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Chapter 3

Higher Education in Manipur

Proverbs 22:6, “Train a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not turn

from it.” (Holy Bible, New International Version).

“The foundation of every state is the education of its youth.” (Diogenes Laertius)

Manipur at Glance

Manipur is situated in the north eastern part of India. On 15 October 1949, after the Indian

independence, the princely state of Manipur was merged into Indian Union as a part „C‟ state,

and administered by the President of India and being placed under a Chief Commissioner. A

committee to advice the Chief Commissioner was formed afterwards. This was replaced in 1957,

by Territorial Council of thirty elected members and two nominated members. Later, a

legislative assembly was established under the Union Territory Act of 1963. The territory

became a fully fledged state within the Indian Union with the Governor as the Head of the state

on 21 January 1972. The members of the Legislative Assembly were increased to 60 seats, out of

which 40 seats are represented by Meiteis (Manipuri), 19 seats are represented by Scheduled

Tribe and the remaining 1 seat is reserved for Meitei Scheduled Caste community. The name

Manipur was first officially introduced in the early eighteenth century during the reign of King

Garibniwaz (1709-48 A.D). The latitude of the State above the mean sea level varies from 750

metres to 2020 metres and the state has sub-tropical temperature in climate.

Manipur is a multi-ethnic, multi-linguistic and multi-religious state. Imphal is the capital city of

Manipur. According to Census of India (2001), the total population of Manipur is 22,93,896

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persons, out of which, the tribals comprises of 7,13,813 persons and the remaining 15,80,083

persons are Meiteis which includes some outsiders like, Nepali, Bengali, Behari, etc. Census of

India (2001), recognized 29 tribes in Manipur. Manipur comprises of three major communities

Meiteis, Nagas and Kuki-Chin-Mizo. There are nine districts in Manipur namely, Imphal East,

Imphal West, Bishnupur and Thoubal districts. These valley districts are dominated by Meiteis

(non-tribal), whereas the remaining five districts are inhabits by the tribals, and among tribals,

Nagas are the most populated and among Nagas, Tangkhul comprise of highest population

inhabiting in Ukhrul district of Manipur. Nagas inhabit in four hill districts, Ukhrul, Senapati,

Tamenglong and Chandel districts while Churachandpur district is dominated by Kuki-Chin-

Mizo group of tribes. Geographically, tribals are inhabits in hilly areas and the multiple tribal

ethnic groups have their own distinct language, tradition and culture. There are four major

religious groups in the state: Christian, Hindu, Muslim (Manipuri Muslim are called Pangan) as

well as the indigenous Meitei religion-Sanamahi.

Origin of Higher Education in Manipur

Among the states in NER, Manipur is one of the advanced states in higher education. The first

college was established at Imphal on 6 August 1946, a year before India attain its independence

on 15 August 1947. The college is called Dhanamanjuri College (DM) and the college was

named after Maharani Dhanamanjuri Devi, who donated a sum of Rs. 10,000 (ten thousand) for

the establishment of a college. This undergraduate college was set up by the joint venture with

some local leaders. Later, the DM College was taken over by the state government. It was

marked as the beginning of higher education in the state. The college was started with a total

enrolment of 68 students and the college was affiliated to Calcutta University. Later, after the

establishment of Guwahati University in 1948, which is also the first university in NER, the

affiliation of DM College was transferred to Guwahati University. Again, due to creation of

Manipur University in 1980, DM College was transferred and affiliated to Manipur University.

DM College remained as one of the remarkable constituent colleges under Manipur University.

During the emergence of DM College, the college conducts the classes in the evening but later in

1953-54, the one and only state government college was converted into Day College and became

a residential college. The first batch of graduates in Arts got their degrees from the Guwahati

University in 1950. Till 1950, the college offered only general courses of studies in Arts stream

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but the next year in 1951, Science and Commerce courses were introduced. Now, there are three

departments in the college.

In the year 1952-53, the first private intermediate college was established in Imphal which is

called as Imphal College. Moreover, during 1963-64, two more colleges emerged in Imphal

valley namely, Oriental College and Modern College; in the same year two other colleges were

also established and functioning in Thoubal district and Moirang village. However, in the year

1964-65, the first Arts College, Seilmat Christian College was established in the tribal hill area

of Churachandpur. Later in 1969-70, this college was combined with Churachandpur College

and called as Churachandpur College. Apart from DM College, the other four colleges were

private and unaided. During 1965-66, the first Women‟s College came into existence with the

help extended from a person who donated a Cash amount of Rs.1 lakh (one lakh) by a name

called Shri. Hidangmayum Dwijamani Dev Sharma, in remembrance of his mother Late. Smt.

Ghanapriya Devi with an approval from the State government. Like DM College, the college was

named after her, Ghanapriya Women‟s College. Manipur is a state where a person in particular

and community at large has been given relentless efforts by donating in terms of cash to set up

colleges as well as schools. Likewise, during 1996-97, Kha Manipur College in Kakching was

established and started functioning by donating in Cash amount of Rs. 80.000 (eighty thousands)

by the people of that community. Till the end of 1971, there were total numbers of 12 colleges in

Manipur, out of which eleven colleges were situated in Imphal and other valley areas whereas

only one college was established in the hilly districts. Thereafter, the colleges were established

extensively in different parts of valleys and hills districts of Manipur.

Till then in Manipur, DM College was the only college which offered Arts and Science in

graduation level, the rest of the colleges confined in Arts stream. By 1959, DM College

introduced the courses in Basic Training (B.T), and Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com). Thoubal

College started functioning with ten subjects in Arts stream at 10+2 level and eight subjects in

graduate level while at present the three colleges, Imphal College, Manipur College and Oriental

College started with Arts and Science streams in (10+2+3) level. In the year 1970-71, GP

Women‟s College opened the courses of Honors degree in Education, English and Political

Science. Besides, the college also introduced Science stream at higher secondary school (10+2)

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level. Due to non-availability of Post-graduate degree courses in Manipur, most of the students

migrate outside the state in order to pursue higher education in Guwahati University and Calcutta

University.

During that crucial period, the State government made a request to U.G.C to open an extension

of Post-graduate studies in Manipur under the Guwahati University. The Central Government

formed a committee called Wadia Committee in 1964, to look into the situation of higher

education in the state. U.G.C formed seven members committee under the chairmanship of Prof.

M.V. Mathur, the former Director, Asian Institute of Educational Planning and Administration,

New Delhi, to examine the problems of higher education in Manipur. The committees visited

Imphal, in April 1969, and inspected the situation of higher education. In result, the committees

recommend to expand the Post-graduate degree courses in DM College. Three subjects in Post-

graduate programme were introduced they are, Mathematics, History and Economics. Moreover,

English subject was introduced the next academic year 1970-71. However, the students had to

face lots of hardship because Guwahati University did not grant the full fledged Post-graduate

Centre in the State. The students had to pay the special fees and appeared the examinations

conducted by Guwahati University in Guwahati, at their personal cost. Due to inconvenience,

most of the students intended to go to Guwahati University to pursue Post-graduate programmes.

Due to unsatisfactory system in extension of Guwahati University Centre in Manipur, the State

government then requested Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi, to open Post-

graduate Centre at Imphal. Again, U.G.C created a committee under the leadership of Prof. Nag

Chaudhury to examine the problems of higher education in Manipur. The committee inspected

the situation and recommended by giving positive results to set up Post-graduate Studies Centre

in Imphal, under the JNU (New Delhi). The Centre for Post-graduate studies at D.M. College

was started in 1971, with the total number of 37 faculties; out of which 10 faculties were

appointed as regular teachers, 13 faculties were on deputation, 8 faculties were on contract basis,

and 4 faculties were on part time basis. The Post-graduate degree in Arts and Science streams

were started with five subjects: Applied Biology, Economics, Manipuri, Mathematics and

Political Science. Later, five more subjects were introduced and divided into three departments:

(i) School of Languages; English, Hindi, Manipuri (ii) School of Social Sciences; Economics,

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History, Political Sciences and (iii) School of Science; Mathematics, Chemistry, Life Science

and Physics. During the 5th

plan, U.G.C. approved the total number of 75 teachers. Later, J.N.U.

Centre for Post- graduate studies was merged with Manipur University and shifted from D.M.

College to Manipur University Campus in the year 1981.

Table 3.1

Growth of Colleges in Manipur, Since 1946-97

Year No. of Colleges No. of Females Colleges Total Colleges

1946 1 Nil 1

1950-51 1 Nil 1

1955-56 2 Nil 2

1960-61 2 Nil 2

1965-66 10 1 11

1970-71 11 1 12

1975-76 18 2 20

1980-81 22 2 24

1985-86 26 2 28

1990-91 27 2 29

1995-96 52 7 59

1996-97 57 7 64

Note: Including RIMS, Agricultural College, Polytechnic and CEDT

Source: Devi (2001) Development of Education in Manipur.

After India got independent in 1947, number of colleges in Manipur has been increasing year

after year. The (table 3.1) shows that, during the pre-independence period there was only one

college in the state while until 1961 there was no separate college for girls. The separate college

for girls was established in the year 1965-66. By 1996-97, the total number of colleges got

increased, and the total number of women‟s colleges was also increased. All together, there were

64 colleges in the state till the end of the year 1997. The number of colleges maintained either by

state government or by private bodies, very few colleges were established in tribal hilly areas as

compared to those established in valleys where Meitei people are populated. Apart from the full

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fledged government colleges in the state, the remaining colleges are maintained by an individual

or by private bodies. In Manipur, D.M. College is regarded as one of the prestigious college

which has distinct features by offering several courses in higher education. The courses consist

of 23 subjects at 10+2 level, and 26 subjects in undergraduate level. The college also offers Pre-

Medical Course and Honors Courses in all the subjects except Anthropology, Hindi and

Manipuri.

Education System in Manipur

During 1903 Rev. William Pettigrew became the first honorary inspector of schools under the

Education Department of Assam. A separate Department of Education was created for the first

time in Manipur on 20 January 1950. Till 1960, the Manipur Administration and the Territorial

Council had full control over all educational activities. In 1960, when the Imphal Municipality

was established, a part of primary education, particularly within the municipal areas was

transferred to this local body. The education department in Manipur has undergone changes from

time to time. Since 1 March 1974, for the purpose of control and management, all primary

schools in the hill districts of Manipur were transferred to concerned autonomous district

councils.

The Department of Education however retained the power of supervision, inspection, framing of

curriculum and syllabi and selection of textbooks. The Manipur University was set up at Imphal

in 1980, under the Act of Manipur Legislative Assembly, and later in 2006 Manipur University

was upgraded to Central University. Council of Higher Secondary Schools, Manipur (COHSEM)

was established in the year 1982, and Higher Secondary Leaving Certificate Examination

(HSLCE) was conducted for the first time in 1993. At present, the Education Department of

Manipur has been divided into four different entities:

1. Department of Education (University and Higher Education)

2. Department of Education (School)

3. State Council of Educational Research and Training, Government of Manipur, and

4. Department of Adult Education.

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Table 3.2

District-wise Literacy Rate (Percentage) in Manipur during 1991 & 2001

1991 2001

Sl.No Districts Males Females Total Males Females Total

1.Imphal East 80.65 54.99 68.05 86.44 66.30 75.38

2.Imphal West 84.63 61.12 73.01 89.10 72.24 80.61

3.Bishnupur 68.59 41.13 54.94 62.25 61.09 68.59

4.Thoubal 68.33 36.31 52.47 80.50 55.34 66.90

5.Chandel 57.39 34.80 46.68 63.77 47.88 56.86

6.Churanchandpur 66.38 49.30 58.17 76.70 63.13 71.96

7.Senapati 55.26 36.13 46.04 66.98 52.13 60.60

8.Tamenglong 59.92 39.68 50.16 67.13 49.29 59.33

9.Ukhrul 72.11 51.57 62.54 80.13 65.41 73.12

Source: Census of India (2001).

During 1991, Manipur had a total literacy rate of 60.96 percent (72.98 percent males and 48.64

percent females), and it rise to 66.53 percent (80.33 percent males and 60.53 percent females) in

2001. According to census of India (1991), among the nine districts of Manipur, Imphal West

held the top position in acquiring total literacy rate of 73.01 percent (84.63 percent males and

61.12 percent females) and rise to 80.61 percent (89.10 percent males and 72.24 percent females)

in 2001. It was followed by Imphal East with the total literacy rate of 68.05 percent (80.65

percent males and 54.99 percent females) in 1991, and rise to 75.38 percent (86.44 percent males

and 66.30 percent females) in 2001. Ukhrul stand in third position with the total literacy rate of

62.54 percent (72.11 percent males and 51.57 females) in 1991, and 73.12 percent (80.13 percent

males and 65.41 percent females) in 2001. Bishnupur got the total literacy rate of 54.94 percent

(68.59 percent males and 41.13 percent females) in 1991, and 68.59 percent (62.25 percent males

and 61.09 percent females) in 2001. Thoubal attained the literacy rate of 52.47 percent (68.33

percent males and 36.31 percent females) in 1991, and 66.90 percent (80.50 percent males and

55.34 percent females) in 2001. The remaining four hill districts, Churachandpur, Tamenglong,

Chandel and Senapati districts got the total literacy rate of 58.17 percent, 50.16 percent, 46.68

percent and 46.04 percent in 1991, and rise to 71.96 percent, 59.33 percent, 56.86 percent and

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60.60 percent in 2001. Senapati, Tamenglong and Chandel districts literacy rates are lower than

the average of national literacy rate against 65 percent in 2001. However, Chandel district

attained the lowest literacy rate in the state. The census data depicts that literacy rate of males are

higher than the females in the state.

Table 3.3

District-wise Total Persons and Percentage of Attaining Higher Secondary and Above in

Manipur-2001

Total Persons Total Percentage

Sl.No Districts Males Females Total Males Females Total

1.Manipur 168587 109741 278328 15.39 10.25 12.85

2.Senapati 5634 3010 8644 07.02 03.95 05.52

3.Tamenglong 4131 2022 6153 07.12 03.78 05.51

4.Churachandpur 10686 5030 15716 09.12 04.54 06.90

5.Bishnupur 17244 10217 27461 16.49 09.84 13.18

6.Thoubal 25286 13439 38725 13.87 07.39 10.63

7.Imphal West 55872 42723 98595 25.19 19.19 22.19

8.Imphal East 36190 25044 61234 18.24 12.74 15.51

9.Ukhrul 8672 5093 13765 11.80 07.56 09.78

10.Chandel 5093 3163 8035 08.15 05.39 06.79

Source: Census of India (2001).

