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Journal of Energy and Power Engineering 9 (2015) 648-659 doi: 10.17265/1934-8975/2015.07.006
High-Performance AC-DC Power Electronic Converter
Generator for Hybrid-Solar Vehicles
Jozef Tutaj1 and Bogdan Fijalkowski2
1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mechatronics Institution, Institute for Automotive Vehicles and Combustion Engines,
Cracow University of Technology, Krakow PL 31-864, Poland
2. Mechatronics Institution, Institute of Technology, State Higher Vocational School in Nova Sandec, Nowy Sacz PL 33-300, Poland
Received: April 08, 2015 / Accepted: June 01, 2015 / Published: July 31, 2015.
Abstract: This paper describes the principles of operation and the physical model of an advanced AC-DC converter generator (with the electronic converter acting as an AC-DC rectifier with reverse-conducting MOSFETs (metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors) as fast-electronic switches with a relatively low ON-state voltage drop) for HSVs. An AC-DC converter, when seen as an AC-DC rectifier, can be used in many fields, e.g., for multi-functional AC-DC/DC-AC converter generator/starter and conventional DC-AC converter motors and AC-DC converter generators or generator sets, welding machines, etc. The paper also describes a novel AC-DC converter, with reverse-conducting transistors and without the use of optoelectronic separation (which does not require a separate power supply), which may be easily realized in IC (integrated-circuit) technology. Computer simulation allows for waveform evaluation for timing analysis of all components of the AC-DC-converter’s physical model, both during normal operation as well as in some states of emergency. The paper also presents the results of bench experimental studies where the MOSFETs were used as fast-electronic switches with a relatively low ON-state voltage drop. For experimental studies, a novel AC-DC converter has been put together on the Mitsubishi FM600TU-3A module. The AC-DC converter with reverse-conducting transistors in a double-way connection has a lot of advantages compared to the conventional AC-DC converter acting as a diode rectifier, such as higher energy efficiency and greater reliability resulting from the lower temperature of electronic switches. Key words: HSV (hybrid-solar vehicles), electronic switches, electronic converter, power losses.
1. Introduction
HSV (hybrid solar vehicles) could combine the
advantages of HEV (hybrid-electric vehicles) and SE
(solar energy), by the integration of PhPs (photovoltaic
panels) in a HEV. But it would be simplistic to consider
the development of a HSV as a straightforward
addition of PhPs to an existing HEV, which could be
considered just a first step. To maximize the benefits
coming from the integration of PhPs with HEV
technology, it is required to perform an accurate
re-design and optimization of the whole
vehicle-powertrain system [1, 2].
In these vehicles, in fact, there are many mutual
Corresponding author: Jozef Tutaj, Ph.D., research fields:
power electronics, automotive mechatronics and biomedical engineering. E-mail: [email protected].
inter-actions between energy flows, propulsion system
component sizing, vehicle dimension, performance,
mass and size as well as costs, and the interaction
between these factors is much more critical than in
HEVs or CAV (conventional automotive vehicles) [3-6].
Particularly, the presence of PhPs requires to
study and develop specific solutions, since instead of
the usual “charge sustaining” strategies adopted in
HEV, proper “charge depletion” strategies have to
be adopted, to account for the Ch-E/E-Ch
(chemo-electrical/electro-chemical) storage battery
recharging during parking [7, 8]. Moreover, advanced
look-ahead capabilities are required for HSVs. In
fact, at the end of driving the final SOC (state of charge)
is required to be low enough to allow full storage of
solar energy captured in the next parking phase,
D DAVID PUBLISHING
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whereas, the adoption of an unnecessary constantly
low value of final SOC would give additional energy
losses and compromise Ch-E/E-Ch storage battery
life-time. The optimal management of Ch-E/E-Ch
storage battery would therefore require a previous
knowledge of the SE to be captured in next parking
phase that can be achieved through real-time access to
weather forecast [9-12]. The impact of PhPs can be
significantly improved by adopting suitable MPPT
(maximum power point tracking) techniques, whose
role is more critical here than in fixed plants. The
recourse to an automatic sun-tracking roof to maximize
captured energy in parking phases has also been
studied [13-15].
