HISTORICAL NOTE Battery CellsWithin a battery the constituent chemi-cals are arranged so that the...
4
HISTORICAL NOTE Battery Cells We are accustomed to bringing compact and portable energy sources along with us to power all our technological devices. These energy sources—batteries—are growing smaller and smaller, with in- creased power outputs and increased life- times. A battery is a device that converts chemi- cal energy directly into electrical energy. As such, batteries are inherently high- efficiency devices (about 60%), while me- chanical conversion devices—such as internal combustion engines—must burn a fuel to expand a gas to do work, resulting in efficiencies of 40% or less. Within a battery the constituent chemi- cals are arranged so that the electrons re- leased from one material flow through an external circuit to another part. This chemi- cal reaction consumes the active materials within a battery cell and, when such mate- rials are depleted, the battery can no longer produce electricity. A battery that cannot be recharged is called a primary battery; in a secondary battery, the active materials can be regenerated, allowing it to be used over and over again. Crude primary batteries may have been used thousands of years ago. From about 250 B.C., the Parthians possibly used bat- teries to gold-plate some of their jewelry. The commonly recognized discovery of the electrical battery, however, took place in Italy in the 1790s with the work of Ales- sandro Volta, a professor of natural philos- ophy at the University of Pavia. Volta put the difference in potential of metals in con- tact with an electrolyte. In 1800 he wrote a paper describing his "Volta pile," consist- ing of a disk of silver (the cathode), upon which he stacked a disk of paper, doth, or hide soaked in a salt solution (electrolyte), Metals and Materials for research and industry Small quantities fast Metals Polymers Ceramics from the ordinary to the extraordinary - For product information, quotations, or a copy of our comprehensive catalog, V* ..-* Call: 1-800-821-2870 Fax: 1-800-283-2020 Eootfelloiu Circle No. 56 on Reader Service Card. a disk of zinc (the anode), then a second disk of silver, and so on. The voltage of the battery could be increased by adding more layers; after connecting a wire from the top disk of silver to the bottom disk of zinc, an electrical current would flow. Another form of the same battery was called a "crown of cups" in which the indi- vidual cells were assembled in separate vessels. Other variations of the "voltaic pile" used tin instead of zinc, or copper in- stead of silver; sometimes vinegar was used as the electrolyte. Volta's battery caused a revolution in science because, for the first time ever, relatively large amounts of electric current became available for use. In following years, many other scientists experimented with variations on the vol- taic pile, many of which were attempts to reduce the drastic corrosion that occurred on the electrodes when the battery was not in use. As early as a year after Volta's first description of his battery, it was discovered that coating the electrodes with mercury helped reduce the corrosion and thus in- crease the shelf life of batteries. In 1836 in England, the chemist John Daniell made a great improvement to the voltaic pile by reducing the severe polariza- tion that occurred in the electrodes. He treated his zinc cathodes with zinc sulfate, and his copper anodes with copper sulfate, then placed a porous earthenware dia- phragm between the electrodes. The Da- niell cell achieved a voltage of a little more than one volt, and originally was used ex- tensively in the telegraph industry. In 1839, William Robert Grove intro- duced his two-fluid cell, which immersed an amalgamated zinc anode in dilute sulfu- ric acid, and a platinum cathode in strong nitric acid, with the two solutions sepa- rated by a porous pot. Shortly thereafter, the chemist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen pro- duced a similar battery that used inexpen- sive carbon, rather than platinum, as the cathode, thus encouraging wider accept- ance of the two-fluid cell. Two decades later, Gaston Plante discov- ered the lead-acid battery, which may be charged and discharged many times, though it took another twenty years before an electric generator was developed to charge lead-acid batteries. In the interim, other batteries (primary batteries) were used to charge the lead-acid batteries (which came to be known as secondary batteries). Lead-acid cells are still used as the standard type of automobile battery. The next major breakthrough was the creation of the "dry cell" in which the aqueous electrolyte is a paste or some other form that cannot be spilled. In the 1860s, Georges Leclanche developed a cell con- taining ammonium chloride electrolyte so- 96 MRS BULLETIN/NOVEMBER 1992 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1557/S0883769400046807 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.39.106.173, on 03 Aug 2021 at 20:36:56, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at
Transcript of HISTORICAL NOTE Battery CellsWithin a battery the constituent chemi-cals are arranged so that the...
HISTORICAL NOTE
Battery CellsWe are accustomed to bringing compact
and portable energy sources along with usto power all our technological devices.These energy sources—batteries—aregrowing smaller and smaller, with in-creased power outputs and increased life-times.
A battery is a device that converts chemi-cal energy directly into electrical energy. Assuch, batteries are inherently high-efficiency devices (about 60%), while me-chanical conversion devices—such asinternal combustion engines—must burn afuel to expand a gas to do work, resultingin efficiencies of 40% or less.
