History of clothing and textiles

Clothing and textiles have been enormously important throughout human history—so have their materials, production tools and techniques, cultural influences, and social significance.

Textiles, defined as felt or spun fibers made into yarn and subsequently netted, looped, knit or woven to make fabrics, appeared in the Middle East during the late stone age.[1] From ancient times to the present day, methods of textile production have continually evolved, and the choices of textiles available have influenced how people carried their possessions, clothed themselves, and decorated their surroundings.[2]

Sources available for the study of the history of clothing and textiles include material remains discovered via archaeology; representation of textiles and their manufacture in art; and documents concerning the manufacture, acquisition, use, and trade of fabrics, tools, and finished garments. Scholarship of textile history, especially its earlier stages, is part of material culture studies.

Prehistoric development

Recent scientific research estimates that humans have been wearing clothing for as long as 190,000 years.[3]

The development of textile and clothing manufacture in prehistory has been the subject of a number of scholarly studies since the late 20th century, including Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages.[5] These sources have helped to provide a coherent history of these prehistoric developments. Evidence suggests that human beings may have begun wearing clothing as far back as 100,000 to 500,000 years ago.[6]

Genetic analysis suggests that the human body louse, which lives in clothing, may have diverged from the head louse some 107,000 years ago, evidence that humans began wearing clothing at around this time.[7]

Possible sewing needles have been dated to around 40,000 years ago.[8] The earliest definite examples of needles originate from the Solutrean culture, which existed in France from 19,000 BC to 15,000 BC. The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia and date back to 36,000 BP.[9][10]

The earliest evidence of weaving comes from impressions of textiles and basketry and nets on little pieces of hard clay, dating from 27,000 years ago and found in Dolni Vestonice in the Czech Republic.

At a slightly later date (25,000 years) the Venus figurines were depicted with clothing.[11] Those from western Europe were adorned with basket hats or caps, belts worn at the waist, and a strap of cloth that wrapped around the body right above the breast. Eastern European figurines wore belts, hung low on the hips and sometimes string skirts.[12]

Archaeologists have discovered artifacts from the same period that appear to have been used in the textile arts: (5000 BC) net gauges, spindle needles and weaving sticks.[13]

Ancient textiles and clothing

The first actual textile, as opposed to skins sewn together, was probably felt. Surviving examples of Nålebinding, another early textile method, date from 6500 BC. Our knowledge of ancient textiles and clothing has expanded in the recent past thanks to modern technological developments.[14] Our knowledge of cultures varies greatly with the climatic conditions to which archeological deposits are exposed; the Middle East and the arid fringes of China have provided many very early samples in good condition, but the early development of textiles in the Indian subcontinent, sub-Saharan Africa and other moist parts of the world remains unclear. In northern Eurasia peat bogs can also preserve textiles very well.

Early woven clothing was often made of full loom widths draped, tied, or pinned in place.

Ancient Near East

The earliest known woven textiles of the Near East may be fabrics used to wrap the dead, excavated at a Neolithic site at Çatalhöyük in Anatolia, carbonized in a fire and radiocarbon dated to c. 6000 BC.[15] Evidence exists of flax cultivation from c. 8000 BC in the Near East, but the breeding of sheep with a wooly fleece rather than hair occurs much later, c. 3000 BC.[15]

Ancient India

The inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization used cotton for clothing as early as the 5th millennium BC – 4th millennium BC.[16]

"Cotton has been spun, woven, and dyed since prehistoric times. It clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, and their use spread to the Mediterranean countries. In the 1st cent. Arab traders brought fine Muslin and Calico to Italy and Spain. The Moors introduced the cultivation of cotton into Spain in the 9th cent. Fustians and dimities were woven there and in the 14th cent. in Venice and Milan, at first with a linen warp. Little cotton cloth was imported to England before the 15th cent., although small amounts were obtained chiefly for candlewicks. By the 17th cent. the East India Company was bringing rare fabrics from India. Native Americans skillfully spun and wove cotton into fine garments and dyed tapestries. Cotton fabrics found in Peruvian tombs are said to belong to a pre-Inca culture. In color and texture the ancient Peruvian and Mexican textiles resemble those found in Egyptian tombs."

Ancient Egypt

Clothing in the ancient world#Egyptian clothingWoven silk textile from tombs at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, from the Western Han Dynasty, 2nd century BC

Evidence exists for production of linen cloth in Ancient Egypt in the Neolithic period, c. 5500 BC. Cultivation of domesticated wild flax, probably an import from the Levant, is documented as early as c. 6000 BC Other bast fibers including rush, reed, palm, and papyrus were used alone or with linen to make rope and other textiles. Evidence for wool production in Egypt is scanty at this period.[18]

Spinning techniques included the drop spindle, hand-to-hand spinning, and rolling on the thigh; yarn was also spliced.[18] A horizontal ground loom was used prior to the New Kingdom, when a vertical two-beam loom was introduced, probably from Asia.

Linen bandages were used in the burial custom of mummification, and art depicts Egyptian men wearing linen kilts and women in narrow dresses with various forms of shirts and jackets, often of sheer pleated fabric.[18]

Ancient China

The earliest evidence of silk production in China was found at the sites of Yangshao culture in Xia, Shanxi, where a cocoon of bombyx mori, the domesticated silkworm, cut in half by a sharp knife is dated to between 5000 and 3000 BC. Fragments of primitive looms are also seen from the sites of Hemudu culture in Yuyao, Zhejiang, dated to about 4000 BC. Scraps of silk were found in a Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang in Huzhou, Zhejiang, dating back to 2700 BC.[19][20] Other fragments have been recovered from royal tombs in the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC).[21]

Under the Shang Dynasty, Han Chinese clothing or Hanfu consisted of a yi, a narrow-cuffed, knee-length tunic tied with a sash, and a narrow, ankle-length skirt, called shang, worn with a bixi, a length of fabric that reached the knees. Clothing of the elite was made of silk in vivid primary colours.

Ancient Japan

The earliest evidence of weaving in Japan is associated with the Jōmon period. This culture is defined by pottery decorated with cord patterns. In a shell mound in the Miyagi Prefecture, dating back about 5,500, some cloth fragments were discovered made from bark fibers.[22] Hemp fibers were also discovered in the Torihama shell midden, Fukui Prefecture, dating back to the Jōmon period, suggesting that these plants could also have been used for clothing. Some pottery pattern imprints depict also fine mat designs, proving their waving techniques. Since bone needles were also found, it is assumed that they wore dresses that were sewn together.[23]

The textile trade in the ancient world

The exchange of luxury textiles was predominant on the Silk Road, a series of ancient trade and cultural transmission routes that were central to cultural interaction through regions of the Asian continent connecting East and West by linking traders, merchants, pilgrims, monks, soldiers, nomads and urban dwellers from China to the Mediterranean Sea during various periods of time. The trade route was initiated around 114 BC by the Han Dynasty,[24] although earlier trade across the continents had already existed. Geographically, the Silk Road or Silk Route is an interconnected series of ancient trade routes between Chang'an (today's Xi'an) in China, with Asia Minor and the Mediterranean extending over 8,000 km (5,000 miles) on land and sea. Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, the Indian subcontinent, and Rome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world.

Dress in classical antiquity favored wide, unsewn lengths of fabric, pinned and draped to the body in various ways.

Ancient Greek clothing consisted of lengths of wool or linen, generally rectangular and secured at the shoulders with ornamented pins called fibulae and belted with a sash. Typical garments were the peplos, a loose robe worn by women; the chlamys, a cloak worn by men; and the chiton, a tunic worn by both men and women. Men’s chitons hung to the knees, whereas women’s chitons fell to their ankles. A long cloak called a himation was worn over the peplos or chlamys.

The toga of ancient Rome was also an unsewn length of wool cloth, worn by male citizens draped around the body in various fashions, over a simple tunic. Early tunics were two simple rectangles joined at the shoulders and sides; later tunics had sewn sleeves. Women wore the draped stola or an ankle-length tunic, with a shawl-like palla as an outer garment. Wool was the preferred fabic, although linen, hemp, and small amounts of expensive imported silk and cotton were also worn.

Industrial revolution

During the industrial revolution, fabric production was mechanised with machines powered by waterwheels and steam-engines. Production shifted from small cottage based production to mass production based on assembly line organisation. Clothing production, on the other hand, continued to be made by hand.

Sewing machines emerged in the 19th century [47] streamlining clothing production.

In the early 20th century workers in the clothing and textile industries became unionised.[48] Later in the 20th century, the industry had expanded to such a degree that such educational institutions as UC Davis established a Division of Textiles and Clothing,[49] The University of Nebraska-Lincoln also created a Department of Textiles, Clothing and Design that offers a Masters of Arts in Textile History,[50] and Iowa State University established a Department of Textiles and Clothing that features a History of costume collection, 1865–1948.[51] Even high school libraries have collections on the history of clothing and textiles.[52]

Alongside these developments were changes in the types and style of clothing produced. During the 1960s, had a major influence on subsequent developments in the industry.[53]

Textiles were not only made in factories. Before this that they were made in local and national markets. Dramatic change in transportation throughout the nation is one source that encouraged the use of factories. New advances such as steamboats, canals, and railroads lowered shipping costs which caused people to buy cheap goods that were produced in other places instead of more expensive goods that were produced locally. Between 1810 and 1840 the development of a national market prompted manufacturing which tripled the output’s worth. This increase in production created a change in industrial methods, such as the use of factories instead of hand made woven materials that families usually made.[54]

The vast majority of the people who worked in the factories were women. Women went to work in textile factories for a number of reasons. Some women left home to live on their own because of crowding at home; or to save for future marriage portions. The work enabled them to see more of the world, to earn something in anticipation of marriage, and to ease the crowding within the home. They also did it to make money for family back home. The money they sent home was to help out with the trouble some of the farmers were having. They also worked in the millhouses because they could gain a sense of independence and growth as a personal goal.[55]

Contemporary technology

Synthetic fibers such as nylon were invented during the 20th century and synthetic fibers have been added to many natural fibers.

