc age (5,00,000–10,000 Bc)It was basically a hunting and food gathering culture ‘Palaeo means ‘old’ and ‘lithic’ means ‘stone’. Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases:

The three phases are named on the basis of vertical excavation. The earliest remains are found deeper in the excavation whereas

the newer ones are found on top of them. Therefore, the oldest are named as ‘Lower’ Paleolithic and later ones as ‘Upper’ Paleolithic.

1. Early or Lower Palaeolithic (5,00,000–1,00,000 BC): It covers the greater part of the Ice Age and its characteristic feature is the use of hand-axe, cleavers and choppers.

2. Middle Palaeolithic (100,000–40,000 BC): The Middle Palaeolithic culture is characterised by flakes. The principal tools are variety of blades, points and scrappers made of flakes.

3. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000–10,000 BC): It marks the appearance of Homo sapiens and new flint industries; widespread appearance of a figurines and other artifacts reflecting art and rituals; the appearance of wide range of bone tools, including needles, fishing tools, harpoons, blades and burin tools.

Palaeolithic People: Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on hunting and food-gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern was dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not knowing how to grow their food, they ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were wanderers and moved from place to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks. The basic social structure corresponded to a band society.

Facts to Remember

• Robert Bruce Foote was the first to discover a Palaeolithic stone tool in India in 1863.

Rock paintings and carvings have been numerously found in Bhimbetka from different periods. The oldest painting of Bhimbetka

Part (A) Ancient India

Prehistoric period belongs to the time before the emergence of writing and the historic period to the time following it. The prehistoric period is divided into three ages, namely the stone, bronze and iron ages. This chapter describes salient features of pre-historic period. Through this chapter student will be able to understand:

y Palaeolithic Age y Mesolithic Age y Neolithic Age

y Chalcolithic Age y Copper Phase y Iron Age

Chapter 1 Pre-Historic Period

Ancient India2

belongs to the upper Palaeolithic period. The paintings belonging to this period are linear representation in green and dark red, of figures of animals such as bisons, elephants, tiger, rhinocerous etc.

The most important feature of these paintings is that the animals are generally depicted much larger in size. It indicates that still man was more threatened by other animals, a situation which reversed in later period.

3. MesolIthIc age (10,000–6,000 Bc)It was the transitional period between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characteristic tools are microliths, all made of stone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters. This Age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has also been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

Mesolithic Tools: Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five centimetres long.

Paintings: At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been discovered which belong to this

period. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found. Animals are the most frequently depicted subject either alone or in large and small groups and shown in various poses.

Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. Dancing, running, hunting, playing games and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, green, white and yellow were used in making these drawings.

By this time, paintings have started depicting humans as central figure, that too in groups which indicates the beginning of community life.

4. neolIthIc age (6,000 Bc)The word ‘neolithic’ was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865. Miles Burkit enumerated four characteristics of neolithic culture: (i) animal domestication, (ii) agricultural practices, (iii) grinded and polished stone tools and (iv) pottery manufacture.

The people of this age used tools and implements of polished stone.

The earliest Neolithic settlement found so far in Indian subcontinent is in Mehargarh (Baluchistan).

Beginning of the Neolithic age (i.e. appearance of the first site).

3Pre-Historic Period

Pre-Historic Phases

Stone Age Primary Culture Major Sites Importance

Lower Palaeolithic

Flakes, Chopper Chopping Culture

Kashmir, Punjab, Whole India except Sind and Kerala.Main: Sohan (Punjab), Singrauli basin (U.P.), Chota Nagpur (Jharkhand), Assam, Narmada, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.

– Hand axe and pebble tools, Fossil of Homo Erectus from Hathnora (Narmada basin)

– Represented by Soanian Culture (now in Pakistan)

Middle Palaeolithic

Scraper/Borer Culture

Nevasa (Maharashtra), Didwana (Rajasthan), Bhimbetka (M.P.), Bankura and Purulia (West Bengal), Narmada Valley etc.