Census of India (2001), indicates that out of total literacy rate in Manipur, the state attained the

educational level of 12.85 percent in Higher Secondary and Above, with the total number of

278328 persons. Imphal West stands in the highest position with the rate of 22.19 percent. It is

followed by Imphal East, Bishnupur and Thoubal. Ukhrul stand at the fifth position with the rate

of 9.78 percent whereas Tamenglong stands at the lowest position of 5.51 percent. Census (2001)

data depicts that in Manipur few persons were taking up the streams of non-technical diploma or

certificate which is not equal to degree. The total numbers of 142 persons were opting for the

streams of non-technical diploma or certificate in Manipur which includes only three persons

from Ukhrul district. There were total numbers of 2278 persons with a technical diploma or

certificate not equal to degree, out of which 59 persons were from Ukhrul. The census data

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shows the Meitei inhabited valley districts have the higher percentage in educational level

attainment from Higher Secondary and above, whereas in comparison among the tribal inhabited

hilly districts, Ukhrul score the highest percentage. Tribals are lagging behind in attainment of

higher education as compared to the Meiteis, due to the lack of higher educational institute in

tribal districts.

Colleges and Universities in Manipur

Manipur University (MU) was established as a state university on 5 June 1980, under the

Manipur University Act 1980. Manipur University is situated at Chanchipur, Imphal. Once, the

location was a historical palace of Manipur, it was established by Maharaja Ghambir Singh in

1827 AD (Anno Domini in The Year of Our Lord). The palace was called as „Langthabal

Konung‟. Prof. T. Ratho was appointed as the first Vice Chancellor of Manipur University on 1

December 1980. The campus of the University occupies large area of land, which have the

several different units of buildings, comprising of Library Building, Administrative Building,

Teaching and Non-Teaching Staffs Quarters, Students Hostels, Social Sciences Department,

Humanities Department, Science Blocks, Bank, Post Office, Recreation Hall, Health Centre,

Auditorium, Canteen, Co-operative Store, etc. Later, Manipur University was upgraded to

Central University on 13 October 2005. The J.N.U. Centre of Post-graduate degree programmes

was also transferred from DM College to Manipur University on 1 April 1981. After the

annexation of J.N.U. Centre of Post-graduate in Manipur University, separate buildings were set

up with better infrastructure for higher education. During the period of shifting the base of JNU

Centre for Post-graduate Studies to Manipur University, there were 69 teaching staffs and 77

non-teaching staffs. All together, there were 146 employees in J.N.U. Centre for Post-graduate

Studies.

According to the Manipur University Act, 2005, No.54, the objectives of the Manipur University

states that, “The objects of the University shall be to disseminate and advance knowledge by

providing instructional and research facilities in such branches of learning as it may deemed fit;

to make provisions for integrated courses in humanities, natural and physical sciences, social

sciences, forestry and other allied disciplines in the educational programmes of the University, to

take appropriate measures for promoting innovations in teaching-learning process, inter-

disciplinary studies and research; to educate and train manpower for the development of the State

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of Manipur; and to pay special attention to the improvement of the social and economic

conditions and welfare of the people of that State, their intellectual, academic and cultural

development.” (Manipur University Act, 28 December 2005.p,3). After the takeover of Manipur

University by Central Government under the Ministry of Human Resource Development, the

annual academic system of education was changed by introducing semester-wise system of

higher education. In the year 2005-2006, 43 Colleges which are permanently affiliated to

Manipur University were entitled to receive grant from U.G.C.

Before the Manipur University was taken over by the Central Government, the State Government

established the University and run the affiliated colleges. Since the government made little

investment in the higher education, the condition of running the colleges and university faced

difficulties. The government colleges were in the state of inadequate teaching staffs, lack of

college buildings, lack of infrastructure, etc. In the year 2002-2003, Development of North East

Region (DoNER), extended a helping hand by constructing classrooms and multipurpose halls,

with funds from the Non-Lapsable Central Pool of Resources. Moreover, DoNER had purchased

55 computers and contributed to the government colleges in the state.

Table 3.4

Construction of Classrooms for the Following Colleges in the Year 2002-2003

Sl.No. Colleges Amount in Lakhs

1. D.M. College of Commerce 1 Classroom (2nd

phase) 2.545

2. D.M.C. of Science, Thangmeiband, Imphal, 1 Classroom (2nd

phase) 3.64

2 Classrooms (PG) 17.00

3. G.P.W. College, Jail Road, Imphal 17.00

4. N.G. College, Lamphelpat, Imphal. 1 Classroom (2nd

phase) 2.545

5. H.T.T. College, Thangmeiband 1 Classroom 8.50

6. Presidency College, Motbung 1 Classroom 8.50

Sub-total 59.73

Source: Report of the Manipur State Higher Education Commission, Part I, (2003).

DoNER, played a major role in development of Northeast states in India. Education is one of the

most important sectors in the society. During the period of 2002-2003, DoNER build eight

classrooms in six government colleges in the state. Those colleges are; D.M. College of

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Commerce and Science which got one classroom each with the total expenditure amount of Rs.

2.545 lakhs and 3.64 lakhs and moreover, D.M. College of Science got two classrooms for Post-

graduate studies with the total expenditure amount of Rs.17.00 lakhs. The other colleges are G.P.

Women College, N.G. College, H.T.T. College and Presidency Colleges got one classroom each

with the expenditure amount of Rs.17.00 lakhs, Rs. 2.545 lakhs, Rs. 8.50 lakhs and Rs. 8.50

lakhs respectively. The sum-total amount of Rs.59.73 lakhs has been allocated by DoNER, in

construction of eight classrooms in six government colleges.

Table 3.5

Construction of one Multipurpose Hall each for the Following Colleges, 2002-2003

Sl.No. Colleges Amount in Lakhs

1. D.M.C. of Arts, Thangmeiband 30.35

2. Imphal College, Kwakeithel, Imphal 30.35

3. Ideal Girls‟ College, Akampal 30.35

4. M.B. College, Palace Ground, Imphal 30.35

5. Manipur College, Singjamei, Imphal 30.35

6. Modern College, Porampat 30.35

7. N.G. College, Lamphelpat, Imphal 30.35

8. Oriental College, Thakyelpat, Imphal 30.35

9. L.M.S. Law College, Dewlaland, Imphal 30.35

10. Manipur University, Construction of Department Building, etc. 295.33

Grand Total 628.21

Source: Report of the Manipur State Higher Education Commission, Part I, (2003).

In the year 2002-2003, DoNER constructed nine multipurpose halls in nine government colleges.

One multipurpose halls cost an amount of Rs. 30.35 lakhs. The nine government colleges are;

D.M. College of Arts (Thangmeiband), Imphal College (Kwakeithel, Imphal), Ideal Girls‟

College (Akampal), M.B. College (Palace Ground, Imphal), Manipur College (Singjamei,

Imphal), Modern College (Porampat), N.G. College (Lamphelpat, Imphal), Oriental College

(Thakyelpat, Imphal) and L.M.S. Law College (Dewlaland, Imphal). The total cost of the nine

multipurpose halls was Rs. 272.15 lakhs. Besides, DoNER constructed the Manipur University,

department buildings and others with the total expenditure amount of Rs. 295.33 lakhs. The sum-

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total expenditure in construction of eight Colleges Classrooms cost Rs.59.73 lakhs, nine

Multipurpose Halls cost Rs.273.15 lakhs and Manipur University Department Buildings, etc.

cost Rs.295.33 lakhs. DoNER spend the grand total amount of Rs. 628.21 lakhs in development

of higher education in Manipur. Out of total construction, only one college, Presidency College

(Motbung), got benefits among the college in tribal areas of the state, while the rest of the

development are located in valley districts. The colleges that are not included under section 2(f)

and 12(b) of the UGC Act cannot avail of UGC grants, and the Private and Private Aided

colleges are not eligible for assistance from NLCPR.

Table 3.6

Number of Recognized Higher Educational Institutions in Manipur, 1950-2005

Year University General Education Professional Education Total

1950-51 Nil 1 Nil 1

1960-61 Nil 2 1 3

1970-71 Nil 12 14 26

1980-81 1 24 41 66

1990-91 2 29 33 64

1995-96 2 50 38 90

2000-01 2 59 12* 73

2001-02 2 62 12* 76

2002-03 2 62 69 133

2003-04 2 62 69 133

2004-05 2 62 69 133

Note: * Due to Cancellation of Non-formal Education

Source: Economic Survey Manipur 2009-10 & Directorate of Education (S) & (U),

Government of Manipur

The (table 3.6) shows the total number of higher educational institutes in the state from the year

1950 to 2005. Till 1979, there was no university in the state whereas in the year 1980-81, a lone

State University was emerged and during the year 1995-96, another university named Central

Agricultural University was established. Manipur had only one College for general education till

1950, and in the year 1960-61, the first professional college was established. By 2005, there were

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two universities in the state. The colleges for general education were increased to the total

number of 62 colleges and 69 professional colleges. Together, there are two universities and 133

colleges in the state. Comparing between the establishment of colleges for general education and

professional colleges, professional colleges are higher in number than the general colleges. Most

of the colleges offered three years degree in General and Honors courses. Since 1996, some

vocational and professional courses were introduced in the colleges, however these courses do

not have the separate colleges but the particular subjects were introduced in combination with

general colleges and they were not much effective. These professional courses existed just for

the name sake in the colleges. According to structures of education system in the country, Higher

Secondary School (10+2) should be part of the school education while in Manipur, forty colleges

follow the patterned in combination of Higher Secondary School and Undergraduate College

(10+2+3). During 1987, fifteen Government Colleges were detached higher secondary schools

(10+2) from the colleges but still ten government run colleges run (10+2) level with degree

courses in the colleges. Most of these colleges are situated in hilly districts where tribals are

populated.

Some of the colleges that offered non-credit vocational courses in the colleges are; Pettigrew

College (Ukhrul), offer Vocational Course in Domestic Animal and Farming. United College

(Chandel), Presidency College, (Tatubi), C.I. College (Bishnupur), Kha-Manipur College

(Kakching), offers Vocational Course in Sericulture. Thoubal College (Thoubal), Oreintal

College (Imphal), and Lilong Haoreibi College (Lilong), offers Vocational Course in Industrial

Fish & Fishery. L. Sanoi College (Bishnupur), offers Vocational Course in Industrial Fish &

Fishery Industrial Chemistry. Moirang College (Moirang) and Manipur College (Imphal), offers

Vocational Course in Tourism & Travel Management. Modern College (Porampat), Ideal Girls‟

College (Akampat), offers Vocational Course in Seed Technology. Imphal College (Kwakeithel),

offer Vocational Course in Still Photography. N.G. College (Lamphel), offer Vocational Course

in Tax Procedure & Practice. G.P. Womens‟ College (Imphal), offer Vocational Course in Food

Science & Quality Control Electronic Equipment Maintenance. D.M. College of Science

(Imphal), offer Vocational Course in Biological Technique & Specimen Preparation. D.M.

College of Arts (Imphal), offer Vocational Course in Functional English. D.M. College of

Commerce (Imphal), offer Vocational Course in Office Management & Secretarial Practice.

These Vocational Courses are introduced at Higher Secondary School level and some of the

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courses are also introduced at Undergraduate level. Vocational courses annexed in the general

colleges were in pathetic condition and some of these courses are vanished from the course

options of the colleges. Likewise, the vocational course in Domestic Animal and Farming at

Pettigrew College was no longer available.

Different Types of Affiliated Colleges in Central Manipur University

Table 3.7

Affiliated Colleges in Central Manipur University-2010

Sl. No. Name of the Colleges Sl. No. Name of the Colleges

1. D.M. College of Science, Imphal 2. D.M. College of Arts, Imphal

3. D.M. College of Commerce, Imphal 4. D.M. College of Teachers‟ Education

5. G.P. Womens‟ College, Imphal 6. Kha-Manipur College, Kakching

7. C.I. College, Bishenpur 8. Moirang College, Moirang

9. Nambol L.Sanoi College, Nambol 10. Presidency College, Motbung

11. Imphal College, Imphal 12. Manipur College, Singjamei, Imphal

13. Modern College, Porompat, Imphal 14. Oreintal College, Takyelpal, Imphal

15. Ideal Girls‟ College, Akampat, Imphal 16. M.B. College, Imphal

17. N.G. College, Imphal 18. Lilong Haoreibi College, Lilong

19. Lamka College, Churachandpur 20. Y.K. College, Wangjing

21. Churachandpur College, Churachandpur 22. Thoubal College, Thoubal

23. Pittegrew College, Ukhrul 24. Hill College, Tatubi

25. L.M.S. Law College, Imphal 26. Regional Institute of Medical Sciences,

27. Hindi Teachers‟ Training College, Imphal Lamphel, Imphal

28. Tamenglong College, Tamenglong 29. United College, Chandel

30. Manipur College of Technology, Takyelpal 31. Government Polytechnic, Takyelpal

32. DOEAAC, Akampat, Imphal 33. Institute of Cooperative Management

34. Government Dance College, Imphal (ICM), Lamphelpat, Imphal

Source: Manipur University Website, manipuruniv.ac.in/en/College_Development_Council.htm

l#Affiliated Colleges, (2011).

72

Table 3.8

Sl.No. Permanently Affiliated Private Colleges Sl.No. Government Aided Colleges

1. South East Manipur College, Komlathabi 1. Biramangol College, Sawombung

2. Kumbi College, Kumbi 2. Standard College, Kongba

3. Mangolnganbi College, Mangolnganbi 3. Mayai Lambi College, Yumnam Huidrom

4. S.K. Women‟s College, Nambol 4. Kakching Khunou College, Kakching

5. W. Mani Girls‟ College, Thoubal 5. Liberal College, Luwangsangbam

6. Bethany Christian College, Churachandpur 6. Thambal Marik College, Oinam

7. Regional College, Chajing, Lilong 7. Jeri College, Jeribam

8. T.S. Paul Manipur Women‟s College, 8. Imphal Art College, Imphal

Mongsangai

9. Pole Star College, Wabagai Sl. No. Private Affiliated Colleges

10. Royal Academy of Law, Oniam

11. Kamakhya Pemton College, Hiyangthang 1. NG. Mani College, Khurai, Chairenthong

12. N. Birahari College, Khundrakpam 2. Damdei Christian College, Kangpokpi

13. Pravabati College, Mayang, Imphal 3. Yairipok Universal College, Yairipok

14. Kanan Devi Memorial College, Senapati 4. S.S.G. Govinda Girls‟ College, Khurai

15. Mt. Everest College, Senapati 5. Kakching College, Kakching

16. Don Bosco College, Maram 6. Chingtam College, Sagang

17. Western College, Konthoujam 7. LMGM Law College, Churachandpur

18. Moreh College, Moreh

Sl.No. Permitted Private Colleges

1. Chancipur College, Kyangei 2. Kanggui Christian College, Kangpokpi

3. Rayburn College, Churachandpur 4. Th Ibotombi Institute of Teacher

5. R.K. Sanatombi College of Teacher Education and Training, Bishnupur

Education Imphal 6. Trinity College of Teachers Edn. Koirengi

Source: Manipur University Website, manipuruniv.ac.in/en/College_Development_Council.htm

l#Affiliated Colleges, (2011).