INDIAN TEXTILE INDUSTRY

India has a diverse and rich textile tradition. The origin of Indian textiles can be traced to the Indus valley civilization. The people of this civilization used homespun cotton for weaving their garments. Excavations at Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro, have unearthed household items like needles made of bone and spindles made of wood, amply suggesting that homespun cotton was used to make garments. Fragments of woven cotton have also been found from these sites.

The first literary information about textiles in India can be found in the Rigveda, which refers to weaving. The ancient Indian epics-Ramayana and Mahabharat also speak of a variety of fabrics of those times. The Ramayana refers to the rich styles worn by the aristocracy on one hand and the simple clothes worn by the commoners and ascetics. Ample evidence on the ancient textiles of India can also be obtained from the various sculptures belonging to Mauryan and Gupta age as well as from ancient Buddhist scripts and murals (Ajanta caves). Legend has it that when Amrapali, a courtesan from the kingdom of Vaishali met Gautam Buddha, she wore a richly woven semi transparent sari, which speaks volumes of the technical achievement of the ancient Indian weaver.

India had numerous trade links with the outside world and Indian textiles were popular in the ancient world. Indian silk was popular in Rome in the early centuries of the Christian era. Hoards of fragments of cotton material originating from Gujarat have been found in the Egyptian tombs at Fostat, belonging to 5th century A.D. Cotton textiles were also exported to China during the heydays of the silk route.

Silk fabrics from south India were exported to Indonesia during the 13th century. India also exported printed cotton fabrics or chintz, to European countries and the Far East before the coming of the Europeans to India. The British East India Company also traded in Indian cotton and silk fabrics, which included the famous Dacca muslins. Muslins from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were also popular abroad.(Muslin-a very thin cotton material) (Chintz-cotton cloth, usually printed with flowery patterns, that has a slightly shiny appearance)

The past traditions of the textile and handlooms can still be seen amongst the motifs, patterns, designs, and the old techniques of weaving, still employed by the weavers.

BROCADES - THE TRADITION OF BRINGING SILK TO LIFE

Brocade weaving, especially with gold and silver, has been an age-old tradition in India. There are two broad classes of brocades. Brocades of pure silk or silk and cotton blends and zari brocades with gold and silver threads. The most important material in brocade weaving is silk. It facilitates lovely weaves, is durable, strong, fine and smooth. There are several varieties of raw silk of which the chief ones used for brocades are Tanduri, Banaka and Mukta. Tanduri is imported from Malda and other places in Bengal. Banaka is thinner and finer variety and is mostly used to weave soft fabrics such as turbans and handkerchiefs. Mukta is a coarse and durable silk used for kimkhabs, as fine silk would not withstand heavy gold patterns.

REFINING SILK FOR BROCADE MAKING

Raw silk is specially treated for brocades. It is first twisted (called 'silk throwing') after which the threads undergo reeling and checking for uniformity and roundness. When the yarn has been processed, it is bleached and "degummed", as raw silk has a gum-like substance (sericin) in its composition. This has to be removed in order to bring out the sheen and softness and to enable penetration of the dye. The task has to be done with great care as the fibers can weaken or get damaged. The silk is boiled in soap water for a certain duration and then sent for dying.

IMPORTANCE OF COLOR

Color plays a vital part in weaving a brocade. The charm and subtle beauty of the brocade depends upon color synchronization. Colors are surcharged with nuances of mood and poetic association in fabrics and weaving as much as in painting.

Red - the color of love. The three tones of red evoke the three states of love.Yellow - is the color of vasant (spring), of young blossoms, southern winds and swarms of bees.Nila (indigo) - the color of Lord Krishna who is likened to a rain-filled cloud. Hari nila - the color of water in which the sky is reflected.Gerwa (saffron) - the color of the earth and of the yogi the wandering minstrel, the seer, the poet who renounces the world.

Earlier, vegetable dyes were used during weaving. These produced fast colors, lasted for almost a generation, and remained as beautiful and vivid as ever. Nowadays aniline dyes have gained popularity as they are cheaper, less time-consuming and produce a larger variety of colors.

MAKING NAKSHAS (DESIGNS) ON BROCADES

Making of nakshas (designs) forms an important part of brocade weaving. Banaras is the main center where the nakshabandha (designer) tradition prevails. The skill and imagination of nakshabandha plays a prominent part in making of designs. Designs are associated with legends and symbolism. The most popular motifs are drawn from nature. In Banaras, it is said that nakshabandha families were brought to this country during the reign of Muhammed Tughlak (1325-1350 A.D.). They were supreme masters of the art of tying designs into the loom. Local artisans and weavers learned this art from these great craftsmen. Some of these craftsmen were also great poets-perhaps they wove their poetry into their designs. One such renowned poet was Ghias-I-Naqsband, mentioned in Abul Fazl's 'Ain-I-Akbari'. The nakshas are first worked on paper. This part of the work is called likhai (writing). The nakshabandha then makes a little pattern of it in a framework of cotton threads like a graph. This pattern gives guidance to the working of that design into weaving.

CHANGES IN DESIGNS THROUGH THE CENTURIES

Designs and motifs have undergone changes gradually and imperceptibly. These changes can be traced through paintings made during different periods. Ajanta and Bagh murals show the existence of different techniques of designs and textiles. During the Gupta period (14th century A.D.). popular designs were formal floral motifs or scrolls entwined with hansas or sinhas -bird and animal depictions. In the 16th century, the old designs were replaced by Persian floral motifs. Akbari paintings show half-blooming flowers, the Jehangir period, full-blown blossom and the Shahjehan period, tiny blossoms with emphasis on the leaves. In the 19th century, with the advent of British rule, there was a drastic change in designs. Some brocades started depicting English wallpaper designs to suit the tastes of the British rule.

Textile

The textile tradition of India is perhaps the world's oldest textile tradition. Textile serves a variety of purposes like clothing, carpeting, and furnishing. Textiles are also used for industrial purposes. The origin of Indian textile can be traced back to the ages of Indus Valley civilization.

The household items like needles made of bone as well as a number of spindles unearthed at the excavation sites in the district of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa amply suggest that the people of those civilizations used homespun cotton for weaving garments. One of India's most celebrated ancient royal dynasties, the Vijayanagar Dynasty emphasized that textile was an important trade in the ancient era. The art of Indian textile is defined at its best by the Indian geography, climate, social customs, availability of the raw materials etc.

Many occasional comments about the textile craft of the Indian subcontinent can also be found in the ancient Indian writings. Rig Veda provides us with the first literary information about textiles in India. Even the two ancient Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharat also relate us about a variety of fabrics used in those times. The past traditions of the textile and handlooms can still be seen amongst the motifs, patterns, designs, and the old techniques of weaving, still employed by the weavers.The Indian textile is popular all across the globe for its beauty, texture and durability. In the recent times Indian textile has found a place in the global market and is offered in an extensive range at economic prices.

Textile Fabric

The origin of the term ‘textile' can be traced back to the Latin terminology. The textile tradition of India is perhaps the world's oldest textile tradition. Textile serves a variety of purposes like clothing, carpeting, and furnishing. Textiles are also used for industrial purposes. The material used to prepare various kinds of textiles for the textile industry is generally known as Textile Fabric. Because of the higher quality and durability, the textile fabrics in the contemporary period in demand both in the domestic and global market.

The availability of the textile fabric can also be classified into various types. The broad categorization of textile fabric includes textile furnishing fabric and textile apparel fabric . The various types of textile fabric are Plastic Fabric; Cotton Fabric; Chiffon Fabric; Cotton Canvas; Crepe Fabric; Narrow Fabric; Industrial Fabric; Furnishing Fabric; Jacquard Fabric, Yarn-dyed Fabric; Laminated Fabric; Quilted Fabric' Upholstery Fabric; Non-woven Fabric, Woven Fabric.

Textile fabric also serves a variety of purposes. The uses of textile fabric includes: crafting of carpets and rugs; making embroidered apparel and garments; used for making home furnishing products; making various types of textile accessories; making plastic products, tents and camps, designing jute products like bags, rugs, wall-décor and other types of decoration items, making embroidery threads and sewing threads designing woolen garments, blankets and woolen accessories, making mosquito nets, insect nets and bug nets.

Textile fabrics are either natural or synthetic. According to the contemporary needs and constant innovation of textile fabrics, they have also been made water-proof, oil-resistant and ultra-violet rays resistant.

