His 102 chapter 23 modern industry & mass politics, 1870 1914

MODERN INDUSTRY AND MASS POLITICS, 1870–1914

Chapter 23

Introduction

Marinetti and futurism A radical renewal of civilization through

“courage, audacity, and revolt” A radically new world

Second industrial revolution New demands in the political arena Socialist mobilization of industrial workers White suffragists demand the franchise

F.T. Marinetti: Futurism & Fascism

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Fascism

Hard to define Radical, authoritarian, nationalist Rejuvenation of the nation based on a commitment to organic

national unity of one people based on Ancestry Culture Blood

Discipline, indoctrination, physical education, eugenics Purify the nation of foreign influences that are causing

degeneration Fascism opposes conservatives as compromising and liberalism,

socialism and communism as polluting the national resolve Vanguard party; revolution from above; strong authority under a

strong national leader, authoritariqn democracy based on most qualified

Introduction

The challenge of the twentieth century

New Technologies and Global Transformations

New technologies Steel

Between the 1850s and 1870s, the cost of producing steel decreased

Steel industry dominated by Germany and the United States

Annual Output of Steel (in Millions of Metric Tons)


New technologies Electricity

By the 1880s, alternators and transformers produce high-voltage alternating current

Edison invented the incandescent filament lamp in 1879


New technologies Chemicals

Efficient production of alkali and sulfuric acid Transformed manufacture of paper, soaps, textiles,

and fertilizer British led the way in soaps and cleaners and in

mass marketing German production focused on industrial uses—

synthetic dyes and refining petroleum


New technologies The liquid-fuel internal combustion engine By 1914, most navies had converted from

coal to oil Discovering the potential for worldwide

industrialization

The Second Industrial Revolution


Changes in scope and scale Technological changes created changes in

scope and scale of industry The rise of heavy industry and mass

marketing National mass cultures

Watched as Europe divided the globe Feats of engineering mastery The ideals of modern European industry


Changes in scope and scale Changes

Population grew constantly Food shortages declined Populations in Western Europe and North

America less susceptible to illness, lower infant mortality

Advances in medicine, nutrition, and personal hygiene


Changes in scope and scale Consumption

Consumption as a center of economic activity and theory The appearance of the department store Modern advertising Credit payments

Consumer debt = outstanding debt of consumers, as opposed to businesses or governments. In macroeconomics terms: debt used to fund consumption rather

than investment; includes debts incurred on purchase of goods (cars, refrigerators) that are consumable and/or do not appreciate.

Some economists view consumer debt as a way to increase domestic production, on the grounds that if credit is easily available, the increased demand for consumer goods should cause an increase of overall domestic production.

Milton Freidman suggests that consumers take debt to smooth consumption throughout their lives, borrowing to finance expenditures (particularly housing and schooling) earlier in their lives and paying down debt during higher-earning periods.

The Industrial Regions of Europe


The rise of the corporation Economic growth and demands of mass

consumption spurred the reorganization of capitalist institutions

The modern corporation appeared Limited-liability laws

Stockholders would only lose their share value in the event of bankruptcy


The rise of the corporation Size and control

Larger corporations became necessary for survival

Control shifted from the family to distant bankers and financiers

An ethos of impersonal finance capital Demand for technical expertise The white-collar class: middle-level salaried

managers, neither owners nor laborers


The rise of the corporation Consolidation would protect industries from

cyclical fluctuations and unbridled competition

Vertical integration Industries controlled every step of production

From acquisition of raw materials to distribution of finished goods

Population Growth in Major States between

1871 and 1911 (Population in Millions)


The rise of the corporation Horizontal integration

Organized into cartels Companies in the same industry would band

together Fixing prices and controlling competition Coal, oil, and steel were particularly well adapted