– Varieties of Blades, Points, Borer and Scraper made of Flakes. – 200 rock shelters and caves are located on Bhimbetka hills

having thousands of paintings – The age of Neanderthal Man

Upper Palaeolithic

Blade and Burin Culture

A.P. (Kurnool, Chittor) Karnataka, Central M.P., Jharkhand Plateau, U.P., Rajasthan, Gujarat

– Earlier “Homo Sapiens” – Harpoon, blade tools from Renugunta (AP) – Bone tools from Kurnool

Mesolithic Age

Microliths CultureorFluting & Geometrical tools

Karnataka, Rajasthan (Bagor, Tilwara), Gujarat (Langhnaj), M.P, T.N., W. Bengal (Birbhanpur), U.P. (Sarai Nahar Rai)

– Microlith (a great technological development, Introduction of compound tools)

– Man still a savage but pottery making (Tilwara) and permanent habitation found, still a hunter, fisher

Neolithic Age

Polished-tool Culture

Kashmir (Burzahom, Gufkral), Assam (Daojili Hading), Garohill Meghalaya, Bihar (Chirand), Peninsular India, Amri, Kotdiji, Mehargarh etc.

– Earliest farming community – Kinship became the basis of social organisation – Pit-dwelling houses (Burzahom) – Food began to be cooked by fire – Evidence of dogs, circular huts made of bamboo, bone-tools,

hand made pottery etc – Also called “Neolithic Revolution” – Boat making, spinning cotton and wool

World wide — 9000 BCNorth west India — 7000 BCCentral India — 5000 BCSouth India — 3000 BC

Neolithic People: The civilization and culture of the Neolithic age shows distinct traces of progress. The Neolithic men had a settled life. They practised agriculture and grew fruits and corn. Animals, such as the cow, dog, ox, goat etc. were domesticated. The art of producing fire by the friction of bamboos or pieces of stones was known to them. Instead of eating the uncooked flesh of various animals, they now started roasting it. Besides this, bows and arrows were invented and were used for the purpose of hunting. They also learnt the art of pottery, at first by hand and then with the potter’s wheel. They painted and decorated their pots. They lived in caves, the walls of which were polished and painted with the scenes of hunting and dancing. They also learnt the art of spinning and weaving clothes. They used to bury the dead bodies and construct tombs over them which were known as Dolmens, Menhirs etc.

Neolithic Tools: The stone tools of the Neolithic age bear unmistakeable signs of polish either all over the tools or at the butt-end and the working-end, or only at the working end. They fashioned their tools out of fine-grained dark-green trap, though there are examples of the use of diorite, basalt, slate, chlorite, schist, indurated shale, gneiss, sand stone and quartzite.

Their tools included stone celts, adzes, chisels, picks, fabricators, ring stones, hammer stones, pounders, mortars, discs, slick stones and sling stones.

Occupation: Neolithic settlers were cattle-herders and agriculturists. They produced ragi, wheat, barley, rice, masoor, moong, kulthi etc. Hand-made pottery is also found in the early stage. Elephant, rhino, buffalo, ox, stag remains are also found in plenty. But there is no specification of these being domesticated. The pottery were well made but were coarse in nature, not that much polished.

Red, Grey, Black, Black and Red Ware, Black Burnished Ware and Mat-impressed Ware are associated with this culture.

Tool making was another important occupation which included a variety of picks, scrapers, eyed needles, bodkins and pierced batons.

5. chalcolIthIc ageTowards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. First metal to be used was copper and the culture of that time is called Chalcolithic culture. The earliest settlements belonging to this phase are extended from the Chota Nagpur plateau to the

upper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at Brahmagiri near Mysore and Navada Toli on the Narmada.

The transition from the use of stones to the use of metals is slow and long drawn. There is no doubt that there was an overlapping period when both stone and metals were used. This is proved by the close resemblance of metallic tools and implements with those made of stone. The Chalcolithic i.e. copper bronze age or stone-copper age of India produced a splendid civilization in the Indus Valley which spread in the neighbouring regions.