Textile Technology

Textile manufacturing entails an elaborate production process and this process is supported by Textile Technology . Information on the textile technologies from the crude, rudimentary stage to the latest innovations…all you get to know about at our site India Handicraft Store .

Textile Technology is the biggest support for the booming fashion and textile industries. Several technologies that are adopted by the textile manufacturers aid in processing the textile fiber(link) to fashion fabrics and textile products.

They are the support system of the processes like weaving, knitting, crocheting, bonding, bleaching, dyeing, fabricating and finishing.In order to keep up to the latest trends in fashion the textile technologies have been suitably upgraded and innovated. Few of the textile technologies that are used:

Cotton Mixing --It is the first and important step in spinning process Blowroom Process --Deals with opening, cleaning and blending of fibers used in the

mixing Carding Process--Cleaning and removal of impurities, dust. It also caters to opening of

fibers into individual strands. Combing Process--It improves the shine and smoothness of the yarn. Combed yarn is

more strong and uniform Humidification--Temperature and moisture content control in the manufacturing process

of textile fibers

Computer soft wares have immensely helped this advancement. Warehouse software, pattern software, embroider software, Knitting & weaving software and CAD (Computer Assisted Design) have greatly advanced the progress in Textile Technology.

Textile technology has undergone a massive change from the ancient days when crude looms and simple weaving practices were uses. At present it has revolutionized itself by introduction of modern, manufacturing textile techniques . Application of technologies like digital inkjet technology is an advancement on the existing technologies.

The History of Textiles in South Asia

Introduction The history of textiles in South Asia is mainly focused on that of India. The region 'South Asia' usually is defined as consisting of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (1). Here, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka as defined today were until 1947 parts of India (generally defined here as the entire Indian plate) and the rest were heavily influenced by Indian textile culture, which was for a long time one of the most influential textile cultures in the international world. Therefore, it seems appropriate that this paper deals chiefly with the history of Indian textiles, which, even by itself, is very long and diverse.

Indian textiles in the ancient world Cotton The history of textiles in India can be traced back to the Indus valley civilization. The cotton cultivation of the Indus valley civilization are traced back to the 4th and 5th millennium B.C. (2) Three material sources reveal the presence of textile in the Indus Valley: actual textile and textile material; terracotta or sculptures representing human figures wearing various costumes; and, tools and instruments used in manufacturing textiles. (3) Fragments of woven cotton and bone needles have been discovered at Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa, the ancient seats of the Indus Valley Civilization, and even the Rig Veda (a collection of more than 1000 hymns concerning the Hindu gods and mythology, which is considered to be one of the foundations of the Hindu religion (5)) and the epics of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana dwell upon the craft of weaving at length. (6) The cotton industry of Indus Valley civilization was highly developed, to a state that some of the technology used by the manufacturers of the Indus valley civilization continued until the industrialization of the textile industry after the colonization of India. (7)

Silk and silk saris Silk, known as Pattu in southern parts of India and Resham in Hindi/Urdu (from Persian) also has a long history in India. According to the archeological evidence from Harappa and Chanhu-daro, the silk production in India also began during the Indus valley civilization, roughly contemporaneous with the earliest known silk use in China. (8) The first Indian silk, spun as early as 1725 B.C., was produced not by the domesticated Bombyx mori silkworm, fed on mulberry leaves, but from the cocoons of indigenous Tussah, Eri and Muga moths. (9) Most of this silk is used to make saris, and were an integral part of Indian weddings and other celebrations. (10) A sari is a strip of unstitched cloth, ranging from four to nine meters in length that is draped over the body in various styles. The most common style is for the sari to be wrapped around the waist, with one end then draped over the shoulder baring the midriff. (11) It is evident from many sources that saris were worn from ancient times. The above figure, Yakshi of Didarganj (3rd century BC, Mauryan period), found near Patna, seems to be wearing a dress that is reminiscent of the sari without the pallav draped over the upper part of the body. Another of the earliest depictions of a Sari-like drape covering the entire body dates back to about 100 B.C. A north Indian terracotta (Shunga period 200 - 50 B.C.) depicts a woman wearing a sari wound tightly around her entire body in the kachcha style. (13) The technology of silk weaving was extremely developed, to a degree that legend even refers to the fabulous semi-transparent saree (a great technical feat) worn by Amrapali, the famous courtesan. (14)

Indian textiles in ancient international trade Indian textiles were extremely popular in the ancient world of trade. Inscriptions from the Middle East - for example that of King Sharrukin of Akkad - suggest the trade of textiles of the Indus valley civilizations form as early as 2350 B.C. (15) They were exported to many ancient civilizations, mainly through the port of Guzarat. The records of the Greek geographer Strabo mention the Guzarat port as exporting various Indian textiles. (16) Greeks and Babylonians called Indian cotton as ¡®Sind¡¯ and ¡®Sindon¡¯. (17) Indian silk was popular in Rome during the early Christian era, and Egyptian tombs from the 5th century exhibit hoards of fragments of cotton material originating from Gujarat. (18) Indian textiles also were spread through the Silk Road trade and influenced the early Chinese textile traditions. The Indians were famous for their skills in dying the textiles, and the thirteenth-century Chinese traveler Chau Ju-kua even referred to Gujarat as a source of cotton fabrics of every color. (19)

Medieval India

Muslim conquest of India Although there were earlier invasion attempts, the main phase of Muslim conquest of India took place from the 12th century. (20) The conquest made considerable impact on the culture of India, among which was the restoration of contact with the outside world. (21) With the Islamic Sharia courts capable of imposing a common commercial and legal system that extended from Morocco in the West to Mongolia in the North East and the Malay Archipelago (modern Indonesia) in the South East, India saw much progress in its foreign relationships. (22) It is by this time that India¡¯s trade relationship with Europe became more active.

Textile industry during the time of Islamic rule

Active international trade and textile mixtures With the active international transactions during the Muslim rule, Indian textiles also were spread among the entire world. They influenced not only the Arabic states under Muslim rule, but also had a great impact on European economy. During the 13th century, Indian silk was used as barter for spices from the western countries, (handicraft) and was also exported to the Malay Archipelago. (23) While pure silk or cotton products were of considerable demand, textile mixtures were generally more popular in international trades, since mixtures, being more luxurious and therefore more expensive, were more profitable considering the great transaction costs (especially in trades with Europe). For example, chintz (cotton cloth, usually printed with flowery patterns, that has a slightly shiny appearance) was exported to Europe and the Far East during these days, much before the coming of the Europeans. (24) Brocade (richly decorative shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in colored silk and with or without gold and silver threads (25)) were another popular kind of textile mixture products. Brocade has an age old tradition; even the Rig Veda, written between 1700-1100 BC, refers to a hiranyadrapi or a shining, gold-woven cloth. (26) Brocade flourished under the Mughal rule, and saris made in brocade were popular with high prices. (27) Cities like Banaras, Ujjain, Indore and Paithan (near Aurangabad) were known also to foreigners as producing centers of fine silk and brocade. (28)

The interaction with the Islamic culture

Muslim impact on designs Where the Hindu weaving had an abundance of life and spontaneity, with imaginary animals, plants and human figures, the Islamic tradition was more withdrawn and discreet. Representation of living creatures was stylized to the point of abstraction since Islam did not believe in graphic representation of living creatures. (29) The Mughal floral style is unique and born from an amalgamation of Mughal/Persian and European designs, most notably botanical drawings. European drawings often depict the full life cycle of a plant in a single page, from buds to fully-formed flowers. While Ottoman artists showed a strong preference for more stylized, geometric compositions of common Ottoman floral motifs such as tulip, rose, hyacinth, and carnation, Mughal art displayed a preference for naturalistic floral representations. (30) In their support of the arts and music, the tastes of the early Mughals remained strongly biased towards Central Asian, Persian and Chinese traditions. (31) In the 16th century, the old designs with floral motifs and animal depictions were replaced by Persian floral motifs. Akbari paintings show half-blooming flowers, the Jehangir period, full-blown blossom and the Shahjehan period, tiny blossoms with emphasis on the leaves. (32) Generally, the designs on textiles - especially saris - during the Mughal period were characterized by a mixture of Persian and Indian motifs. (33)

Production of woolen carpets Evidence of Indian woolen carpet manufacture suggests that it began during the 5th century B. C. By the 16th century, carpet-weaving centers were established in all the major courts of the sub-continent. However, it is the output of the Mughal period that is now attracting international attention. Large-scale production from the imperial workshops of Akbar laid the foundation for subsequent carpet weaving in India. (34) Kashmir is famous for its carpets. The art of carpet weaving came to Kashmir from Persia in the 15th century during the reign of Sultan Zain ul_Abadin. The art got a boost in the 17th century during the reign of Ahmed Khan the then governor of Kashmir. (35)

Saris and division of gender and caste India is often described with a highly discriminative nation, with its rigid gender inequality and caste system attributed to the Hindu tradition. However, according to some paintings or scriptures from medieval India, the equity among different genders and castes was maintained at least in the clothes they wore because of the universal wearing of saris. There existed a wide variety of saris. Because sari was a simple un-sewn cloth with length from 6 to 9 yards, it could be worn in a variety of activities ranging from sports to battle depending on the style with which they are worn. The nobles wore saris as a manifestation of their wealth, and the commoners also wore them without the undergarments and usually not covering the upper part of the body. (36) Therefore, due to the universal use of sari, the social discrimination in medieval India was shown not much in clothing but rather in other aspects such as jewelry or headwear. (37)