73

By 2010, there were 76 affiliated colleges in Central Manipur University, out of which there are

six different types of affiliated colleges; 34 Affiliated Colleges, 18 Permanently Affiliated

Private Colleges, 8 Government Aided Colleges, 7 Private Affiliated Colleges, 6 Permitted

Private Colleges, and other higher educational institutions (see table 3.7 & 3.8). Colleges of

importance like Regional Institute of Medical Sciences (RIMS), Law, Polytechnic, Engineering,

Management, Business, Information Technology, etc. were set up in Imphal and other Meiteis

populated valley districts. Few colleges have been set up in tribal inhabits hilly districts of

Manipur.

Departments in Central Manipur University

Different kinds of subjects are available in Colleges and Universities in the state. Three major

courses structures are mainly practiced. They are; degree, diploma and certificates programmes.

In Central Manipur University, there are six main schools with its agencies viz: School of

Humanities (6 departments), School of Human and Environmental Sciences (4 departments),

School of Life Sciences (3 departments), School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences (5

departments), School of Social Sciences (9 departments), and School of Medical Sciences (30

departments with 21 subjects in Postgraduate Courses). Apart from these six major schools,

some Centres and Departments are functioning in the University they are: Educational

Multimedia Research Centre; Centre for Manipur Studies; Academic Staff College; University

Museum; Computer Centre; Indira Gandhi National Open University Centre; Special Cell for the

Welfare of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes; Centre for Myanmar Studies; University

Employment and Information Bureau; and Bachelors Degree in Library and Information Science.

Research Courses are available in Post-graduate, Master of Philosophy (M.Phil) and Doctor of

Philosophy (Ph.D.) in the University. Beside these departments, there is also the Department of

Management Studies under Manipur Institute of Management Studies (MIMS). This department

was introduced on 26 September 1992. However, MIMS started functioning lately, only after

three years of its establishment on 1 September 1995.

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Table 3.9

Schools and Departments in Central Manipur University, 2010

Sl.No, School of Social Sciences Sl.No. School of Humanities

1. Adult Continuing and Extension Department 1. Dance (Manipuri) Department

2. Commerce Department 2. English Department

3. Economics Department 3. Hindi Department

4. Education Department 4. Linguistic Department

5. History Department 5. Manipuri Department

6. Mass Communication Department 6. Philosophy Department

7. Library and Information Sciences Department School of Human and

8. Manipur Institute of Management Studies Environment Science

School of Life Sciences 1. Anthropology Department

1. Biochemistry Department 2. Earth Science Department

2. Biotechnology Department 3. Geography Department

3. Life Science Department 4.Physical Edu. & Sports Sc. Dept.

School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences

1. Chemestry Department 2. Computer Science Department

3. Mathematics Department 4. Physics Department

5. Statistics Department

School of Medical Sciences: Regional Institute of Medical Sciences, which has 30

departments 21 post graduate subjects.

Source: Retrieved from http://manipuruniv.ac.in/en/home.html & Annual Report (2009-

2010), Central Manipur University.

Presently, Manipur University had introduced diploma and certificate courses at different levels

viz.; Diploma and Certificate Courses in Japanese Language, Postgraduate Diploma in Adult and

Continuing Education and Mass Communication, Diploma in Banking, Diploma in Business

Management, Diploma in Educational Administration, Diploma in Labour Laws, Diploma in

Spoken English, Diploma in Biological Techniques, Diploma in Computer Programming,

Diploma in Economics, Diploma in Library Science, Diploma in Fisheries and Diploma in

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Foreign Languages. During the mid of 1988, Centre for Manipuri Studies was introduced and in

the next year 1989, Centre for Tribal Studies was also established. It was a direct

recommendation from the visiting team of U.G.C., and these two Studies Centres are centrally

funded to function independently. To look into the affairs of different schools and departments,

the university formed nine Boards of Studies they are; (i) Postgraduate Board of Studies of the

School of Humanities, (ii) Postgraduate Board of Studies of the School of Social Sciences, (iii)

Postgraduate Board of Studies of School of the Medical Science (Pre-clinical), (iv) Board of

Studies of Medical Sciences (Para-clinical), (v) Board of Studies of Medical Sciences (Clinical),

(vi) Postgraduate Board of Studies of Science, (vii) Undergraduate Board of Studies of the

School of Humanities, (viii) Undergraduate Board of Studies of the School of Social Sciences,

and (ix) Undergraduate Board of Studies of the School of Science.

Adult Education: The Adult Education under the scheme of “National Literacy Mission”

(NLM) was established in the year 1988 by the Government of India. The aim of introducing

NLM is to implement strategies of eradicating illiteracy in the age group of 15-35 years. The

policy is targeting the Total Literacy Campaign (TLC) in a phased manner in the state. During

the Ninth Plan (1997-2002), it was targeted to 2.12 lakhs illiterate population with the

introduction of complete course programme of basic literacy and post literacy followed by

continuing education programme in the phase through the Jana Shikshan Nitayamas (JSN)

Centres. Out of total targeted 2.12 lakhs populations, 1.92 lakhs are to be covered by centre

based projects, and the remaining of 0.20 lakhs populations are to be taken care by the Post-

Literacy and continuing phase-wise education programme through JSN Centres. During the

Tenth Plan (2002-2007), the mission was proposed to eradicate the total number of 1,92,914

persons (87,257 males and 1,05,657 females). A State Literacy Mission Authority (SLMA),

Manipur, was constituted as per the directive given by NLM authority, Government of India.

During the year 2004-2005, the TLC was implemented in all the nine districts of Manipur,

through the District Literacy Societies (DLSs). The project is funded on sharing basis by the

State and Central Government in the ratio of 2:1 and 4:2 in respect of the Valleys and Hills

districts respectively. There are three literacy phases in the TLC programme. In each phase, a

primer/book needs to be completed by adult learners. The teachers are volunteers mostly by the

educated unemployed youth, youth clubs, women society members, Church members, retired

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teachers, etc. The details of the Physical Achievement of TLC as on March 2007, is given in

(table 3.10). The table shows the Physical Achievements of TLC in nine districts and the total

achievements in the state.

Table 3:10

Physical Achievement of TLC as on March, 2007

Districts/State Targets Enrolments Persons Completed Primers

I II III

Senapati 67000 66560 66560 62682 39086

Tamenglong 16000 16027 14821 13162 9468

Churachandpur 20200 20213 20051 17682 15108

Chandel 18200 18600 18400 11486 10211

Ukhrul 15000 15000 15000 12963 11716

Imphal East 32000 32200 32200 30601 20930

Imphal West 30000 30200 30200 29526 18026

Bishnupur 20300 20300 20300 18464 13419

Thoubal 39400 40000 40000 28192 26534

Manipur 258100 259100 257532 224758 164498

Source: Economic Survey, Manipur, (2009-2010).

Teacher Training Colleges: There are six professional Teachers Training Colleges in Manipur.

Out of six teachers training colleges, two colleges are run by the government whereas four

teachers training colleges are established and run by the private bodies. Two teacher training

colleges offer Master of Education (M.ED.) course namely; D.M. College of Teachers‟

Education (Govt. College) and a private affiliated college named, R.K. Sanatombi Devi College

of Teachers‟ Education. Moreover, out of six Teachers‟ Training Colleges in the state, the

Central Manipur University had introduced degree in Master of Education. Unlike, other teachers

training colleges, the duration of the course is a compulsory two years course. The profiles of

these six Teachers Training Colleges are as follows:

(i) Government Hindi Teachers‟ Training College is located in Imphal West district of Manipur.

The college was established on 2 October 1975, which is an Affiliated College of Manipur

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University. The aim of the establishment of the Hindi Teachers‟ Training College is to train the

Hindi teachers in teaching of Hindi to those in non-Hindi speaking states as a secondary

language. This college was introduced and run by the Govt. of India, and specially, it is for those

in the non-Hindi speaking states of the country. The college follows the syllabus prescribed by

the Central Institute of Hindi, Agra, Utter Pradesh. The eligibility to pursue this course is the

candidate who passed graduate or equivalent level in Hindi subject. The college has the total

intake capacity of 100 students per annum with the strength of six teachers. The duration of this

course is one year full time. Hindi is the medium of instruction as well as in conducting the

examination. (ii) D.M. College of Teachers‟ Education is situated near Chingmeirong area of

Imphal. It is the oldest college in Manipur to impart the professional course in Teachers‟

Education. The college is one of the Constituent Affiliated Colleges of Manipur University. The

introduction to impart of B.T. Course (Basic Training) was started during 1959 while on 6

November 1972, the BT course was separated to become a full-fledged Post-graduate Training

College and the college was renamed as D.M. College of Teachers‟ Education. The college

offers one year full time in Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) and Master of Education (M.Ed.)

courses with the total intake capacity of 230 students in (B.Ed.) and 25 students in (M.Ed.). The

minimum eligibility to seek admission to these courses is completion of graduate in (B.Ed.)

Course and (B.Ed.) passed in order to pursue (M.Ed.) Course. The procedure of recruiting

students in not done by the college but it is controlled by The Department of Education (S),

Government of Manipur.

(iii) Kanan Devi Memorial College of Education is situated at Pangei area in Imphal East district

of Manipur. The college is sponsored and run by the Manipur Ramakrishna Society. The college

was established in the year 1992. It is an Affiliated College to Manipur University and

recognized by the National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE), New Delhi. B.Ed. Course is

available in the college with total intake capacity of 100 students per annum. (iv) R.K.

Sanatombi Devi College of Teacher Education is situated in Imphal East and the college was

established in the year 2008. The college is a Private College Affiliated to Manipur University

and recognized by NCTE, New Delhi. The college offers (B.Ed.) and (M.Ed.) Courses with the

total intake capacity of 200 students in B.Ed. and 25 students in M.Ed. Courses. (v) Trinity

College of Teachers Education is located at Koirengei, Imphal. It was established in the year

2003. It is a Private Affiliated College to Manipur University. The college offer three years

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degree course in Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) with the total intake capacity of 100 students per

annum and. (vi) Th. Ibotombi Institute of Teacher Education and Training is situated at

Bishnupur district of Manipur. The college was established in the year 2003. It is a Private

Affiliated College to Manipur University. The college offers B.Ed. Course with the total intake

capacity of 100 students per annum.

Law Colleges: There are three professional law colleges in Manipur namely; L.M.S. Law

College, it is situated at Imphal and it is also the oldest law college in the State. The college was

established in the year 1958, and it came under the category of Affiliated College to Manipur

University as well as it is approved by BAR Council of India. The Law College offers Bachelor

of Law (L.L.B) degree course. Graduate in any discipline candidates are eligible to seek

admission in the college. Secondly, the L.M.G.M. Law College is located at Churachandpur

district. The college was established in the year 1982, and the college is under the category of

Private Affiliated College to the Manipur Central University. The college is recognized by BAR

Council of India. The college offer Bachelor of Law (L.L.B) degree course. Graduate candidate

in any discipline are eligible to seek admission in the college. This is the lone professional

college available in the hilly districts of Manipur. The third law college is Royal Academy of

Law, and the college is situated at Oinam, Manipur. The law college was established in the year

1994, and the college came under the category of Private Permanently Affiliated College of

Manipur University. Like other two law colleges Royal Academy of Law is also recognized by

BAR Council of India and offer Bachelor of Law (L.L.B) degree course. Graduates in any

streams are eligible to apply for the Course.

Medical Institutes in Manipur

Regional Institute of Medical Science (RIMS): RIMS is situated in Lamphelpat (Imphal).

Firstly, RIMS was established as a 300 bedded general hospital on 22 October 1968, inaugurated

by the then Home Minister of India Union, Shri Y.B. Chavan. The Medical College was

established in a state with the joint venture of other North Eastern States. Later, on 22 May 1972,

the hospital was upgraded to Hospital cum Medical College. The foundation stone was laid by

the then Governor of Manipur, Shri. B.K. Nehru, and it was named as Manipur Medical College.

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The name Manipur Medical College was changed to Regional Medical College. Again, the

Medical College was renamed as North Eastern Regional Medical College, under the supervision

of North Eastern Regional Medical College Society. From August 1976, the Medical College is

run by Ministry of Home, Government of India. During that period, it was the only Medical

College run by the Ministry of Home, Govt. of India. After nearly two decades, the medical

college was again renamed as Regional Institute of Medical Science (RIMS), and its

management was taken over and run by North East Council, Ministry of DoNER, Government of

India, from 1 April 2005. Finally, after 12 years on 1 April 2007, RIMS was transferred to the

Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India. From that period, RIMS has

remained as a Regional Medical Institute under the Medical Council of India (MCI).

RIMS, provides undergraduate and postgraduate courses in different streams of medical

education. RIMS is one of the apex bodies to impart medical education among the seven states of

Northeast Region except Assam. RIMs has the total number of 1074 bedded teaching hospital.

Annually, RIMS has the capacity intake of 100 students in undergraduate degree course, 145

students in Postgraduate degree course (including 50% All India Quota), 7 students in M.Phil

degree course, and 6 students in Postgraduate Diploma course. From December 2009, B.Sc.

Nursing Course has been started by total capacity intake of 50 students annually along with the

introduction of Postgraduate Courses in Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion Medicine

and M.Ch. in Urology and Plastic Surgery. There are separate reserved seats among the seven

North Eastern States and all India in MBBS graduate degree course; All India (15 seats),

Manipur (30 seats), Tripura (13 seats), Meghalaya (13 seats), Nagaland (10 seats), Mizoram (7

seats), Arunachal Pradesh (7 seats), and Sikkim (5 seats) respectively. After the creation of

Manipur University, RIMS was affiliated to the Manipur University and recognized by Medical

Council of India. According to the website of RIMS (2011) states, “The objectives of this

premier institutes are to cater to the needs of the North Eastern Region in the field of imparting

quality medical education and ameliorate the health condition of the cosmopolitan population of

North Eastern States in India. It also aims to bridge the gap of health manpower in the region.”

(Retrieved from URL www.rims.edu.in/about_us.htm). RIMS consists of 30 departments and 21

Postgraduate subjects are available. Presently, the activity of RIMS has been expanding rapidly

from the total number of 300 bedded in 1972, to 1074 bedded teaching hospital.

