History 247History 247--20th Century Africa20th Century Africa

“… Nationalism was a way to become less poor,

to send their children to school,

benefit from better roads, prices, public services.

They [the majority of the people] looked to nationalism

for social gains, while the educated few mostly

had their eyes on political gains.”

[B. Davidson, Modern Africa, p. 130]

Francophone Colonies: the 1950sFrancophone Colonies: the 1950s

Following creation of ‘French Commonwealth of Colonies’ (Union Francaise) in 1946, France established the Communaute Francaise to assure ongoing influence:

- France continued to control finances (Communaute shared common currency), foreign policy, military - local parliamentary government established for ‘local’ affairs- each with own flag, anthem

FrancophoneFrancophone…… 1950s (cont.)1950s (cont.)

Reactions in colonies varied:

- some not happy but felt Communautegave time for weaker, poorer colonies to gain strength, therefore supported plan- others pleased to see small elite kept in positions of power- cultural reactions expressed in part by Leopold Senghor’s concept of negritude, ‘modern-conservatism’ -- ‘return to Mother Africa’ within larger French community (more on ‘negritude’, below)

FrancophoneFrancophone……: the Referendum: the Referendum

1958: referendum on question of belonging to the Communaute:

- de Gaulle toured each colony [except ‘settler colony’ Algeria] preparing voters- maintained control over voting apparatus- “YES”: meant continuing patronage of France – aid, military support, currency stability (the FWA, FEA franc tied to French franc)- “NO”: meant withdrawal of all support

FrancophoneFrancophone……: Referendum (cont.): Referendum (cont.)

Every colony voted ‘yes’ – EXCEPT Guinea:

- leader, Seku Toure strongly based in workers unions- Partie Democratique de Guinee won popular support- undermined authority traditional chiefs- 95% voters rejected the Communaute , opted for ‘real’ independence

FrancophoneFrancophone……: Referendum (cont.): Referendum (cont.)

- all aid immediately cut off- all French infrastructure that could be removed was – even telephones ripped from walls!

Guinea reflected potential danger: if one colony could make it alone, how long

before the others did the same?

Trade UnionistMovement and‘Revolution’ inGuinea

Note theBanner:“Long Livethe Guinea-Ghana Union”

[from Ministry of Information and Tourism, Four Years of Independence and Liberty, Republic of Guinea, 1962, 111-3]

British in Gold CoastBritish in Gold Coast

British took different path:

- following Gold Coasts riots 1948 (lecture Jan. 31; Davidson video), Britain began preparing West African colonies for ‘gradual’independence- Gold Coast would be first- Nigeria next on similar timetable, parallel process (case study Feb. 7-11)

- like the French, their ‘Settler Colonies’in East/Southern Africa were excluded from this plan

British in Gold CoastBritish in Gold Coast

First move was towards ‘self government’:

- 1951 Constitution provided for local elections (followed on previous ‘limited’input early/mid 1940s which facilitated emergence of political parties)- ‘assembly’ to work with British Governor General who oversaw ‘self-governance’ of colony- key areas (military, foreign affairs, monetary base) remained in British hands

British in Gold CoastBritish in Gold Coast

In 1952 the position of ‘Prime Minister’ was created:

- elected by assembly

In 1954: - elected assembly given full control of internal affairs - governor retained control military and foreign affairs- assembly itself to be elected directly, rather than through Tribal Councils

British in Gold CoastBritish in Gold Coast

In 1956:- new elections were held- British promised to grant full independence if demand was passed by 2/3 of new assembly- resolution passed with enough votes

In 1957, March 6:- Gold Coast became ‘Ghana’, first sub-Saharan colony to gain independence- impact huge on other continental independence movements

Challenges to DecolonizationChallenges to Decolonization

Story of ‘From Gold Coast to Ghana’ embodies many challenges, tensions facing African (non-settler) colonies in Post-WWII world, whether British or French.

- generational differences- regional differences- class differences [note also ‘quotation’with which lecture introduced]- identity ‘issues’/priorities- competing notions of ‘nationalism’- ‘global context’: US vs USSR (Cold War)

Generational DifferencesGenerational Differences

First major political party, organized along British lines: United Gold Coast Convention

- typical, educated professional ‘elitist’political party- Secretary was Kwame Nkrumah: educated in US, lived in London, associated with international Pan-Africanists there before returning to Gold Coast- social & educational background ‘appropriate’ for UGCC but…

Generational DifferencesGenerational Differences

- associations with educated elite in London (especially George Padmore, Pan-Africanist) shifted his beliefs - found UGGC too conservative, accommodating - established Convention Youth Organization- supported actions like local boycotts, strikes- believed in ‘Independence – NOW!’- became slogan of CYO

Generational DifferencesGenerational Differences

Colonialism had cultivated political activity among ‘moderate’ elite who were closer to British (socially, education, culture) than to ill-literate and semi-literate, working class and rural Africans:

- UGGC exemplified this policy

February 28, 1948 (‘Gold Coast Riots’):- showed younger generation that ‘their’elders had been ‘co-opted, did not speak for ‘people’- showed British that their policy was no longer effective!