British Influence Export of Indian cotton products

India as the most competitive textile producer Under the rule of the Mughal Empire, India had become the largest economy in the world by the 17th century. (38) With the increasing trade, Indian textiles were celebrated worldwide for skill and delicacy. Textile trade took a great portion in India's international trade with various European nations. The Portuguese, for example, having been involved in trade with India since the early centuries AD, were attracted to Bengal and its high quality sink embroideries and textiles, and textiles maintained a significant portion in the trade between the two nations. (39) India was the most competitive international cotton producer. India¡¯s advantage in cotton production could be explained by the abundant supply of local raw cotton, tacit knowledge passed down for a long time, and the skilled labor specialized by the division of labor based on the caste system. (40) While the technology remained stagnant, Indian productivity was nevertheless high by pre-industrial standards due to these factors. (41)

Export via EIC (East India Company) or VOC (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie) In the 1600s, Dutch and English trading settlements were established in Golconda, from which finely colored cotton was exported via the port of Masulipattinam. The attractiveness of fast dyed, multi-colored Indian prints on cotton (i.e. chintz) in Europe led to the formation of the London East India Company in 1600, followed by Dutch and French counterparts. (42) From the 17th century, textile exports to Europe were mostly done via these companies. The exports generally consisted of cotton, which became the source of economic conflict between India and Britain. (43)

Export of Indian cotton to the British market and its impact The local British cotton industry remained relatively small until the late 18th century. The abundant supply of high quality Indian cotton greatly influenced the British market. Even by the early 19th century, British cotton exports were at a very low level compared to those of later periods and British cotton took only about 3% of the Indian cotton market share. At the end of the 17th century, the silver outflow from Europe to India due to textile trade was considerable, and the silk and wool merchants of France and England were unwilling to put up with the competition from Indian textiles which had become the rage in the new bourgeoisie societies of Europe. (44) Such influence of Indian textiles in the British market led the domestic producers to lobby for protectionist methods. Initially, in 1690, the methods began with import duties, but with the British Calico Act of 1701, some cotton products were actually prohibited. These measures, however, could not eliminate the overwhelming advantage of Indian textiles, and the imports actually increased even during the early 18th century. (45)

Changes in design due to British influence In the early stages of textile trade between India and Britain, Indian cotton had a great impact on the British textile market. Indian motifs became so popular in Britain that some domestic traders even attempted to imitate the Indian styles. (46) However, in the 19th century, as Britain began to take more dominant positions in the trade, Indian brocade designs changed drastically to fit the tastes of the British customers. (47) Traditional Indian motifs were replaced with large wallpaper-like designs including

images of helicopters, airplanes, gardens, houseboats and palm trees etc. This decline in traditional design, among other things such as the decline of the sari industry and the replacement of traditional textiles with synthetic yarns, were signs of the general downfall of Indian textile industry. (48)

British industrial revolution The major problem that the British manufacturers faced when competing with the Indian textile industry was their high labor costs. The various regulations on imports proving insufficient, and the local labor costs simply unable to compete with those of India, the only choice left for the British manufacturers was to reduce amount of labor required for production. (49) Around the period of Industrial Revolution, many inventions in Britain made this reduction possible. In 1733, John Kay (1704-1764), a spinner and mechanic, patented the flying shuttle, making it possible for one person to weave wide bolts of cloth by using a spring mechanism that sent the shuttle across the loom. (50) The invention, greatly increasing the efficiency of yarn weaving, upset the balance between the labor required for spinning and weaving; ten spinners were required to produce enough yarn needed by one weaver. (52) However, in 1764, a British carpenter and weaver named James Hargreaves invented an improved spinning jenny, a hand-powered multiple spinning machine that was the first machine to improve upon the spinning wheel by making it possible to spin more than one ball of yarn or thread. (53)

The invention of the spinning jenny was followed by subsequent inventions that facilitated cotton production to a greater degree. One of the most important was Richard Arkwright (1732-1793)¡¯s 1769 patent for the ¡®water frame,¡¯ a machine which drew out and spun threads of cotton strong enough to be used as the warp - the long thread - in weaving cloth. (55) Ten years after that Samuel Crompton (1753-1827), a spinner, combined the spinning jenny and water frame into the water mule, which, with some variations, is used today. Then, in 1785 Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823) invented the power loom that mechanized the weaving process, thus turning cotton production, once a home-based craft, into an industry. (56) The production of cotton, however, was limited by concerns with energy; water power, the major source of energy then, was insufficient for the needs of modern industry. James Watt, a Scottish inventor, improved Newcomen¡¯s steam machine, a device that converted heat from burning coal into kinetic energy. Now it was possible for a textile factory to power numerous spinning and weaving machines via a system of belts and wheels all connected to a (relatively) reliable steam engine, running on coal. (57)

In the next stage, from about 1830, British cotton productivity increased to a level that it could compete with Indian cotton even in the Indian domestic market at least in some products. The result of this change was shown in the increase of the Britain¡¯s share of the Indian cotton market: while it only took 3.9 % of the market share in 1831-1835, the share increased to 35.3 % by 1856-1860, and eventually to 58.4 % in 1880-1881. (63) As a consequence, India¡¯s domestic handicraft industries suffered such a decline that they almost were merely memories of the past by the end of the 19th century. The liquidation of the artisans gave rise to the problem of unemployment on an unprecedented scale and a large number of craftsmen died of starvation. (64) The decline in Indian textile industry was part of a greater phenomenon called the Great Divergence, which refers to the period beginning in the 18th century in which the "West" clearly emerged as the most powerful world civilization, eclipsing the Islamic empires (the Ottoman Empire, Mughal India), Tokugawa Japan, and Qing China. (65) Other industries such as iron smelting, salt-petre, bangle-making, and glass manufacture also experienced complete decline (66), and the economy of

India gradually declined from its position at the second largest economy in the world in 1775-1825 to the sixth in 1900-1925. (67) This economic decline, coinciding with the collapse of Mughal Dynasty and the beginning of the British Raj in the mid 19th century, showed the downfall of India (among other Asian nations).

Indian independence movement and the symbolic role of local cotton industries

Under British rule, Indian economy suffered de-industrialization and its independence continued to decline. In 1905, there were efforts by Indian nationalist leaders to lead the industrial development of India, called the Swadeshi movement. Their encouragement of indigenous goods and the boycott of imported goods led to a tremendous increase in cotton and jute industries, among others. However, soon after the outbreak of World War I, imports - especially from enemy countries - were stopped, and India realized its dependence on imports even in necessities of life. (68) When Gandhi returned to his native India in 1915, he found India in such abject conditions under the British rule. While the British did not resort to the brutality used by most occupying forces, they limited basic liberties wherever the power of the raj was threatened. And, while Britain had granted self-rule to Canada and Australia, it did not permit self-rule for India. British viceroy Lord Irwin ignored most of the demands of the Indian National Congress. Against the British rule, Gandhi began his civil disobedience movements, among which were the boycott of imported British cloth in favor of homespun cotton. (69) He promoted the khadi cloth, which refers to the different versions of coarse cotton cloth, hand woven using hand spun yarn. Peasants and artisans in pre-industrial India always wore Khadi that had been made from locally grown organic cotton, harvested by local laborers, spun into thread by their womenfolk and woven into cloth by men from various specialist-weaving castes. Gandhi recommended all the people of India to wear khadi garments. It was not only an attempt for self-reliance but also to find some common thread (literally) to bring about unity among Indians. Khadi was given a more prominence by Gandhi after his return from South Africa. While in search of the charka (spinning wheel) Gandhi felt that for a nation to be self-reliant, it had to revive indigenous manufactured goods. Gandhi wrote: Swaraj (self-rule) without swadeshi (country made goods) is a lifeless corpse and if Swadeshi is the soul of Swaraj, khadi is the essence of swadeshi. Consequently, khadi became not only a symbol of revolution and resistance but part of an Indian uniqueness. (70) Thus, in his civil disobedience movement, the spinning wheel and the handloom became symbols of freedom and students made bonfires of Lancashire cloth throughout India. (72) Afterwards, Gandhi continued his civil disobedience movement or the independence of India until it finally gained independence in 1947, and the symbols of homespun cotton continue even now to serve as symbols of his independence campaigns.