80

Table 3:11

Departments in Regional Institute of Medical Science, Imphal, 2011

Subjects Available at Regional Institute of Medical Science

Anaesthesiology Anatomy Biochemistry

Clinic Psychology Community Medicine Dentistry

Dermatology, STD & Leprosy Forensic Medicine Immunohaematology

Medicine Microbiology Blood Transfusion (IHBT)

Otorhinolaryngology Opthalmology Obstetrics & Gynecology

Pediatrics Pathology Orthopedics

Physical Medicine and Physiology Pharmacology

Psychiatry Radiodiagnosis Plastic Surgery

Respiratory Medicine General Surgery Radiotherapy

Urology

Units in Regional Institute of Medical Science

Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgical Gasteroentology & Nephrology

Surgery Minimal Access Surgery Biostatistics

Source: Retrieved from URL, RIMS, website (2011), http://www.rims.edu.in/departments.htm

Jawaharlal Nehru Institute of Medical Science (JNIMS): JNIMS is situated in Parompat,

Imphal East district of Manipur. It was established in the year 1989, and become the second

medical college in the state. JNIMS was affiliated to the Manipur University. It runs as medical

college as well as hospital with 300 bed capacity. The medical college runs three Pre Medical

Departments (Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry), five Para Medical Departments

(Pharmacology, Pathology, Microbiology, Community Medicine and Forensic Medicine) and ten

Clinical Department based on 300 bedded (Medicine, Surgery, OBG, Ophthalmology, ENT,

Orthopedics, Anesthesiology, Radio-Diagnosis, Pediatrics and Dentistry) in addition with

Central Record Department, Wards, OPD, Casualty and Trauma Center. JNIMS Medical College

conduct MBBS degree course. The medical college has an annual intake capacity of 100

students. JNIMS follow the pattern of unreserved and reserved seats in different categories they

are; Unreserved (30 seats), Reserved (Scheduled Tribe 30 seats), Manipuri OBC (Meitei Bamon

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19 seats), Manipuri OBC (Meitei Pangal 5 seats), OBC (Others 1 seat), Manipuri SC (Meitei 3

seats), and Central Government Quota (12 seats).

Nursing Schools and Colleges: A Government Nursing School was established in the year

1970, at Parompat (Imphal East). It is approved by Indian Nursing Council (INC), Delhi. The

eligibility of the Nursing Course is intermediate (10+2) stage in Science stream or equivalent

level. The duration of the Nursing Course is three and half year. The nursing school began the

Nursing Course with the total enrolment number of 25 students with two teachers and some part

time teaching doctors. The next year, the total number of students admitted in Nursing School

was increased to 30 students. In the year 1980, the number of faculty rise to nine teachers and

some part time teaching doctors. From 1970-80, the Nursing School produced the total number

of 222 (two hundred and twenty two) trained nurses. The first batch of Nursing School students

passed out their Nursing Course in 1974. The syllabus of the Nursing Course contents of

Anatomy, Psychology, Physics, Chemistry, Micro-Biology, Pharmacology, Nutrition,

Psychology, Psychiatric Nursing, Medical and Surgical Nursing, Community Nursing,

Emergency Nursing, Community Organization, Training in Nursing and Mid-wifery etc. During

1981, Female Health Worker Course was introduced. However, RIMS has also started Nursing

Course from the academic year December 2009, with the total intake of 50 students.

There are four private affiliated medical institutes for nursing namely; R.D.O. College of

Nursing (Imphal West), Kangleipak Medical & Nursing Institute (Khurai Kansom Leikai,

Imphal), Irengbam Thamcha Devi Nursing and Health Care Research Institute (Imphal) and

Bethesda School of Nursing (Churachandpur). These nursing institutes offer three and half year

full time diploma courses in General Nursing and Midwifery at undergraduate level with the total

intake capacity of 50 students annually. These nursing institutes are affiliated to (INC) Delhi.

Graduate candidates are eligible to seek admission in R.D.O. Colleges of Nursing whereas in

Kangleipak Medical & Nursing Institute, Irengbam Thamcha Devi Nursing and Health Care

Research Institute and Bethesda School of Nursing, candidates who passed (10+2) in Science

Stream or equivalent are eligible to seek admission. Besides, Kangleipak Medical and Nursing

Institute run B.Sc. Nursing Course in distance mode. There are also some Nursing

82

Schools/Institutes in the state that offers diploma in Nursing Courses at (10+2) level. Class (10)

passed candidates are eligible to apply for the Nursing Course.

Central Agricultural University in Manipur

In Manipur, Manipur Agricultural College was established on 28 September 1979, a year before

Manipur University was created. The college was affiliated temporarily to Guwahati University.

Later it was transferred to the Manipur University in 1980. After a decade of establishment of

Manipur Agricultural College, the apex autonomous council Indian Council of Agricultural

Research (ICAR), Government of India, formed a committee to look into the status of

Agricultural College and allied sectors in North Eastern States. Hence, the committee examined

and found out the lack of agricultural colleges and universities in the region. Therefore, the

committee recommends establishing a Central Agricultural University in the region. Central

Agricultural University was established by an Act of Parliament, the Central Agricultural

University Act. 1992, (No. 40. 1992). The Act came into effect on 26 January 1993, with the

issue notification by the Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE),

Government of India. The university is based at Iroisemba, which is located in the outskirt of

Imphal West district of Manipur. Central Agricultural University is not only confined in the state

but it has extended by establishment of six Agricultural Colleges in six North Eastern State, with

it‟s headquarter being situated in Imphal.

The Agricultural College offers Undergraduate and Postgraduate degree courses in agricultural

and allied sectors. The Central Agricultural University is extended in various states of the region

under the jurisdiction of Central Agricultural University, Imphal. Selection procedures are made

by conducting common entrance test. 15 percent of the seats in undergraduate programmes are

filled up by the ICAR/VCI or any special category of nominees as decided by the

University/Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Government of India.

While in postgraduate programmes, 75 percent of seats are filled up by the University based on

the merits of the candidates during entrance examination, and 25 percent seats are reserved for

the ICAR, of which students are selected by conducting all India entrance examination.

Candidates who completed 10+2 level in Science stream or equivalent examination with Physics,

83

Chemistry, and Biology in combination of Mathematics are eligible to seek admission in the

college. For the eligibility in postgraduate course, the candidates must have obtained graduate

degree in concerned subjects. English is the medium of instruction. Like RIMS, Central

Agricultural Colleges reserved six seats for North Eastern States excluding Assam. Annually, the

Central Agricultural University recruits the total intake capacity of 40 students. Out of total seats,

10 seats are reserved for students in Manipur and 30 seats are kept for other six North Eastern

State namely; Tripura (10 seats), Meghalaya (8 seats), Arunachal Pradesh (6 seats), Mizoram and

Sikkim got (3 seats each).

There are six departments in Central Agricultural University they are; College of Veterinary

Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Colleges of Fisheries, College of Horticulture & Forestry,

College of Home Science, Agricultural Engineering & Post Harvest-Technology, and the

College of Post-Graduate Studies. By 1990, the Central Agricultural University started M.Sc.

programmes in four subjects namely, Acronomy, Horticulture, Plant Breeding & Genetics and

Plant Pathology. The college recruits three students each in each subject annually. Central

Agricultural University is under the autonomous educational council of Indian Council of

Agricultural Research (ICAR). The academic features laid down by the Central Agricultural

University in Imphal are as follows;

Seven Colleges including a postgraduate studies

Six undergraduate programs

Eight master‟s degree programmes in agriculture, three in veterinary science and

animal husbandry and two in fisheries

Fully residential university

Admission to undergraduate programmes through nomination by respective states on

NE Region and ICAR/VCI, based on entrance test conducted by them

Admission to postgraduate programmes on the basis of merit in qualifying degree and

nomination by ICAR

ICAR/VCI model academic regulations and syllabi followed

Girl students constitute 43 per cent of the total student population.

84

Table 3.12

The Constituent Colleges under Central Agricultural University, Imphal, 2011

Sl. No. Colleges Name Year of Establishment

1. College of Agricultural, Iroisemba (CA), Imphal, Manipur 1979

2. College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry (CVS&AH) 1998

Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram

3. Colleges of Fisheries (CF) Lembucherra, Agartala, Tripura 1998

4. College of Horticulture and Forestry (CH&F), Pasighat,

1999Arunachal Pradesh

5. College of Home Science (CHS), Tura, West Garo Hills 2004

Meghalaya

6. College of Agricultural Engineering and Post-Harvest Technology 2006

(CAE&PHT), Ranipool, Gangtok, Sikkim

7. College of Post-Graduate Studies (CPGS), Barapani, Shillong, 2006

Source: Central Agricultural University, Imphal, website (2011) URL

http://www.cau.org.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=143&Itemid=63

There are seven agricultural colleges in the six states of NER including the main campus of

Central Agricultural University at Imphal. The Agricultural Colleges were diversified with

different kinds of professional subjects in the region. The College of Veterinary Science and

Animal Husbandry (CVS&AH) Course was set up in Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram, in 1998. In the

same year, College of Fisheries (CF) Course was introduced in Lembucherra, Agartala, Tripura.

The next year in 1999, College of Horticulture and Forestry (CH&F) was established at Pasighat,

Arunachal Pradesh. College of Home Science (CHS) was established in 2004, at Tura, West

Garo Hills, Meghalaya. In the year 2006, College of Agricultural Engineering and Post-Harvest

Technology (CAE&PHT) was established at Ranipool, Gangtok, Sikkim. In the year 2006,

College of Post-Graduate Studies (CPGS) degree course was introduced and established at

Barapani, Shillong, Meghalaya. Among the six states in the region, Meghalaya got the benefits in

establishment of two agricultural colleges whereas the rest of the states got only one each of

Agricultural Colleges.

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Technical Education in Manipur

Government College of Technology: During the annual plan 1998-99, a Government

Engineering College named (Government College of Technology) was established on 28 August

1998, under All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE), Government of India. The

college is situated at Takyelpal, Imphal, and the technical college was affiliated to the Manipur

University. However, before the creation of Government College of Technology, the central

government made an arrangement for the students of the State by reserving specified numbers of

seats in any technology colleges‟ all over the country through the MHRD, Government of India.

The college offers three subjects in Bachelor of Engineering (BE) degree course; Civil

Engineering, with the total capacity intake of 30 students annually. Electronic & Communication

Engineering, with the total capacity intake of 60 students, and Computer Science & Engineering,

with the capacity intake of 60 students. The duration of the courses is compulsory 4 years. The

college has the strength of 28 Teaching Staff, 2 Computer Programmers and 12 Non-teaching

Staff such as, Laboratory Assistant, Attendant and others. In total, 42 employees are employed in

the Government College of Technology.

Government Polytechnic: The Government Polytechnic Institute is located at Takyelpal,

Imphal West. The Institute was established in the year 1956, by Adimjati Shiksha Ashram. It was

affiliated to State Council for Technical Education (SCTE), Assam. Due to inconvenience in

changing the government policy, the institute was transferred to Manipur University since 1987.

The objective of Government Polytechnic is “to produce technicians at supervisory level to feed

the demand of Technical Manpower in various fields of development activities. It also prepares

the students for lateral entry to pursue degree courses in the appropriate stream/trade.” The

polytechnic institute was taken over by Government of Manipur in 1972, and renamed it as

Government Polytechnic, Imphal. The institute runs three years diploma courses in; Civil

Engineering, with the total intake capacity of 60 students per annum. Electrical Engineering with

the total capacity intake of 40 students annually, and Mechanical Engineering has the total

capacity intake of 20 students annually. In the year 1994-95, a new diploma course was

introduced in Electronics and Communication Engineering with the total capacity intake of 30

students per annum. Again in 1995-96, the duration of two years Diploma Course in Pharmacy

was introduced with the total capacity intake of 30 students. Presently, all together there are five

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diploma courses available in Government Polytechnic, Imphal, with the total intake capacity of

150 students per annum excluding Diploma Course in Pharmacy. The institute is recognized by

All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) and Pharmacy Council of India (PCI).

Table 3.13

The Distribution of Seats to Different Categories in Government Polytechnic, Manipur

Sl. No. Categories Branch of Engineering Total

Civil Electrical Mech. ECE Seats

1. Sportsmen 01 01 -- -- 02

2. Children of Freedom Fighters -- -- 01 -- 01

3. Children of Ex-Servicemen & Armed -- -- 01 -- 01

Forces

4. Children of Paramilitary Forces -- 01 01 -- 02

5. Children of Central Govt,/Public Sector -- -- 01 -- 01

Employees

6.Children of Polytechnic Staffs 02 02 01 -- 05

7.ST/SC Candidates 19 12 05 10 46

8.General Candidates 38 24 10 20 92

Total 60 40 20 30 150

Source: Government Polytechnic, Government of Manipur (2011) website URL

http://gopoly.nic.in/reserve.html

Like the other professional colleges in the state, Government Polytechnic has eight types of

reserved seats within the state viz; (i) Sportsmen got one reserved seat in Diploma of Civil and

Electrical Engineering, (ii) Children of Freedom Fighters got one reserved seat in Diploma of

Mechanical Engineering, (iii) Children of Ex-Servicemen & Armed Forces got one reserved seat

in Diploma of Electronics and Communication Engineering, (iv) Children of Paramilitary Forces

got one each reserved seat in Diploma of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, (v) Children of

Central Govt./Public sectors Employees got one reserved seat in Diploma of Mechanical

Engineering, (vi) Children of Polytechnic Staffs got two reserved seats each in Diploma of Civil

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and Electrical Engineering and one reserved seat in Mechanical Engineering. (vii) SC/ST

candidates got 19 reserved seats in Diploma of Civil Engineering, 12 reserved seats in Electrical

Engineering, 5 reserved seats in Mechanical Engineering, 10 reserved seats in Electronics and

Communication Engineering. (viii) General candidates got the maximum number of reserved

seats; 38 seats in Civil Engineering, 24 seats in Electrical, 10 seats in Mechanical Engineering

and 20 seats in Electronics and Communication Engineering. The institute runs with the total

strength of 44 teachers including non-teaching staff; Out of which 9 teachers are allotted in Civil

Engineering, 7 teachers each in Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, 6 teachers in Electronics

and Communication Engineering, 5 teachers in Diploma in Pharmacy, 6 teachers in Applied

Sciences and Humanities, and 4 non-teaching staffs in Library Department.

