High School PAP/AP English - Deer Park Independent ... writing about great works of literature....

qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjkl

High School PAP/AP English

A Resource for Students

2011-2012

Deer Park High School

of 60

Welcome to Deer Park’s English Advanced Placement program. Under the direction of the College Board, Advanced Placement English is a nationally recognized program that allows students to earn up to a full year of credit in college English. To earn this credit, students must pass a rigorous three-hour exam that includes close reading of sophisticated, challenging, passages and writing several expository essays that demonstrate proficiency in literary and rhetorical analysis. Obviously, one of the primary goals of our program is to give every student the best opportunity possible to pass this exam. Having said this, our program has an even greater goal, something more lasting and more substantial than a score earned on any exam, even one as important as The Advanced Placement Exam. We want all of our students to acquire a habit of mind, to become critical readers and thinkers better able to operate in an ever increasingly complex world. Living in the information age, one can never be too fluent in information processing and creation. Of course, one of the best ways to develop this fluency is reading and writing about great works of literature. Beyond all of these pragmatic concerns, AP Literature is designed to introduce students to the wonderful, befuddling, and illuminating dialectic that is the world of literature. This program is designed for students to grow academically and emotionally, to add to the sum total of who they are. We truly believe that engaging with great literature does not just expand one’s mind but expands one’s life.

DPHS PAP/AP Teachers

of 60

Table of Contents

Course Descriptions _______________________________________________________ 5

Plagiarism Policy _________________________________________________________ 5

Titles from Free Response Questions Adapted from an original list by Norma J. Wilkerson. ______________________________________________________________ 6

Works referred to on the AP Literature exams since 1973, specific years in parentheses. ____________________________________________________________ 6

High School PAP/AP Reading Selections ______________________________________ 8

Annotation: What it is for, and how to do it. ___________________________________ 9

Major Works Data Sheet __________________________________________________ 11

ASSIGNMENT WORDS/TASKS ______________________________________________ 16

DIDLS ________________________________________________________________ 17

DO STYLES _____________________________________________________________ 18

Using TPCASTT for Analysis of Poetry _______________________________________ 19

SOAPSTone ___________________________________________________________ 20

Finding Themes _________________________________________________________ 21

Thesis Statements about Literature _________________________________________ 21

Syntax / Sentence Structure Terms__________________________________________ 22

Patterns by Purpose ____________________________________________________ 22

Patterns by Structure ___________________________________________________ 22

Patterns by Syntax _____________________________________________________ 22

Advanced Syntax Techniques ____________________________________________ 23

What AP Readers Long to See… ____________________________________________ 25

16 DETRACTORS FROM MATURE ACADEMIC VOICE ____________________________ 30

AP TERMINOLOGY _______________________________________________________ 32

Literary Elements ______________________________________________________ 32

Poetry Terms _________________________________________________________ 42

Grammatical Terms ____________________________________________________ 44

DESCRIPTORS FOR TONE, ATTITUDE, & DICTION _______________________________ 46

of 60

VERBS _________________________________________________________________ 47

$50 WORD LIST _________________________________________________________ 48

Dialogue Tag Words ____________________________________________________ 48

Verbs ________________________________________________________________ 49

Adjectives ____________________________________________________________ 50

Adverbs ______________________________________________________________ 51

Transitions ___________________________________________________________ 53

Rubric of All Rubrics ______________________________________________________ 55

Literary Analysis Scoring Guide ____________________________________________ 56

Poetry Analysis Scoring Guide _____________________________________________ 57

Prose Analysis Scoring Guide ______________________________________________ 58

Language Analysis Scoring Guide ___________________________________________ 59

Persuasive Scoring Guide _________________________________________________ 60

of 60

Course Descriptions An AP course in English Language and Composition engages students in becoming skilled readers of prose written in a variety of rhetorical contexts, and in becoming skilled writers who compose for a variety of purposes As in the college course, the purpose of the AP English Language and Composition course is to enable students to read complex texts with understanding and to write prose of sufficient richness and complexity to communicate effectively with mature readers. Upon completing the AP English Language and Composition course, then, students should be able to:

• analyze and interpret samples of good writing, identifying and explaining an author’s use of rhetorical strategies and techniques;

• apply effective strategies and techniques in their own writing; • create and sustain arguments based on readings, research and/or personal experience; • write for a variety of purposes; • produce expository, analytical and argumentative compositions that introduce a complex

central idea and develop it with appropriate evidence drawn from primary and/or secondary sources, cogent explanations and clear transitions;

• demonstrate understanding and mastery of standard written English as well as stylistic maturity in their own writings;

• demonstrate understanding of the conventions of citing primary and secondary sources; • move effectively through the stages of the writing process, with careful attention to inquiry

and research, drafting, revising, editing and review; • write thoughtfully about their own process of composition; • revise a work to make it suitable for a different audience; • analyze image as text; and • evaluate and incorporate reference documents into researched papers.

An AP English Literature and Composition course engages students in the careful reading and critical analysis of imaginative literature. Through the close reading of selected texts, students deepen their understanding of the ways writers use language to provide both meaning and pleasure for their readers. Puhr, Kathleen M. AP® English Language and Composition: Teacher’s Guide. The College Board. 2007 Plagiarism Policy: According to the WPA (Council for Writing Program Administrators), and with DPHS – South ELA Department input, in an instructional setting, plagiarism occurs when a writer uses someone else’s language, ideas, or other original (not common knowledge) material without acknowledging its source. Source: Defining and Avoiding Plagiarism: The WPA Statement on Best Practices. Council for Writing Program Administrators. N.d. Web. 4 May 2011. For more information: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/ http://wpacouncil.org/positions/WPAplagiarism.pdf

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/�

http://wpacouncil.org/positions/WPAplagiarism.pdf�

of 60

Titles from Free Response Questions Adapted from an original list by Norma J. Wilkerson. Works referred to on the AP Literature exams since 1973, specific years in parentheses.

Most Frequently Cited 1970-2011

24 Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison

19 Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte

16 Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky, Great Expectations by Charles Dickens

15 Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad , Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, Moby Dick by Herman Melville

14 The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain

13 King Lear by William Shakespeare

12 Catch-22 by Joseph Heller, The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce, The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne

11 The Awakening by Kate Chopin, Billy Budd by Herman Melville, Light in August by William Faulkner, Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zorah Neale Hurston

10 As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner, Ceremony by Leslie Marmon Silko

9 Antigone by Sophocles, Beloved by Toni Morrison, The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams, Native Son by Richard Wright, Othello by William Shakespeare, Song of Solomon by Toni Morrison , A Streetcar Named Desire by Tennessee Williams

8 Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy, Bless Me, Ultima by Rudolfo Anaya, Candide by Voltaire, The Color Purple by Alice Walker, Jude the Obscure by Thomas Hardy , The Jungle by Upton Sinclair, A Passage to India by E. M. Forster, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard

7 All the King’s Men by Robert Penn Warren, All the Pretty Horses by Cormac McCarthy, The Crucible by Arthur Miller, Cry, The Beloved Country by Alan Paton, Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller , Lord Jim by Joseph Conrad, Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert, The Mayor of Casterbridge by Thomas Hardy, Oedipus Rex by Sophocles , Portrait of a Lady by Henry James, A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry, Sula by Toni Morrison, The Tempest by William Shakespeare, Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett

6 A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen, An Enemy of the People by Henrik Ibsen, Equus by Peter Shaffer, Ethan Frome by Edith Wharton, Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift, Hedda Gabler by Henrik Ibsen , Major Barbara by George Bernard Shaw, Medea by Euripides, The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare, Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe, Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf, Murder in the Cathedral by T. S. Eliot, Obasan by Joy Kogawa, Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner, The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway, Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, The Turn of the Screw by Henry James, Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? by Edward Albee

5 Bleak House by Charles Dickens, The Cherry Orchard by Anton Chkhov, Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe, Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, Go Tell It on the Mountain by James Baldwin , Hamlet by William Shakespeare, Macbeth by William Shakespeare , Mrs. Warren’s Profession by George Bernard Shaw, The Piano Lesson by August Wilson, Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser, Tess of the D’Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy, Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys, Wise Blood by Flannery O’Connor

of 60

Shakespeare - All Plays Total = 74

2 Anthony and Cleopatra 4 As You Like It

5 Hamlet 3 Henry IV, Parts I and II

1 Henry V 4 Julius Caesar 14 King Lear

5 Macbeth 6 Merchant of Venice

1 A Midsummer Night's Dream 1 Much Ado About Nothing

9Othello 1 Richard III

4 Romeo and Juliet 7 The Tempest 4 Twelfth Night 4 Winter's Tale

Classical Greek & Roman Literature = 29

1 The Aeneid by Virgil 9 Antigone by Sophocles

1 The Eumenides by Aeschylus 1 The Iliad by Homer

1 Lysistrata by Aristophanes 6 Medea by Euripides

3 The Odyssey by Homer 6 Oedipus Rex by Sophocles 1 The Orestia by Aeschylus

of 60

High School PAP/AP Reading Selections

9th Grade Mythology (SR)

Lord of the Flies(SR) Great Expectations

To Kill a Mockingbird A Raisin in the Sun

Ethan Frome Pride and Prejudice

Twelfth Night The Odyssey

10th Grade Jane Eyre (SR)

1984 (SR) Medea

The Grapes of Wrath Cyrano de Bergerac

A Tale of Two Cities Mrs. Dalloway

Othello Orpheus Descending

AP Language and Composition

(11th) In Cold Blood (SR)

The Grass Harp (SR) A Lamp in the Window (SR)

The Crucible The Scarlet Letter

A Mercy The Great Gatsby

The Sound and the Fury The Glass Menagerie

A Streetcar Named Desire Crime and Punishment

Macbeth

AP Literature and Composition

(12th) Brave New World (SR)

The Poisonwood Bible (SR) Beowulf

The Canterbury Tales Hamlet

A Modest Proposal Oedipus Rex

The Importance of Being Ernest Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead

Waiting for Godot

of 60

Annotation: What it is for, and how to do it.

Annotation is active engaged reading. It is reading with a pen or pencil in hand and responding as one reads by underlining important passages and adding marginal notes, comments and personal responses to what is being read. It is reading that requires the active engagement of both the mind and the hand, rather than the mere passing of one’s eyes over an assignment hoping to get the ‘gist” of the story. Benefits Annotation is the first step in analyzing and understanding a given work, whether it is a work of literature or a newspaper or magazine article. A close reading of any work will reveal its strengths as well as its weaknesses and is an invaluable skill for the college-bound students, as any glance at the used-book stacks at a college bookstore will immediately make clear. In fact, it could be fairly said that annotating assigned textbook readings in college is a way of life. However, whether you see college in your future or not, you should make the practice of annotating as you read a life-long habit. It will make you a more critical, analytical thinker, and that is a life skill from which you can read benefits regardless of the career path you choose. How do you annotate? In this class, we will be annotating works of literature, but the basic steps and thought processes will be the same for any piece of reading material. An in-depth analysis requires at least two readings. During this reading, you should underline unfamiliar words and [bracket passages] that you do not understand, or that need further explanation. In the margin, note your initial reactions and responses to this initial reading. Underline words or phrases that are repeated. In literature, there are at least 12 possible areas that are open to analysis in any given work: setting, characterization, point of view, tone, style, imagery, symbols, figures of speech, plot, structure, conflict and theme. Focusing on these elements provides a good starting point for any analysis. The suggested steps below are intended to aid you in making annotations. Remember: annotation is a skill, and, like any skill, it gets better and easier with practice. Do not be intimidated. Your annotations are essentially a reflection of your own thought processes and your interaction with the text. There is no single “right way” to annotate. Start like this:

1. Look carefully at the title. Is there any wordplay (pun, irony, double-meaning, etc.) or possible symbolic or thematic implications contained in the title? Don’t wait to see if you are right. Simply indicate your suspicions in a margin comment and move on.