Contemporary textile industry, Republic of India

Postcolonial Indian textile industry When the British left India in 1947, the economy was only slightly more industrialized than when they had taken formal control nearly one hundred years earlier. (73) During the five-year plans of Nehru, the government agenda was in favor of handloom industry over cotton mills, and it placed restrictions against any increase in the number of looms in cotton mills. Despite these restrictions, the cotton industry did experience considerable growth, and the production of cloth was 33% higher in 1960 than that of 1950. (74) Afterwards, the Indian economy lumbered along with an anemic rate of growth, and chronic

unemployment amidst entrenched poverty due to the limitations of state controlled economy. However, with the economic liberalization in 1990s and 2000s, changes began to take place in Indian economy. (75) Nowadays, the Indian government is taking various progressive steps in order to increase India¡¯s share in the world textile market. (76)

Current status of Indian textile industry The domestic textiles and apparels market in India is witnessing strong growth owing to a young population, an increase in disposable incomes and a rapid growth in organized retail. Consequently, the domestic market is estimated to grow to over USD 50 billion by 2014. Significantly, the textile sector is estimated to offer an incremental revenue potential of no less than USD 50 billion by 2014 and over USD 125 billion by 2020. It is one of the most significant industries in the country, accounting for around 4 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP), 14 per cent of industrial production and over 13 per cent of the country's total export earnings. Moreover, it provides employment to over 35 million people. The Indian textile industry is estimated to be around USD 52 billion and is likely to reach USD 115 billion by 2012. The domestic market is likely to increase from USD 34.6 billion to USD 60 billion by 2012. It is expected that India's share of exports to the world would also increase from the current 4 per cent to around 7 per cent during this period. India's textile exports have shot up from USD 19.14 billion in 2006-07 to USD 22.13 billion in 2007-08, registering a growth of over 15 per cent. (77)

VI. Conclusion Throughout the history of India, the textile industry has maintained its position as one of the most important - sometimes symbolic - industries in the nation. It has a long and diverse tradition; the first cotton was cultivated by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, and now India is a producer of a variety of textiles ranging from the woolen products of Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh to embroidered cotton and silk from Rajasthan and Gujarat to silk saris of Banarasi, Patola, Baluchari, and Pochampalli. (78) It also has taken an important position in the international trades from ancient times. The success of Indian textile industry can be attributed to abundant sources of raw materials, sufficient labor, traditionally developed technology and labor division due to the caste system. With the rise of India as one of the most important developing nations, Indian textiles continue to clothe India and the world.

Indian Textile History

India has a diverse and rich textile tradition. The origin of Indian textiles can be traced to the Indus valley civilization. The people of this civilization used homespun cotton for weaving their garments. Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, have unearthed household items like needles made of bone and spindles made of wood, amply suggesting that homespun cotton was used to make garments. Fragments of woven cotton have also been found from these sites.

The first literary information about textiles in India can be found in the Rig-Veda, which refers to weaving. The ancient Indian epics-Ramayana and Mahabharata also speak of a variety of fabrics of those times. The Ramayana refers to the rich styles worn by the aristocracy on one hand and the simple clothes worn by the commoners and ascetics. Ample evidence on the ancient textiles of India can also be obtained from the various sculptures belonging to Mauryan and Gupta age as well as from ancient Buddhist scripts and murals (Ajanta caves). Legend has it that when Amrapali, a courtesan from the kingdom of Vaishali met Gautama Buddha, she wore a richly woven semi transparent sari, which speaks volumes of the technical achievement of the ancient Indian weaver.

India had numerous trade links with the outside world and Indian textiles were popular in the ancient

world. Indian silk was popular in Rome in the early centuries of the Christian era. Hoards of fragments of cotton material originating from Gujarat have been found in the Egyptian tombs at Fostat, belonging to 5th century A.D. Cotton textiles were also exported to China during the heydays of the silk route.

Silk fabrics from south India were exported to Indonesia during the 13th century. India also exported printed cotton fabrics or chintz, to European countries and the Far East before the coming of the Europeans to India. The British East India Company also traded in Indian cotton and silk fabrics, which included the famous Dacca muslins. Muslins from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were also popular abroad.(Muslin-a very thin cotton material) (Chintz-cotton cloth, usually printed with flowery patterns, that has a slightly shiny appearance)

The past traditions of the textile and handlooms can still be seen amongst the motifs, patterns, designs, and the old techniques of weaving, still employed by the weavers.

BROCADES - THE TRADITION OF BRINGING SILK TO LIFE Brocade weaving, especially with gold and silver, has been an age-old tradition in India. There are two broad classes of brocades. Brocades of pure silk or silk and cotton blends and zari brocades with gold and silver threads. The most important material in brocade weaving is silk. It facilitates lovely weaves, is durable, strong, fine and smooth. There are several varieties of raw silk of which the chief ones used for brocades are Tanduri, Banaka and Mukta. Tanduri is imported from Malda and other places in Bengal. Banaka is thinner and finer variety and is mostly used to weave soft fabrics such as turbans and handkerchiefs. Mukta is a coarse and durable silk used for kimkhabs, as fine silk would not withstand heavy gold patterns.

REFINING SILK FOR BROCADE MAKING Raw silk is specially treated for brocades. It is first twisted (called 'silk throwing') after which the threads undergo reeling and checking for uniformity and roundness. When the yarn has been processed, it is bleached and "degummed", as raw silk has a gum-like substance (sericin) in its composition. This has to be removed in order to bring out the sheen and softness and to enable penetration of the dye. The task has to be done with great care as the fibers can weaken or get damaged. The silk is boiled in soap water for certain duration and then sent for dying.

IMPORTANCE OF COLOR Color plays a vital part in weaving brocade. The charm and subtle beauty of the brocade depends upon color synchronization. Colors are surcharged with nuances of mood and poetic association in fabrics and weaving as much as in painting.Red - the color of love. The three tones of red evoke the three states of love.Yellow - is the color of versant (spring), of young blossoms, southern winds and swarms of bees.Nila (indigo) - the color of Lord Krishna who is likened to a rain-filled cloud. Hari Nila - the color of water in which the sky is reflected.Gerwa (saffron) - the color of the earth and of the yogi the wandering minstrel, the seer, the poet who renounces the world.

Earlier, vegetable dyes were used during weaving. These produced fast colors, lasted for almost a generation, and remained as beautiful and vivid as ever. Nowadays aniline dyes have gained popularity as they are cheaper, less time-consuming and produce a larger variety of colors.

MAKING NAKSHAS (DESIGNS) ON BROCADES Making of nakshas (designs) forms an important part of brocade weaving. Banaras is the main center

where the nakshabandha (designer) tradition prevails. The skill and imagination of nakshabandha plays a prominent part in making of designs. Designs are associated with legends and symbolism. The most popular motifs are drawn from nature. In Banaras, it is said that nakshabandha families were brought to this country during the reign of Muhammed Tughlak (1325-1350 A.D.). They were supreme masters of the art of tying designs into the loom. Local artisans and weavers learned this art from these great craftsmen. Some of these craftsmen were also great poets-perhaps they wove their poetry into their designs. One such renowned poet was Ghias-I-Naqsband, mentioned in Abul Fazl's 'Ain-I-Akbari'. The nakshas are first worked on paper. This part of the work is called likhai (writing). The nakshabandha then makes a little pattern of it in a framework of cotton threads like a graph. This pattern gives guidance to the working of that design into weaving.

CHANGES IN DESIGNS THROUGH THE CENTURIES Designs and motifs have undergone changes gradually and imperceptibly. These changes can be traced through paintings made during different periods. Ajanta and Bagh murals show the existence of different techniques of designs and textiles. During the Gupta period (14th century A.D.). Popular designs were formal floral motifs or scrolls entwined with hansas or sinhas -bird and animal depictions. In the 16th century, the old designs were replaced by Persian floral motifs. Akbari paintings show half-blooming flowers, the Jehangir period, full-blown blossom and the Shahjehan period, tiny blossoms with emphasis on the leaves. In the 19th century, with the advent of British rule, there was a drastic change in designs. Some brocades started depicting English wallpaper designs to suit the tastes of the British rulers.

Glimpse of the Indian Textile Industry

India produces a wide range of home furnishings, household linen, curtain tapestry and yardage made with different textures and varying thickness. The Handloom industry mainly exports fabrics, bed linen, table linen, toilet and kitchen linen, towels, curtains, cushions and pads, tapestries and upholstery's, carpets and floor coverings, etc. The Handloom industry has adopted various measures and techniques to provide high quality and eco-friendly products to the world market. The manufacturers in India are well aware that AZO free colours and dyes should be used. India has discarded the usage of banned materials in the dyeing process with safe substitutes, to ensure eco-friendliness of the products manufactured by the industry.

India’s World of Handloom

The Handloom industry mainly exports fabrics, bed linen, table linen, toilet and kitchen linen, towels, curtains, cushions and pads, tapestries and upholstery's, carpets and floor coverings, etc. The Handloom industry has adopted various measures and techniques to provide high quality and eco-friendly products to the world market.

In the world of handlooms, there are Madras checks from Tamil Nadu, ikats from Andhra and Orissa, tie and dye from Gujarat and Rajasthan, brocades from Banaras, jacquards form Uttar Pradesh. Daccai from West Bengal, and phulkari from Punjab.

The Surat tanchoi based on a technique of satin weaving with the extra weft floats that are absorbed in the fabric itself has been reproduced in Varanasi. Besides its own traditional weaves, there is hardly any style of weaving that Varanasi cannot reproduce. The Baluchar technique of plain woven fabric brocaded with untwisted silk thread, which began in Murshidabad district of

West Bengal, has taken root in Varanasi. Their craftsmen have also borrowed the jamdani technique.

In the deportment of Woolen textiles, Woolen weaves are no less subtle. The Kashmiri weaver is known the world over for his Pashmina and Shahtoosh shawls. The shawls are unbelievably light and warm.