Manipur Institute of Technology (MIT): The MIT is situated at Takyelpal locality in Imphal

East. The institute was established in the year 1998 by the Govt. of Manipur. Later, in the year

2005, the institute became one of the constituent colleges of Manipur University by an Act of

Manipur Parliament, Manipur University Act 2005. The institute offers three degree courses in

Bachelor of Engineering (BE) with the total intake capacity of 115 students annually, 10 percent

extra seats are reserved for Lateral Entry to the third semester of B.E. Course: (a) Civil

Engineering has the total intake capacity of 25 students per annum, (b) Electronics &

Communication Engineering has the total intake capacity of 45 students annually, (c) Computer

Science & Engineering Course has the total intake capacity of 45 students annually. The

candidates seeking admission for B.E. Course must complete 10+2 or equivalent level with

Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics from any Government recognized institutes. 50 percent is

the minimum eligible marks for general candidates and 5 percent relaxation for those candidates

who falls under ST/SC category. Moreover, for ST/SC candidates the upper age limit can be

relaxed upto 3 years. In each subjects, seven kinds of reservation system are practice in the

institute they are; (i) 31 percent and 2 percent are reserved for candidates belonging to ST/SC

category, (ii) 14 percent for OBC, (iii) 1 seat for outstanding sports person who had represented

at the State or the Country at National or International Sports competition, (iv) 3 percent of the

seats are reserved for Physically Handicapped, (v) 1 seat for the ward of Defence service

personnel, (vii) 15 percent seats for the ward of Indian origin residing abroad/NRIs. Out of

which 5 percent are reserved for the ward of Indian workers in Gulf vide UGCs letter No.F.1-

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30/94(Cpp-II)dated 13/10/2000, and (viii) 1 seat is reserved for the wards of employees at

MIT/MU.

The institute has different kinds of departments that function under one Head of Department and

other faculties, it was divided into four departments with number of faculty viz; (i) Department

of Computer Science and Engineering employed total number of 9 faculty, out of which 5 are

permanent and 4 are guest faculty. (ii) Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering employed total number of 9 faculty, out of which 7 are permanent faculty and 2 are

guest faculty. (iii) Department of Civil Engineering employed 7 permanent faculty, (iv)

Department of Humanities and Applied Engineering employed 9 permanent faculty. Totally,

there are 34 faculties in the institute, of which 28 are permanent and 6 are guest faculty.

Industrial Training Institute: There are seven Industrial Training Institutes (ITI) in the state

with it‟s regional headquarter situated at Imphal. The I.T.I Centres were established in most of

the hills and valleys districts of Manipur. ITI impart various engineering and non-engineering

training courses based on locally suitable self employment activities under two main sectors they

are, Craftsmen Training and Apprenticeship Training. I.T.I was funded by the State and Central

Government under the National Council for Training in Vocational Trade (NCTVT), New Delhi.

The syllabus of the courses are designed and framed by the NCTVT. The institutes‟ offers free

vocational training and at the end of the courses, trainees are awarded National Trade Certificate.

The Institute also imparted in the new diversified vocational fields so as to meet the advanced

technology. During the Tenth Plan, five I.T.I are proposed to be set up at Imphal East, Thoubal,

Bishnupur and Chandel district.

Enrolment Rate and Teachers/Students Ratio in Manipur

During the year 1990-2000, enrolment rate of students in higher educational institutions were

much higher in the State than in present time. In that period, most of the students enrolled and

continued their higher studies in the state, only few students left for further studies outside the

state in order to get better quality of education. However, in the modern era most of the students

migrated to different parts of the country as well as in other countries to pursue higher education

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in different kinds of job oriented streams and some are appearing the competitive central civil

service examination, some are searching for job and so on. While on the other hand, the

enrolment of students in higher education in the state is reducing year after year. Besides,

recruitment of faculties in higher educational institutes are also reducing, there are many vacant

faculty positions in the government colleges and other educational institutions. The root causes

of these problems are the scarcity of financial allocation in education sector, and on the other

hand the shortage of financial allocation has been misused and politicizing of education in the

state. This has destroyed the environment of higher education in the state. In outcome, the

government higher educational institution runs with poor administration and imparting poor

quality of education. In addition, lack of educational institutions like, technical, management,

medical, information technology and vocational training causes in shortage of students

enrolments in the state.

According to the report (2009-2010), Directorate of Education (University) and Economic

Survey of Manipur, shows during 1960-61, the total number of 2014 students were enrolled in

colleges with the strength of 71 teachers. In the academic year 1998-99, the enrolment rate of

students rose to 45818 students (which is also the highest enrolment rate of students during the

period from 1960-2005), whereas in the year 1999-2000, enrolment rate of students were

reduced to 31801 students and the enrolment of students has been continuously decreasing year

after year. By 2004-2005, the enrolment rate of students had gone down to the rate of 16205

students. Boys enrolments rate are higher than girls. According to the (table 3.14), during the

year 1960-61, there are total number of 71 teachers with the ratio of 28 students per teacher but

in the years 1997-98, the employment of teachers were risen to total number of 2898 teachers

with the ratio of 15 students per teacher. During 2000-01, the total strength of teachers was

decreased to 1267 teachers, excluding private colleges. The (table 3.14) indicates that, the

enrollment of students and the number of teacher employees are fluctuating year after year but

the colleges are emerging vertically. From the year 1999-2000, the enrolment of students and the

teacher employees in colleges has been reducing.

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Table 3.14

Enrolment Rate, Teachers and Students Ratio in Manipur During 1960-2005

Years Colleges Boys Girls Total Teachers Students Per Teacher

1960-61 2 1771 243 2014 71 28

1970-71 12 7767 2385 10152 368 28

1980-81 24 12847 7712 20559 1045 20

1990-91 29 22427 16597 39024 1025 38

1995-96 50 26655 18678 45333 2541 18

1996-97 50 23560 20017 43557 2695 16

1997-98 51 24249 20600 44849 2898 15

1998-99 50 24411 21407 45818 2898 16

1999-00 58 16489 16312 31801 2841 11

2000-01 25* 10053* 8611* 18664* 1267* 15

2002-03 62 11135 10539 21674 NA NA

2003-04 62 8727 8003 16730 NA NA

2004-05 62 8711 7494 16205 NA NA

Note: NA: Not Available & * Excluding Private College

Sources: Directorate of Education (U). Govt. of Manipur & Economic Survey Manipur 2009-10

Table 3.15

Subject-wise Students Enrolment from the Year 2002-2005 in Manipur

Subjects 2002 2003 2004 2005

Science 11691 10526 7716 5854

Arts 14681 11985 10757 8577

Commerce 928 759 417 427

Law 1043 334 558 673

Teachers‟ Training 327 310 390 765

Total 28670 23914 19838 16296

Sources: Compiled from Higher Education Department, Government of Manipur & Devi (2006)

Finance of Higher Education in the 21st Century: A Case Study of Manipur.

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According to the (table 3.15) during the year 2002, the highest numbers of students enrolment

was seen in Arts stream with the total enrolments rate of 14681 students. It was followed by

Science Stream with the total enrolment rate of 11691 students whereas the lowest enrolment of

students goes to Teachers‟ Training with the total enrolment of just 327 students. Both in Arts

and Science Streams the enrolments rate of students are declining year after year. Likewise, in

the year 2005, the total enrolments of students were declined to 8577 students in Arts Stream and

5854 students in Science Stream. On contrary, the enrolment of students in Teachers‟ Training

had increased tremendously from 327 students in 2002 to 765 students in 2005. It is apparent that

due to weak system of higher education in Manipur, students are compelled to migrate outside

the state in order to pursue better quality of higher education. Most of the students in the State

migrate to different parts of the country after completion of high school or higher secondary

school level.

Table 3.16

Enrolment of Students and Research Scholars in Manipur University During 2002-2006

Year No. of Students No. of Research Scholars Total

2002-2003 1354 605 1959

2003-2004 2180 423 2603

2004-2005 1367 162 1529

2005-2006 383 63 901

Source: Department of Higher Education, Government of Manipur (2007).

The enrolments of students in Manipur University are fluctuating. During the academic year

2002-2003, there was a total enrolment of 1958 students in Manipur University, out of which

1354 were non-research scholar students and 605 were research scholars. In the year 2003-2004,

the total number of enrolment in Manipur University were 2603 students, of which the enrolment

of non-research scholars were increased to 2180 students and the enrolment of research scholars

were decreased to the total enrolment of 423 research scholars. In the year 2004-2005, there were

total enrolment rate of 1529 students in Manipur University, of which the enrolment of students

were gone down to 1367 non-research scholars and 162 research scholars. During the year 2005-

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2006, the enrolment rate in Manipur University was reduced tremendously with the total

enrolment rate of 901 students, out of which 383 were non-research scholars and 63 were

research scholars. Like the enrollment of students in colleges, the enrollment of students in

Manipur University was also drastically dropping.

Table 3.17

Item-wise Plan Outlays of University and Higher Education in Manipur, 2005-2006

(Rs. in Lakh)

Sl. No. Items Tenth Plan Approved Outlay

1. Direction and Administration 300.00

2. Assistance to University 1200.00

3. Government Colleges and Institutions 3376.00

4. Assistance to Non-Government Colleges and Institutes 200.00

5. Faculty Development Programme 100.00

6. Text Book Development 300.00

7. Scholarship 50.00

8. Institute of Higher Learning 100.00

9. Other Expenditure 240.00

10. Capital Outlay on Education (Under PWD) 250.00

Grand Total 6516.00

Source: Department of Higher and Technical Education, Govt. of Manipur, (2007).

According to the tenth plan (2005-2006) of the State, the plan approved the total outlay of Rs.

6516 lakhs for the development of University and Higher Education in Manipur. The financial

allocation has been diverse in different categories. The highest financial allocation has been

approved to the Government Colleges and Institutions with the total sanctioned amount of Rs.

3376 lakhs. Direction and Administration and Text Book Development have got the equal total

amounts of Rs. 300 lakhs each. The least financial allocation was seen in Scholarship, with the

total allocation amounts of Rs. 50 lakhs. The State tenth-plan outlay has been approved the total

amount of Rs. 6516 lakhs with the overall percentage of only 2.32 percent was allocated in

University and Higher education. The total financial allocation in University and Higher

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Education shows that, due to shortage of financial allocation it is difficult to expand the quality

of higher education in Manipur.

Table 3.18

Government Run Public Libraries-2006

Sl. No. Name of the Library Est. Year Districts Rural/Urban

1. State Central Library (SCL) 1958 Imphal West Urban

2. Branch Library of SCL (Ningthoukhong) 11/10/1999 Bishnupur Urban

3. Netaji Memorial Library (Moirang) 1968 Bishnupur Urban

4. District Library (Chandel) 1976 Chandel Rural

5. District Library (Churachandpur) 1974 Churachandpur Rural

6. District Library (Thoubal) 11/03/1997 Thoubal Urban

7. District Library (Senapati) 1974 Senapati Rural

8. District Library (Tamenglong) 1974 Tamenglong Rural

9. District Library (Ukhrul) 1974 Ukhrul Rural

Source: Meitei & Devi (2006).

In Manipur, out of total nine districts, four valley districts which are dominated by Meiteis is

patent under the urban category whereas the other five hilly districts are marked in rural

category. The State Central Library was established in the year 1958, and it is situated in Imphal

West. The branches of SCL were opened at Moirang (1968), Thoubal (1997) and Bishnupur

(1999), whereas in rural hill districts the first district library was established at Chandel district

(1976), and the remaining four district libraries were established in the year 1974.

Library is one of the most important ingredients in the field of education. Education and libraries

are closely related, it cannot be separated. Books are the primary assistance for students to

broaden once knowledge. There are two huge government libraries in Imphal valley, with

numbers of books namely, State Central Library and Central Manipur University Library. Apart

from that, there are some mini-private libraries and bookshops in Imphal. On the other hand, the

situations of libraries in rural areas are not satisfactory and it is not worth mentioning. The

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District Libraries in the hill districts exists just for the name sake; due to paucity of financial

allocation, development of libraries had not taken place. Most of the District Libraries which is

run by the State Government in rural areas do not have their own building but they used the

building on rental basis or either attachment with other government departments building. There

are also some libraries in the rural districts which are run by the private bodies and NGOs, but to

add the current affairs books in the libraries are facing difficulties because of shortage of

financial assistance as well as non-availability of books in the districts. Most of the books in the

private libraries are contributed by some individuals or by some societies.

Problems of Higher Education in Manipur

Education scenario in Manipur is much better, when we compare the percentage of literacy rate

of Manipur with other states in the country. It is fairly higher than the national standard of

literacy rate. But when it draws closer to the quality of higher education, the state is lacking

behind evaluating with the rest of the states in the country. There are several colleges and other

educational institutions in Manipur, but most of the educational institutions are not functioning

properly. The problems of private colleges are; commercialization, limitless intake of students,

lack of infrastructures, lack of modern facilities, emergence of private colleges without

standardization, etc. On the other hand, government colleges are poor in administration,

absenteeism of teaching staff followed by the students encountered absenteeism, untrained

faculty, unqualified faculty, lack of faculty, lack of enthusiasm among the faculty, lack of

educational equipments, lack of infrastructures and outdated syllabus, which are repeatedly

continuing the same subject pattern of curriculum that is not in relevant with the present modern

competitive global education.

Politicizing of Education: Political involvement in government schools and colleges impact

negatively, which is controlled by few political godfathers, transferring of teachers is an

inappropriate situation without examining the condition of the particular college, in order to get

personal benefits. According to the Report of The Manipur State Higher Education Commission,

Part I (2003) states, “Many teachers get away with absenteeism, irresponsibility even with

misconduct because they have political godfathers. Politicians interfere routinely in transfers and

postings of Government college teachers.” (Report of the Manipur State Higher Education

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Commission, Part I, 2003.p,61). The problems of education are fallout of a larger problem of

cultural upheaval, political unrest, and economic stagnation that has gripped the education

system. Meiteis as the dominant group predominantly inhabit in Imphal city has exercise the

power to administer and control all the development in education. Democratic forms of

educational development are imbalanced in the state. The process of equal tribal participation

and inclusive policy in education system is unfamiliar in Manipur. Noted scholar from Manipur,

Gangmumei (2000) states, “The state has financially and administratively the schools and

colleges established by the government or private agencies. In the government schools that are

administered by the state bureaucracy there is no question of democracy in management. The

aided institutions have to function in accordance to the whims and fancies of the state

educational bureaucracy and those who wield political power.”(Gangmumei 2000.p,195). A

public meeting was organized by the Coordinating Committee on 05 July 2011, in the topic of

„Free Education Zone‟ at Palace Compound, Imphal, in order to prevent Politicizing of

Education in the State. It states in the agenda to make „Education a Corruption Free Zone‟ and

also the meeting take up the agenda of „Exempting the Educational Institutions and Office‟ from

the purview of any bandh or general strike. The meeting was attended by teachers‟ associations,

student bodies and senior citizens but the resolution taken in the meeting was not much effective

due to absence of political policy makers of the state. State government departments in general

and Education Department in particular are far behind in merit, fairness and transparency of

governance. Power and Money deteriorate the environment of education in the State.