2. What information is contained in the exposition (the introduction of the setting, characters and

immediate situation)? The exposition can be the first few paragraphs, or the first chapter of a longer work. Underline significant details such as time and place (setting). What is the mood or atmosphere in the exposition (what does the author want you, the reader, to feel)? Indicate the mood in the margin. Does it change later? What words suggest the mood? Mark the most extensive or important descriptions of physical place, and underline the most telling words and phrases.

of 60

3. Underline the name and description of each character as he/she is introduced. The details may become significant later. Mark the “main character” or a secondary character’s relationship to the main character (i.e. wife, husband, friend, etc.).

4. Note the point of view. Who is telling the story? Underline any repeated actions, habits or

words of characters. When the characters speak, are they being sincere or sarcastic? How do you know? What evidence supports your speculation?

5. What is the tone? (The author’s attitude toward the subject.) Underline the words that suggest

tone and write “tone” in the margin.

6. Is the style ornate or simple? Does it rely on figurative language (repetition, alliteration, metaphor, simile, etc.) or is the style plain and the subject directly stated?

7. If the author uses figurative language, underline examples and write in the margin what kind

of figurative language is being used. Underline images that are recurring.

8. If the sentence(s) appeal to you, underline them and put a note in the margin saying why.

9. Circle possible symbols in the work and suggest possible meanings in the margin as you read. What evidence supports these meanings? Underline examples. Pay particular attention to repeated words or phrases.

10. Mark the structural units of the work (i.e. exposition, introduction of conflict,

complication/conflict, climax, resolution). Be sure to mark the major conflicts and climax!

11. Consider how the title, names of characters, symbols may be related to a theme. Write possible themes in the margin.

12. Review all your annotations. Do you see an emerging pattern? Is there a pattern? If so, does

it begin earlier than the first indication that you noted? If there is not an apparent patter, are there any connections or conclusions that can be made based on your annotations? Write them in the margins.

of 60

Major Works Data Sheet Note: Cite references in MLA format, in-text and parenthetically. Complete a Works Cited page of all references used. Title: Author: Date of Authoring: Date of Publication: Genre:

Biographical information about the author and historical information about the period of publication:

Characteristics of the genre:

of 60

Describe the author’s style:

Give examples that demonstrate this style and explain how it does so:

Memorable Quotations: You may use additional paper if needed. Quotation, speaker, page number, and “What does it say?”

“What does it mean?” and “Why does it matter?”

1.

2.

of 60

3.

4.

5.

***More Quotes will be needed*** Major Characters

Character’s Name What role does this person have in the story?

Why is the character significant to the story?

Character Traits: What sort of person is this?

1.

2.

3.

of 60

4.

5.

6.

Describe the setting(s) and the mood the setting(s) creates.

What is the significance of the opening scene? What is the point of view?

Major symbols and what they mean:

Major allusions, images, motifs and what function they serve:

of 60

Themes: What is the significance of the ending/closing scenes?

of 60

ASSIGNMENT WORDS/TASKS

WORD Meaning/Task Analyze Break the issue or problem into separate parts and discuss, examine, or interpret

each part and the relationship between them. Sometimes this involves looking carefully at causes and effects.

Analyze the Argument and Conclusion

Look at the truth and persuasiveness of the reasons given for a position and the degree to which the conclusion is justified based on these reasons.

Compare Describe/discuss the similarities between two or more objects, situations, or ideas. Contrast Describe/discuss the differences between two or more objects, situations, or ideas. Critique State your own opinion on the correctness or merits; approval and/or disapproval of

an argument or idea. Define Tell what a particular word or term means in an essay. Usually, this is not a

dictionary definition, but rather clarifies how the author is using the term Describe Give a detailed account, naming characteristics, parts, or qualities. Evaluate This term literally means to determine the “value” of something, to discover how

good or bad something is. It usually means that you should argue that something is good or bad and then discuss your reasoning. Discuss some things advantages and limitations.

Explain Help your reader understand the reasoning behind your position by showing the logical development in step-by-step fashion. You might also be asked to show how something works or how to do something; to tell the meaning, to make clear, to interpret.

Illustrate To use a word picture, diagram, chart, or concrete examples to clarify a point Interpret To give meaning of, translate Justify Give good reasons for, give evidence, present facts to support position, incorporate

and refute opposite points of view Prove Establish the truth by giving factual evidence and logical reasons State Tell the reader your opinion strongly and concisely Summarize Give the main point(s) Trace Follow the course or trail of; give a description

of 60

The key to unlocking tone in a piece of literature is through the following elements: diction, imagery, details, language, and syntax. These elements are also known as

DIDLS.

D (Diction) Choose unusual and/or effective words from the passage.

Evaluate the connotations of the words and write synonyms for each. Then, decide what the word choice suggests about the character’s or narrator’s demeanor.

I (Images) Cite examples of imagery from the passage. Identify the

sense appealed to, and interpret the meaning.

D (Details) List facts or the sequence of events from the passage.

L (Language) Determine the type of language used (formal, informal,

clinical, jargon, literal, vulgar, artificial, sensuous, concrete, precise, pedantic, etc.). Site examples.

S (Syntax) How does sentence structure reveal the character’s

attitude?

of 60

DO STYLES A quick perusal of the types of essay questions on the AP Exams reveals that at least 30-50% of the questions will be asking you to analyze an author’s STYLE. What do we mean when we use the word “style” in a literary sense? If you think of literary style in the same way that you think of fashion style, then you may begin to understand. A fashion designer has certain well-known features of her/his work which set it apart from other designers. Some designers use only a certain type of fabric, color, or emphasize a certain level of formality in their creations. Authors do the same thing, only with WORDS. Just like fashion designers use fabric, color, and levels of formality in their create their style, authors use several different components to create their STYLE. To help you remember the different aspects of writing which create STYLE, here is another (oh boy!) acronym:

Diction – word choices made by the author, consider both CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION

Objective of Author – author’s PURPOSE for writing his/her work, what does he/she hope to teach you?

Syntax – the way the sentences are structured, the way PUNCTUATION (first key) is used, whether the sentences are all long, all short, or a mixture, and how a rhythm is created in the prose (much like the rhythm in a poem created by stressed and unstressed syllables). Includes parallel structures, repetition, etc.

Tone – the attitude of the author toward his material.

You (Audience) – is the author aware of his audience? Is he/she AIMING his comments at a certain group of people? Are his words appropriate for his audience (remember McKuen's poem?) How does he/she use words to appeal to a certain group? Does he/she offend anyone? Please anyone?

Level of Language – which level of language is the author using? Why? Levels include ACADEMIC, FORMAL, INFORMAL, CONVERSATIONAL, JARGON, COLLOQUIAL, DIALECT, SLANG, BIBLICAL, LEGALISTIC, etc.

Elements and Devices – includes both LITERARY and RHETORICAL (logical argument) elements. Literary elements include figurative language, fiction elements such as foreshadowing, symbols, irony, etc. Rhetorical devices include rhetorical question, persuasive techniques like bandwagon, ad hominem, and appeals to ethics, logic, or emotion.

Structure – the way the ENTIRE work (essay, story, novel, play) or large portions of it are organized. Consider point of view, tense and time shifts, flashbacks, digressions, juxtaposition, comparisons and contrasts, closure, patterns, and motifs.

of 60

Using TPCASTT for Analysis of Poetry

T Title What do the words of the title suggest to you? What denotations are presented in the title? What connotations or associations do the words posses?

P Paraphrase Translate the poem in your own words. What is the poem about?

C Connotation What meaning does the poem have beyond the literal meaning? Fill in

the chart below.

Form Diction Imagery

Point of View Details Allusions

Symbolism Figurative Language Other Devices

(antithesis, apostrophe, sound devices, irony,

oxymoron, paradox, pun, sarcasm, understatement)

A Attitude What is the speaker’s attitude? How does the speaker feel about

himself, about others, and about the subject? What is the author’s attitude? How does the author feel about the speaker, about other characters, about the subject, and the reader?

S Shifts Where do the shifts in tone, setting, voice, etc. occur? Look for time and

place, keywords, punctuation, stanza divisions, changes in length or rhyme, and sentence structure. What is the purpose of each shift? How do they contribute to effect and meaning?

T Title Reanalyze the title on an interpretive level. What part does the title play

in the overall interpretation of the poem?

T Theme List the subjects and the abstract ideas in the poem. Then determine the

overall theme. The theme must be written in a complete sentence.

of 60

SOAPSTone

Speaker The voice that tells the story. The author and the speaker are NOT necessarily the same. An author may choose to tell the story from any number of different points of view. In non-fiction consider important facts about speaker that will help assess his/her point of view / position.

Occasion The time and place of the piece; the context that encouraged the writing to happen. Writing does not occur in a vacuum. There is the larger occasion: an environment of ideas and emotions that swirl around a broad issue. Then there is the immediate occasion: an event or situation that catches the writer’s attention and triggers a response.

Audience The group of readers to whom this piece is directed. The audience may be one person, a small group, or a large group; it may be a certain person or a certain people.

Purpose The reason behind the text. Consider the purpose of the text in order to examine the argument and its logic. You should ask yourself, “What does the speaker want the audience to think or do as a result of reading this text?”

Subject The general topic, content, and ideas contained in the text. You should be able to state the subject in a few words or a phrase.

Tone

The attitude of the author. The spoken word can convey the speaker’s attitude, and, thus, help to impart meaning, through tone of voice. With the written work, it is tone that extends meaning beyond the literal. Tone can be determined by examining the author’s diction (choice of words), syntax (sentence construction), and imagery (vivid descriptions that appeal to the senses).

of 60

Finding Themes Two-step process for identifying in a work of fiction:

1. Write a list of words (4-5) that complete this sentence: The story is primarily about ____________.

2. Now, write a complete sentence that explains the lesson about life learned, using one or more of the words chosen above.

NOTE: A THEME IS NEVER ONE WORD!

Thesis Statements about Literature A thesis is a single sentence that introduces 1) your topic (the SUBJECT of your paper), 2) your position on the subject (i.e. your view/opinion/argument on the topic), and 3) your evidence (HOW PROVENS) to prove your position. In English Language Arts classes, in class essays and research papers are often about pieces of fiction. As a result, you must include two additional pieces of information in a thesis statement: 4) the author’s full name, and 5) the name of the work of literature you will be discussing in your paper. An easy way to remember these requirements for a thesis statement in a literary paper is the acronym:

P-A-T-H P = Position A = Author T = Title H = How provens

The strongest essays will have at least 3 HOW PROVENS (pieces of evidence) to prove the position of the paper. A strong thesis is like a sturdy stool. You need at least 3 legs for a stool to stand up, any less and it will fall. Similarly, your essay will not stand up unless you have 3 strong examples or pieces of evidence to support it.

of 60

Syntax / Sentence Structure Terms One of the most important elements of syntax is the way words, phrases, and clauses are arranged. This is a key element of the author’s style and can have a marked effect on meaning. Syntax: The arrangement of words and the order of grammatical elements in a sentence. Patterns by Purpose

Declarative Sentence Makes a statement: “The king is sick.” Imperative Sentence Gives a command: “Cure the king.” Interrogative Sentence Asks a question: “Is the king sick?” Exclamatory Sentence Provides emphasis or expresses strong emotion: “The king is dead! Long live the king!”

Patterns by Structure

Simple Sentence Contains one independent clause: “The singer bowed to her adoring audience.” Compound Sentence Contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon: “The singer bowed to the audience, hut she sang no encores.” Complex Sentence Contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses: “Because the singer was tired, she went straight to bed after the concert.” Compound-Complex Contains two or more independent clauses and one Sentence or more subordinate clauses: “The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores.”