The states of Kashmir and Karnataka are known for their mulberry silk. India is the only country in the world producing all four commercially known silks - mulberry, tasser (tussore), eri and muga. Now gaining immense popularity in the U.S.A. and Europe  Assam is the home of eri and muga silk. Muga is durable and its natural tones of golden yellow and rare sheen becomes more lustrous with every wash. The ikat technique in India is commonly known as patola in Gujarat, bandha in Orissa, pagdu bandhu, buddavasi and chitki in Andhra Pradesh.

About cotton

Cotton is a soft fiber that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant, a shrub native to the tropical and subtropical regions of Europe and America. The fibre is most often spun into thread and used to make a soft, absorbent and breathable textile used for making clothing, sheets and towels.Cotton is a valuable crop because only about 10% of the raw weight is lost in processing. Once traces of wax, protein, etc. are removed, the remainder is a natural polymer of pure cellulose. This cellulose is arranged in a way that gives cotton its unique properties of strength, durability, and absorbency. Each fibre is made up of twenty to thirty layers of cellulose coiled in a neat series of natural springs. When the cotton boll (seed case) is opened the fibres dry into flat, twisted, ribbon-like shapes and become kinked together and interlocked. This interlocked form is ideal for spinning it into a fine yarn.

Cotton In India

Cotton is the most famous textile material associated with the Indian Subcontinent. The export of fast dyed cotton cloth to Europe revolutionised the garment and furnishing fashions, agricultural practices and the textile manufacturing industries of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Cotton has been cultivated within the Indian Subcontinent for the manufacture of textiles since 1750 BC, the date ascribed to the Mohenjodaro fragments of the Indus Valley Civilization. The perennial form of cotton plant is a slow growing and warmth and water demanding shrub. Its cultivation in the north was therefore limited. By the sixth or seventh century AD the more robust annual variety, Gossypium herbaceum, was grown in India. By the thirteenth century, its cultivation spread across the west and south-east Asia.

History of Cotton

For centuries Cotton has been used to make very fine lightweight cloth in areas with tropical climates. Some authorities claim that it was likely that the Egyptians had cotton as early as 12,000 BC, and evidence has been found of cotton in Mexican caves (cotton cloth and fragments of fibre interwoven with feathers and fur) which dated back to approximately 7,000 years. There is clear archaeological evidence that people in South America and India domesticated different species of cotton independently thousands of years ago.

The earliest written reference to cotton is in India. Cotton has been grown in India for more than three thousand years, and it is referred to in the Rig-Veda, written in 1500 BC. A thousand years later the great Greek historian Herodotus wrote about Indian cotton: "There are trees which grow

wild there, the fruit of which is a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of sheep. The Indians make their clothes of this tree wool." During the late medieval period, cotton became known as an imported fibre in northern Europe, without any knowledge of what it came from other than that it was a plant; people in the region, familiar only with animal fibres (wool from sheep) could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. John Mandeville, writing in 1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There, in India grew, a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie.". This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in many European languages, such as German Baumwolle, which translates as "tree wool." By the end of the 16th century AD, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions of Africa, Eurasia and America. The Indian cotton processing industry was eclipsed during the British Industrial Revolution, when the invention of the Spinning Jenny (1764) and Arkwrights spinning frame(1769) enabled cheap mass-production of cotton cloth in the UK. Production capacity was further improved by the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793. In the United States, growing the three crops, cotton, indigo and tobacco historically were the leading occupations of slaves. After emancipation, the share cropping system evolved which in many cases differed little from the systems of slavery.

Cotton Processing

After cultivation, cotton is harvested at the farm, and goes through multiple processes. Before processing, there are 3 stages When cotton arrives at a textile mill, it is fed into the cleaning machones with the help of several blenders. Here, the trash is removed from the cotton by mixing and breaking it into smaller pieces. This is called ginning. Then the cotton is sucked through a pipe into picking machineswhere it is repeatedly struck by the beaters in order to knock out the dirt and separate lumps of cotton into smaller pieces. Cotton then goes to the carding machine, where the fibers are separated and trash and short fibers are removed. Some cotton goes through a comber that gives more short fibers and makes a stronger lustrous yarn. This is followed by the process of spinning.

The process of spinning includes

Drafting or reducing the cotton to smaller structures Straightening the fibers Twisting the fibers into the yarn

Cloth is then made from the obtained yarn through weaving, knitting or other processes. After weaving, the fabric passes through several processing stages. After some stages the fabric can be directly used in the final product, for example unbleached cloth is used in grain bags. Typical stages are:

Singeing : This weaved cloth is checked by the inspectors for its quality and strength. Then the cloth passes through a gas flame that singes the fuzz off its surface. Boiling the cloth in an alkaline solution removes natural waxes, coloured substances or discolourations.

Desizing : Desizing is the process of removing the size material from the warp yarns in woven fabrics.

Scouring : Scouring is the process of washing cotton in hot water and detergent to remove the contaminants and then drying it. It has always been an important step in cotton processing. A growing concern for the environment has led to increased demands on the scouring process.

Bleaching : Then the cloth is bleached in hypochlorite or peroxide. The cloth may then pass through a machine that prints design on it.

Mercerizing : Named after an English textile manufacturer who invented the process of strengthening a material, namely cotton, with a substance that will give the material strength and in some cases lends a silky appearance. It is the process of swelling the cross section of cotton fibre so that the handfeel / appearance of the garment can be improved.

Dyeing : Dyeing is the process of changing the color of a yarn or cloth by treatment with a dye.

Production of Cotton

Today cotton is produced in many parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Australia using cotton plants that have been selectively bred so that each plant grows more fiber. In 2002, cotton was grown on 330,000 km² of farmland in Texas. 47 billion pounds (21 million t) of raw cotton worth 20 billion US dollars was grown that year. The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals such as fertilizers and insecticides, although some farmers are moving towards an organic model of production, and chemical-free organic cotton products are now available. Historically, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has been the boll weevil. Most cotton is harvested mechanically, either by a cotton picker, a machine that removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton plant, or by a cotton stripper which strips the entire boll off the plant. Cotton strippers are generally used in regions where it is too windy to grow picker varieties of cotton and generally used after application of a defoliant or natural defoliation occurring after a freeze. Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics and without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow. Cotton is a close relative of okra and hibiscust. The logistics of cotton harvesting and processing have been improved by the development of the cotton module builder, a machine that compresses harvested cotton into a large block, which is then covered with a tarp and temporarily stored at the edge of the field.

Care for your cotton fabrics For fabrics made of 100% cotton:

Wash in cold water Iron the clothes at medium temperature While washing, set the washing machine at low setting Do not bleach the cotton clothes Hang to dry and do not tumble dry

For fabrics made of 50% cotton and 50% polyester

While washing, turn the cloth inside out Wash with warm water Use only chlorine bleach to bleach the clothes Tumble dry with medium setting Iron the clothes at a medium temperature

Properties of cotton

Cotton is soft and comfortable It absorbs perspiration It has a good color retention It is a good material for printing It wrinkles easily

Uses of cotton

In addition to the textile industry, cotton is used in fishnets, coffee filters, tents and in

bookbinding. The first Chinese paper was made of cotton fiber, as is the modern US dollar bill and federal stationery. Fire hoses were once made of cotton. Denim, a type of durable cloth, is made mostly of cotton, as are most T-shirts. The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to produce cottonseed oil, which after refining can be consumed by humans like any other vegetable oil. The cottonseed meal that is left is generally fed to livestock.

About silk

Silk is a natural protein fiber that can be woven into textiles. It is obtained from the cocoon of the silkworm larva, in the process known as sericulture. The shimmering appearance for which it is prized comes from the fibres triangular prism-like structure, which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles.

Early History

The coveted secret of silkworm cultivation began 5000 years ago in China. The credit of all this goes to a Chinese Empress Xi Ling-Shi, the 14-year-old wife of Chinas third emperor, Huangdi (Huang-Ti). One day, as she was making tea in the palace garden, Xilingji accidentally dropped a silkworm cocoon into a cup of hot water and discovered that the silk fiber could be loosened and unwound. By twisting together fibers from several cocoons, she made a thread that was strong enough to be woven into cloth. No one is certain how much of this delightful story is true, but the practice of sericulture (rearing silkworms for the production of raw silk) is certainly older than recorded history. For centuries, it was the Chinese nobilitys most closely guarded secret. Only members of the royal family were permitted to wear garments made of silk. But as the laws regulating sericulture were gradually relaxed, explorers and traders began to acquire enough samples of the fabric to create a demand for it in the West. Though first reserved for the Emperors of China, its use spread gradually through Chinese culture both geographically and socially. The Chinese used silk since the 27th century B.C. During the Roman Empire, silk was sold for its weight in gold. The Chinese domesticated silk worms and fed them with mulberry leaves. They unwound the silkworms cocoons to produce long strands of silk fiber. Farm women in China at that period were supposed to raise such silkworms as one of their chores. Silk was used in China and exported along the Silk Road (the ancient trade route linking China and the Roman Empire). This trade brought China great wealth, but the Chinese did not give away the secret on how silk was formed. During the eleventh century European traders stole several eggs and seeds of the mulberry tree and began rearing silkworms in Europe. Christian monks finally broke Chinas monopoly of the silk production by smuggling silkworm eggs out of the country, and soon other countries started to produce their own silk. Sericulture was introduced into the Southern United States in colonial times, but the climate was not compatible with cultivation. Silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants, because of its texture and lustre. Because of the high demand for the fabric, silk was one of the staples of international trade prior to industrialization.