The rise of the corporation Dominant trend was increased cooperation

between government and industry Appearance of businessmen and financiers

as officers of state


International economics Search for markets, goods, and influence

fueled imperial expansion Trade barriers arose to protect home

markets An interlocking, worldwide system of

manufacturing, trade, and finance Near-universal adoption of the gold

standard


International economics Most European countries imported more

than they exported Relied on “invisible” exports: shipping,

insurance, and banking London as money market of the world

Mass manufacturing and commodity production changed patterns of consumption and production

Labor Politics, Mass Movements

Changes in the European working class In general, workers resented corporate

power The “new unionism”

Labor unions evolved into mass centralized national organizations

Organization across whole industries Brought unskilled workers into the ranks


Changes in the European working class Changes in national political structure

Opened the political process to new participants

Efforts to expand the franchise (1860s–1870s) New constituencies of working-class men Socialist organizations abandoned their

insurrectionary radicalism and opted for reform


Changes in the European working class Karl Marx

Published first volume of Das Kapital in 1867) Attacked capitalism in terms of political economy

The Marxist appeal Provided a crucial foundation for building a

democratic mass politics Made powerful claims for gender equality The promise of a better future

Das Capital: Critique of Political Economy (1867), by Karl Marx

The motivating force of capitalism is the exploitation of labor

Unpaid work is the ultimate source of profit and surplus value

The employer can claim right to the profits of employee’s labor because he owns the means of production Legally protected by the State through property rights Producing money rather than commodities (goods and

services), the workers continually reproduce the economic conditions by which they labor.

"Laws of motion" of the capitalist economic system describe the dynamics of the accumulation of capital; the growth of wage labor, the transformation of the workplace, the concentration of capital, commercial competition, the banking system.

Marxist Critique of Capitalism

Commerce, as a human activity, implies no morality beyond that required to buy and sell goods and services;

Growth of the market system made discrete entities of the economic, the moral, and the legal spheres of human activity in society subjective moral value is separate from objective

economic value. political economy – the just distribution of

wealth and "political arithmetic" about taxes — became three discrete fields of human activity:

The Great Divorce

Economics, Law, Ethics, politics divorced.the use of money voided religious and political illusions about its

economic value Replaced political and religious principles of value with

commodity fetishism—the belief that an object (commodity) has inherent economic value.

Because societal economic formation is an historical process, no one person can control or direct it; creating a global complex of social connections among

capitalists Capitalist economic contradictions: struggle between labor

and capital; wage earners and owners of the means of production

Operate behind the backs of the workers


Changes in the European working class The workers’ movement

The First International (1864–1876) Some followed Marx Others followed the Russian anarchist, Mikhail

Bakunin (1814–1876)


The spread of socialist parties—and alternatives Marxist socialism spread to social

democratic parties in Germany, Belgium, France, Austria, and Russia Disciplined, politicized workers’ organizations


The spread of socialist parties—and alternatives The model of all socialist parties was the

German Social Democratic Party (SPD, founded 1875) Strove for political change within Germany’s

parliamentary system


The spread of socialist parties—and alternatives Before World War I, the Social Democrats

were the best-organized workers’ party in the world: explanations Rapid expansion of industrialization Large urban working class A new parliamentary constitution

Socialist Party Pamphlet, c. 1895


The spread of socialist parties—and alternatives Britain

Labour Party (1901) Remained moderate and committed to

incremental reform


The spread of socialist parties—and alternatives Anarchism

Opposed to centrally organized economics and politics

Advocated small-scale, localized democracy Similar foundations as Marxism, but different

approaches to change Conspiratorial vanguard violence

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The Internationale

Arise, ye workers from your slumber,Arise, ye prisoners of want.For reason in revolt now thunders,and at last ends the age of cant!Away with all your superstitions,Servile masses, arise, arise!We'll change henceforth the old tradition,And spurn the dust to win the prize! So comrades, come rally, And the last fight let us face. The Internationale, Unites the human race. So comrades, come rally, And the last fight let us face. The Internationale, Unites the human race.