Patterns by Syntax

Loose or Cumulative Sentence Makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending: “We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, tired but exhilarated, full of stories to tell our friends and neighbors.” Periodic Sentence Makes sense fully only when the end of the sentence is reached: “That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.” Balanced Sentence The phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length: “He maketh me lie down in green pastures: he leadeth me beside the still waters.” Natural Order of a Sentence

of 60

Involves constructing a sentence so the subject comes before the predicate: “Oranges grow in California.” Sentence Inversion Involves constructing a sentence so the predicate comes before the predicate: “In California grow the oranges.” Juxtaposition A poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, often crating an effect of surprise and wit: “The apparition of these faces in the crowd:/Petals on a wet, black bough.” (“In a Station of the Metro” by Ezra Pound) Parallel Structure Refers to the grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, or phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased: “He loved swimming, running, and playing tennis.” Repetition A device in which words, sounds and ideas are used more than once to enhance rhythm and to create emphasis: “...government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” (Address at Gettysburg by Abraham Lincoln) Rhetorical Question A question that requires no answer. It is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement: “If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s arguments?” Rhetorical Fragment A sentence fragment used deliberately for a persuasive purpose or to create effect: “Something to consider.”

Advanced Syntax Techniques The techniques listed here are powerful strategies for using language. Students find it both interesting and valuable to identify these techniques in the works of authors and to use them in their own writing. Anaphora The repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses e.g.,”We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing-grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills.” (Winston Churchill) Asyndeton Deliberate omission of conjunctions in a series of related clauses: e.g., “I came, I saw, I conquered.” (Julius Caesar)

of 60

Chiasmus/Antithesis A sentence strategy in which the arrangement of ideas in the second clause is a reversal of the first: e.g., Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.” (John F. Kennedy) Polysyndeton The deliberate use of many conjunctions for special emphasis to highlight quantity or mass of detail or to create a flowing, continuous sentence pattern: e.g., Themeal was huge — my mother fixed okra and green beans and ham and apple pie and green pickled tomatoes and ambrosia salad and all manner of fine country food — but no matter how I tried, I could not consume it to her satisfaction.” Stichomvthia Dialogue in which the endings and beginnings of each line echo each other, taking on a new meaning with each new line, as in the following example from Hamlet: Hamlet: Now mother, what’s the matter? Queen: Hamlet. thou hast thy father much offended. Hamlet: Mother, you have my father much offended. Queen: Come, come, you answer with an idle tongue. Hamlet: Go, go, you question with a wicked tongue. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Second Edition. ©1997 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Zeugma The use of a verb that has two different meanings with objects that complement both meanings: e.g., “He stole both her car and her heart that fateful, night.”

Some suggestions for Syntactical Revision: While students are peer-editing essays, short stories, or other writing, they should work on their syntax as well as on mechanical problems. 1. Rework most sentences beginning with the expletive “there.” 2. Change all passive voice sentences to active voice: e.g., change “The ball was caught by John,” to “John caught the ball.” 3. Add a sentence using a comparison (simile or metaphor). 4. Replace “be” verbs with active verbs. 5. Combine any two sentences to form one compound, one complex, or one compound-complex sentence. 6. Change one declarative sentence into an interrogative sentence and answer it with a rhetorical fragment. 7. Move one sentence to a more effective location in the paragraph. 8. Use a sophisticated syntactical technique (anaphora, chiasmus, polysyndeton, rhetorical fragment. etc.) in at least one of the sentences. The AP Vertical Teams Guide for English. 2nd ed. College Board, 2002.

of 60

What AP Readers Long to See…

This list of suggestions for AP students writing the AP exam was compiled during the 2007 AP English reading at the Convention Center in Louisville, Kentucky. Although its participants read essays that answered only question number 1, their suggestions apply to other parts of the exam as well. The prompt, which generated the essays being scored, was from the 2007 AP English Literature exam, as follows:

In the following two poems (A Barred Owl by Richard Wilbur & The History Teacher by Billy Collins – not reprinted here), adults provide explanations for children. Read the poems carefully. Then write an essay in which you compare and contrast the two poems, analyzing how each poet uses literary devices to make his point.

I’ve done my best to encapsulate, synthesize and categorize comments – there were over 40 pages from which to work. I also know that there are contradictions here; that’s just the way it is. However, the similarities far outweigh the differences. We do all seem to be on the same page, so to speak. Structure & Composition 1. Fully develop your essays; try to write at least 2 pages. It’s a shame to read the first page of

what promises to be an 8 or 9 essay and then have the writer not fully develop their ideas and quit after one page. However, a longer essay is not necessarily a better essay.

2. Integrate your quotations gracefully (1) into your analysis of literary devices (2) with an interpretation of meaning (3). Thoroughly explain the relevance of the quote to the prompt and your analysis. Don’t assume that your understanding of a quote is the same as the readers’ understanding; you have to interpret its significance to the work, your thesis and the prompt. Show, don’t tell.

3. Spend time planning your essay (10 minutes), and find some angle, within the context of the prompt, that you feel passionate about, whether emotionally, intellectually or philosophically (passion moves readers). If the prompt refers to “literary devices” or any other technical aspects of the work, ignore the reference and ask first, “What does the poem mean?” THEN, ask, “What message does the author have for you?” THEN, ask, “How is that message delivered?” At this point, the devices should suggest themselves in a context in which the technicalities of the work will be seen to create its effectiveness rather than obscuring its power.

a. One reader suggested leaving some space at the beginning and write your introduction last, once you know what you’ve actually written.

4. Don’t just jump from thought to thought; transition quickly but effectively. 5. Make sure your essay has a clear ARGUABLE thesis statement which clearly reflects what you

intend to discuss. Make sure your thesis is an EXACT reflection of what the prompt is asking WITHOUT simply restating the prompt. A good formula is “The text shows X in order to show/highlight/accomplish Y.” Connect the literary device back to the author’s point.

6. Spend more time thinking and analyzing the ENTIRE text rather than paraphrasing the text in your response. Many writers miss or ignore subtle shades of meaning which show contrasts or similarities. Look for ambiguities and ambivalence in the selection.

of 60

7. Make sure that all your claims/analysis has effective support AND that the support you choose is the best the text has to offer. When considering what support to use, reflect on the following:

a. Are they all equal? b. Do they grow or diminish in importance or scale? c. Are there different aspects of one thing or varieties?

8. The conclusion should be a separate paragraph, even if you only have time for one sentence. Don’t just stop after your last argument, and avoid simply repeating your introduction in your conclusion. A good conclusion could restate the thesis, emphasize salient aspects of the essay and end with a provocative clincher.

9. While avoiding the formula of the five-paragraph essay, it would also be helpful to see more than one or two GIGANTIC paragraphs. Because readers read through only once and quickly, not having those cues to where ideas begin and end contributes to the incoherency of an essay. Structure is part of essay writing, and students need to show that they can command the language and their thoughts into a structured essay.

10. Don’t use plot summary in your response. “Summary is death!” 11. Evidence, evidence, evidence! 12. Avoid formulaic writing, especially in the opening of your essay. If you use a formula to get the

pen moving, then do, but if 10 or 15 seconds though will help you craft something more creative or original or efficient, that that’s 10 seconds well spent. Readers will read hundreds and hundreds of essays, 90% of which start the same way (think refrigerator word magnets simply rearranged a thousand different ways), and if you can create something memorable (but not wacky), it may bring more attention to your work.

13. Don’t use line numbers, but briefly quote instead. Line numbers never substitute for the actual quote when supporting a point, AND most readers will not go back to the poem or text to see which lines you are referring to. Finally, when quoting, don’t simply give the first and last words with an ellipsis in between. Use the exact words that are most important in demonstrating your point.

14. Take some time to consider point of view and audience before digging in. Many essays confuse the actual purpose of the text by not thinking about or ignoring the proposed audience or point of view.

15. Teachers should remind students that they can write on any work OF LITERARY MERIT which is a PLAY or a NOVEL. Some students wrote notes that they hadn't read any of the suggested works so they were giving up. In addition, the reading slowed down as readers searched the table for someone who might even recognize titles that none of us had heard of.

Style

1. Avoid long, flowery (purple prose), showy, catchy, etc, introductions; stick to a few sentences and get to the point (aka your thesis).

2. Don’t moralize or comment on the quality of the work – “I liked the poem,” etc; focus on literary analysis as a means to convey your opinions not on how you personally felt about the selection. And, don’t comment on the author, either: “Such and such was a great 20th century author who….” Or “Milton does a great job of …”

of 60

3. Try not to be too controversial, politically speaking. 4. Avoid affective fallacy, which argues that the reader's response to a poem is the ultimate

indication of its value. 5. Creative writing is not academic writing. 6. Take some risks. Be aware of your strengths as a writer and show them off. Be critical and

analytical. 7. Develop your essay well, but be thinking about being concise, too. Less can be more. 8. Don’t repeat yourself. Find new ways to say the same thing if you must reiterate a point. 9. Write as legibly and neatly as possible; WRITE USING LARGE LETTERS. Readers will

always do their best to read every word, but stumbling through an essay which is illegible, too small or too big does impact our understanding of the response.

10. It’s not necessary to write titles for your responses; in fact, many readers do not like them at all. 11. Don’t confuse the characters in a poem or text with the audience or the speaker of the piece.

Don’t confuse the speaker with the author, either. 12. Avoid lists: “The writer uses words such as …to show…” 13. Complex ideas require complex or multiple sentences. Don’t oversimplify. 14. Do not use little hearts, stars or circles to dot your “i’s.” It makes your essay harder to read and

takes away valuable time from your analysis. 15. Use a black pen. 16. Use an active voice, simple present tense (literary tense) and strong verbs. 17. Be yourself! Strut your stuff! Use your own voice in the essay. BUT, don’t show off or “act

smart” either. Patronizing or pretentious essays often don’t make the cut because the author is more interested in himself or herself than in taking care of business (aka answering the prompt).

18. We don’t care about your love life, your opinions on Iraq or the US government, your ex-boyfriend or girlfriend, how you’re having a bad hair day, your unreasonable parents, or your lousy AP teacher (at least for the purposes set before us) – write about the literature.

19. Avoid “fluff.” 20. When editing your writing, try not to make changes within the sentence; simply cross out the

whole sentence and start over. 21. Don’t apologize in your essay for a lack of understanding, learning, etc. Show what you can do;

don’t apologize for what you can’t do.

Focus – aka THE PROMPT

1. Respond to the prompt and the prompt ONLY (AP = Address the Prompt – accurately, completely and specifically). Make sure you have a clear understanding of what the prompt asks before beginning, and don’t twist it into what you really want to write about. We readers need to know what and how you understood the text and its relationship to the prompt. This came up many, many times and is probably the most important part of your task. Too many great essays go down in flames because the student simply did not respond to the prompt.

2. Be as specific as possible with your analysis as it refers to the prompt. Don’t over-generalize. Generalizations don’t make good evidence to support assertions.

of 60

3. Don’t simply restate the prompt in your introduction. Using language from the prompt is fine when and if it is combined with an interpretation which you plan on pursuing in the essay.

4. Some literary devices are genre specific; know the difference. There is some overlap, of course, but certain distinctions are worth noting.

5. Don’t simply list devices; focus on a few and show how AND WHY they are used – what the device adds to the meaning of the text. Literary devices are not important in and of themselves, and truly excellent writers don’t just observe devices, they discuss their consequences. Literary devices are tools the author uses to create meaning. Ask yourself “So what?” If there’s a rhyme scheme, so what? What purpose does it serve?

6. Especially when responding to poetry, explain how form relates to content. Form and content are mutually constitutive; any discussion of one should include the other.

7. Literary terms should be used correctly and appropriately. If you’re not sure what a term means or refers to, don’t use it in your essay, and don’t make up devices. Finally, don’t take time to define literary terms. We’re English teachers; we already know them. Instead, focus on explaining how the literary device is being used effectively.

8. When you analyze a work, assess the whole work from start to finish as an organic whole. Don’t carve your analysis into paragraphs for each device; evaluate how the work builds to its conclusion and creates its tone and effects.