There are several government and private runs higher secondary schools in the State. Private run

secondary schools outshine when compared with government higher secondary schools. The

government higher secondary schools could not attract many students. Private run higher

secondary schools offering Science, Arts and Commerce started flourished in Imphal valley as

well as in some parts of the hilly areas. Some of the higher secondary schools run by the

Christian bodies are excellent in outcome of the students. Higher secondary schools are an

exceptional case in valley districts of Manipur but when we look into the situation of colleges

three years degree courses, the result impact negatively. The (10+2) completed students are

compelled to pursue Arts stream due to unavailability of government standard college in other

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courses. Besides, the government college which offers Sciences streams does not function

properly.

The attendances of the students are not maintained in most of the government colleges. Numbers

of students are available seasonally, specially, during the time of admission and examination.

Limited options of courses are offered in the government colleges. The colleges offered the same

courses, introduction of new stream which is to be job oriented in the market are unknown. By

seeing the running conditions of the colleges, students feel disinterested to continue their studies

but to get benefits in future they remained enrolled in the colleges to get the degree certificate in

order to get good job in the future. Since, vacant jobs in Manipur are recruited not on the

condition of merits but money and power played the vital role to get a job by bribing the

concerned political leader of the State. Transparency and fairness are not seen in the State.

Students are disheartened by the system of the state activities and lost interest in their studies.

Singh (2011) states, “The possible reasons for low attendance of students could be the lack of

modern facilities, or the belief that without money/connection, educational degrees will not

secure them government jobs. They wish to follow “Ideal Models” – the rich and powerful –

who are without good degrees and education. In such a scenario, the teaching profession and

education in Manipur has deteriorated considerably, and teachers are soft targets for all,

including government leaders who often blame them for poor standards of education. Ironically,

the government leaders continue to recruit unsuitable teachers, and protect those teachers who do

not perform their duties. This is the ground situation in the society which does not value

education and knowledge, but worshipped money and power.” (Singh 2011.p,13). The

government only intervened in the education sector during the building of college classrooms,

inauguration and renovations of the building but the most important parts of college

infrastructure and other educational facilities are not paid attention. Khangenbam (2010) states,

“If youths are the future pillars of the nation, we are left only with the building blocks. Our

States are digging foundation sites for erecting pillars. The energy in the youth is made dull and

dormant with no vision in the state. These could only be solved by making our State an

educational hub.” (The Sangai Express, 16 July 2010). The politicization of education system in

Manipur affects negatively, students face uncertain future and losing their hope instead of

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competing each other. Politicians and bureaucrats do not give priority to education in the State,

since, their sons and daughters are outside the state for getting good education.

Power Supply: One of the most important problems in the State is the irregularity of electricity.

Due to irregular or non-existent of power supply in the state affects the livelihood of the people

in the valleys as well as in the hilly areas. However, the situation is worse in hills. In the hill

districts, the power supply remains only for 3-4 hours on alternate days from 07-10 am and from

06-10 pm. Sometimes there is no power supply for a month or more than that. It affected badly in

the academic atmosphere of the students; the computers are fixed without electricity in the

colleges and science practical classes cannot be taken up due to non-availability of electricity.

Particularly, it disturbed the study hour of the student and there is no alternative options since the

kerosene oil that is used in the lamp are rarely available with high cost. Moreover, most of the

colleges introduced basic computer course as an alternative non-credit subject whereas the

shortage of electricity supply cannot take up the practical activities of education. There is no

power back up in most of the educational institutions. The introduction of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) technique has been implemented in every educational

institutions of the country. In Manipur, this kind of modern teaching method of education is a far

cry. The system may be implemented in the Govt. Colleges and Universities but due to

irregularities of power supply interrupted the (ICT) teaching methods. Private Colleges faces the

wider problems of unable to purchase the equipments as well as the power insufficiency. The

problems of educational facilities are somehow accepted at valley districts but it were affected

harshly in tribal inhabit hilly districts.

Guidance and Counseling Centre: Government and private runs higher educational institutions

have been expanded since past decade in the State. The progress of higher education in the state

is not satisfactory. The quality of higher education has been declined due to excessive

establishment of private colleges without maintaining the standard and on the other hand, the

government colleges remained handicapped because of poor quality of imparting education and

lack of infrastructure resources. The direction of rules and regulations set by the UGC is not

maintained, and in addition most of the government and private runs colleges do not have

counseling/guidance centre. Counselors who are supposed to assist and nurture the student in

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terms of learning the academic activities to lead them into successful educational career in future

are unavailable in the state. NPE (1964-66) Kothari Commission states, “A guidance and

counseling programme which would assist the students in the choice of courses, indicate the

lines of remedial action and help in dealing with emotional and psychological problems, should

be integral part of the educational facilities provided in institutions of higher education.” (NPE

Kothari Commission,1964-66).

To choose the right career course can be a very difficult task especially in a world which offers

numerous streams of education, all of which seem to be leading to an individual goal. Career can

actually make or break one‟s life in future, so it is important to make a right choice. Career

guidance can help a person in pursuing the right courses, in the right colleges and universities

and can guide a person in choosing a suitable career. Taking blindfold or confuse career option

will lead to down trodden path. It is always better to learn through the career guidance rather

than taking a blind decision. Career educationist or counselor directs the students to select the

suitable course according to the individual ambition to achieve a bright future. The counselor

teaches the details account of numerous courses options and the availability of those courses in

the colleges and universities. It shows the merits and demerits of the concerned subject and it

gives the awareness to the students in order to pursue their interest subject depending upon the

capacity of student in higher studies. Besides, taking up the right path in educational career with

requisite qualification will lead a person to the desire ambition job in future. The non-availability

of career guidance or counselor in majority of the schools, high schools, higher secondary and

higher education in Manipur, has affected the students career badly.

Migration of Students: The problems of the higher education system compelled students to

migrate in different parts of the country for better and quality education. Due to lack of quality

higher educational institution, poor infrastructure, the large numbers of students leave Manipur at

the level of high schools, higher secondary and higher education, seeking admission in different

parts of educational institution like Shillong, Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore etc. Angom (2011)

states, “The present situation in higher education sector of the state is very much evident from

the fact that a large number of students after completing their higher secondary education in the

state opt to study outside the state despite of huge financial implication it could leave on the

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state‟s economy.” (The Imphal Free Press, 12 August 2011). However, the general problem in

Manipur, three years bachelor degree course in Manipur University has affected the career of

students; as it takes five years to complete. Ethnic conflict, corruption, bandhs, strikes and

flexible academic calendar disrupt academic career of the students such as extension of syllabus

to be covered, postponing examination etc. The Report of the Manipur State Higher Education

Commission (2003) states, “The problems were compounded by the failure to adhere to an

academic calendar resulting in overlapping of academic sessions of different courses and

completion of three years‟ degree courses in almost five years. Consequently, there has been a

fight of a large number of students from Manipur to institutions outside the State. Academic

programmes in colleges and University are also disturbed by frequent bandhs and strikes,

contributing to the decline in the standard of higher education.” (The Report of the Manipur State

Higher Education Commission, Part I, 2003.p,7). A student of St. Stephen College, Delhi, Cindy

Kim Vualnam, stated in Times of India, Mumbai, on 16 October 2011, that, “Manipur has been

insurgency-ridden for as long as I can remember. The youth has been constantly exposed to a

gun culture which has misled them to believe that possession of arms bring power and respect.

Economic development, unemployment opportunities and economic development and quality

education has been seriously hampered, affecting people‟s right to live freely and happily.”

(Times of India, 16 October 2011,p.20).

There are several loopholes regarding higher education in Manipur. The former Principal of

D.M. College of Commerce, Imphal, Jamani (2006) digs out five points of problems on higher

education in Manipur they are:

1. No clear cut policy. There is no clear cut policy on Higher Education in Manipur. The

increase in number is not in tune with the socio-economic status of the State. The Second,

Educational Survey Report mentions that the state of higher education in Manipur is not

very happy. The expansion at this level has been mostly in Arts and Humanities rather

than in Science and professionals courses. The percentage of failure here is very high

which reflects the poor quality of teaching and student preparation.

2. Wastage. Higher Education in Manipur is expanded to fulfill the social demand. Due to

pressure for admissions, more seats are increased every year in the institutions. Here the

colleges do not follow any strict norm for admission. The standard of teaching is very

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poor and facilities inadequate. The curriculum is also stereotyped and is unsuitable for

regional or national development. Most of the youth, after obtaining University degree

remain unemployed.

3. Quality. Quality of higher education in Manipur suffers due to faulty admission norms,

mushrooming growth of colleges, recruitment of incompetent teachers and lack of

facilities such as laboratories, libraries, etc. The different institutions have their own

norms of examination and admission. The norm set us by UGC is more often flouted than

followed while recruiting the teachers. The newly established colleges face acute

financial hardships. The UGC grant does not reach many institutions, and as such,

standard cannot be maintained.

4. Discipline. Swarming the institutions of higher education by students create many

problems. Many of the students who join the College and the University have no interest

and aptitude for serious studies. Most of them join the institutions in the hope of

obtaining degree to get a job in future. As they are disinterested in the studies, they seek

for easy means of passing examination by unfair means. There is wide-spread copying in

the examinations. This defeats the very purpose of Higher Education. At the same time,

the students call many strikes, create riots in the campus of the College and the

University. This affects the serious students in their studies and variates the academic

atmosphere.

5. Research. A trust is needed to improve Higher Education in Manipur to prepare the

youths to face the challenge of the 21st Century. For this, research in the Colleges and

University is a must. But research facilities in the Colleges are virtually non-existent.

Unemployment in Manipur: Manipur is one of states which has high literacy rate among the

NER, but the state is economically a backward state. Besides, the state has been witnessed the

rapid rise of educated unemployment rate. Educated and uneducated unemployment has badly

affected the livelihood of people in the state. Due to lack of infrastructures like, transport,

communication, power supply, lack of industries and production service, shortage of capital, lack

of skilled labor, lack of constructive vocational and professional institutes, scarcity of credit

facilities and due to non-repayment of credit to the backing sector and on the other hand, the

system of demanding bribe by the concerned financial department official in different types of

101

loan in order to withdraw the sanctioned mount to the customer. In comparison between the hill

and valley districts, there is a wide gap, of which valley districts got the advance opportunities of

development than the hill districts. From the general unemployment level in the state, the

educated youth unemployment consist the highest rates of unemployment in Manipur. According

to the website of the Director of Commerce and Industries, Manipur or State Informatics Officer,

NIC Manipur, on 07 April 2011, webcasted that, “A high rate of unemployment exists in

Manipur, particularly among the educated youth. According to the Live Register of Employment

Exchange, the total number of educated job-seekers were recorded as 5,83.65 thousands as on

31st March, 2007, as against 548.70 thousands as on 31st March, 2006 showing an increase of

6.37 percent over the previous year and 605.84 thousands educated job seekers were recorded as

on 31st March 2008, with an increase of 3.80 percent over 2007.” (Retrieved from URL

http://investinmanipur.nic.in/gp_unemp.htm ).

Table 3.19

Estimated Number of Educated Unemployment in Manipur from 1994-2005

Educational Level 1994 1996 1998 2005

Matriculate 101497 118535 151224 183825

Under-Graduate 34415 40795 57801 75842

Graduate & Above 32479 32363 48809 55349

Total Educated 168391 191693 257834 315016

Source: Annual Plan (2006-2007), Planning Department, Government of Manipur, December

2005, Volume I.

According to the Annual Plan (2006-2007), Planning Department, Government of Manipur, the

educated unemployment in Manipur has been rapidly increasing year after year. In the year 1994,

there were total number of 168391 persons of educated unemployment in Manipur, and it was

increase to the total numbers of 315016 persons in 2005. Among the three educational level;

Matriculate, Under-Graduate and Graduate & Above, Matriculate has got the highest number of

educated unemployment in the state. During 1994, there were total numbers of 101497 persons

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of educated unemployment in Matriculate level whereas in the year 2005, the total number had

been rise to 183825 persons of educated unemployment in Manipur.

Table 3.20

District-wise Educated Unemployment Youths in Manipur – 2010

District/State Males Females Total

Manipur 4,94,456 1,88,998 6,83,454

Imphal West 1,53,517 67,504 2,21,025

Imphal East 72,465 28,749 1,01,218

Thoubal 82,792 21,903 1,04,695

Bishnupur 45,826 16,056 62,882

Churachandpur 45,956 15,696 61,652

Senapati 36,397 13,933 50,330

Chandel 17,232 7,964 25,196

Ukhrul 19,256 8,546 27,802

Tamenglong 15,668 4,913 20,581

Physically Handicapped 1594 760 2354

Source: Department of Employment Exchange, Government of Manipur, (August 2010).

From the month of August 2010, there were total number of 6,83,454 educated unemployment

youths (4,94,456 males and 1,88,998 females) in Manipur. Among the four valley district in

Manipur, Imphal West got the highest educated unemployment rate of 2,21,025 persons

(1,53,517 males and 67,504 females), it was followed by Thoubal, Imphal East and Bishnupur

districts with 1,04,695 persons (82,792 males and 21,903 females), 1,01218 persons (72,465

males and 28,749 females), and 62,882 persons (45,826 males and 16,056 females). While in hill

districts, Churachandpur got the highest educated unemployment rate of 61,652 persons (45,956

males and 15,696 females), it was followed by Senapati, Ukhrul, Chandel and Tamenglong

districts with the number of educated unemployment rate of 50,330 persons (36,397 males and

13,933 females), 27,802 persons (19,256 males and 8,546 females), 25,196 persons (17,232

males and 7,964 females), and 20,581 persons (15,668 males and 4,913 females). Physically

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handicapped got the lowest educated unemployment rate of 2354 persons (1594 males and 760

females).

Above all, there is lack of higher educational institutions that offer different kinds of global

education. The suitable subjects in modern education likes; Vocational, Technical, Management,

Information Technology, etc. are rare in the state. Some of the vocational or professional courses

combined with the general colleges are not effective as it remained a general course without

proper infrastructures, unqualified teachers; lack of teacher and most of the courses are

discontinued from the general colleges. The existing colleges in the states run the indifferent

subjects which are based on traditional society. The short sightedness of policies in education

and corrupt educational system bring deficit in the future investment of the state. As a result, the

state lost huge quality of human resources which is supposed to bring economic development in

the state.