Arise, you prisoners of starvation!Arise, you wretched of the earth!For justice thunders condemnation:A better world's in birth!No more tradition's chains shall bind us,Arise you slaves, no more in thrall!The earth shall rise on new foundations:We have been nought, we shall be all! 'Tis the final conflict, Let each stand in his place. The international soviet Shall be the human race 'Tis the final conflict, Let each stand in his place. The international working class Shall be the human race

British Translation American Version


The spread of socialist parties—and alternatives Syndicalism

Demanded that workers share ownership and control of the means of production

The capitalist state must be replaced by workers’ syndicates or trade associations


The limits of success Socialist parties never gained full worker

support Some workers retained loyalty to liberal

traditions or religious affiliation Others were excluded

German revisionism Eduard Bernstein (1850–1932) called for a shift

to moderate reform


The limits of success German radicals

Rosa Luxembourg (1870–1919) called for mass strikes, hoping to ignite a proletarian revolution

Conflict over strategy and tactics reached its climax in the years before World War I

Demanding Equality: Suffrage and the Women’s Movement

Women’s rights By 1884, Germany, France, and Britain had

enfranchised most men Women relegated to status as second-class

citizens Women pressed their interests through

independent organizations and forms of direct action


Women’s organizations Votes became the symbol for women’s

ability to attain full personhood Middle-class women founded clubs,

published journals, organized petitions


British women’s suffrage campaigns Exploded in violence Millicent Fawcett (1847–1929)

National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (1897)

Composed of sixteen different organizations Her movement lacked political and economic clout


British women’s suffrage campaigns Emmeline Pankhurst (1858–1928)

Founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (1903)

Adopted tactics of militancy and civil disobedience

Women chained themselves to the visitor’s gallery in the House of Commons

Slashed paintings in museums The British government countered this violence

with repression


British women’s suffrage campaigns The martyrdom of Emily Wilding Davison

(1913)


Redefining womanhood Campaign for women’s suffrage helped

redefine Victorian gender roles The increasing visibility of women Middle-class women and work

Worked as social workers, clerks, nurses, and teachers

Women, politics, and reform Poor relief, prison reform, temperance

movements, abolition of slavery, education


Redefining womanhood The “new” woman

Demanded education and a job Claimed the right to be physically and

intellectually active Opposition

Never exclusively male opposition Christian commentators criticized suffragists for

moral decay Others argued that feminism would dissolve the

family

White-Collar Work

Changes in White-Collar Work

Liberalism and Its Discontents Late-nineteenth-century liberalism

Middle-class liberals found themselves on the defensive after 1870

Mass politics upset the balance between middle-class interests and traditional elites

Trade unions, socialists, and feminists all challenged Europe’s governing class

Liberalism and Its Discontents Late-nineteenth-century liberalism

The government’s response was a mixture of conciliation and repression

What was required was a distinctly modern form of mass politics

Liberalism and Its Discontents France: the embattled republic

Franco-Prussian War (1870) a humiliating defeat for France

Government of the Second Empire collapsed

The Third Republic

Liberalism and Its Discontents France: the embattled republic

The Paris Commune (1871) Pitted the nation against the radical city of Paris Paris refused to surrender to the Germans Government sends troops to Paris in March

1871 Barricades and street fighting Twenty-five thousand were executed, killed in

fighting, or consumed in fires

Liberalism and Its Discontents The Dreyfus Affair and anti-Semitism as

politics French anti-Semitism: a new form of radical

right-wing politics (nationalist, antiparliamentary, and antiliberal)

The Dreyfus Affair (1894) Dreyfus convicted of selling military secrets to

Germany Sent to Devil’s Island

Anti-Semitic French Cartoon with Caricature of

Jakob Rothschild, 1898


politics The Dreyfus Affair (1894)

The verdict was questioned and documents were proven to be forgeries (1896)