Generational DifferencesGenerational Differences

UGGC Youth Organization formed (CYO, like similar ‘youth chapters’ of political parties elsewhere eg. ANC Youth League, S.A.):

- more radical - more aware increasingly active social groups: workers/unions, women, students, servicemen- willing to address their needs

[listen to Nkrumah’s ‘Independence Day Speech’, Resources: he specifically names and ‘thanks’ these groups for their support!]

Generational DifferencesGenerational Differences

Neither Nkrumah nor CYO involved in ‘Riots’of 1948 – but profited from them:1949: Nkrumah created Convention People’s Party (rooted in youth group)

CPP Poster & Flag

Generational DifferencesGenerational Differences

CPP under Nkrumah:

- awareness of ‘modern politics’: radical shift of ‘how’ politics fought- role of charisma, organizing, advertising, slogans…”Veranda Boys”, “Independence Now” etc.-links to wider decolonizing world

When CPP won 1951 elections, Nkrumah in jail:- cautious about ‘accepting’ self-

government compromise - opposed by moderates, even within CPP

Generational DifferencesGenerational Differences

Generational DifferencesGenerational Differences“In accepting the British government’s offer of 1951 …Nkrumah told his voters:

‘there is a great risk in accepting office under this new constitution which still makes us half-slaves and half-free.’ There would be a great need for ‘vigilance and moral courage’ to withstand the consequent temptations of ‘temporary personal advantage.’ “

[from Davidson, The Black Man’s Burden, pp.162-3]

Generational DifferencesGenerational Differences

“They called us all verandah boysThey thought we were just a bunch of toysBut we won the vote at the midnight hourCame out of jail and took over power”

(George Browne, “Freedom for Ghana”, 1952)

[Worth noting Basil Davidson’s view of these ‘Verandah Boys’ in ‘Tribalism and New Nationalists’, Resources!]

Regional & Class DifferencesRegional & Class Differences

The struggle for independence was not only about a struggle against British:

- how to agree on who/what region was to benefit?

- how to agree on what ‘nationalism’meant? (in large part, function of first question)

Regional & Class DifferencesRegional & Class Differences

Generational struggle also about conflicting views of ‘traditional’ versus ‘modern’ authority:

- when assemblies elected ‘directly’, tribal chiefs/councils lost access to power in new democratic process- generally speaking, this was a concern everywhere where ‘the people’ now elected authority rather than recognizing traditional, inherited chiefly and spiritual power

[see Davidson, ‘Tribalism and New Nationalists’ for further development of this point – and its importance]

Regional & Class DifferencesRegional & Class Differences

The ‘struggle’ also pitted conflicting needs of different regions and ethnic groups:

- colonialism played role in shaping ethnic identities, defining territorial boundaries - its economy had created ‘have’ and ‘have-not’ regions (those with mineral or agricultural resources, urban development – and those without whose ‘resource’ became human labour, migrating to where it was needed and contributing to local unsustainability and poverty)

Regional & Class DifferencesRegional & Class Differences

After elections 1954, CPP followed policy of increasing centralization, ‘creation of nation’:

- Resistance from other regions soon emerged

National Liberation Movement formed: - based in Asante [southern cocoa producing region; centuries old seat of power, offered major resistance to British conquest]- wanted federalist structure- more autonomy for different regions

Regional & Class DifferencesRegional & Class Differences

Northern Peoples Party formed:- based in north, sahel- largely Muslim, poor- ‘labour pool’ for richer, southern cocoa farms, cities like Accra, Takoradi (port)

Two parties worked together to undermine CPP:

-reason British had 1956 elections

Regional/Ethnic DifferencesRegional/Ethnic Differences

Basis ofRegionalPoliticalParties

Regional & Class DifferencesRegional & Class Differences

1956 Elections:- testing CPP’s demand for ‘Independence Now’: did they actually represent the wishes of the colony?

CPP won only 57% vote, but: -took all of the south - enough votes in Asante, North, Trans-Volta (East) to hold 2/3 majority needed to pass resolution

Regional/Ethnic DifferencesRegional/Ethnic Differences

Principal CPPSupport Area

AdditionalSupport

First Prime-

Ministerof

Gold Coast, 1956

[B Davidson, Africa, History of a Continent, (1966), 298]

Kwame Nkrumah

FirstPresident

ofIndependent

Ghana, Mar. 6, 1957

H. Spodek, The World’s History 2nd ed. (2001), 751]

Kwame Nkrumah

Combined ‘old’ and ‘new’: two medicine men pour sacred oil -- ‘libations’ – and call on the gods to bless the work of the Second Parliament.