Higher Education in Tribal Areas of Manipur

Governance is the main sensitive issue in the state where there are different kinds of ethnic

groups settled within one boundary. The governance of unequal educational development within

the different sections of people in the society creates chaos between the two different major

groups such as, majority and minority. When the majority groups dominate and denied the

interest of minority in terms of general education and its various agencies, it leads to

disagreement. Minorities struggle for their rights to exercise in the state while the dominant

group overlooks the minority needs and denied their share leads to conflict. Unequal

participation in decision making and when dominant group imposed their will upon minority, it

causes tension in the society. “At all levels of the education system governance is a crucial issue.

The arrangements that are in place for representation and participation in consultation, decision

making and governance may be potential source of conflict, or they may be opportunities for

inclusion and resolution of grievances. Arrangement for transparency and accountability also

reflects the system‟s capacity to accept and address inequalities that might otherwise become

source of conflict.” (Smith 2003,p.23). Different types of education system exist in the world,

but unequal allocation of educational resources among different sections of people fuel tension in

the society and create conflict. Multiple ethnic groups in a society see minorities struggling for

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educational equality where the dominant govern with their interest, rejected the minority. To

quote from, Education and International Development by Smith (2003), Characteristics of

education institutions are

Assimilationist (single institution operating according to the values of dominant

tradition, where minority needs and interest are often rejected);

Separatist (separate institutions each serving different constituencies with relatively

homogenous populations – processes within instructions may or may not

acknowledge broader diversity outside the institution);

Integrationist (common or shared institutions with diversity represented within the

population of each institution). (Smith 2003,p.27).

There are numerous ways leading to conflict in education, education system with the interest of

dominant group in case of curriculum that deals with language, religion, and culture. The

traditional subjects in syllabus are also a big issue, such as, history, geography, literature etc.

“The formal education system contributes to exacerbating societal conflicts in particular when it

(re) produces socio-economic disparities and brings about social marginalization or

compartmentation, or promotes the teaching of identity and citizenship concepts which deny the

cultural plurality of society and which then lead to intolerance towards “the other”. Education is,

as numerous examples document, a key medium with which ethnicity is mobilized for the

escalation of conflicts.” (Seitz 2004, p.10).

Imbalance in structures and procedures in education system lead to conflict. “Education systems

may, for their part, be it through the structural effects of the social status allocation through

education careers, be it through the conveyed knowledge, attitudes and identity concepts, make a

decisive contribution to the creation or intensification of societal tension, and in particular ethnic

tension, which ultimately develops into violent conflicts.” (Seitz 2004,p.17). Education as a

conflict-exacerbating factor, the various causes of violent conflict may, according to

Lund/Mehler, be traced back to four key causes:

political, cultural and economic disparities,

legitimation deficits on the part of the government,

mistrust between identity groups and the lack of possibilities for peaceful equilibrium,

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absence of an active society. (Lund /Mahler, cited in Education and Conflict

There are many ways in which language can lead to conflict in education. Firstly the way the

language of instruction; language issue is a sensitive one when the government did not give

attention to the minority groups. Mahapatra (1999) states, “Language provides the single most

important ethnic bond towards group identity for it is a cue of unmistakable dependability.”

(Mahapatra 1999.pp,61). Conflict arises when the minority struggle in recognition of mother

tongue as medium of instruction and need to promote as a common language in national and

state, language policy reflect diversity among the society. Goswami (1990) states, “Language

conflict in certain situation is seen to lead the political tussles. One language may even destroy

be unconsciously, another language. A language politically, culturally, and commercially

powerful may dominate a state to such an extent that other minor or ethnical languages in the

area suffer in consequence.” (Goswami 1990,p,55). There is conflict when educational resources

are not distributed equally among the different groups of society. Smith (2003) states,

“Irrespective of the degree of decentralization and differentiation within a system, issues of

equality carry the potential to inflame or ameliorate conflict between different groups within

society. Equality concerns may rise in term of „inputs‟ such as equal access of all groups to

education, transparency in the allocation of resources and the recruitment, training and

deployment of teachers.” (Smith 2003.p,26). Ethnic conflict and societal crisis are increasingly

responsible for denial of the human right to education.

The National Policy on Education (1986) states, “Some minority groups are educationally

deprived or backward. Greater attention will be paid to the education of these groups in the

interest of equality and social justice. This will naturally include the constitutional guarantees

given to them to establish and administer their own educational institutions, and to protect their

language and culture. Simultaneously, objectivity will be reflected in the preparation of

textbooks and in all school activities and all possible measures will be taken to promote an

integration based on appreciation of common national goals and ideals, in conformity with core

curriculum.” (NPE 1986.p,116). Reservation policy in educational institution has also

implemented for Schedule Tribe (ST) and Schedule Caste (SC), 7.5 percent for ST and 15

percent for SC, stipend and scholarship are also provided by the central government to promote

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higher education. The State government is responsible whether the policy is adopted effectively

and the fund sanction for education is diverse equally in different section.

There are many problems of general development in Manipur but by comparing the two sections

of peoples, the Meiteis (non-tribal) and Tribals, Meiteis got the benefits of nearly total whereas

tribals are deprived and suffered badly. The All Naga Students‟ Association, Manipur (ANSAM)

and Naga Women‟s Union, (2012) states that, “Manipur Government also denied quality

education, health services, job reservation, service promotion and infrastructural development to

the tribals.” (The Sangai Express, January 18, 2012. Retrieved from URL

http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=3..190112.jan12 ).

There is a complex relationship between education and conflict when the dominant denied the

interest of minority. Seitz (2004) states “One of the key questions for the relationship between

education and conflict is the manner in which education systems organize their dealings with

diversity.” (Seitz 2004.p,10). Conflict has affected education from various directions in Manipur

state, which has multiple ethnic groups within one boundary, i.e., from Meitei, the larger

dominant group, and down to the smaller tribal groups among the society. The researcher used

the term majority to notify Meitei, as they are the majority in Manipur, which of those others are

mixed with different tribes. Meitei as the majority group reflects in all the activities in education

system. State governance is complicated by the fact of the interests of the dominant groups being

paramount, with little attention to the minorities, thereby increasing the vulnerability of conflict

among groups, and intensified assertions and struggles for economic and social-cultural needs.

Shimray (2004) states, “The ethnic politics based on demographic domination and power politics

have led to the process of ethnic domination of the majority over the minority.” (Shimray

2004,p.4642). Economic backwardness, unemployment, lack of educational development, etc.

are the factors that cause conflict, and it is the reason that increases tension in Manipur.

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Table 3.21

Distribution of Ethnic Groups in Manipur - 2001

District Ethnic Group

Imphal, Bishnupur and Meiteis, Pangans, and few Settlements of Kom

Thoubal

Ukhrul Tangkhul Nagas and few Settlements of Kukis

Senapati Mao Nagas, Poumai Nagas, Maram Nagas, Thangal

Nagas, and few Settlement of Kukis

Tamenglong Zeliangrong Nagas (Zeliang, Rongmei and Zeme),

Chiru Nagas, and few settlements of Kukis

Chandel Maring Nagas, Monsang Nagas, Lamkang Nagas,

Chothe Nagas, Monyon Nagas, Tharao Nagas, and

Kukis

Churachandpur Paite, Simte, Raite, Mizos, Hmar, Suhte, Purum,

Gangte, Vaiphei, Kuki.

Source: Shimray (2001).

Census of India (2001) recognized 29 tribes in Manipur. Manipur comprises of three major

communities, Meiteis, Nagas and Kuki-Chin-Mizo. There are nine districts in Manipur, (see

table 3.21). Imphal east, Imphal west, Bishnupur and Thoubal districts are dominated by Meiteis

in the valleys of Manipur. Nagas inhabit in four hilly districts, Ukhrul, Senapati, Tamenglong

and Chandel districts whereas Churachandpur district is dominated by Kuki-Chin-Mizo group of

tribes. Within the five tribal inhabit districts, there are total number of 25 sub-divisions.

Approximately, 95 percent of tribals in the state professed Christianity. Geographically, tribal

people are settled in hilly areas and are surrounded by the Meitei dominated region in the

valleys. Multiple ethnic groups have their own distinct language, tradition and culture. In India,

the Naga community is divided and scattered in four states - Manipur, Assam, Nagaland and

Arunachal Pradesh. There are Naga communities in Myanmar as well. Shimray (2007) states,

“Nagas belongs to Mongoloid group in race and Tibeto-Burman linguistic group, Nagas ethnic

group consist of numerous community, and each community has their distinct respective

language and economic system.” (Shimray 2007.p,23). There are more than 40 tribes among the

Nagas, and the Tangkhul is one of the largest groups and dominated in Ukhrul district of

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Manipur. The population of 29 tribes and unspecified tribe in the state are given below in table

3.22.

Table 3.22

Name of the Tribes and Population in Manipur (Alphabetical order)

Sl. No. Name of the Tribes Population

1 Aimol 2,643

2 Anal 13,853

3 Angami 650

4 Chiru 5,487

5 Chothe 2,675

6 Gangte 15,100

7 Hmar 42.690

8 Kabui: (i) Puimei (ii)Rongmei 62,216

9 Kacha Naga: (i) Zemei(ii) Liangmei 20,328

10 Koirao 1,200

11 Koireng 1,056

12 Kom 15,467

13 Lamkang 4,524

14 Mao 80,568

15 Maram 10,510

16 Maring 17,361

17 Any Mizo (Lushai tribes) 10,520

18 Monsang 1,635

19 Mayon 1,710

20 Paite 44,861

21 Purum 503

22 Ralte 110

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23 Sema 25

24 Simte 7,150

25 Sukte 311

26 Tangkhul 1,12,944

27 Thadou 1,15,045

28 Vaiphei 27,791

29 Zou 19,112

30 Un specified Tribe 75,768

Total Tribes Population: 7,13,813

Source: Census of India (2001).

Youth Dormitory: Before the arrival of Western Christian Missionaries in Manipur, total tribal

population in the State practiced the system of imparting traditional education through youth

dormitory which is considered as non-formal School. Tribals in the state were animist since time

immemorial, until the Western Christian Missionaries arrived in the state and convert the animist

tribal into Christianity. Unlike Meiteis, in the olden days, when there was no school, „Morung‟

(youth dormitory) played a great role in every Naga villages. Every Naga tribes have called

themselves different names according to their dialect for both boys and girls, even though among

the Naga tribes has given different names of youth dormitory, system and patterns are similar.

The Tangkhul Naga called Morung as „Longshim‟. Longshim is a place where boys get together

and sleep together until they got married. Kabui Naga called as „Khangchu‟ for boys and „Luchu‟

for girls, another Mao Naga called as „Khruchozii‟ for boys and „Lochozii‟ for girls. According

to Shimray (1985), “For the Nagas, a Morung was pivot around which social, religions

educational and religious activities of the young people revolved. The Morung and the ladies

dormitories are therefore rightly called the Naga Schools” (Shimray 1985,p.193). In the case of

Kuki they called youth dormitory as „Swam‟. Likewise, each tribe has their own system of

imparting non-formal education through youth dormitory by given a name according to their

respective dialects.

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Until 1896, there was no school in the tribal hilly areas of Manipur. Formal School came into

existence in tribal areas during 1896, the first school was established in Ukhrul by a Western

Christian Missionary named Capt. Rev. William Pettigrew. Among tribals, Tangkhul Naga tribe

is the first community to get education in the history of education in Manipur. Later, the

Missionaries and their trained educated students spread education followed by converting the

tribals animist people into Christianity and slowly in all the certain parts of the hilly areas of the

state.

Hill Districts in Manipur at Glance

Ukhrul District: Ukhrul district lies about 84 kilometers to the east of Imphal. The district is

divided into five sub-divisions namely, Ukhrul North (Chingai), Ukhrul Central (Ukhrul),

Kamchong Chassad (Kamchong) and Phungyar Phaisat (Phungyar). The district has a total

literacy rate of 73.12 percent (80.13 percent males & 65.41 percent females), which is higher

than the average of national literacy level against 65 percent. Ukhrul has only one government

college, Pettigrew College which is located at Meijailung areas (outskirt of Ukhrul Headquarter).

The college was established in the year 1965. The college opened Higher Secondary School and

Three Year Degree (10+2+3) Courses under the Council of Higher Secondary Education,

Manipur (CHSEM) and Manipur University. The college function Arts and Science streams from

class ( XI) to graduate level.

Senapati District: Senapati district is situated in the northern part of Manipur. Previously,

Senapati district was known as Manipur North District which came into existence on 14

November 1969 with it‟s headquarter at Karong. Later, the district headquarter was shifted to

Senapati on 13 December 1976. On 15 July 1983, the district came to be known as Senapati

district. Senapati is chiefly populated by Nagas and other tribe like Kukis, Nepali, etc. According

to the census of India (2001), the district has a total literacy rate of 59.60 percent (66.98 percent

males & 52.13 percent females), which is lower than the average of national literacy level.

Senapati district is divided into six sub-divisions namely, Mao-Maram, Paomata, Parul, Sadar

Hills West, Saitu Gamphazol and Sadar Hills East. This district is the gateway of Manipur, the

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national highway No.37 passes through the district which connects to Nagaland, Assam, etc.

There are five colleges in Senapati, the name and the statuses of the colleges are; Hill College

(Tadubi), Affiliated College to Manipur University was established in the year 1977. The college

offers Arts, Science and Commerce in undergraduate level. Presidency College (Motbung),

Affiliated College to Manipur University was established in the year 1975. Damdei Christian

College (Kangpokpi), Private Affiliated College to Manipur University was established in the

year 1987. Mt Everest College (Taphou, Senapati), was established in the year 1999 and Don

Bosco College (Maram), was established in the year 2000. These two colleges are under the

category of Permanently Affiliated Private Colleges to Manipur University. Both the colleges

run pre-university and undergraduate degree courses (10+2+3). Mt. Everest College offers Arts,

Science and Commerce in 10+2 level and Arts and Science in three years degree course whereas

Don Bosco College offers Arts, Science and Commerce Courses in three years degree course.

Tamenglong District: Tamenglong district is situated in the western part of Manipur. The

district was created in the year 1919, and became a full-fledged district in 1969. Tamenglong is

populated by Nagas. The district is divided into four sub-divisions viz; Tamenglong, Tamei,

Tousem and Nungba. According to the census of India (2001), Tamenglong has the total literacy

rate of 58.33 percent (67.13 percent males and 49.29 percent females), which is lower than the

average of national literacy level. The district has only one Arts government college named

Tamenglong College. It was established in the year 1986 at Tamenglong. The college runs from

class (XI) to Bachelor of Arts (BA) level. There is no science college in the district. The college

has an annual capacity intake of 334 students with the strength of 22 teaching staff and 13 non-

teaching staff.