Within a battery the constituent chemi-cals are arranged so that the electrons re-leased from one material flow through anexternal circuit to another part. This chemi-cal reaction consumes the active materialswithin a battery cell and, when such mate-
rials are depleted, the battery can no longerproduce electricity. A battery that cannotbe recharged is called a primary battery; in asecondary battery, the active materials canbe regenerated, allowing it to be used overand over again.
Crude primary batteries may have beenused thousands of years ago. From about250 B.C., the Parthians possibly used bat-teries to gold-plate some of their jewelry.
The commonly recognized discovery ofthe electrical battery, however, took placein Italy in the 1790s with the work of Ales-sandro Volta, a professor of natural philos-ophy at the University of Pavia. Volta putthe difference in potential of metals in con-tact with an electrolyte. In 1800 he wrote apaper describing his "Volta pile," consist-ing of a disk of silver (the cathode), uponwhich he stacked a disk of paper, doth, orhide soaked in a salt solution (electrolyte),
Metals and Materialsfor research and industry
Small quantitiesfast
Metals PolymersCeramics
from the ordinary to theextraordinary
- For product information,quotations, or a
copy of ourcomprehensive catalog,
V* ..-* Call: 1-800-821-2870Fax: 1-800-283-2020
Eootfelloiu
Circle No. 56 on Reader Service Card.
a disk of zinc (the anode), then a seconddisk of silver, and so on. The voltage of thebattery could be increased by adding morelayers; after connecting a wire from the topdisk of silver to the bottom disk of zinc, anelectrical current would flow.
Another form of the same battery wascalled a "crown of cups" in which the indi-vidual cells were assembled in separatevessels. Other variations of the "voltaicpile" used tin instead of zinc, or copper in-stead of silver; sometimes vinegar wasused as the electrolyte. Volta's batterycaused a revolution in science because, forthe first time ever, relatively large amountsof electric current became available for use.
In following years, many other scientistsexperimented with variations on the vol-taic pile, many of which were attempts toreduce the drastic corrosion that occurredon the electrodes when the battery was notin use. As early as a year after Volta's firstdescription of his battery, it was discoveredthat coating the electrodes with mercuryhelped reduce the corrosion and thus in-crease the shelf life of batteries.
In 1836 in England, the chemist JohnDaniell made a great improvement to thevoltaic pile by reducing the severe polariza-tion that occurred in the electrodes. Hetreated his zinc cathodes with zinc sulfate,and his copper anodes with copper sulfate,then placed a porous earthenware dia-phragm between the electrodes. The Da-niell cell achieved a voltage of a little morethan one volt, and originally was used ex-tensively in the telegraph industry.
In 1839, William Robert Grove intro-duced his two-fluid cell, which immersedan amalgamated zinc anode in dilute sulfu-ric acid, and a platinum cathode in strongnitric acid, with the two solutions sepa-rated by a porous pot. Shortly thereafter,the chemist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen pro-duced a similar battery that used inexpen-sive carbon, rather than platinum, as thecathode, thus encouraging wider accept-ance of the two-fluid cell.
Two decades later, Gaston Plante discov-ered the lead-acid battery, which may becharged and discharged many times,though it took another twenty years beforean electric generator was developed tocharge lead-acid batteries. In the interim,other batteries (primary batteries) wereused to charge the lead-acid batteries(which came to be known as secondarybatteries). Lead-acid cells are still used asthe standard type of automobile battery.
The next major breakthrough was thecreation of the "dry cell" in which theaqueous electrolyte is a paste or some otherform that cannot be spilled. In the 1860s,Georges Leclanche developed a cell con-taining ammonium chloride electrolyte so-
96 MRS BULLETIN/NOVEMBER 1992
https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1557/S0883769400046807Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.39.106.173, on 03 Aug 2021 at 20:36:56, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at
HISTORICAL NOTE
lution with a zinc anode and a manganesedioxide cathode. Once an electrical load isplaced on the battery, current flows fromthe zinc to the cathode until most of thezinc has been used up, at which point thebattery must be discarded. Originally, Le-clanche's electrolyte was spillable, but alater modification immobilized it, provid-ing the true precursor to the dry cell. Le-clanche actually wrote about hisdevelopment in 1868, but by that time sev-eral thousand of his batteries had been inuse in railroad signal systems and tele-graph lines.
The Leclanche type of dry cell is familiaras the common flashlight battery, of whichmore than two billion are manufacturedannually. Over 90% of the dry cells pro-duced in the United States are based onLeclanche's design. Other major types ofdry cells are mercury cells and alkaline-zinc-manganese cells.