Production of silk

Silkworms are cultivated and fed with mulberry leaves. Some of these eggs are hatched by artificial means such as an incubator, and in the olden times, the people carried it close to their bodies so that it would remain warm. Silkworms that feed on smaller, domestic tree leaves produce the finer silk, while silkworms that have fed on oak leaves produce the coarser silk. From the time they hatch to the time they start to spin cocoons, they are very carefully tended to. Noise is believed to affect the process, thus the cultivators try not to startle the silkworms. Their cocoons are spun from the tops of loose straw. It will be completed in two to three days time. The cultivators then gather the cocoons and the chrysales are killed by heating and drying the cocoons. In the olden days, they were packed with leaves and salt in a jar, and then buried in the

ground, or else other insects might bite holes in it. Modern machines and modern methods can be used to produce silk but the old-fashioned hand-reels and looms can also produce equally beautiful silk.

Silk Trade

Perhaps the first evidence of the silk trade is that of an Egyptian mummy of 1070 BC. In subsequent centuries, the silk trade reached as far as the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Europe, and North Africa. This trade was so extensive that the major set of trade routes between Europe and Asia came to be known as the Silk Road.

Secret

The Emperors of China strove to keep the knowledge of sericulture secret from other countries, in order to maintain the Chinese monopoly on its production. This effort at secrecy had mixed success. Sericulture reached Korea around 200 BC with Chinese settlers, about the first half of the 1st century AD in Khotan, and by 300 AD the practice had been established in India. Although the Roman Empire knew of and traded in silk, the secret was only to reach Europe around 550 AD, via the Byzantine Empire. Legend has it that the monks working for the emperor Justinian were the first to bring silkworm eggs to Constantinople in hollow canes. The Byzantines were equally secretive, and for many centuries the weaving and trading of silk fabric was a strict imperial monopoly; all top-quality looms and weavers were located inside the Palace complex in Constantinople and the cloth produced was used in imperial robes or in diplomacy, as gifts to foreign dignitaries. The remainder was sold at exorbitant prices.

Today, silk is cultivated in Japan, China, Spain, France, and Italy, although artificial fibers have replaced the use of silk in much of the textile industry. The silk industry has a commercial value of $200-$500 million annually. One cocoon is made of a single thread about 914 meters long. About 3000 cocoons are needed to make a pound of silk. To gather silk from cocoons, boil intact cocoons for five minutes in water turning them gently. Remove them from water. And using a dissecting needle or similar tool, begin to pick up strands. When you find a single strand that comes off easily, wind the silk onto a pencil. Several of these strands are combined to make a thread.

Wild Silks are produced by a number of undomesticated silkworms. Aside from differences in colours and textures, they all differ in one major respect from the domesticated varieties. The cocoons, which are gathered in the wild, have usually already been chewed through by the pupa or caterpillar ("silkworm") before the cocoons are gathered and thus the single thread which makes up the cocoon has been cut into shorter lengths.A variety of wild silks have been known and used in China, India and Europe from early times, although the scale of production has always been far smaller than that of cultivated silks.

Wild silks are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori). The term "wild" implies that these silkworms are not capable of being domesticated and artificially cultivated like the mulberry worms. Commercially reared silkworms are killed before the pupae emerge by dipping them in boiling water or they are killed with a needle, thus allowing the whole cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. This allows a much stronger cloth to be woven from the silk. Wild silks also tend to be more difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. There is ample evidence that small quantities of wild silk were already being produced in the Mediterranean and Middle East by the time the superior, and stronger, cultivated silk from China began to be imported.

The beautiful and expensive golden-coloured "wild" silk called "Muga" is produced only in the Brahmaputra Valley - mainly Assam and adjoining parts ofBurma. This silk has always been

highly prized - not only for its beautiful natural golden sheen, which actually improves with aging and washing - but for the fact that it is the strongest natural fibre known. Garments made of it outlast those made of ordinary silk - commonly lasting fifty years or more.

In addition, it absorbs moisture better than ordinary silk and is, therefore, more comfortable to wear. Nowadays, it is mainly sought after for the highest quality saries given as presents to brides in India.

Silk in India Today Varanasi is one of the most important silk-weaving centers in India. Originally it was known for its cotton weaves. Today no other center can match the standards set by Varanasi. It has perfectly specialized the art of weaving and there is no style of weaving, which it cannot reproduce.

A specialty of the area is the heavy gold brocade, which has an extra weft of rich gold thread running right across the warp threads, with the motifs picked up in silk thread and jewel-like colors worked in the style of meenakari, a term used for gold enamel jewellery and there it is applied to woven gold brocades where the rich gold patterns are enlivened by introducing silk threads very much like richly colored enamel designs worked in gold.

The all-over gold brocade was known as kimkhab, which has been interpreted to mean no less than a dream, generally carried patterns of jal, a trellis, enclosing stylized buta, or traditional circular roundel, known as ashrafi. Besides, there are the more complicated all-over patterns of shikargah, the hunting scene. The complex pattern would often depict a flowing creeper intermingling with animals, birds and elephants with howdahs, carrying a hunting party. These designs can only be prepared by master jala workers, the designer and creators of the master pattern, since they successfully camouflage the repeat in the pattern.

Another variety of gold cloth was the fine tissue, which had warp and weft of gold thread, with patterns worked in silk and gold thread. Often the background material would be woven in silver thread and the patterns in gold or vice-versa. These were known as Ganga-Yamuna: Ganga standing for the gold thread and Yamuna for the silver. Varanasi has also woven for the past many years the varying requirements of different countries. Rich brocades, with Central Asian designs and even Tibetian character signifying happiness and long life, known as gyasar, were woven by particular families of weavers of the Tibetian market.

Special weaves were also made by a few weaver families for South East Asia and Sri Lanka. Here again they use the color and designs adopted from the traditions of that area. The most exotic brocades, however, are those woven for Saudi Arabian royalty with large bold patterns of flowers and the sun.

Another important weave is the tissue or the gold-and-silver lame. Sashes and scarves of tissue used to be exported from Varanasi to other parts of India and even abroad. Examples of this work dating back to the seventeenth century have been found in some museums and churches.

The silk brocades of Varanasi are no less rich and varied. The pure silk brocades use a variety of silk threads for creating numerous complicated patterns. The Amru silk brocades of Varanasi are famous. The Amru sarees are the butider once enclosed by a border and a heavy pallu of flowering bushes or the kalga, the flowing mango pattern.

The Baluchar technique of weaving brocaded with untwisted silk thread was developed in the Murshidabad district of West Bangal. It is perhaps the only form of weaving where the patterns are based on miniature paintings. The woven scenes are framed and sometimes depict a woman riding a horse, or a traditionally dressed man seated against a large cushion smoking a huqqa, with a maid -servant offering him a wine, or the scene of a boat arriving at a harbor and

Portuguese faces mingling with the Indians. There is also depiction of lovers seated in a pleasure boat with two love birds above. The outline appears to be made from a khaka, the outline drawings, on which miniatures were based. The sarees appears to tell the story of past era.

The high cost of weaving the fabric and lack of patronage led to the decline of this technique in West Bangal. The last of the weavers of the Baluchari saree, Dhrub Raj was an old man. In 1890 with his death, the tradition also died. Subsequently, it was successfully revived by the Handicrafts Board at Varanasi in 1956 by a great master designer Ali Hassan. Although West Bangal began to produce Baluchar in Murshidabad, the Varanasi weavers were weaving Baluchari sarees so well that the West Bengal sarees could not complete with them either in texture or in quality. They continue to be woven in Varanasi by Ali Hasans great-grandson, Naseem, who is a brilliant young man.

Gujarat was an important brocade center with a distinctive style of its own. It is believed that the extra weft brocade began in Gujarat with the help of weavers who migrated from Central Asia. Here the extra weft patterns were woven with the use of the twill weave. The design traditions were based on the Western Indian style of painting, and figurative design was common. Some of the oldest silk brocades carry riders on horseback. Brocaded ghaghras, dating to the beginning of this century, carry stylized forms of dancing woven, mingling with peacocks, or women holding fans in their hands, or complicated lotus patterns. Today only few centers in North Gujarat continued this tradition. Some weaving continue to be done in Ridrol in the Mehsana district and in Jamnagar in Saurashtra.

Besides weaving material for ghagras, long skirts, sarees, ordhnis, and cholis, a variety of objects for religious purposes were also woven. These were the gaumukhi, which covered the hand of the devotee carrying his rosary. They carried motifs of the sun, the swastika, the symbol of Ganesha, and sometimes the sacred-cow associated with Krishna. Also small torans were made depicting scene from Krishna Leela. These were possibly meant to be hung outside the family temples. Another special item produced was the Nathdwara pechwai, depicting Shrinathji, meant to be hung behind the image.

One of the most exquisite techniques combining gold and silk is known as Paithani, after the name of the village where it survived. The technique is most complex. The patterns are created by non-continuous colored threads wrapped on bamboo needles, which are woven in to the warp only where a particular color is needed and then interlocked with the thread of the next color. This technique is known as the tapestry technique. This was also revived in Yeola in Maharashtra.