Émile Zola (1840–1902) backed DreyfusDreyfus eventually freed in 1899 and cleared of all guilt in 1906

“The Ogre’s Meal,” Caricature of Edouard Drumont, Editor

of La Libre Parole, from Le Rire, 1896


politics The Dreyfus Affair (1894)

Consequences Separation of church and state in France Republicans saw the church and army as hostile

toward the republic


politics Merged three strands of anti-Semitism

Christian anti-Semitism (Jews as Christ killers) Economic anti-Semitism (Rothschild as

representative of all Jews) Racial thinking (Jews as an inferior race)

“Anti-Semitic Agitation in Paris: Mathieu Dreyfus Burned

in Effigy in Montmartre (Paris).”


politics An ideology of hatred La Libre Parole (Free Speech, 1892), the

Anti-Semitic League, and Jewish France (1886)

The Third Republic Showed that the radical right and anti-Semitism

were plainly political forces

Liberalism and Its Discontents Zionism: Theodor Herzl (1860–1904)

Considered the Dreyfus Affair to be an expression of a fundamental problem Jews might never be assimilated into European

culture Endorsed Zionism—building a separate

Jewish homeland outside Europe Zionism as a modern nationalist movement

Liberalism and Its Discontents Germany’s search for imperial unity

Bismarck united Germany under the banner of Prussian conservatism (1864–1871) Sought to create the centralizing institutions of

a modern state Safeguarding the privileges of Germany’s

national interests Executive power rested solely with William I

(1797–1888, r. 1861–1888), king and kaiser (emperor)


Three problems Divide between Catholics and Protestants Growing Social Democratic Party Divisive economic interests of agriculture and

industry


Kulturkampf (cultural struggle) Bismarck unleashed an anti-Catholic campaign Passed laws that imprisoned priests for political

sermons Banned Jesuits from Prussia The campaign backfired

Catholic Center Party won seats in the Reichstag in 1874

Bismarck negotiated an alliance with the Catholic Center


The new coalition Agricultural and industrial interests as well as

socially conservative Catholics Social Democrats as the new enemies of

the empire Bismarck passed antisocialist laws in 1878


Social welfare Workers guaranteed sickness and accident

insurance Rigorous factory inspection Limited working hours for women and children Old-age pensions

Social welfare legislation did not win the loyalty of workers

Liberalism and Its Discontents Britain: from moderation to militance

The Second Reform Bill (1867) Liberal and Conservative political parties New laws

Legality of trade unions Rebuilding large urban areas Elementary education for all children Male dissenters can attend Oxford or

Cambridge 75 percent of adult males enfranchised by 1884


Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881)— Conservative and William Gladstone (1809–1898)—Liberal Both offered moderate programs that appealed

to a widening electorate The moderate working class

The Independent Labour Party (1901) Social welfare legislation


Problems Liberal parliamentary framework began to

show signs of collapse Nationwide strikes of coal and railway workers Irish radical nationalists began to favor armed

revolution Sinn Féin and the Irish Republican Brotherhood Home Rule tabled (1913)

Liberalism and Its Discontents Russia: the road to revolution

Internal conflicts and an autocratic political system

Threatened by Western industrialization and Western political doctrines


Russian industrialization (1880s–1890s) State-directed industrial development Serfs emancipated in 1861 Heightened social tensions Workers left their villages temporarily to work

and then returned for planting and harvest


The legal system No recognition of trade unions or employers’

associations Outdated banking and finance laws


Alexander II (1818–1888, r. 1855–1881) The “Tsar Liberator” Set up zemstvos, provincial land and county

assemblies (1804) Curtailed the rights of zemstvos, censorship of

the press Assassinated by a radical


Alexander III (1845–1894, r. 1881–1894) Steered the country toward the right Stern repression