(President Nkrumah on the right)

[ from McKay,Hill & Buckler,A history of World Societies, Vol.II,1996, 1159]

Opening of Parliament: GhanaOpening of Parliament: Ghana

CelebratingIndependence:market womenplayed a criticalrole in the CPP’s victory.

(Note clothworn by the woman, rightforeground)

Independence in the MarketplaceIndependence in the Marketplace

[from B. Davidson, Africa: History of a Continent, 1966, 301]

Independence NOW!Independence NOW!

The Struggle ContinuesThe Struggle Continues

But the struggle was also against practices and behaviour generated by colonialism but destructive to independence:

- on societal level- on personal level

Led to major ‘Differences’ about African Identity and relation to ‘Nation Building’

The Struggle ContinuesThe Struggle ContinuesReferring back to Nkrumah’s 1951 statement (re: being half-slaves, half-free), he went on to say to voters:

“…There would be a great need for ‘vigilance and moral courage’ … because ‘bribery and corruption, both moral and factual have eaten into the whole fabric of our society and these must be stamped out if we are to achieve any progress’. “

[from Davidson, The Black Man’s Burden, pp.162-3]

[see similar exhortation re: morality and behaviour from Jomo Kenyatta in “KAU is not Mau Mau”, Resources]

Challenges of CorruptionChallenges of Corruption

Nkrumah’s reference to ‘bribery and corruption’ reflected impact of ‘colonial opportunities’ – not specific to Gold Coast:

- chiefs attempting to benefit from their role in implementing colonial rule (eg. taxation, forced labour)- educated elite, parachuted into civil service, expected to deliver wealth, benefits back to families, villages who supported their education- merchants/importers charging higher prices because of need and monopoly

Challenges of CorruptionChallenges of Corruption

“A very funny, very disturbing fiction about political corruption in the new Nigeria.”

(Google Books)

Challenges of CorruptionChallenges of Corruption

“In Chinua Achebe's novel, A Man of the People, two contrasting groups of people from a political and social aspect based in West Africa. The groups are the old and the new generations of politics and two characters represent them. Odili, the narrator, represents the new intellectual generation, while Chief Nanga, Odili’s former teacher, represents the old style of bush politicians. The conflict between the old and new ways is portrayed through the two characters as they not only disagree and quarrel over political views but also women.

The story ends with a military coup that foreshadows the Nigerian Revolution of 1966. "Chinua Achebe proved to be a better prophet than any of the political scientists"(K.W.J. Post, xiii).

Achebe captures the inside reality of the lives of the contrasting characters as he demonstrates energy and brightness as well as violence and corruption.”

[http://www.wmich.edu/dialogues/texts/manofthepeople.htm]

Challenges of CorruptionChallenges of Corruption

"The colonist is stronger, more powerful hidden inside us.”[p.93 – set in Senegal]"

[see “XALA” in readings: short series slides from Film, like this cover shot, evocative of main ‘messages’ in book/film.]

Challenges of CorruptionChallenges of Corruption

“A successful, middle-aged businessman named El HadjAbdoukader Beye has reached the pinnacle of the economic elite by participating in a native revolt against colonialist authorities and, along with his colleagues, seized control of the chamber of commerce.

Despite the newly convened commerce board's altruistic declarations for establishing compassionate socialism, rampant corruption and abuse of power become immediately apparent as the board members are individual handed money-laden briefcases by an inscrutable and reticent Western businessman.

[http://www.filmref.com/directors/dirpages/sembene.html]

Challenges of CorruptionChallenges of Corruption

The curse of the xala that has inflicted impotence on El Hadji takes on a symbolic connotation as the impotence that afflicts the emerging Senegalese bourgeoisies becomes apparent. El Hadjirepresents, experiences, and eventually articulates the impotence of his class.