Chandel District: Chandel district is situated in the south-eastern part of Manipur. Chandel

district was formerly known as Tengnoupal district which came into existence of 13 May 1974.

The district is populated by Nagas. Chandel district has four sub-divisions namely, Machi,

Tengnoupal, Chandel and Chakpikarong. The national highway No.39 passes through this

district. According to census of India (2001), the district has the total literacy rate of 55.86

percent (63.77 percent males and 47.88 percent females), which is lower than the average of

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national literacy level. The district has three colleges; United College was established as a

private college in the year 1980 at Chandel, and the college was converted into full-fledged

government college on 1 June 1996. Previously, the college functions higher secondary and thee

year degree courses. Later in the year 2009-2010, higher secondary course was discontinued

from the college and offered three years degree course in Arts and Science Streams. South East

Manipur College and Moreh College were established in the years 1983 and 1992 respectively.

Both the colleges are Permanently Affiliated Private Colleges to Manipur University.

Churachandpur District: The district is situated in the south-western corner of the State.

Churachandpur is populated by the Kuki-Chin-Mizo tribes. The district has the total literacy rate

of 71.96 percent (76.70 percent males & 63.13 percent females), which is higher than the

average of national literacy level. Churachandpur district is divided into five sub-divisions

namely, Parbung, Thanlon, Singngat, Henglep and Churachandpur. Churachandpur is the

headquarter of the district. The district has six colleges including one law college, the name of

the colleges and their details are as follows; Churachandpur College, the Affiliated College to

Manipur University was established in the year 1964. The college offers Arts and Science

Streams in higher secondary and three years degree course (10+2+3). Bethany Christian College,

a Permanently Affiliated Private College to Manipur University was established in the year 1993,

and Lamka College, the Temporary Affiliated College to Manipur University offer Arts Course

in (10+2+3) level. Rayburn College, the Permitted Private College to Manipur University was

established in the year 1994. The college offers Arts, Science, and Commerce in (10+2+3) level.

The private college, Mangminthang College of Arts and Commerce runs Arts and Commerce in

degree level. L.G.M. Law College, the Private Affiliated College to Manipur University was

established in the year 1982. The law college function Bachelor of Law Course (LLB), and the

college is affiliated to Manipur University. The law college is also recognized by BAR Council

of India.

Presently, out of total number of 73 colleges in the state, 41 colleges are located in Imphal West

and Imphal East districts. Thoubal and Bishnupur districts has 8 colleges each whereas in tribal

populated hill districts, Churachandpur has the highest numbers of 6 colleges, followed by

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Senapati with 5 colleges, Chandel has 3 colleges, and Tamenglong and Ukhrul districts has only

1 government college each. Most of the government colleges in hills areas practiced the

combined education system of (10+2+3) standards. Tribals are lacking behind in higher

education, in comparison with Meiteis due to deprivation of educational facilities and lack of

higher educational institution in tribal region, whereas Meiteis dominated districts have sufficient

colleges and some other college of importance. The Central Manipur University, Central

Agricultural University, Medical Colleges, Technical College and Polytechnic Colleges are

located in Imphal valley and it is subjugated by Meiteis thus excluding the attention of tribals.

Singh (2006) “Manipur is not far behind from other states in tribal education but its‟ share in

technical and professional education is not up to the mark. The hill areas suffer from lack of

institutions of higher learning.” (Singh 2006.p,46). All the important colleges are based in

Imphal valleys while few colleges are located in tribal areas. Besides, there is lack of college

teachers in hilly regions, and there are also many teachers post lying vacant in tribal areas. The

report of the Higher Education Commission (2003) states, “The commission finds that there is a

great disparity in infrastructure development between colleges in the hills and the valley and also

colleges in the urban and the rural areas of the valley. This disparity has effected higher

education adversely, particularly in the hills where even the basic infrastructure and the

minimum teaching staff are found lacking.” (Report of the Manipur State Higher Education

Commission 2003.p,viii).

Meiteis as dominant group inhabited in Imphal, the Capital of Manipur has exercised power to

administer all the development in education, divert the minimal educational resource in tribal

areas. From the low intake of student in Manipur University to job recruitment, most of the

preferences have been given to the Meitei‟s. This is not fair according to state policy of seat

reservation, the seat reservation for the Scheduled Tribe is 34 percent and Scheduled Caste is 2

percent. It is according to the proportion of the population in the State. Manipur University

Tribal Student Union, (2008) states, “Even when the State University reserved 31 percent for the

Scheduled Tribes and 2 percent for the Scheduled Caste, hardly 10 percent were really reserved

for the ST. There were just 3 lecturers out of the 167 lecturers in the university and 30 STs out of

the 332 non-teaching staffs.” (The Sangai Express, 09 October 2008). Most of the conflicts in

education are between the Meitei (majority) and tribal (minority). The minorities are resisting for

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their equal share and right towards education but the education system in Manipur has been

politicized by the dominant political groups. All Tribal Students‟ Union, Manipur, (2008) states

“The attitude of the Government of Manipur as well as the authorities of the university has

severely marginalized the tribals, which is evident in the area of education as well as other areas

too.” (Retrived from URL tangkhul.com, on 4 November 2008). Due to Manipur University

discriminating and segregating educational rights of tribals, tribals are compelled to demand

separate tribal hills university. The tribal hill rallyist placard also read as “Don‟t turn MU into

Meitei University,” “We demand a separate hill University,” MU is Manipur University not

Manipuri University.” (The Sangai Express, 14 October 2008).

To quote from the Constitution, Article 46 states: “The state shall promote with special care the

educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of the

scheduled castes, and the scheduled tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all

forms of exploitation.” Article 29(2) of the Constitution also states: “No citizen shall be denied

admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State

funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.” The Union government

and the state government are responsible to solve the socio-economic, educational and political

problems of minorities in the state; it should work out with action which has been promoted for

the minority people. Due to Central Manipur University deprived tribals rights to pursue higher

education due to low intake of students and recruitment of few tribal teacher in various

government school, colleges and university, tribal agitated against the reservation policy of the

university and government jobs in Manipur. The tribal compelled to demand separate tribal hills

university. To solve the problems of tribal students in Manipur, division of separate tribes and

non-tribes educational administrative will be effective. Vaunglallian (2010), pointed out two

divisional points by setting up of separate educational department in the state, “the Manipur Hills

Education Department (& Service) and the Manipur Valley Educational Department (& Service).

To draw maximum benefit for such small and beautiful Departments, we must have two separate

Ministers, two separate Secretaries/Commissioners, two separate Directorates and two separate

budgets etc., so that there can never be any sort of inter-transfer, or „overlapping (a word very

applicable and relevant today). It will also actually help if the officers and buildings of the two

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Departments/Services are as far as apart possible – one big deep in the Hills and the others in the

far corner of the country.” (Webcasted on 24 September 2010, at www.thesangaiexpress.com).

After the long protest to meet the tribal demands, the tribal apex student body, All Tribal

Student‟s Union, Manipur, move to the Union Government to set up separate university for

tribals in the State. Central government intervene the situation between the state government and

ATSUM by taking an agreement to establish a regional centre under the Indira Gandhi National

Tribal University, Amarkantak (IGNTU), Madhya Pradesh, which is a Central University

established by an Act of Parliament on India. The Vice-Chancellor of IGNTU opened the first

regional centre in Manipur on 9 September 2009, and it is formally inaugurated by Chief

Minister of Manipur. The Vice-Chancellor of IGNTU, on the request to the state government to

provide Officer on Special Duty to look after the newly opened regional centre, the state

government appointed the Principal of United College, Chandel, Shri T. Oliver as Officer on

Special Duty. To set up the regional centre, State government offered a plot of 300 acres in

Makan village at the distance of 25 kilometer from Imphal. The site is located at Kangpokpi,

Sub-Division under the Senapati district in Imphal-Dimapur national highway No.39. At present,

the Regional Centre IGNTU, is temporarily annexed with Tribal Research Institute (TRI), which

is situated at Adimjati complex, Imphal. Till now, the construction of building, IGNTU,

Regional Centre is still pending.

Presently, IGNTU, Regional Centre introduced three subjects they are; Master of Philosophy in

Political Science, Master of Arts in Political Science and Master of Arts in Social Work. Five

teachers are appointed on contract basis, out of which three teachers are allotted in Political

Science and two teachers are allotted in Master of Social Work. Among the faculties, three

teachers belong to ST category and two teachers are from the general category. The total

numbers of 55 students are enrolled in a year 2010; out of which 19 students are enrolled in

M.Phil. Political Science (18 ST students and 1 general student), 17 students are enrolled in M.A.

Political Science (16 ST students and 1 general student), and 19 students are enrolled in M.A.

Social Work. Together, there are 16 ST students and 3 general students in the IGNTU, Regional

Centre. IGNTU. Regional Centre in Manipur is specially established for tribals. However, the

institute has recruited non-tribal faculty and student. On the other hand, there are several tribal

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students who are starving to get admission in the institutes and there are also many tribals who

are educated and qualified to be faculty are unemployed in the State.

Table 3.23

Enrolment Rate in IGNTU Regional Centre, Imphal, 2010

Subjects Males Females ST General Total

M.Phil Political Science 16 3 18 1 19

M.A. Political Science 9 8 16 1 17

M.A. Social Work 11 8 16 3 19

Source: Office Assistant, IGNTU, Regional Centre, Imphal (2010).

Before the creation of IGNTU regional centre in Manipur, only one institute was established to

uplift the tribal society, the institute is called the Tribal Research Institute (TRI). To set up

separate welfare for tribal in higher educational institution, Govt. of Manipur formed a Working

Group to prepare a detail report to established TRI in 1986. The Working Group submitted their

proposal content of subject to build research and training centre for 33 tribes in Manipur. In

October 1986, Govt. of Manipur forwarded their proposal to the Ministry of Welfare, Govt. of

India. With an approval from the Govt. of India, the TRI building was established in the year

1986, which remained as a section of the Department for Tribal Development till April 2007.

The foundation stone of TRI building was laid down by the then, Chief Minister of Manipur,

Shri. Rishang Keishing on 16 September 1987 and inaugurated by the present Chief Minister of

Manipur on 27 December 2006. TRI is funded by the system of 50:50 shares from the Central

and State Government sponsored scheme under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of

India. The TRI building consist of two museum gallery, library and auditorium, it is situated at

Adimjati Complex, Imphal. The TRI constitutes of ten chiefs functions viz; (i) to conduct

ethnographic studies on tribals (ii) to compile monograph of life and culture of tribal

communities (iii) to conduct research studies on problems relating to scheduled tribes (iv) studies

on the impact and development in tribal areas (v) organize seminar, workshop training, etc. on

issue relating to tribals (vi) documentation of tribal customary law and lives (vii) to develop

tribal museum with the concept of culture preservation (viii) to assist State Government in

formation of prospective plan with the research findings (ix) to monitor implementation of

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protective regulations (x) others are assigned by Central and State Government from time to

time.

According to Salmi (2000) there is “indirect violence (“indirect violation of the right to

survival”) e.g. illiteracy, inequality of access to education, inequality of educational

opportunities, insufficient educational infrastructure (lack of hygiene etc.), and alienating

violence (“deprivation of higher rights”) e.g. culturally biased curricula (dominance culture),

suppression of: subjects/views/language of ethnic minorities, no teaching in mother tongue.”

(Seitz 2004,p.51). Tribals in Manipur have been segregated by the dominant Meitei language in

general education as well as higher education in particular. Besides, there is no fund or interest to

developed tribal language/dialect academically and other related literatures in the state. The

Council of Tribal Literature Societies, Manipur, (2010), in a press release has expressed shock

and unhappiness over state government‟s steps of omitting any proposal for funds regarding the

development of 34 tribal languages in the 13 Finance Commission of the state. The state

government, despite, repeated proposals/requests submitted to the Chief Minister and the

Principal Secretary (finance) has rejected to recommend the tribal languages to the 13 Finance

Commission Report submitted recently to the Finance Commission of India. It has further stated

that the state government did not recognize the salient crisis confronting the tribal language of

the state with no initiative from the state for promotion of the language. It has further urged that

even though the state government is spending crores of rupees to implement various educational

programmes in the state the education department, SCERT, board of secondary education,

Manipur (BSEM), council of higher secondary education, Manipur and other Centrally

sponsored programmes, there is not a single rupee for the tribal languages. Even though

educational textbooks of English, Hindi and Manipuri are developed and published by the state,

the tribal languages have been left neglected”. (Imphal Free Press, 02 January 2010).

Conclusion

The above mentioned points highlight the evidence of tribal deprivation in higher education and

other educational activities in the state. The problems of education system compelled tribal

students to migrate in different parts of the country to get quality education. The system of

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higher education in Manipur has been facing different kinds of problems which came from

several directions; it starts from the highest level of state governance till the bottom stage of the

common men. Higher education department in general and in particular, students, teachers,

individual, family, society, organization, community, etc. have different parts to play in order to

bring progress in the higher education of the State. But one of the main loopholes in higher

education as well as the general education in the state is the involvement of political leaders in

education. Political leaders‟ interferes in education sector to get personal benefits and it is

followed by the concerned department officials which creates a chaos in the state. This corrupt

system of education system degrades the real value of education which is supposed to impart the

good quality of education to the students, but in reverse the students are stuck in the field of

quantity education. In result, due to distortion of fine education system in the State, students

remain hungry for the quality education. However, tribals are the worst sufferers who are

severely affected by the corrupt system of education in the State. Tribal students are deprived

from rights to education. The tribal districts are having a shortage of higher educational

institutions as well as lack of infrastructure development in the state.

The impact of conflicts that pollute the environment of education in the state are as follows;

ethnic conflicts, conflict between government military and other militant groups, excessive

presence of government military in the state, conflict between minority groups and dominant

groups, conflict between the state government and the state government employees, etc. It affects

the educational system bitterly in the state. Singh (2003) states, “Education, thus, has been

devalued by the government leadership for several decades. Manipur is at present driven by the

power of might, force, gun and money without the rule of law. There is scant regard for

education and no respect for human rights and basic needs of the people.” (Singh 2011.p,13).

The unstable governance in the state disturbs the academic calendar by emergence of numerous

groups holding bandhs and strikes in order to meet their demands. The present problems of

higher education in Manipur represent the crisis of governance. At this juncture, Manipur is to be

called as failed state. Vargas-Baron (2003) rightly states, “In every failed state there is a failed

education system.” (Emily Vargas-Baron, extracted from Nicolai & Triplehorn 2003.p,3).