Increased authority of the secret police


Nicholas II (1868–1918, r. 1894–1917) Continued these “counterreforms” Advocated Russification to extend the

language, religion, and culture of Greater Russia

Pogroms and open anti-Semitism


The Populists Russia to modernize on its own terms, not

those of the West Based on the ancient village commune (mir) Mostly middle class, students, and women Overthrowing the tsar through anarchy and

insurrection Read Marx’s Capital and emphasized peasant

socialism


Russian Marxism Organized as the Social Democratic Party

Concentrated on urban workers Russian autocracy would give way to capitalism Capitalism would give way to a classless society


Social Democratic Party split (1903) Bolsheviks (majority group)

Called for a central party organization of active revolutionaries

Rapid industrialization meant they did not have to follow Marx

Mensheviks (minority group) Gradualist approach Reluctant to depart from Marxist orthodoxy


Social Democratic Party split (1903) Lenin

Leader of the Bolsheviks while in exile Coordinated socialist movement Russia was ripe for revolution

Liberalism and Its Discontents The first Russian Revolution (1905)

Causes The Russo-Japanese War Rapid industrialization had transformed Russia

unevenly Low grain prices resulted in peasant uprisings Radical workers organized strikes and

demonstrations


Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905) Two hundred thousand workers led by Father

Gapon demonstrated at the Winter Palace Guard troops killed 130 and wounded several

hundred


The protest grew Merchants closed stores Factory owners shut down factories Lawyers refused to hear cases The autocracy had lost control


Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto Guaranteed individual liberties Moderately liberal franchise for the election of

a Duma Genuine legislative veto powers for the Duma


Nicholas failed to see that fundamental change was needed 1905–1907: Nicholas revoked most of the

promises made in October Deprived the Duma of its principal powers


Peter Stolypin (1862–1911) and the Stolypin reforms (1906–1911) Agrarian reforms for the sale of 5 million acres

of royal land to peasants Granted peasants permission to withdraw for

the mir Canceled peasant property debts Legalized trade unions Established sickness and accident insurance


Russian agriculture remained suspended between emerging capitalism and the peasant commune

Liberalism and Its Discontents Nationalism and imperial politics: the

Balkans Rising nationalism divides the

disintegrating Ottoman Empire Uprisings in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and

Bulgaria (1875–1876) Reports of atrocities against Christians Led to the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) The Treaty of San Stefano The great powers intervened

The Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1699–1912


Balkans The Treaty of Berlin (1878)

Bessarabia to Russia, Thessaly to Greece Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian control Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania become

independent states The independent kingdom of Bulgaria

(1908) Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina


Balkans Turkish nationalism

Turks had grown impatient with weakness of the sultan

The Young Turks Forced the sultan to establish a constitutional

government in 1908 Launched effort to “Ottomanize” all imperial

subjects Tried to bring Christian and Muslim communities

under more centralized control Spread Turkish culture

The Science and the Soul of the Modern Age

Darwin’s revolutionary theory Organic evolution by natural selection

transformed the conception of nature itself An unsettling new picture of human

biology, behavior, and society Jean Lamarck (1744–1829)


Darwin’s revolutionary theory Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

The Origin of Species (1859) Five years aboard H.M.S. Beagle Observed manifold variations of animal life

Theorized that variations within a population made certain individuals better adapted for survival


Darwin’s revolutionary theory Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

Darwin used natural selection to explain the origin of new species

Applied theory to plant and animal species as well as to man

The Descent of Man (1871) The human race had evolved from an apelike

ancestor


Darwinian theory and religion Darwinian theory challenged deeply held

religious beliefs Sparked a debate on the existence of God For Darwin, the world was not governed by

order, harmony, and divine will but by random chance and struggle


Darwinian theory and religion Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895)

Argued against Christians appalled by the implications of Darwinism

Called himself an agnostic You should follow reason as far as it can take

you


The rise of the social sciences Influence of Darwinism on sociology,

psychology, anthropology, and economics New ways of quantifying and interpreting

human experience Social Darwinism

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) Applied individual competition to classes, races,

and nations Coined the expression “survival of the fittest”