The silk sarees of southern India are a class by themselves. They use heavy Iustrous silk and broad borders and elaborate pallus, with contrasting color combinations, which result in harmonious color blends. Traditionally the patterning is part of the woven fabric and not an extra weft. The checks and stripes are woven into the warp and weft. The delicate buds known as mallimogu, jasmine buds, form a part of the weave itself and accentuate the texture, and woven into the body of the saree in contrasted colors.

Kancheepuram, Tanjore and Kumbakonam, which are the important pilgrim centers, are also important textile centers of Tamil Nadu. Sangarneddy and Dharmaswaram in Andhra Pradesh, Kolegal and Molkalmoru in Mysore are also famous silk-weaving centers.

Tanjore specialized in weaving the all over gold-work sarees used for weddings and for offering to temples. These carried rich broad borders in gold work and pallus with patterns derived from temple frieze. The youli, the stylized lion form, the hamsa, swan, and the shardul, tiger were common motifs. Molkalmoru in Mysore had its own distinctive tradition of simple ikat weave, combined with a rich silk or gold border carrying stylized motifs of parrots. The ikat was always

in white.Care of your silk garment It is best to dry clean your silk garment either by individual or bulk method, in order to maintain the characteristic of the silk.

Dry clean: Sending it to the dry cleaners may be done but make sure that you inform the dry cleaner that your garment is made of silk.

Hand wash

Make sure you wash in cool water. Use a small amount of soap or mild detergent to wash the silk. After washing it, rinse in cold water. Hang it or lay it flat in a shaded area to dry. If pressing is needed, use an all cotton iron board cover, a low or moderate steam setting,

and press on the wrong side of the fabric while ironing.

Other Tips

To keep white silk white, add peroxide and ammonia to the wash. Do not use bleach or any washing detergent with bleach To remove yellow from white silk, add a few teaspoons of white vinegar to the wash.

Properties of the silk

It is versatile and very comfortable. It absorbs moisture. It is cool to wear in the summer yet warm to wear in winter. It can be easily dyed. It retains its shape and is relatively smooth. It has a poor resistance to sunlight exposure. It is the strongest natural fiber and is lustrous.

Uses of Silk

Silk is used to make blouses, dresses, scarves, pants and ties. It can also be made into curtains, draperies, cushion covers and sofa covers. In addition to this, silk is also used for items like parachutes, bicycle tires, comforter filling and artillary gunpowder bags. Early bulletproof vests were also made from silk in the era of blackpowder weapons until roughly World War I. Silk undergoes a special manufacturing process to make it adequate for its use in surgery as non-absorbable sutures. Chinese doctors have also used it to make prosthetic arteries. Silk cloth is also used as a material to write on.

About jute fiber

Jute is a long, soft, shiny plant fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is produced from plants in the genus Corchorus.

Jute is one of the cheapest natural fibres, and is second only to cotton in amount produced and variety of uses. Jute fibres are composed primarily of the plant materials cellulose and lignin. Jute is a rainy season crop, growing best in warm, humid climates. Worlds finest Jute is produced in Bengal Delta Plain, mostly in Bangladesh and India.China also produces large number of Jute while Pakistan grows relatively small number.

To grow jute, farmers scatter the seeds on cultivated soil. When the plants are about 15-20 cm tall, they are thinned out. About four months after planting, harvesting begins. The plants are usually harvested after they flower, but before the flowers go to seed. The stalks are cut off close to the ground. The stalks are tied into bundles and retted (soaked) in water for about 20 days. This process softens the tissues and permits the fibres to be separated. The fibres are then stripped from the stalks in long strands and washed in clear, running water. Then they are hung up or spread on thatched roofs to dry. After 2-3 days of drying, the fibres are tied into bundles.Jute is graded (rated) according to its colour, strength, and fibre length. The fibres are off-white to brown, and 1-4 m long. Jute is pressed into bales for shipment to manufacturers. Jute is used chiefly to make cloth for wrapping bales of raw cotton, and to make sacks and coarse cloth.

The fibres are also woven into curtains, chair coverings, carpets, hessian cloth, and backing for linoleum. However, jute is being replaced by synthetic materials for many of these uses, though the importance of biodegradation in some situations where artificial fibres are unsuitable leaves some uses open to jute. Examples of such uses include containers for planting young trees which can be planted directly with the container without disturbing the roots, and land restoration where jute cloth prevents erosion occurring while natural vegetation becomes established.

The fibres are used alone or blended with other types of fibres to make twine and rope. Jute butts, the coarse ends of the plants, are used to make inexpensive cloth. Conversely, very fine threads of jute can be separated out and made into imitation silk. Jute fibres can also be used to make paper, and with increasing concern over forest destruction for the wood pulp used to make most paper, the importance of jute for this purpose may increase.

Some features of Jute

Jute is 100% bio-degradable & recyclable and thus environment friendly. Jute is a natural fibre with golden & silky shine, and hence nicknamed as The Golden

Fibre. Jute is the cheapest vegetable fibre procured from bast of the Jute plant and it falls into

the category of bast fibres (other bast fibres are Flax, Hemp, Ramie, etc.). Jute is the second most important vegetable fibre after cotton. Jute has high tensile

strength, and low extensibility. Jute is one of the most versatile natural fibres that has been used in raw materials for

packaging, textiles, non-textile, and agricultural sectors. Jute stem has very high volume of cellulose that can be procured within 4-6 months, and

hence it also can save the forest and meet cellulose and wood requirement of the world.

The best varieties of Jute are Bangla Tosha - Corchorus olitorius (Golden shine) and Bangla White - Corchorus capsularis (Whitish Shine), and Mesta or Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) is another species with fibre similar to Jute with medium quality.

Raw Jute and Jute goods are interpreted as Burlap, Industrial Hemp, and Kenaf in some parts of the world.

The best source of Jute in the world is the Bengal Delta Plain, which is occupied by Bangladesh and India.

About wool fabric

History of the use of wool

Wool was probably the first animal fiber to be made into cloth. The art of spinning wool into yarn developed about 4000 B.C. and encouraged trade among the nations in the region of the Mediterranean Sea. The Romans established the first wool factory in England in 50 A.D. in Winchester. In 1797, the British brought 13 Merino sheep to Australia and started the countrys Merino sheep industry. There are 40 different breeds of sheep in the world producing a rough estimate of 200 types of wool with varying standards. The major wool producers in the world are Australia, Argentina, China and South Africa.

Production of Wool

The processing of wool involves four major steps. First comes shearing, followed by sorting and grading, making yarn and lastly, making fabric. In most parts of the world, sheep are sheared once a year, in early spring or early summer. The best wool comes from the shoulders and sides of the sheep. Grading and sorting, where workers remove any stained, damaged or inferior wool from each fleece and sort the rest of the wool according to the quality of the fibers, follow this. Wool fibers are judged not only on the basis of their strength but also by their fineness (diameter), length, crimp (waviness) and colour. The wool is then scoured with detergents to remove the yolk and such impurities as sand and dust. After the wool dries, it is carded. The carding process involves passing the wool through rollers that have thin wire teeth. The teeth untangle the fibers and arrange them into a flat sheet called a web. The web is then formed into narrow ropes known as silvers. After carding, the processes used in making yarn vary slightly, depending on the length of the fibers. Carding length fibers are used to make woolen yarn. Combing length fibers and French combing length fibers are made into worsted yarn.

Woolen yarn, which feels soft, has a fuzzy surface and is heavier as compared to worsted wool. While worsted wool is lighter and highly twisted, it is also smoother, and is not as bulky, thus making it easier to carry or transport about. Making worsted wool requires a greater number of processes, during which the fibers are, arranged parallel to each other. The smoother the hard surface worsted yarns, the smoother the wool it produces, meaning, less fuzziness. Fine worsted wool can be used in the making of athletics attire, because it is not as hot as polyester, and the weave of the fabric allows wool to absorb perspiration, allowing the body to "breathe". Wool manufacturers knit or weave yarn into a variety of fabrics. Wool may also be dyed at various stages of the manufacturing process and undergo finishing processes to give them the desired look and feel. The finishing of fabrics made of woolen yarn begins with fulling. This process involves wetting the fabric thoroughly with water and then passing it through the rollers. Fulling makes the fibers interlock and mat together. It shrinks the material and gives it additional strength and thickness. Worsteds go through a process called crabbing in which the fabric passes through boiling water and then cold water. This procedure strengthens the fabric.

Care of your woolen garment

It is better to hand wash your woolen products. Shampoos can be used to wash such garments. Use a good shampoo not one containing "crème rinse". If shampoo can clean your hair without leaving residues, it can clean your woolen products too. Be careful of what softener you use because softeners may add products to your wool. Some types of softeners may leave a coating on the fiber making it feel softer and smoother, but at the same time causing your wool to lose its absorbency.

Properties of the wool

It is hard wearing and absorbs moisture. It does not burn over a flame but smolders instead. It is lightweight and versatile. Wool does not wrinkle easily. It is resistant to dirt and wear and tear.

Uses of Wool Fabric

Wool is used to make sweaters, dresses, coats, suits, jackets, pants and the lining of boots. It can also be made into blankets and carpets.