El Hadji's business group, as he recognizes himself, is corrupt. He knows that it works as a social system in which he and his business partners profit from the poor, but El Hadji also realizes that there is a Colonial empire profiting off of his group. "The colonist is stronger, more powerful hidden inside us" (93). He recognizes that to succeed he must assimilate to the Colonial power using "the Englishman's self-control, the American's flair, and the Frenchman's politeness" ( 85). El Hadji is stifled as in his business as much as he is by his xala. The only cure is from the beggar who placed the xala on him.

The novel then becomes a story of independence, of uprising and revolution by those who are oppressed against their oppressors.

[http://www.wmich.edu/dialogues/texts/xala.html]

Challenges of CorruptionChallenges of Corruption

Xala represents a culture changed by Europeans. The novel centers around El Hadji Abdou Kader Beye, a successful businessman in Dakar, Senegal. He believes himself untouchable, refusing the superstitions of his culture until the curse of the xala is placed upon him. El Hadji has assimilated into a successful westernized businessman -- power hungry, and seeking to restore his power he has lost under the curse. …

El Hadji, as a successful and wealthy man, has separated himself from many others in his community. Because of his wealth and power, he has chosen to alienate those in lower socioeconomic classes than himself. He has turned his back on the poor men of his community.Unlike … [his daughter] who does not allow class differences to effect her, this stress between socioeconomic classes creates the hole into which El Hadji allows himself to fall

[http://www.wmich.edu/dialogues/texts/xala.html]

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & IdentityNkrumah also addressed key challenge of vision and identity:

"...a very grave responsibility lies on the shoulders of us all, not only as Ghanaians, but also as members of the Convention People's Party which, no matter what may be said by our detractors, remains right in front of the struggle for the total liberation of Africa and the union of the independent African states...“ (1961)

Nkrumah was an avid proponent of Pan-Africanism as the ultimate goal of the anti-colonial struggle.

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & Identity

Nkrumah among organizers 5th Pan-AfricanistCongress, Manchester, 1945:

- re-defined, clarified ideology of Pan-Africanism as anti-imperialist concept- prime ‘movers’: students (large number present at Congress), workers, underprivileged- also seen as enterprise for building socialism (will return to this point, below)

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & Identity

Congress attended by many scholars, intellectuals and political activists who would later become influential leaders in various African independence movements.

Included:- Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya) - Hastings Kamuzu Banda (Malawi)- Obafemi Awolowo, Jaja Wachuku(Nigeria)

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & IdentityCongress Resolution (drafted by Nkrumah):

“We believe in the rights of all peoples to govern themselves. We affirm the rights of all colonial peoples to control their own destiny. All colonies must be free from foreign imperialist control, whether political or economic. The peoples of the colonies must have the right to elect their own government; a government without restrictions from a foreign power. We say to the peoples of the colonies that they must strive for these goals by all means at their disposal….

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & Identity

… The fifth Pan-African Congress, therefore, calls on the workers and farmers of the colonies to organize effectively, Colonial workers must be in the frontlines of the battle against imperialism……”.

Nkrumah: “… tomorrow, the United States of Africa”

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & IdentityHow was this impassioned vision of a united, independent Africa to pose a ‘challenge’?

- seen as new ‘colonialism’ led by Nkrumah himself- alternative vision: regionalism- alternative concept of ‘African’: negritude- fear of ‘socialism’ embedded in Pan-Africanism and Nkrumah’s own writings/speeches

[Davidson’s ‘Tribalism and the New Nationalists’, Resources, offers interesting insights on how these factors intersected.]

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & IdentityNkrumah established a Pan-African Secretariat in his government:

-1958-61 organized several ‘All Africa People’s Congresses’- leaders like Robert Mugabe attended - Pan-Africanism (1961) supported ‘revolutionary response’ if necessary in Settler Colonies: Nelson Mandela shared vision- next step: political ‘structure’ to facilitate vision

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & Identity1963 Formation Organization of African Unity:

- Nkrumah’s idea of ‘United States of Africa’ strongly opposed by Julius Nyerere (Tanzania)- proposing ‘East African Federation’- others agreed with ‘federalist’ vision: independent nations, grouped in ‘Federalist Regions’- Nkrumah spoke against (seeing it as echo colonial balkanization – eg. French West Africa, Central African Federation, Union South Africa)

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & IdentityOther issue Pan-Africanism raised was national autonomy – in contrast to ‘unity’ vision:

- what was a nation, if not unity of people of same culture, language, race, religion?- colonialism had torn peoples apart with arbitrary boundaries - surely nationalism was about establishing political framework to ‘re-unite’ the pre-colonial ‘nation’ ?