9. Don’t forget what are often the most important parts of a text, especially a poem: THE TITLE AND THE ENDING.

10. When asked to compare and contrast, remember that simply because one text uses devices X, Y and Z does not mean that the second text uses the same devices and, therefore, must be part of your analysis. You should be looking at overall meaning and how the author achieves that meaning regardless of the devices involved for each text.

11. Don’t write about ANYTHING which can’t be related back to the theme and the prompt. Also, don’t show off by alluding to other works that you have read or studied, not even in the conclusion. Doing so almost always diminishes your other observations.

12. Take some time to review your essay and make sure it relates back to the prompt. Many essays start our well focused and end up digressing.

13. Many readers responded that you should try to discuss rhyme, structure, etc when working with poetry BUT ONLY if you know what you are talking about. The same is true when dealing with structural attributes of prose passages. BUT, don’t ONLY discuss structure, and don’t assume that structure is the end all or be all of the analysis.

14. If you don’t have much to discuss, do it quickly. 15. If you think a selection is too simple or easy, look again! 16. Don’t force symbolism into your analysis. Everything is not symbolic. It is better to miss

symbolism that only might exist than to distort the meaning of the work by creating symbols that are simply not there.

Vocabulary & Word Choice

of 60

1. The term “diction” does not mean “word choice.” It refers more specifically to the formality of the writer’s language. Looking closely at the writer’s selection of words and phrases, along with his or her use of sentence construction and syntax, all lead to determining the diction of a selection.

2. When comparing and contrasting, don’t write that the texts are similar and different or that they are “the same and different.” This comment was made MANY times.

3. Avoid the use of clichés. 4. Put your time into answering the prompt – understatement is fine instead of litotes, for example. 5. Do not inflate your essay with jargon. Readers know “big words,” too. They may know more of

them than you. Instead, use words effectively and in context. Simple, clear, and direct diction is preferable to high-toned literary bafflegab (pretentious and obscure talk full of technical terminology or circumlocutions).

6. Do not misspell the names of poets, authors, poems, books, terms from the prompt, etc. It looks sloppy. Plus, poems are not plays or novels; plays are not poems or novels; and novels are not poems or plays.

7. Know the differences – analyzing, explaining, paraphrasing, summarizing, describing, etc. 8. “Simplistic” doesn’t mean “simple.” 9. Mastery of grammar and mechanical skills is important and strengthens the essay. 10. Writers don’t “use” diction or tone, nor do they “use literary terms” in their writing. ALL

sentences have diction and syntax. The questions is, therefore, what kind of diction and syntax is being used AND why. Don’t write that, “The author uses diction (or syntax or whatever) to show his or her meaning.”

11. A rhyme scheme and/or metrical pattern do not mean the poem is “sing songy” or “childlike.” 12. Avoid the word “flow”; it means nothing. 13. Poems and stories are not “journeys.” 14. Don’t talk about the effect something has on the reader’s feelings or emotions. In fact, avoid the

word “feel” altogether. Example: “…to make the reader feel…”; “…a story-like feel versus a rhythmic feel...”; “As one reads, it will make the reader flow through the poem and feel like he is there.”

15. Authors don’t “use” devices to make something interesting, more accessible or more complicated to read or understand.

16. Avoid using the diminutive or augmentative forms of words simply to highlight what may be more subtle differences in meaning.

17. Don’t create “new” words (or neologisms) in your essays. 18. Avoid empty words: unique, different, similar, negative, etc – make your own “weak word list.” 19. “Rhyme” does not mean the poem is simple. 20. Poetry is written in stanzas not paragraphs. 21. Avoid “in today’s society” and “paints a picture.” 22. Words are not a poetic device. 23. Mood and tone are not the same thing.

Downloaded from apenglish on August 28th, 2007. We all appreciate the time it took “tomrompf” to create this list and especially that he is willing to share it.

of 60

16 DETRACTORS FROM MATURE ACADEMIC VOICE

1. Use of first person. Avoid “I think,” “I believe,” “To me this means…”

2. Use of second person “you.” Avoid the use of the second person. No: “When you die…” Instead use: “When humans die…” or “When one dies…” No: “The author’s use of diction makes you feel…” Rather use: “The author’s use of diction makes the reader feel…”

3. Colloquial speech and immature, excessively informal vocabulary. Examples: “Your

average Joe,” “Joe College,” “Back in the olden days,” “Nowadays,” “A bunch of…a ton of…” (Does the writer mean a “significant number of”?); “I would have to agree/disagree…” (because you don’t have to); “He got off…” (Rather use a more elevated “He escaped justice…”); and so on.

4. Use of psychobabble. Do not over-emphasize psychological lasting effects (unless stated in

prompts).

5. Use of absolutes. “always” “never” “everybody” “99.99% of people agree…” All of these sound false, absolutes are a rarity.

6. Excesses of tone. Hysterical, breathless, indignant, self-righteous, cute, breezy, etc.

Example: “If a homeless man even talks he gets arrested.”

7. Cheerleading. This is a special type of excess of tone when a student lavishes praise on an author or his work. Example: “The greatest poet…” “Does a magnificent job…” “obviously a genius…” (Note: this observation is not intended to squelch true passion or heart-felt response to texts).

8. Silly, weak, childish examples. Students’ lack of discernment with regard to quality of

examples or evidence; using cartoons, Disney movies, etc. as legitimate evidence (unless mentioned in prompts.)

9. Rhetorical questions. Especially those with an indignant response, such as: “Do we

Americans have to put up with this? I think not!”

10. Clichés. All of them. They are old and no one wants to read another.

11. Exclamation points. Especially when a student uses a lot of them!!!

12. Most adverbs. Such as basically, obviously, surely, certainly, very, really, incredibly, totally, should be used sparingly (if ever).

13. Writing about author and speaker or narrator as though they are the same. Weak: Dickinson

greets death as a courtly suitor. Stronger: Dickinson’s speaker greets death as a courtly suitor.

of 60

14. Misspelling the author’s name. Although misspellings are often overlooked, pay heed to the author’s correct name.

15. Referring to authors by their first name. Unless you are close personal friends, it is

appropriate to use last names.

16. Writing about an author’s life rather than his or her specific purpose in a text. Weak: “Dickinson writes about death because she was surrounded by it.” Stronger: “Dickinson’s purpose in using this image is to….”

V. Stevenson 7/31/02 Patrick Henry High School [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]�

of 60

AP TERMINOLOGY

Literary Elements *Red = Introduced in JH PAP, reinforced at all grade levels **Blue = Introduced in 9th Grade PAP ***Green = Introduced in 10th Grade PAP ****Light Blue = AP Language and Composition *****Purple = AP Literature and Composition Allegory a narrative in which characters, action, and sometimes setting represent

abstract concepts or moral qualities

Allusion* brief, often direct reference to a person, place, event, work of art, literature, or music which the author assumes the reader will recognize

Ambiguity doubtfulness or uncertainty of intention or meaning – subject to more than one interpretation

Anachronism assignment of something to a time when it was not in existence Anadiplosis*** repetition in the first part of a clause or sentence of a prominent word from

the latter part of the preceding clause or sentence, usually with a change or extension of meaning.

Analogy a comparison of points of likeness between two otherwise dissimilar things, a familiar object or idea is used to explain a more abstract concept

Anaphora** the regular repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases or clauses: We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing rounds. We shall fight in the fields and in the streets . . .

Anecdote a brief story that focuses on a single episode or event in a person’s life and that is used to illustrate a particular point

Antithesis** opposite of thesis 2) juxtaposition of contrasting ideas

Aphorism*** a brief statement, usually one sentence long, that expresses a general principle or truth about life, e.g., “A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds” – Ralph Waldo Emerson

Apostrophe* an absent person, abstract concept or an inanimate object is addressed directly; a form of personification

Apposition* the placing next to a noun another noun or phrase that explains it, e.g., Pollution, the city’s primary problem, is an issue.

Archetype* a character, action or situation that is a prototype or pattern on human life generally; a situation that occurs over and over again in literature, such as a quest, an initiation or an attempt to overcome evil. Examples include such recurrent symbols as the rose, the serpent, and the sun; common themes like love, death, and conflict; mythical settings like the paradisal garden; stock characters like the femme fatale, the hero, and the magician; and some basic patterns of action and plot such as the quest, the descent to the underworld, or the feud. The most fundamental of these patterns is often said to be that of death and rebirth, reflecting the natural cycle of the seasons.

Students will be expected to learn the following terminology. This study of terminology is a three-step process:

1. Learning the definition, 2. Identifying the device when it appears in literature, and 3. Being able to discuss the effect or purpose of the device.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/the�

of 60

Asyndenton* conjunctions are omitted, producing a fast-paced and rapid prose: I came, I saw, I conquered

Attitude*** see tone Autobiography the story of a person’s life written by that person; can vary from a

chronological account to an impressionistic narrative Begging the question**** Assuming something to be true that really needs proof. For example,

Shopping now for a dress to wear to the ceremony is really begging the question--she hasn't been invited yet. This phrase, whose roots are in Aristotle's writings on logic, came into English in the late 1500s. In the 1990s, however, people sometimes used the phrase as a synonym of "ask the question" (as in The article begs the question: "What are we afraid of?")

Catharsis** “purging (originally “vomiting”) of emotions through pity and fear”; effect on the audience through vicarious participation in the actions of the tragic hero

Character Types:

Developed Character* (round)

Stock Character**

(flat)*

Caricature

Dynamic Character*

Static Character*

Protagonist*

Antagonist*

people or animals who take part in the action of a literary work; readers learn about characters from a) what they say, b) what they do, c) what they think, d) what others say about them, and d) through the author’s direct statement complex, many sided, fully rounded personality a single important trait is emphasized; definite type of character conventionally used, stereotype occurring often in fiction (usually short stories); examples: cowboy or mad scientist; stock characters provide quick individualization and save time a character development which ludicrously exaggerates prominent features of appearance or character undergoes a permanent change in some aspect of personality because of action or events in plot remains same at end of story as at beginning (usually not a main character) leading character, not always the hero – but the principal character character who opposes the protagonist

Characterization*

Direct*

Indirect*

techniques used by the writer to create a character (fictional personality created by the author) what the author says what the other characters say what the character says what the character does

of 60

Chiasmus the grammatical structure of the first clause or phrase is reversed in the second, sometimes repeating the same words; derived from Greek letter CHI (X): “And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country,” John F. Kennedy

Colloquialism**** expression used in informal conversation but not accepted as standard English

Comedy story with a happy ending (from Greek word for “merrymaking” and “singing:

Conceit***** exaggerated comparison between two unlike objects (often used in metaphysical poetry

Conflict*

Complications

Dramatic climax

Crisis

interplay between opposing forces man vs. man man vs. nature man vs. society man vs. self man vs. fate, destiny, supernatural entanglement of affairs by conflict point of most intense excitement in a narrative the point at which the opposing forces that create the conflict interlock in the decisive action on which the plot will turn

Connotation* the feeling or attitude associated with a word, related to but quite distinct from its literal meaning

Conundrum*** a paradoxical, insoluble, or difficult problem; a dilemma; a puzzle Cynicism an attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of

the integrity or professed motives of others: the public cynicism aroused by governmental scandals.

Denotation* literal meaning of the word; dictionary definition of a word Detail* facts revealed by the author or speaker that support the attitude or tone;

e.g., the desert Deus ex Machina **

the employment of some unexpected and improbable incident in a story or play to make things turn out right; in ancient Greek theater when gods were lowered to the stage from the “machine” above

Dialect* moralized tale, medieval; such as Chaucer’s Nun’s Priest’s Tale Dialogue* analysis of the meaning, relationships and ambiguities of words, images,

and small units that make up a literary text Diction* a writer’s or speaker’s choice of words which is intended to convey a

certain effect; includes both vocabulary and syntax; can be formal or informal, technical or common, abstract or concrete

Didacticism*** language used in such a way as to force words out of their literal meaning, and, by emphasizing their connotations, bring new insight to the subject described

Dramatic monologue interruption of the narrative to show an episode that happened before the story opens

Empathy Direct identification with, understanding of, and vicarious experience of another person's situation, feelings, and motives.

of 60

Epanalepsis*** Repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the beginning: “Blood hath bought blood, and blows answer’d blows:/ Strength match’d with strength, and power confronted power.” Shakespeare, King John II, I, 329-30

Epic** simile Epigram the organization of the elements of a work of art in relation to its total

effect; in poetry, the relationship among rhythmic units in a line, stanzas; interrelationships among images; the organization of thought or structure in a work

Epiphany ** Sudden awakening or realization Episode a story inside a narrative setting or framework; story within a story, e.g.,

Canterbury Tales Epistolary type, kind of literature (short story, essay, drama, poetry – ode, elegy,

sonnet) Epistrophe** repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive

clauses (opposite of anaphora): Shylock: “ I’ll have my bond! Speak not against my bond! / I have sworn an oath that I will have my bond!”