Another battery development that hasbecome more widely used in recent yearsis the nickel-cadmium cell. Developed byJungner and Berg between 1893 and 1909,the NiCd battery was similar to a cell beingdeveloped at the same time by ThomasEdison. Edison used iron in his cell for theanode, while Jungner and Berg chose cad-mium; both used potassium hydroxide asthe electrolyte. The NiCd battery can be re-charged many times and retains a near-constant voltage during its discharge.Since NiCd cells operate well at low tem-peratures and can be hermetically sealed,they can withstand more abuse than anyother type of battery—which makes themideal for portable applications. NiCd bat-teries have gained wide use in portable, re-chargeable items, from laptop computersto electric razors. There are, unfortunatelydisadvantages such as "memory effects,"where a NiCd battery will recharge onlythe amount it has been previously drained.
Battery designs continue to be improvedas market pressures demand smaller,lighter, more powerful, and longer-lastingenergy sources. Environmental concernsover mercury contamination are encourag-ing the redesign of batteries using amalga-mated electrodes. Innovative batteryconcepts are taking advantage of exoticnew materials such as aerogels. Theworld's need for portable power will onlycontinue to increase, and battery designswill be forced to accommodate it. Q
KEVIN J. ANDERSON
MaterialsScientists/
Solid-StatePhysicists andChemists,
SemiconductorPhysicists,
ElectronicEngineers,
Researchers inSuper-conductivity
^ .
Solid-StateMaterialsforAdvancedTechnology
This international journalis published in 16 issues per year
EditorsM. Balkanski, Paris, FranceH. Kamimura, Tokyo, JapanMahajan, Pittsburgh, PA, U.S.A.
Materials Science & Engineering B providesan international medium for the publication oftheoretical and experimental studies andreviews related to the electronic, ionic, mag-netic and optical properties of materials bothin bulk and in thin films. Papers dealing withthe processing, characterization, structureand physical properties of the crystalline,amorphous and glassy forms of metals,superconductors, semiconductors, insertioncompounds, low-dimensional compoundsand systems, fast-ion conductors, polymersand dielectrics are viewed as suitable forpublication.
ELSEVIERS E Q U O I A
P.O. Box 564CH-1001 Lausanne 1, SwitzerlandTel.:+41 (21)20 73 81Fax: +41 (21)23 25 45For customers in the U.S.A.and Canada:ELSEVIER SCIENCEPUBLISHING CO., INC.Attn.: Journal Information Center655 Avenue of the AmericasNew York, NY 10010, U.S.A.Tel.: +1 (212)633-3750Fax:+1 (212)633-3764
Please send a free sample copyand subscription information onMATERIALS SCIENCE& ENGINEERING B
Name:
Company/Institute:
Street:
City:
Country:
Postal Code:
Date:
cc
-I
_Signature: _
Circle No. 57 on Reader Service Card.
Please visit Booth No. 302-303 at the MRSEquipment Exhibit/Table Top Display inBoston, December 1-3,1992.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1557/S0883769400046807Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.39.106.173, on 03 Aug 2021 at 20:36:56, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at
1 COfflEMT.Interested in a FREEAlerting Service that offers:
• PRE-PUBLICATION INFORMATION• AT NO COSTS• PERSONAL DELIVERY• VIA ELECTRONIC MAIL
Stay on top of developments in the area of Surfaces, Interfaces and Thin Films.Subscribe now!
CONTENTS-Alert is an efficient, pre-publication current awareness service thatsaves valuable time.
CONTENTS-Alert transmits the table-of-contents of the following set of journalsevery bi-weekly directly to your personal electronic mailbox. Journals included inthis service are:
• Applied Surface Science • Surface Science • Surface Science Letters •Surface Science Reports • Materials Science Reports • Nuclear Instruments andMethods, Section B • Thin Solid Films • Chemical Physics Letters(appropriate sections only)
SUBSCRIPTION REQUEST FORM H H H H H M H HPlease send your input via ELECTRONIC MAIL to:X.400:C=NL;A=400NET;P=SURF;0=ELSEVIER;S=C-ALERTRFC822:[email protected]
Name:
Institute:.
The library currently subscribes to the following journals in this area:
For additional information please contactELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS,P.O. Box 330, 1000 AH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Circle No. 58 on Reader Service Card.Please visit Booth No. 302-303 at the MRS Equipment Exhibit/Table Top Display in Boston, December 1-3,1992.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1557/S0883769400046807Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.39.106.173, on 03 Aug 2021 at 20:36:56, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at
NEW AND BESTSELLING TITLES FROM VCH
VISIT US AT BOOTH # 1 1 0 AT THE MRS CONFERENCEAND SAVE 1 5 % ON THESE AND MANY OTHER TITLES
NEW JOURNAL
Announcing a new journal reporting on the latest developmentsin all techniques of microbeam analysis. . .