The rise of the social sciences Social Darwinism

Popularized notions of social Darwinism were easy to comprehend

Integrated into popular vocabulary Justified the natural order of rich and poor Nationalists used social Darwinism to rationalize

imperialism and warfare


Challenges to Rationality: Pavlov, Freud, and Nietzsche The irrational and animalistic side of human

nature Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

“Classical conditioning” Behaviorism

Eschewed mind and consciousness Focused on physiological responses to the

environment


Challenges to Rationality: Pavlov, Freud, and Nietzsche Sigmund Freud (1856–1936)

Behavior largely motivated by unconscious and irrational forces

Unconscious drives and desires conflict with the rational and moral conscience


Challenges to Rationality: Pavlov, Freud, and Nietzsche Sigmund Freud (1856–1936)

The psyche Id: undisciplined desires for pleasure and

gratification Superego: the conscience (conditioned by morality

and culture) Ego: area where the conflict between id and

superego is worked out


Challenges to Rationality: Pavlov, Freud, and Nietzsche An objective (scientific) understanding of

human behavior Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) and the

attack on tradition Middle-class culture dominated by illusions and

self-deceptions


Challenges to Rationality: Pavlov, Freud, and Nietzsche Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) and the

attack on tradition Rejected rational argumentation Bourgeois faith in science, progress, and

democracy as a futile search for truth


Religion and its critics The Roman Catholic Church on the

defensive Pope Pius IX issued the Syllabus of Errors in

1864 Condemned materialism, free thought, and

religious relativism Convoked a church council (first one since the

late sixteenth century)


Religion and its critics Pope Pius IX issued the Syllabus of Errors in

1864 Doctrine of papal infallibility Denounced by the governments of several

Catholic countries


Religion and its critics Pope Leo XIII

Brought a more accommodating climate to the Church

Acknowledged that there is good and evil in modern civilization

Added a scientific staff to the Vatican, opened archives and observatories


Religion and its critics Protestants

Little in the way of doctrine to help them defend their faith

Pragmatism (Charles Peirce and William James) Truth was whatever produced useful, practical

results


New readers and the popular press Facilitated the spread of new ideas Rising literacy rates and new forms of

printed mass culture Journalism

Emphasis on the sensational Advertising “Yellow” journalism—entertainment,

sensationalism, and the news


The first moderns: innovations in art Modernism

Questioning the moral and cultural values of liberal, middle-class society

Characteristics Self-conscious sense of rupture from history and

tradition Rejection of established values Insistence on an expressive and experimental

freedom A new understanding of the relationship

between art and society


The first moderns: innovations in art Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944)

Devotee of occult mysticism The role of the visionary artist From soulless materialism to the psychic-

spiritual life

Black Lines by Wassily Kandinsky, 1913


The revolt on canvas French Impressionism in the 1870s

The legacies of Claude Monet (1840–1926) and Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841–1919)

Paved the way for younger artists to experiment more freely

Impressionist artists organized their own independent exhibitions


The revolt on canvas Post-Impressionism

Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) Reducing natural forms to geometric equivalents Emphasis on subjective arrangement of color and

form Art as a vehicle for an artist’s self-expression


The revolt on canvas German Expressionism

Emil Nolde (1867–1956) Painters turned to acidic tones, violent figural

distortions, and crude depictions of sexuality Edvard Munch (1863–1944) and Egon

Schiele (1890–1918) Henri Matisse (1869–1954) and Pablo

Picasso (1869–1954)

Self Portrait, Study for Ermiten, Egon Schiele, 1912

Portrait of Ambroise Vollard by Pablo Picasso, 1909

Conclusion

Progress and the forces of change Decline and the forces of change

His 102 chapter 23 modern industry & mass politics, 1870 1914

Education

Transcript of His 102 chapter 23 modern industry & mass politics, 1870 1914