Epithet ** word or phrase used to point out a characteristic of a person or thing, noted for its aptness, freshness, pictorial quality (Homeric epithet – a compound adjective such as “swift-footed” Achilles)

Ethos (Ethical Appea*l) See Rhetorical Appeals Euphemism* substitution of an inoffensive word for one considered offensive, e.g.,

“kicked the bucket” for “dead” Exemplum***** moralized tale, medieval; such as Chaucer’s Nun’s Priest’s Tale Explication analysis of the meaning, relationships and ambiguities of words, images,

and small units that make up a literary text Fiction

a work of prose that contains imaginary elements; may be based on actual events and real people

Figurative language words or phrases that describe one thing in terms of something else; always involving some sort of imaginative comparison between seemingly unlike things; not meant to be taken literally; used to produce images in a reader’s mind and to express ideas in fresh, vivid, imaginative ways, and, by emphasizing their connotations, bring new insight to the subject described; the most common are simile, metaphor, personification

Flashback* a scene which interrupts the action to show a previous event; as in an episode before the story opens

Foil** (literally a leaf or sheet of metal placed under a piece of jewelry to increase its brilliance); a person or sometimes an object that through strong contrast underscores or enhances the distinctive characteristics of another (e.g., Laertes or Fortinbras or Hamlet)

Foreshadowing* the use of hints or clues which suggest future action Form the organization of the elements of a work of art in relation to its total

effect; in poetry, the relationship among rhythmic units in a line, stanzas; interrelationships among images; the organization of thought or structure in a work

Framework story ** a story inside a narrative setting or framework; story within a story, e.g., Canterbury Tales

of 60

Genre type, kind of literature (short story, essay, drama, poetry – ode, elegy, sonnet)

Gothic*** term referring to a type of fiction which aims at evoking terror through a gloomy, medieval setting, and sensational supernatural action.

Grotesque***** in decorative art, fantastic representations of human and animal forms often combined into formal distortions of the natural to the point of comic absurdity, ridiculous ugliness, or ludicrous caricature; in modern literature, the term applies to types of fiction dealing with the irrational; it exhibits a distrust of any cosmic order, merges the comic and the tragic (resulting from a loss of faith in the moral universe essential to tragedy or rational social order essential to comedy); presents characters physically, emotionally, spiritually deformed

Hero ** central character, refers to a relationship of character to action Homily form of religious instruction given by a minister – gives practical moral

counsel rather than doctrine Hyperbole* obvious and deliberate, sometimes outrageous, exaggeration for a serious

or comic effect, e.g., the shot heard ‘round the world. Idyll***** narrative dealing with an idealized picture of rural life (also idyl) Imagery* words or phrases a writer uses to represent persons, objects, actions,

feelings and ideas descriptively by appealing to the senses – sight, smell, taste, sound

Interior monologue***

Direct

Indirect

technique which records the internal, emotional experience of the character on any level or on combinations of several levels of consciousness, reaching downward to the non-verbalized level where images represent sensations or emotions; sometimes appears illogical, associational; two forms: where author seems not to exist and the interior self of the character is given directly where author serves as a selector, presenter, guide, and commentator.

Irony *

Dramatic irony**

Situational irony*

Verbal irony*

technique of indicating an intention or attitude opposed to what is actually stated (reality different from appearance); akin to sarcasm, hyperbole, understatement; three types: a character or speaker says or does something that has different meanings from what he thinks it means, though the audience and other characters understand the full implications of the speech or action a situation turns out differently from what one would normally expect, though the twist is oddly appropriate, e/g/, a deep sea diver drowning in a bathtub saying one thing while meaning the (not sarcasm or satire)

Jargon ** technical terminology or characteristic idiom of a special activity or group Juxtaposition** placement side by side

of 60

Kenning***** a Norse poetic device based on analogy - referring to the sea as a "whale road," for example, from the analogy that "sea is to whale as road is to horse".

Litote*** form of understatement in which a thing is affirmed by stating the negative of its opposite; e.g., “She was not unmindful,” meaning “she gave careful consideration

Local color ** use in fiction of the speech, customs, and setting of a particular region for the author’s own interest

Logos (Logical Appeal*) See Rhetorical Appeals Melodrama play that intensifies sentiment, exaggerates emotion, and relates sensation

and thrilling action Memoir ** a form of autobiographical writing in which a person recalls significant

events in his or her life, usually in first-person; true accounts of actual events; include the writers’ feelings and opinions about historical events

Metaphor* an implied comparison between two things which are not alike in their general nature, e.g., It’s raining cats and dogs; the clouds are ships floating on a sea of blue. Extended

Metonymy*** substitution of a related or closely associated word for the word actually meant; e.g., the bench ruled = judge; a form of metaphor

Microcosm*** a small representative system having analogies to a larger system in constitution, configuration, or development (a small universe, e.g., Billy Budd

Mood* the atmosphere or predominant emotion; a state of mind in which one feeling, emotion or range or sensibility has ascendancy, the emotional or emotional-intellectual attitude that the author takes toward the subject or theme

Motif*** a pattern or strand of imagery or symbolism; a recurring element (images, words, objects, phrases, actions) that serves to unify a novel

Myth** an anonymous story with roots in the primitive folk-beliefs of races or nations and presenting supernatural episodes as a means of interpreting natural events in an effort to make concrete and particular a special perception of human beings or a cosmic view

Narrator anyone who recounts a narrative, the ostensible author or teller of a story Non-fiction writing about real people, places and events; largely concerned with factual

information, although the writer shapes the information according to his or her purpose or viewpoint; biography, autobiography, newspaper articles

Novel any extended fictional prose narrative Novella a long short story; short novel Oxymoron* combining of opposites for emphasis (concise paradox, contradiction in

terms), e.g., jumbo shrimp; deafening silence, wise fool Parable*** an illustrative story answering a question or pointing a moral or lesson Paradox* a statement that is self-contradictory on the surface, but which reveals a

subtler meaning on reflection; the statement may appear illogical, impossible or absurd, but turns out to have a coherent meaning that reveals a hidden truth

Parallelism* the use of a series of words, phrases, or sentences that have similar grammatical form, e.g., He tried to make the law clear, precise, and equitable

of 60

Parody*** one of the various types of humorous poetry, songs, or literature in which the language or sentiment of an author is mimicked

Pastoral*** poem treating of shepherds and rustic life Pathetic fallacy***** a phrase coined by Ruskin to denote the tendency to credit nature with the

emotions of human beings; any false emotionalism resulting in a too impassioned description of nature

Pathos (Emotional Appeal*)

See Rhetorical Appeals

Persona the author’s mask – the “second self” created by the author and through whom the narrative is told – do not confuse author with persona

Personification* a human characteristic is attributed to an inanimate thing, abstraction, animals, or ideas; a kind of metaphor, e.g., the wind cried in the dark

Picaresque

novel (chronicle, episodic in nature), usually autobiographical, presenting the life story of a rascal or low degree engaged in menial tasks and making his/her living through wits rather than industry

Plot*

Freytag Pyramid (plot diagram)

a) Exposition

(b) Conflict

c) Rising Action

d) Climax

f) Dénouement

pattern of happenings in a narrative – sequence of events d / \ c / \e a______b_/ \f Setting and background Central problem of story first part of narrative during which the tension between opposing characters builds toward the climax; conflict begins during rising action point where the conflict is definitively faced by the protagonist; highest emotional peak. final unraveling of plot; catastrophe; resolution

of 60

Point of view * (narrative point of view)

First person

Omniscient

Limited Omniscient

Objective

Shift****

perspective from which a narrative is told; the relation assumed between the narrator and the characters – who tells the story and how it gets told the person telling the story is one of the characters (major or minor character, participant or observer, first person), similar to limited the author has unlimited knowledge about characters’ thoughts and feelings; told in third person the author tells the story from one character’s viewpoint (major or minor character, third person) author reveals everything about the narrator’s character but knows nothing about other characters except through thoughts of narrator the author does not presume to know the thoughts and feelings of the characters; the author simply reports what can be seen or heard in POV

Polysyndenton* the use of many conjunctions slows the pace “. . . and how quietly she ran on the moonlight sails, when the older boys played their mandolins and the girls sang and we ate doughnuts dipped in sugar, and how sweet the music was on the water in the shining night, and what it has felt like to think about girls then.”

Prose ordinary language of speaking and writing Pun** humorous play on words in which one word will have a double meaning,

e.g. “Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man,” said as Mercutio is bleeding to death

Refutation*** to prove to be false or erroneous Regionalism**** emphasis in fiction on the environment of a specific region – distinguished

from local color in that it applies to fiction that emphasizes the effect of the setting on the characters

Repetition* recurrence of sounds, words, phrases, lines, or stanzas Rhetoric art of persuasion Rhetorical appeals:*

Ethos

Pathos

Logos

the character or quality of the speaker the quality that stimulates pity, tenderness or sorrow in the reader the speaker’s use of logic

Rhetorical Fragment*** A sentence fragment used deliberately for a persuasive purpose or to create a desired effect.

Rhetorical question*** a question to which no answer is expected because the answer is obvious; often used in a persuasive writing to emphasize a point or create an emotional effect

Rhetorical Shift** A change in mood accompanied by a change in nuance. The focus may shift and it is frequently introduced with “But” or “so”

Sarcasm* use of exaggerated praise to imply dispraise – bitter ridicule

of 60

Satire***

Juvenalian satire*****

Horatian satire*****

use of humorous devices like irony, understatement and exaggeration to highlight a human folly or a societal problem; the purpose is to bring the flaw to the attention of the reader in order that it may be addressed, remedied or biting, bitter, angry; points with contempt and moral indignation to the corruption and evil or human beings and institutions gentle, urbane, smiling; it aims to correct by gently and broadly sympathetic laughter

Scene specific setting for a given event in a narrative, or the shortest major division of a play. It indicates stage in action, shift in time or place, change in number of actors on stage

Semantics the study of meaning and meanings of language Sentimentalism***** attempt of an author to arouse more emotion in a work than the situation

calls for Setting* time and place of an event Shift a change or movement in a piece resulting from an epiphany, realization,

or insight gained by the speaker, a character or the reader; could result from a word like “but”

Simile* a direct comparison made explicit by using the words like or as abstract quality courageous

▲ ▲ object object David lion David was like a lion in battle.