Ancient India4

Important Chalcolithic Cultures and Their Features

Chalcolithic Culture Period Features Sites

Ahar Culture 2800–1500 BC The people made distinctive black and red ware decorated with white designs. They grew rice, jowar, bajra, kulthi, ragi, green peas, lentil and green and black gram. People lived in stone-built houses.

Ahar, Balathal, Gilund were the important cities of this culture.

Kayatha Culture 2450–1700 BC The people made a sturdy red slipped ware painted with designs in chocolate colour, a red painted buff ware and a combed ware bearing incised patterns.

Chambal and its tributaries were spread in an area of not more than 2 hectares.

Malwa Culture 1900–1400 BC The Malwa ware is rather coarse in fabric, but has a thick buff surface over which designs are made either in red or black. Wheat and barley were grown.

Narmada and its tributaries: Navdatoli, Eran and Nagada were well-known settlements. It is the largest Chalcolithic settlement.

Savalda Culture 2300–2000 BC — Dhulia district in Maharashtra is an important site.

Jorwe Culture 1500–900 BC Jorwe ware is painted black on red but has a matt surface treated with a wash. Some of the most well-known pottery forms are dishes on-stand, sprouted vases, stemmed cups, bowls big storage jars, sprouted basins etc; same crops as Ahar were grown at Inamgaon.

More than 200 settlements from Maharashtra. Prakash, Daimabad and Inamgaon are well-known sites.

Prabhas Culture 2000–1400 BC Both are derived from Harappan, but have a glossy surface due to which they are also called Lustrous Red Ware.

Unfortunately, not more than half a dozen settlements are known till today.

Rangpur Culture 1700–1400 BC Ghelo and Kalubhar rivers in Gujarat.

Occupation: Their economy was based on subsistence agriculture, stock-raising, hunting and fishing. Their tools consisted of a specialised blade and flake of silicious material like chalcedony and chert. Copper and bronze tools were also present in a limited number. The culture shares the common characteristic of painted pottery.

Burial Practices: Another striking feature was the burial practice of the dead. The dead were buried in north-south position in Maharashtra but in east-west position in south India. In eastern India, only a fraction of population buried their dead.

6. the coPPer PhaseMore than forty copper hoards consisting of rings, celts, hatchets, swords, harpoons, spearheads and human-like figures have been

found in a wide area ranging from West Bengal and Orissa in the East to Gujarat and Haryana in the West, and from Andhra Pradesh in the South to Uttar Pradesh in the North. The largest hoard comes from Gungeria in Madhya Pradesh; it contains 424 copper tools and weapons and 102 thin sheets of silver objects. But nearly half of the copper hoards are concentrated in the Ganga-Yamuna doab. Some of these objects have been discovered in association with ochre-coloured pots and some mud structures. Stone tools have also been found in excavations. All these implements of the copper hoards supplemented by stone tools led a settled life, and were one of the earliest Chalcolithic agriculturists and artisans to settle in a good portion of the doab.

Chalcolithic Settlement Pattern

• Largest - Daimabad • Town features at Daimabad and Inamgaon • Town Planning - Inamgaon• Fortification - Nagada, Inamgaon, Daimabad, Balathal• Baked Brick Evidence - Gilund• Stone Dwellings - Ahar• Chiefly circular and rectangular houses have been found• Microliths have been found from Ahar• Flat, Rectangular Copper Axe have been found from

Jorwey and Chandoli• Chief Crop-Barley• Evidence of Rice has been found in Inamgaon• Fire Altars and Fire Worship were prevalent

• Inner Funeral system• North-south direction of burials• East-West direction of burials were prevalent in South

India

Pottery Type

Ahar Red WareKayatha Deep Red WareMalwa Deep Brown & BlackSaalda Pictographic (Red & Black)Jorwe Pictographic (Red & Black)Prabhas Pictographic (Red & Black)Rangpur Polished Red

5Pre-Historic Period

Copper Hoard

• Stretched from northwest to east and upto Tamil Nadu• Black copper has been found at these sites • It continued upto 1500 BC• Chief Area - Gangetic Valley• Chief Sites - Gungeria (MP), Saibai (UP), Bithur (UP),

Visauli (UP), Rajpur Parsu (UP)

Pottery: This period was marked by two types of pottery: Ochre-Coloured Pottery which can be roughly placed between 2000 BC–1500 BC on the basis of scientific datings and Black and Red pottery from about 1000 BC.