[eg. Somalia see ‘Pan-Africanism and Somalia’; Davidson, ‘Tribalism and New Nationalists’, Resources]

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & IdentityPan-Africanism not the only Ideology emergent with Nationalism – Decolonisation:

- Nkrumah’s Francophone neighbourLeopold Senghor became proponent of negritude

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & Identity

- blacks could benefit by assimilating European culture without severing themselves from cultural origins

- promulgated return to historical, cultural sources through valuing indigenous languages, traditions…

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & Identity

- popularized value system through vocabulary, themes, symbolism of his published poetry (as with novels: writers using ‘literary’ voice to articulate post-colonial tensions, struggles)

- “…valorization of a cultural patrimony became a catalyst for black self-realization, demonstrating negritude's capacity to engender pride in authenticity and racial difference.”

[see ‘Senghor and Negritude’; also ‘Negritude – La Negritude’, Resources]

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & IdentityNegritude about how to be both ‘African’ and ‘European’ -- answer in ‘being black’ (race):

- Senghor’s negritude argued for different world visions, conceptions – yet ability to live together, share cultures

Primary School, Dakar, 1923

Secondary School,Louis-le-Grand, Paris, 1931

With French Wife –Celebrating 1st YearIndependence

Challenges of Vision & IdentityChallenges of Vision & Identity

- later rejected by many (eg. Fanon) because of ‘essentialist’ role of race

[see ‘Negritude’, Resources]

- in early post-colonial world, posed challenge to Pan-Africanists’ priorities of political union and economic socialism

Challenges of Cold War ImperialismChallenges of Cold War ImperialismThese Challenges taking place in context of post-war competition between real victors of WWII: United States and Soviet Union

- support of decolonisation really about opening up of Africa to new interests, new imperialisms in US and USSR

Challenges of Cold War ImperialismChallenges of Cold War Imperialism

One African nationalist leader, Amical Cabral (1924-1973) of Portuguese Guinee went so far as to question whether the aim of the ‘imperialist’countries in agreeing to African independence in the context of an emergent ‘cold war’, was not in fact to prevent:

“…the enlargement of the socialist camp, [to] liberate the reactionary forces in our countries stifled by colonialism, and enable these forces to ally themselves with the international bourgeoisie [middle class].”

[from B Davidson, Modern Africa, p.104]

Challenges of Cold War ImperialismChallenges of Cold War ImperialismNkrumah saw it clearly in the 1950s:

"The capitalist imperialist states face serious economic and social difficulties. Rising prices, balance of payments problems, widespread and repeated strikes are only a few of the symptoms of the general malaise. In the United States, the grave domestic situation is aggravated by the massive counter-attacks of the African-American revolutionaries. …

Challenges of Cold War ImperialismChallenges of Cold War Imperialism

… Almost everywhere, behind the smoke screens, the social and economic situation is unhealthy, and particularly in the second class capitalist states.

And these mounting economic crises mean heavier dependence on the exploitation of the peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America."

….

Challenges of Cold War ImperialismChallenges of Cold War Imperialism

"Besides, political independence, though worth while in itself, is still only a means to the fuller redemption and realization of a people. When independence has been gained, positive action requires a new orientation away from the sheer destruction of colonialism and towards national reconstruction. It is indeed in this address to national reconstruction that positive action faces its gravest dangers….

Challenges of Cold War ImperialismChallenges of Cold War Imperialism

“…Positive action requires to be armed with an ideology, an ideology which, vitalizing it, and operating through a mass party with a regenerative concept of the world and life, forge for it a strong continuing link with our past and offer to it an assured bond with our future.”

“…it must be socialist in form and in content and be embraced by a mass party."

Challenges of Cold War ImperialismChallenges of Cold War ImperialismNkrumah and others (eg. Nyerere - Tanzania, Lumumba – Congo, Kaunda - Zambia) actively sought ‘middle road’ between West and East, seeking to avoid new dependence on either. But Cold War context made that impossible! (as we will see in case studies of Congo, Mozambique)

Billboard inZambia, quotingNkrumah

Challenges of Cold War ImperialismChallenges of Cold War Imperialism

Cold War soon became ‘very hot’ in Southern Africa: value of Resourcesdrew US and USSR/Cuba directly into battle.

Challenges of Cold War ImperialismChallenges of Cold War Imperialism

South Africa fought its own battle against African National Congress – labeled as Communist and therefore (after 1950) treasonous.[see ‘Suppression of Communism Act’, Resources]

Challenges of Cold War ImperialismChallenges of Cold War Imperialism

1980s Map Clearly Depicts Africa as ‘neo-colonial’ Set of Alliances- certainly less definitive in 1950s-1960s during struggles to control!