Soliloquy* a character in a drama, alone on stage, voices his thoughts (monologue) Speaker persona; author’s mask; who speaks a poem Stereotype ** an over-simplified image of a person, group, or institution, e.g., all

Southerners, every used-car dealer Stream of consciousness***

manner of writing that attempts to set forth the inner thoughts and perceptions of a character as they randomly occur

Structure planned framework or organization of a piece of literature; usually determined by plot and by chapter division (play: acts, scenes; essay: organization of ideas; poetry: rhyme scheme and stanzaic form; see form

Style* the distinctive or characteristic handling of the language by a given author Suspense* quality that makes the reader or audience uncertain or tense about the

outcome of events Syllogism**** formula for presenting an argument logically, consisting of a major

premise, minor premise, and conclusion: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal. Fallacious use of syllogisms or the dialectic results in non sequiturs or logical fallacies

of 60

Symbol* use of any object, person, place or action that both has a meaning in itself and that stands for something larger than itself, such as a quality, attitude, belief or value; two basic types: universal and contextual, e.g., a symbol that is common to all mankind or a symbol used in a particular way by an individual author; e.g., the raven as a symbol of evil

Synecdoche*** using a part of something to represent the whole; e.g., “all hands on deck” meaning “all people on deck”; also the reverse: Canada played the United States in the Olympic hockey finals; a form of metaphor

Syntax arrangement of words and order of grammatical elements in a sentence; as the way in which words are put together to form phrases, clauses or sentences

Technique the conscious methods used by an author to shape his material The Three Unities** (part of Aristotle’s Rules for Tragedy)

Time: a 24 hour period Place: the action is set in one place Action: one hero and one plot

Theme* controlling idea or central insight of a literary work (not always a moral); not the same as a subject, which can be expressed in a word or two: courage, survival, war, pride; the idea the author wishes to convey about that subject; expressed as a sentence or general statement about life or human nature; a work can have more than one theme

Thesis the main idea of a paper, usually occurring at the end of the first, or introductory, paragraph

Tone* the attitude a writer or speaker takes toward a subject, character or audience, and is conveyed through the author’s diction, imagery, detail*, and syntax; serious, humorous, sarcastic, indignant, objective, etc.; a tone may shift**

Tragedy*** (part of Aristotle’s Rules of Tragedy)

in a general sense, any narrative writing in which the protagonist suffers disaster after a serious and significant struggle, but faces his downfall in such a way as to attain heroic stature – Aristotelian definitions:

of 60

Tragic hero

Noble***

Falls***

Hamartia** Types :

Hubris**

Recognition**

Reversal of fortune**

(peripety)

Catharsis**

a great and noble character one who faces his/her destiny with courage and nobility who falls from the heights to the depths (catastrophe) because of his hamartia fatal or tragic flaw that leads to the tragic hero’s down fall arrogance before the gods; overweening (excessive) pride the tragic hero experiences recognition (anagnorisis) of the causes of his/her suffering; the hero must recognize is when the opposite of what the hero intends occurs; the hero faces this reversal of fortune (peripety) with courage and nobility of spirit in facing his fate the release of emotion (pity and fear) from the audience’s perspective; in Greek, a “vomiting”

Understatement** the opposite of hyperbole; a form of humor or irony that deliberately represents something as much less than it is

Unity the quality achieved by an artistic work when all its elements are so interrelated as to form a complete whole

Wit humor relying on intellect, mental activity, usually incisive, rapid Zeugma*** a sort of “yoking”: “I had fancied you were gone down to cultivate

matrimony and your estate in the country,” Goldsmith; “He bolted the door and his dinner.”

Poetry Terms Accent ** stress on a syllable – basic element of rhythm Alliteration

Cross alliteration

recurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of closely succeeding words alliteration of two separate consonants of clusters arranged as xyxy or xyyx; e.g., “As kingfishers catch fire, dragonflies draw flame”

Assonance the repetition of vowel sounds in a series of words(So long lives this, and this gives life to thee)

Ballad ** short narrative song/poem handed down in oral tradition, or a composed poem of similar nature; it tells of some tragic incident of brave deed; three subjects: love-tragedy, people, historical event; ancient ballads were handed down by word of mouth from one generation to the next; literary ballads are written upon the example of and hold much of the spirit of old ballads, yet have a much more polished form

Blank verse unrhymed iambic pentameter – poetry written without regard to stanzas Cadence ** sound pattern that precedes a marked pause of the end of a sentence,

making it interrogatory, horatory, pleading, etc. rhythm – sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables

of 60

rhythmical movement of verse or prose when read aloud Carpe Diem “seize the day”; a motif in poetry – the idea that one should enjoy life to

the fullest Caesura*** a pause or break in a line of verse Canto***** section or division of a long poem Cinquain ** a stanza of five lines Concrete Poem*** a poem that stresses the visual appearance of the words and lines on the

page Consonance the repetition of consonant sounds within a series of words to produce a

harmonious effect, e.g., “And each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds.” Couplet ** pair of successive lines of verse that rhyme Dramatic poetry*** made up of conversation or speeches in verse form, which, taken together,

form a story Elegy*** traditional poetic form treating the death of a person in a formal,

philosophical way (mournful, melancholy poem) End-stopped line ** lines of verse in which both the grammatical structure and the sense of

reaching completion at the end of a line Enjambment ** continuation of the sense of grammatical construction of a verse or couplet

to the next verse or couplet (also called run-on lines) Epic ** long narrative poem dealing with national heroes having a world-wide or

cosmic setting and written in a deliberately ceremonial style Epitaph*** verse on grave markers; epitaphs that rhyme have been a source of laughter

for years Free verse** a type of modern poetry without a strict rhythm or regular rhyme scheme Heroic couplet*** iambic pentameter lines rhymed in pairs Jingles one, two, or more lines of humorous verse more commonly used on radio

or television Limerick** a short humorous poem composed of five lines. The first, second and fifth

lines rhyme, and the third and fourth lines contain from five to six syllables Lyric*** brief subjective poem strongly marked by imagination, melody, and

emotion and creating a single, unified impression (originally song/poetry accompanied by a lyre)

Internal rhyme** similarity in the sound of two words, one in the middle of the line, one at the end, e.g., “Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary”

Meter* the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables established in a line of poetry

Narrative*** Poetry primarily interested in telling a story Octave*** a stanza of eight lines; the first eight lines of a Petrarchan sonnet; it

presents the problem Ode*****

a long lyric poem, formal in style and complex in form, often written for a special occasion; originally a Greek form

Onomatopoeia* the use of a word whose sound mimics the sounds it describes (plop, splash, boom); it is called imitative harmony when it is used on an extended scale in a poem

Poetry

communication of thought and feeling through the careful arrangement of words for their sound, rhythm, connotation and sense – verse

Quatrain** a stanza of four lines, usually with alternating lines which rhyme

of 60

Refrain** repeated stanza Rhyme*

End rhyme Internal rhyme

Near or Slant rhyme

repetition of sounds in two or more words or phrases that appear close to each other in a poem occurs at the end of lines within a line rhyme which is not exact

Rhyme scheme regular pattern of rhyming words in a of poetry which is repeated in following stanzas – a different letter of the alphabet is assigned for different sounds

Scansion*** system for marking off the feet in a verse of poetry; analysis of stressed and unstressed syllables; includes analysis of rhyme scheme

Sestet*** second, six-line division of a Petrarchan sonnet – usually makes specific a general statement that has been presented in the octave; six line stanza

Sonnet**

Petrarchan***

Shakespearean**

lyric poem with a traditional form of fourteen lines, written in iambic pentameter Italian sonnet = octave: abbaabba; sestet: cdecde or cdcdcd English sonnet = three quatrains: abab cdcd efef; couplet gg

Stanza a group of verses forming a division of a poem Tercet*** a stanza of three lines Terza rima a series of triplets having 10 or 11 syllable lines of which the middle line

of one triplet rhymes with the first and third lines of the following triplet, aba bcb cdc ded, etc.

Verse a single line of poetry

Grammatical Terms Antecedent the noun or pronoun to which a pronoun refers (if Adam forgets his

raincoat…)

Clause* a group of words that contains a verb and its subject; may be an adjective, adverb, noun, elliptical, main (independent) or subordinate (dependent) clause

Ellipsis** a series of three periods (space period space period space period space) to indicate an omission . . . in words or thought; if the sentence ends, the three periods will follow the sentence period. . . .

Modifier makes another word precise, usually adjectives and adverbs Subject complement follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject (the coach

seemed anxious) Subordinate clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand by itself (while the

nation watched)

of 60

Syntax the way in which words and clauses are ordered and connected so as to form sentences; or the set of grammatical rules governing such word order. Syntax is a major determinant of literary style: while simple English sentences usually have the structure ‘subject verb object’ (e.g. Jane strangled the cat), poets often distort this syntax through inversion, while prose writers can use syntactic structures such as the periodic sentence.

Absolute Phrases*** A group of words that modifies an independent clause as a whole. Infinitive* The word “to” plus a verb. Infinitives can function as adjectives, adverbs,

or nouns Appositive Phrase* A phrase that refers to, and helps explain another noun or pronoun. When it

adds information that is nonessential, it is set off by commas. Gerund* An –ing verb form functioning as a noun. Participle*

Present Participle Past Participle

A verb that functions as an adjective. ends in –ing usually (but not always) ends in -ed

Active Voice** The subject of the sentence is performing the action Passive Voice** The subject of the sentence does not act but is acted upon

The AP Vertical Teams Guide for English. 2nd ed. College Board, 2002.

of 60

DESCRIPTORS FOR TONE, ATTITUDE, & DICTION

Accusatory Affectionate aggravated Agitated Agreeable Allusive Aloof Amiable Amorous Amused Anger Antiquated Apathetic Appealing

Appreciative Apprehensive Archaic Argumentative Arrogant Artificial Authoritative Bantering Belittling Belligerent Benevolent Bitter Bizarre Boastful

Bold Bombastic Boring Burlesque Calm Candid Caustic Cautionary Ceremonial Charming Cherry Clandestine Clinical Colloquial

Comical Commonplace Compassionate Complementary Concerned Concrete Confident Connotative Contemptuous Contented Contentious Contradictory Critical Crucial

Cultured Cynical Deflated Dejected Depressed Despairing Desperate Despondent Detached Dialect Didactic Diffident Disappointed Disdainful Disgusted Disinterested Distant Doubtful Dramatic Dull Earnest Ecstatic Effusive Elated Elegiac Emotional Encouraging Enthusiastic Erotic Erudite Esoteric Euphemistic Exact Excited Explanatory

Exuberant Facetious Factual Fanciful Fantastic Fear Figurative Flat Flight of fancy Flippant Foreboding Formal Forthright Furious

Gloomy Grotesque Grouchy Hackneyed Happiness Haughty Homespun Homily Hopeful Hopeless Humor Hurt Ideal Idiomatic

Impartial Incisive Incongruous Incredulous Indignant Inflammatory Inflated Informal Informative Inoffensive Insipid Insolent Instructive Inspiring Insulting Intense Intimate Ironic Irreverent Irritated Jargon

Jovial Joyful Jubilant Judgmental Languid Learned Lighthearted Literal Logic Loving Lugubrious Lustful Lyrical Malicious

Manipulative Matter-of-fact Meditative Melancholy Metaphoric Mock-epic Mocking Moralistic Mordant Morose Mournful Mundane Narrow Nervous

Neutral Nonchalant Nostalgic Objective Obscure Obsequious Obtuse Old Optimistic Ordinary Ostentatiously Outdated Outraged Overblown

Paranoid Passive Patronizing Peaceful Pedantic Persuasive Pessimistic Petty Petulant Picturesque Plain Plaintive Pleading Poetic

Pompous Positive Precise Pretentious Proud Provincial Quaint Querulous Rational Reduced Reflective Regretful Relaxed Reminiscent Restrained Ribald Ridiculing Romance Sadness Sanguine Sarcastic Sardonic Satiric Savage Scholarly Scornful Sensual Sensuous Serene Serious Showy Simple Sincere Slang Solemn Somber Soothing Spiritual Staid Suggestive Sullen Supercilious

Superficial Sympathetic Taunting Tender Thoughtful Threatening Tragic Tranquil Trite Turgid Unclear Urgent Vibrant Vulgar

Whimsical Whining Wistful Wrathful

This list is by no means extensive, so you should add below as you encounter new descriptors.

of 60

VERBS

Precise language is of the utmost importance in Pre-AP/AP English. In order to assist you in your word choice, below is a list of verbs to replace immature and outdated language like

“said.” Accentuate Accept Achieve Acknowledge Add Admit

Adopt Advise Advocate Affect Agree Alleviate Allow Allude Analyze Announce Approach Ague