THE MICROBEAM ANALYSIS JOURNALOfficial Publication of the Microbeam Analysis SocietyEditor in Chief: Richard W. LintonThis new journal addresses issues pertaining to the biological,biomedical, chemical, environmental, geological, and materialsscience communities based on their common scientific interests inmicrobeam analysis. It emphasizes spectroscopy combined withmicroscopy and microanalysis, and reports on new developments inall techniques of microbeam analysis and related topics.Vol. 2, 1992 1061-3420 Published Bimonthly Subscription:$295.00 institutional / $40.00 individual (includes MAS membership)
MONOGRAPHS
MACROIONS IN SOLUTION ANDCOLLOIDAL SUSPENSIONKenneth S. SchmitzEmphasizing the theoretical framework used to describe the equilib-rium and dynamic properties of rigid and flexible polyions as afunction of ionic strength, type of supporting electrolyte and qualityof solvent, this new work presents a thorough overview of thesolution properties of polyelectrolyte systems.Dec. 1992 0-89573-778-7 400pp $125.00 Cloth
MACROMOLECULAR COMPLEXESDynamic Interactions and Electronic Processes ofMacromolecular ComplexesEishun TsuchidaFeaturing discussion of key concepts and incorporating the results ofrecent research in the field, this book offers reviews and detailedoutlines of the current knowledge on how this materials systemrelates to molecular functions.1990 0-89573-784-1 408pp $140.00 Cloth
REACTION ENERGIES ON METALSURFACES Theory and ApplicationsEditor: Evgeny ShustorovichThis book summarizes the theory of reaction energetics on metalsurfaces and applications to technically important phenomena.1991 0-89573-776-0 232pp $75.00 Cloth
GUIDE TO MATERIALS CHARACTER-IZATION AND CHEMICAL ANALYSISEditor: John SibiliaThis miniature encyclopedia offers concise descriptions of over 100materials methodologies.1988 0-89573-269-6 318pp $40.00 Cloth
THE CHEMISTRY OF METAL CLUSTERCOMPLEXESEditors: Duward F. Shriver, Herbert 0. Kaez and R. D. AdamsThis work summarizes the current status of organometallic clusterchemistry from such perspectives as synthesis, structure and bond-ing, ligand substitution reactions, and ligand transformations.1990 1-56081-012-2 439pp $95.00 Cloth
SCANNING TUNNEL MICROSCOPYTheory, Techniques and ApplicationsEditor: Dawn A. BonnellFeb. 1993 0-89573-768-X $125.00
ADSORPTION OF MOLECULES ATMETAL ELECTRODESEditors: J. Lipkowski and P. N. RossWritten by physicists, chemists and theorists, this book presents abalanced selection of important information on thermodynamic,dynamic and molecular properties of adsorbed molecules.Aug. 1992 0-89573-786-8 432pp. $145.00 Cloth
LIQUID CRYSTALLINITY IN POLYMERSPrinciples and Fundamental PropertiesEditor: Alberto Ciferri1990 0-89573-771-X 352pp $95.00 Cloth
SOLIDS AND SURFACESA Chemist's View of BondingRoald Hoffman1989 0-89573-709-4 142pp $30.00 Cloth
REFERENCE SETS
MATERIALS SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY 18 Volume SetEditors-in-Chief: R. W. Cahn, P. Haasen and E. J. Kramer
THE INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIAOF COMPOSITES Six Volume SetEditor: Stuart M. LeeThe most comprehensive and authoritative resource of its kind, thisremarkable six-volume work addresses every important subjectrelated to composite processes, properties, and applications frompractical and economical points of view. It represents the scholar-ship and knowledge of over 300 distinguished industry experts,academicians, and government researchers.
ULLMANN'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OFINDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 23 Volume SetAn unrivaled resource for those in the chemical and allied industries,this renowned series embodies the highest standards of scholar-ship and practicality. All articles are subjected to rigorous peerreview and editorial scrutiny, and most include a table of contentsand a subject outline for easy access to specific information.
For prices and additional informationon reference sets, contact Inge Val-entine, VCH Publishers, 220 East 23rdStreet, New York, NY 10010 or call(212) 683-8333. To order, write VCHPublishers, 303 N.W. 12th Avenue,Deerfield Beach, FL 33442-9830 orcall Toil-Free 1 (800) 367-8249.
VCH
Circle No. 59 on Reader Service Card.
Please visit Booth No. 110 at the MRS Equipment Exhibit/Table Top Display in Boston, December 1-3,1992.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1557/S0883769400046807Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.39.106.173, on 03 Aug 2021 at 20:36:56, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at