Ochre-Coloured Pottery (OCP): A new pottery type was discovered during excavations at Badaun and Bijnor in Uttar Pradesh in 1950. It was called Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) as it contained a wash of ochre. The colour of the pottery ranges from orange to red. The Chalcolithic sites with such type of ware are ascribed to OCP culture. The period covered by the OCP culture is roughly placed between 2000 BC and 1500 BC. The Black and Red Ware (BRW) followed the OCP.

Black and Red Ware (BRW): Excavations of Atranjikheda in Uttar Pradesh in the 1960s brought to light a distinct pottery. The pottery, called the BRW, is sandwiched between the OCP and the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) of Iron Age or the Early Vedic Age. Black colour inside and near the rim on the outside, and red colour over the rest of the body are the main characteristic features of the BRW. BRW pottery has also been found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.

The main reason behind the decline of Chalcolithic culture was the climate changes resulting in less rainfall since 1200 BC. The digging of hard soil was no longer easier by wood and copper tools as it was used earlier when rainfall was abundant. Many of the chalcolithic sites were abandoned after their decline, however, in east and south India majority of them were transformed into Iron using settlements. In south, they were recongnised by historians as Megalithis (due to their burial practices).

7. Iron age

In Southern India, use of iron came after the use of stone. In any case, there were periods of overlapping in the use of stone, copper,

bronze and iron. Our only evidence of the transition from copper-bronze age to the iron age is the monuments like dolmens, cairns, etc. These have been found in wide areas all over India such as Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Central India, Gujarat and Kashmir. But by far the largest number has been found in south India, in Karnataka and the Deccan. These iron monuments appear to have belonged to both pre-historic and historic periods.

The iron age helped humans to fully dominate the landscape. It helped them to clear the forests, practise agriculture even in hard soils and to produce the surplus which not only helped to feed the increasing population but also helped them to establish a complex and ambitious state system.

Monuments discovered in Hyderabad, Mysore, Tinnevelly district, Coimbatore, Malabar, Penumbur etc. also show varied stages of development. Neolithic, Microlithic tools along with copper, bronze and iron implements have been discovered, making it difficult to identify the actual period of transition from copper-bronze age to iron age. At this stage of our limited knowledge, no definite conclusion in this regard can be arrived at. Iron Age is usually associated with the Painted Grey Ware.

Painted Grey Ware (PGW): It refers to the ceramics which have been fired grey and then painted with black designs. The name chosen is highly misleading and can lead many beginners to think this, as a type, which is painted with grey colour. The grey colour, it is believed, is obtained by firing thin clay pots to as high a temperature as 800°C.

Pre-Historic Findings

• Bhimbetka - Homo Sapien’s Cave, 500 Painted Rock Shelters

• Nevasa - Evidence of cotton• Atranjikheda - Textile printing• Hastinapur - Wild sugarcane• Inamgaon - Statue of mother goddess• Mehargarh - Earliest evidence of agriculture• Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice • Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of

Domestication of animal• Chirand - Serpent cult• Burzahom Gulfkral - Pit-dwelling

Self–Evaluation Test1. The main occupation of the earliest Mesolithic people was (i) Agriculture (ii) Hunting & food gathering (iii) Fishing (iv) Domestication of animals (a) ii and iii (b) i and ii (c) ii and iv (d) iii and iv2. Men of the modern type Homo sapiens appeared in the (a) Pleistocene period (b) Upper Paleolithic period

(c) Middle Paleolithic period (d) Lower Paleolithic period3. Which of following is not a characteristic feature of

Paleolithic age ? (a) Food was cooked before eating (b) Bodies were covered with skins of animals or tree barks

and leaves (c) People did not know use of wheel (d) People wandered from place to place in search of food

ANSWERS

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a)

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