Answer Approve Argue Ascertain Assert Assess Assume Assure Ask Attack Attempt Attribute Avoid Babble Bargain Base Began Believe Boast Brag Call Challenge Change Characterize

Choose Chronicle Claim Command Comment Compare Complain Complete Concern Conclude Condescend Conduct Conform Confront Consider Contend Dramatize Elevate

Elicit Empathize Encounter Enrich Enumerate Envision Estimate Evoke Exclaim Exclude Expand Experience Explain Express Extend Extrapolate Fantasize Fear Focus Force Foreshadow Function Generalize Giggle Grin Grunt Guide Heighten Highlight Hint Hold Honor Identify Illustrate Imagine Impel Imply Include Indicate Infer Insist Inspire

Instruct Intend Interpret Interrupt Inundate Justify Lampoon Laugh Lecture Lie List Maintain

Make Manage Manipulate Mention Minimize Moan Moralize Mumble Murmur Muse Nag Note Notified Object Observe Oppose Order Organize Overstate Outline Patronize Perform Permit Personify Persuade Plead Point out Ponder Portray Postulate

Pray Predict Prepare Present Presume Produce Project Promote Propose Provide Qualify Question

Rationalize Reason Reassure Recall Recite Recollect Record Recount Reflect Refer Regard Regret Reject Relate Repeat Reply Represent Request

Respond Restate Result Reveal Ridicule Roar Rule Satirize Scold Scream Seem See

Select Serve Shout Shriek Snap Sneer Sob Specify Speculate Spoke Sputter Stammer State Strive Storm Suggest Summarize Supply

Support Suppress Symbolize Sympathize Taunt Thought Told Trace Understand Understate Use Urge Utter Vacillate Value Verify View Vow Wail Want Wanton Warn Whisper Wish

This list is by no means extensive, so you should add below as you encounter new descriptors.

of 60

$50 WORD LIST

This chart is set up as a progression of synonymous word choices. The most mature words on the list are the Fifty Dollar words (* indicates SAT word). You should be working your way to the far right column of the list, including as many $50 words into your natural vocabulary as possible. By your Junior and Senior years especially, quarter and dollar words should be limited within your writing. NOTE: Synonyms DO NOT equate across the board equivalents! Though these columns are set up as progressions, not all words will “fit” as perfect replacements. THIS IS NOT PLUG AND PLAY! This means you must understand HOW each of these words work in order to use them properly. Dialogue Tag Words:

Quarter Dollar Five Dollar Fifty Dollar admitted allowed yielded conceded* admitted confessed professed acquiesced* agreed confirmed assented acceded*

answered replied responded retorted* asked strongly demanded commanded adjured*

asked questioned queried inquired* asked for requested solicited entreated* babbled rambled chattered prattled* begged pleaded implored beseeched* bragged boasted gloated blustered* claimed charged accused alleged* claimed held insisted maintained*

complained whined whimpered clamored* complained groaned griped groused*

cracked joked quipped bantered* cried wailed howled brayed* cried sobbed blubbered bawled*

declared announced reported proclaimed* disagreed bickered quarrelled quibbled* laughed giggled chuckled chortled*

lied fibbed paltered perjured* praised congratulated raved lauded*

remembered recalled reminisced recollected* reminded nagged pestered heckled*

said stated uttered articulated* said (brokenly) stuttered sputtered stammered* said (casually) noted commented remarked*

said (forcefully) stated declared averred* said (in a monotone) chanted intoned canted*

said (in defense) argued contended vied* said (indirectly) hinted alluded insinuated*

of 60

said (loudly) shouted roared vociferated* said (meanly) spit hissed jeered*

said (out of breath) panted wheezed rasped* said (out of turn) broke in interrupted interceded*

said (secretly) whispered confided divulged* said (unclearly) mumbled muttered pattered*

said (with regret) sighed lamented bemoaned* said again repeated echoed reiterated*

said triumphantly exclaimed whooped crowed* sang warbled crooned trilled*

scolded chided reproved admonished* screamed exclaimed squealed shrieked*

spoke discussed lectured orated* swore promised pledged avowed* teased mocked taunted gibed* told related recounted narrated*

warned (maliciously) threatened snarled menaced* wondered pondered conjectured speculated*

yelled barked roared bellowed* Verbs:

Quarter Dollar Five Dollar Fifty Dollar Add increase supplement with append*

Advise recommend counsel advocate* Allow permit consent to acquiesce* Annoy Irritate Provoke Nettle*

Approve Endorse Authorize Sanction* Be amazed Wonder Admire Marvel* Be angry Rage Fume Seethe* Be Like Resemble Reflect Mirror*

Beat Pound Clobber Pommel* Begin Launch Commence Embark* Calm Soothe Appease Placate*

Certify guarantee Assure Attest* Change... mind Submit Concede Relent*

Chew Munch Gnaw Masticate* Continue Carry on Advance Proceed*

Copy Imitate Ape Mimic* criticize condemn Decried Denounce* Declare Proclaim Blare Avow* Destroy Ruin Raze Demolish* Differ Vary Belie Contradict*

Entertain Amuse Delight Enthrall*

of 60

Express Voice Convey Evince* Fall Plop Settle Collapse* Flap Thrash Flail Convulse* Glow Flicker Glimmer Scintillate* Guess Hypothesize Assume Presume* Jump Leap Bound Gambol*

Leave (forever) Desert Abandon Forsake* Like Enjoy Appreciate Relish*

make noise rattle Clank Clang* Mess up Disorganize Disturb Disrupt*

Pause Hesitate Blanch Falter* Plan Organize Dictate Arrange*

Prance Caper Cavort Frolic* Predict Forewarn Foretell Presage* Remove Eject Expel Oust*

Rise Climb Soar Ascend* Search Investigate Scrutinize Probe* Smile Grin Beam Simper* Sneak Creep Edge Sidle* Spread Penetrate Infuse Permeate* Stick Attach Cement Adhere*

Stick out Bulge Jut Protrude* Take Steal Pilfer Purloin* Tell Reveal Expose Divulge*

Think about Contemplate Muse Ponder* Turn Spin Whirl Purl*

Use up Consume Exhaust Deplete* Watch Study Observe Analyze*

Adjectives:

Quarter Dollar Five Dollar Fifty Dollar many numerous countless myriad* mad furious livid vehement* small tiny petite slight*

exciting thrilling riveting scintillating* happy joyous elated blithe* awful horrible vile atrocious* loud roaring ear-splitting vociferous*

friendly outgoing extroverted gregarious* shy timid reserved reticent*

mean evil malicious malevolent* big large enormous immense*

tacky showy gaudy obtrusive*

of 60

kind giving generous munificent* perfect ideal quintessential exemplary* harmful lethal toxic deleterious*

hardworking thorough diligent assiduous* firm stubborn unyielding tenacious* short brief temporary transitory* nice cordial genial amicable*

secret undercover covert surreptitious* snobby conceited egotistic arrogant*

kind caring benevolent humane* wise cautious shrewd prudent*

private isolated reclusive sequestered* mean hateful spiteful rancorous*

annoying irritating inflammatory aggravating* noisy feisty boisterous obstreperous* secret undercover stealthy furtive* wrong untrue misleading fallacious*

not related unrelated irrelevant extraneous* brave courageous fearless intrepid*

arguable debatable contentious litigious* cheap thrifty frugal parsimonious* model typical classic archetypal*

aggressive argumentative belligerent pugnacious* grouchy irritable cantankerous irascible* angry furious enraged irate* harsh bitter biting acrid*

different disagreeing inconsistent discrepant* guilty responsible liable culpable*

doubtful suspicious skeptical dubious* irregular unpredictable haphazard erratic* boring dull bland banal*

unoriginal commonplace cliched trite* extra unnecessary excess superfluous* nasty foul vile squalid* fake mock contrived spurious* pale sickly ashen pallid*

fancy extravagant lavish opulent* Adverbs:

Quarter Dollar Five Dollar Fifty Dollar almost nearly approximately virtually* angrily crossly fiercely ferociously* badly poorly unfavorably abominably*

of 60

bravely courageously fearlessly gallantly* busily briskly diligently assiduously* calmly peacefully tranquilly placidly*

carefully attentively conscientiously meticulously* clearly obviously blatantly conspicuously*

correctly properly fittingly decorously* easily smoothly effortlessly facilely*

excitedly brightly enthusiastically exuberantly* fairly justly impartially equitably* fast rapidly swiftly expeditiously*

gently softly tenderly fondly* happily merrily joyously felicitously*

on purpose thoughtfully deliberately intentionally* kindly warmly cordially genially* loudly noisily deafeningly vociferously*

nervously uneasily tensely anxiously* nicely pleasantly affectionately fondly*

politely civilly graciously complaisantly* quickly speedily hastily agilely* sadly glumly mournfully morosely*

cheaply thriftily stingily parsimoniously* seriously earnestly solemnly gravely* sleepily dozily drowsily somnolently* secretly slyly stealthily furtively*

now immediately promptly proximately* worriedly uneasily apprehensively timorously*

by accident accidentally unintentionally incidentally* clumsily ungracefully awkwardly unwieldily* foolishly carelessly blindly heedlessly* proudly jauntily boastfully pretentiously* happily cheerfully jovially affably* meanly severely cruelly mercilessly*

rebelliously defiantly impudently insolently* beautifully elegantly magnificently superbly*

later someday eventually ultimately* strictly faithfully expressly vigilantly* wildly chaotically frenziedly frantically*

innocently ignorantly naively innocuously* interestedly curiously questioningly inquisitively*

crossly irritably testily peevishly* lazily lethargically listlessly languidly*

strongly powerfully potently robustly* cautiously hesitantly warily reluctantly*

legally justly rightfully legitimately*

of 60

shyly bashfully timidly timorously* enthusiastically zestfully zealous vivaciously*

very extremely vastly severely*

Transitions: Quarter Dollar Five Dollar Fifty Dollar

Compare like as similar to akin to like in comparison likewise similarly* like also more or less in like manner

Contrast but in contrast on the other hand whereas... but instead meanwhile alternatively

Contradict but however on the contrary contrarily* but rather conversely contradictorily* but even though although despite

still yet nevertheless [contrasting object] notwithstanding

still besides in spite of even so still anyways in any case in any event

Cause/Effect because since as a result of... on account of... because where due to... owing to...

so it follows [that]... hence subsequently* so accordingly

then thus therefore consequently* Summarize

in summary in short in brief briefly to sum up to summarize to review in other words

Conclude in conclusion on the whole all in all by and large in conclusion after all above all ultimately in conclusion wrapping up overall all things considered

Order/sequence also plus in addition additionally after afterwards thereafter subsequently* also besides beyond apart from

at the same time meanwhile simultaneously concurrently* before earlier previously formerly before in advance of prior to preceding first in the beginning/to begin originally

in the first place first of all primarily initially last finally in the end ultimately*

of 60

later in time eventually thereafter later someday after all yet now at the present presently for the time being then next immediately in turn

Emphasize absolutely certainly definitely unconditionally absolutely positively unquestionably without reservation

always constantly invariably unceasingly always traditionally habitually customarily always regularly routinely perennially*

basically practically in effect essentially for real in fact actually veritably*

importantly significantly critically principally in particular particularly specifically singularly

more importantly further moreover furthermore most importantly most significantly fundamentally cardinally

obviously clearly explicitly blatantly* obviously of course naturally inevitably*

often usually frequently ofttimes rarely scarcely occasionally infrequently

without a doubt doubtlessly undeniably indubitably*

of 60

Rubric of All Rubrics 9-8 Superior papers are specific in their references, cogent in their definitions, and free of plot summary that is not relevant to the question. These essays need not be without flaws, but they demonstrate the writer's ability to discuss a literary work with insight and understanding and to control a wide range of the elements of effective composition. At all times they stay focused on the prompt, providing specific support--mostly through direct quotations--and connecting scholarly commentary to the overall meaning. 7-6 These papers are less thorough, less perceptive or less specific than 9-8 papers. They are well-written but with less maturity and control. While they demonstrate the writer's ability to analyze a literary work, they reveal a more limited understanding and less stylistic maturity than do the papers in the 9-8 range. 5 Safe and “plastic,” superficiality characterizes these essays. Discussion of meaning may be formulaic, mechanical, or inadequately related to the chosen details. Typically, these essays reveal simplistic thinking and/or immature writing. They usually demonstrate inconsistent control over the elements of composition and are not as well conceived, organized, or developed as the upperhalf papers. However, the writing is sufficient to convey the writer's ideas, stays mostly focused on the prompt, and contains at least some effort to produce analysis, direct or indirect. 4-3 Discussion is likely to be unpersuasive, perfunctory, underdeveloped or misguided. The meaning they deduce may be inaccurate or insubstantial and not clearly related to the question. Part of the question may be omitted altogether. The writing may convey the writer's ideas, but it reveals weak control over such elements as diction, organization, syntax or grammar. Typically, these essays contain significant misinterpretations of the question or the work they discuss; they may also contain little, if any, supporting evidence, and practice paraphrase and plot summary at the expense of analysis. 2-1 These essays compound the weakness of essays in the 4-3 range and are frequently unacceptably brief. They are poorly written on several counts, including many distracting errors in grammar and mechanics. Although the writer may have made some effort to answer the question, the views presented have little clarity or coherence. From Conni M. Shelnut ,Lakeland, FL

of 60

Literary Analysis Scoring Guide 9-8 With apt and specific references to the story, these well-organized and well-written essays clearly analyze how _____ uses literary techniques to _____. The best of these essays will acknowledge the complexity of this _____. While not without flaws, these papers will demonstrate an understanding of the text as well as consistent control over the elements of effective composition. These writers read with perception and express their ideas with clarity and skill. 7-6 These papers also analyze how ___ uses literary techniques to ___, but they are less incisive, developed, or aptly supported than papers in the highest ranges. They deal accurately with technique as the means by which a writer _____, but they are less effective or less thorough in their analysis than are the 9-8 essays. These essays demonstrate the writer's ability to express ideas clearly, but they do so with less maturity and precision than the best papers. Generally, 7 papers present a more developed analysis and a more consistent command of the elements of effective composition than do essays scored 6. 5 These essays are superficial. They respond to the assignment without important errors in composition, but they may miss the complexity of _____'s use of literary techniques and offer a perfunctory analysis of how those techniques are used to _____. Often, the analysis is vague, mechanical, or overly generalized. While the writing is adequate to convey the writer's thoughts, these essays are typically pedestrian, not as well conceived, organized, or developed as upper-half papers. Usually, they reveal simplistic thinking and/or immature writing. 4-3 These lower-half papers reflect an incomplete understanding of the _____ (story, passage, essay, poem, etc.) and fail to respond adequately to the question. The discussion of how _____ uses literary techniques to _____ may be inaccurate or unclear, misguided or undeveloped; these papers may paraphrase rather than analyze. The analysis of technique will likely be meager and unconvincing. Generally, the writing demonstrates weak control of such elements as diction, organization, syntax, or grammar. These essays typically contain recurrent stylistic flaws and/or misreadings and lack of persuasive evidence from the text. 2-1 These essays compound the weaknesses of the papers in the 4-3 range. They seriously misunderstand the _____ or fail to respond to the question. Frequently, they are unacceptably brief. Often poorly written on several counts, they may contain many distracting errors in grammar and mechanics. Although some attempt may have been made to answer the question, the writer's views typically are presented with little clarity, organization, coherence, or supporting evidence. Essays that are especially inexact, vacuous, and/or mechanically unsound should be scored 1. 0 This is a response with no more than a reference to the task or no response at all.

of 60

Poetry Analysis Scoring Guide 9-8 These well-organized and well-written essays clearly demonstrate an understanding of how the speaker / author in ________ uses ________ to convey ________. In their references, they are apt and specific. Though not without flaws, these papers will offer a convincing interpretation of the poem, as well as consistent control over the virtues of effective composition, including the language unique to the criticism of poetry. They demonstrate the writer’s ability to read perceptively and to write with clarity and sophistication. 7-6 These essays also demonstrate an understanding of _________’s poem; but, compared to the best essays, they are less thorough or less precise in their analysis of how the speaker / author uses ________ to convey ________. In addition to minor flaws in interpretation, their analysis is likely to be less well-supported and less incisive. While these essays demonstrate the writer’s ability to express ideas clearly, they do so with less mastery and control over the hallmarks of mature composition than do papers in the 9-8 range. 5 While these essays deal with the assigned task without important errors, they have little to say beyond what is easiest to grasp. Their analysis of how ________ conveys ________ may be vague. As a critical explanation, they deal with the poem in a cursory way. Though the writing is sufficient to convey the writer’s thoughts, these essays are typically pedestrian, not as well conceived, organized, or developed as upper-half papers. They may reveal simplistic thinking or immature writing. 4-3 These lower-half essays often reflect an incomplete or over-simplified understanding of the poem. Typically, they fail to respond adequately to part of the question. Their analysis may be weak, meager or irrelevant, inaccurate or unclear. The writing demonstrates uncertain control over the elements of effective composition. These essays usually contain recurrent stylistic flaws and/or misreadings, and they often lack persuasive evidence from the text. Essays scored 3 exhibit more than one of the above infelicities; they are marred by a significant misinterpretation, insufficient development, or serious omissions. 2-1 These essays compound the weaknesses of the papers in the 4-3 range. Writers may seriously misread the poem. Frequently, these essays are unacceptably brief. They are poorly written on several counts and may contain many distracting errors in grammar and mechanics. While some attempt may have been made to answer the question, the writer’s observations are presented with little clarity, organization, or supporting evidence. Essays that are especially inexact, vacuous, and/or mechanically unsound should be scored 1. 0 This is a response with no more than a reference to the task or no response at all.

of 60

Prose Analysis Scoring Guide 9-8 Answers all parts of the question completely. Using specific evidence from the work and showing how that evidence is relevant to the point being made. Fashions a convincing thesis and guides reader through the intricacies of argument with sophisticated transitions. Demonstrates clear understanding of the work and recognizes complexities of attitude/tone. Demonstrates stylistic maturity by an effective command of sentence structure, diction, and organization. Need not be without flaws, but must reveal an ability to choose from and control a wide range of the elements of effective writing. 7-6 Also accurately answers all parts of the question, but does so less fully or effectively than essays in the top range. Fashions a sound thesis. Discussion will be less thorough and less specific, not so responsive to the rich suggestiveness of the passage or precise in discussing its impact. Well written in an appropriate style, but with less maturity than the top papers. Some lapses in diction or syntax may appear, but demonstrates sufficient control over the elements of composition to present the writer’s ideas clearly. Confirms the writer’s ability to read literary texts with comprehension and to write with organization and control. 5 Discusses the question, but may be simplistic or imprecise. Constructs a reasonable if reductive thesis. May attempt to discuss techniques or evidence in the passage, but may be overly general or vague. Adequately written, but may demonstrate inconsistent control over the elements of composition. Organization is attempted, but may not be fully realized or particularly effective. 4-3 Attempts to answer the question, but does so either inaccurately or without the support of specific evidence. May confuse the attitude / tone of the passage or may overlook tone shift(s) or otherwise misrepresent the passage. Discussion of illustrations / techniques / necessary parts of the prompt may be omitted or inaccurate. Writing may convey the writer’s ideas, but reveals weak control over diction, syntax, or organization. May contain many spelling or grammatical errors. Essays scored three are even less able and may not refer to illustrations / techniques at all. 2-1 Fails to respond adequately to the question. May misunderstand the question or the passage. May fail to discuss techniques / evidence used or otherwise fail to respond adequately to the question. Unacceptably brief or poorly written on several counts. Writing reveals consistent weakness in grammar or other basic elements of composition. Although may make some attempt to answer the question, response has little clarity and only slight, if any, evidence in its support. Although the writer may have made some attempt to answer the prompt, the views presented have little clarity or coherence; significant problems with reading comprehension seem evident. Essays that are especially inexact, vacuous, and /or mechanically unsound should be scored 1. 0 A blank paper or one that makes no attempt to deal with the question receives no credit. Rubric from Sharon Kingston

of 60

Language Analysis Scoring Guide

A 9 essay has all the qualities of an 8 essay, and the writing style is especially impressive, as is the analysis of the specifics related to the prompt and the text. An 8 will effectively and cohesively address the prompt. It will analyze and/or argue the elements called for in the question. In addition, it will do so using appropriate evidence from the given text. The essay will also show the writer's ability to control language well. A 7 essay has all the properties of a 6, only with a more complete, well-developed analysis/argument or a more mature writing style. A 6 essay adequately addresses the prompt. The analysis and/or argument is on target and makes use of appropriate specifics from the text. However, these elements are less full developed than scores in the 7, 8, and 9 range. The writer's ideas are expressed with clarity, but the writing may have a few errors in syntax and/or diction. A 5 essay demonstrates that the writer understands the prompt. The analysis/argument is generally understandable but is limited or uneven. The writer's ideas are expressed clearly with a few errors in syntax or diction. A 4 essay is not an adequate response to the prompt. The writer's analysis/argument of the text indicates a misunderstanding, an oversimplification, or a misrepresentation of the given passage. The writer may use evidence which is inappropriate or insufficient to support the analysis/argument. A 3 essay is a lower 4, because it is even less effective in addressing the prompt. It is also less mature in its syntax and organization. A 2 essay indicates little success in speaking to the prompt. The writer may misread the question, only summarize the passage, fail to develop the required analysis/argument or simply ignore the prompt and write about another topic. The writing may also lack organization and control of language and syntax. (Note: No matter how good the summary, it will never rate more than a 2.) A 1 essay is a lower 2, because it is even more simplistic, disorganized, and lacking in control of language.

of 60

Persuasive Scoring Guide

9-8 Papers meriting these scores persuasively defend, challenge, or qualify the _____ through a well-reasoned presentation of evidence from observation, experience, or reading. Evidence from reading does not, of course, automatically put papers in this scoring range. Papers in this category aptly support what they have to say and demonstrate stylistic maturity by an effective command of sentence structure, diction, and organization. The writing reveals an ability to choose from and control a wide range of the elements of effective writing, but it need not be without flaws. 7-6 Essays earning these scores defend, challenge, or qualify the _____ through a coherent presentation of evidence from observation, experience, or reading, but lack the more carefully nuanced thought or the more detailed development of examples of 9-8 papers. Some lapses in diction or syntax may be present, but the writing demonstrates sufficient control of the elements of composition to present the writer's ideas clearly. The arguments in these essays are sound, but may be presented with less coherence or persuasive force than essays in the 9-8 range. 5 These essays present a position that attempts to defend, challenge, or qualify the _____ but do not sustain a coherent presentation. They are adequately written, but may demonstrate inconsistent control over the elements of composition. Organization is evident but may not be fully realized or particularly effective. 4-3 Essays earning these scores do not respond adequately to the question's tasks. They may not define a clear position or may attempt to develop a position with evidence that is not well chosen or well integrated for the purpose. The writing is sufficient to convey the writer's ideas, but may suggest weak control over diction, syntax, or organization. These essays may contain consistent spelling errors or some flaws in grammar. 2-1 These essays fail to respond adequately to the question's tasks. Although the writer attempts to respond to the _____, the response exhibits little clarity about the writer's attitude or only slight or misguided evidence in its support. These essays may be poorly written on several counts, be unpersuasively brief, or present only assertions without substantive evidence. They may reveal consistent weaknesses in grammar or other basic elements of composition. Essays that are especially inexact, vacuous, and/or mechanically unsound should be scored 1. 0 This is a response with no more than a reference to the task or no response at all

High School PAP/AP English - Deer Park Independent ... writing about great works of literature....

Documents

Transcript of High School PAP/AP English - Deer Park Independent ... writing about great works of literature....