Moreover, as it happens for other HEVs working in
start-stop operation, an optimal power split between the
ICE (internal combustion engine) and Ch-E/E-Ch
storage battery pack must be pursued while also taking
into account the effect of ICE thermal transients.
Previous studies conducted by the research group on
series HSVs demonstrated that the combined effects of
ICE, AC-DC converter generator and Ch-E/E-Ch
storage battery losses, along with cranking energy and
thermal transients, produce non trivial solutions for the
ICE/generator group, which does not necessarily
operate at its maximum efficiency. The strategy has
been assessed via optimisation done with GA (genetic
algorithms), and implemented in a real-time rule-based
mechatronic control strategy [16-18].
The objective of this paper is to present an advanced
AC-DC converter generator for HSVs (with the
reverse-conducting MOSFETs (metal-oxide
semiconductor field-effect transistors) electronic
converter acting as the AC-DC rectifier).
Experimental results confirm a significant increase
in the efficiency of the advanced on-board AC-DC
converter generator due to a low ON-state voltage
drop across the novel AC-DC converter’s
reverse-conducting MOSFETs in comparison with a
high ON-state voltage drop across the conventional
AC-DC converter’s power diodes. It is also valid that
in this case, the advanced AC-DC converter generator
starts to operate at low ICE rotational-speed values,
which is especially important for improving the
on-board power-supply quality and overall efficiency,
especially when a HSV’s ICE is running slowly in
neutral gear [19].
In this paper, the authors examined a novel AC-DC
commutator acting as an AC-DC rectifier in the
three-phase double-way connection, comprising of two
heteropolar (anode and cathode) commutating groups
of electronic switches. In this novel AC-DC converter,
the power field-effect transistors have replaced the
power diodes. The silicon power diode, which is
widely used as a component of the conventional diode
rectifier, has a fundamental disadvantage, namely a
relatively high forward-voltage drop to minimise
power losses (voltage drops) on the AC-DC
converter’s switches (Fig. 1).
Among other things, in the conventional AC-DC
converter generators with electronic converters (i.e.,
alternators with diode rectifiers), a rectification of the
three-phase armature currents takes place in the
AC-DC converter acting as the diode rectifier in the
double-way connection. This result in the generation of
relatively large power losses for heat in the electronic
converter, heating it, and leading to the need for
cooling. However, the novel AC-DC converter acting
as the transistor rectifier uses only a reverse conduction
of MOSFETs as low ON-state voltage-drop electronic
switches.
Fig. 1 Comparison of the static characteristics of a power diode type D22-10-08 and a single MOSFET module type TU-3A FM600.
High-Performance AC-DC Power Electronic Converter Generator for Hybrid-Solar Vehicles
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2. Novel AC-DC Converter Operation
The silicon power diode is widely used as a
component of the conventional AC-DC converter.
When acting as a diode rectifier, it has a fundamental
disadvantage a relatively high voltage drop in the
ON-state of a current conduction.
Fig. 1 shows that, in the range of 2-10 A of current
conduction, an ON-state voltage drop across a single
MOSFET FM600 module type TU-3A (RDS(ON) = 1.5 m)
is in the voltage range of 0.003-0.015 V, while under a
type D22-10-08 power diode, the diode forward
voltage is in the voltage-range 0.8-0.9 V. The
advantage resulting from the replacement of power
diodes with reverse-conducting MOSFETs is obvious,
especially for low values of currents, when the voltage
drops across the electronic switches are minimized. For
example, for a rectified current of 10 A, it is more than
10-fold, and is connected with the same degree of
change of decrease of power losses on heat dissipated
by the electronic switches.
Reducing the power losses of heat dissipated by the
electronic switches is connected not only with
improving the energy efficiency of the AC-DC
converter, but also a reduction in the size and cost of
the heat sinks, as well as improved reliability, resulting
in the lower operating temperature of electronic
switches.
A MOSFET is an electronic switch with bilateral
(bipolar) electrical conductivity and at the full control
has a linear static characteristic ID = f(UDS), flowing the
electric current in the first and third quarter of the
output static characteristic.
In Refs. [8, 11, 15, 17, 18], on fundamental power
electronics, as well as catalogs of the individual
MOSFETs or their manufactured modules, there is
included only single quadrant of the output static
characteristic, and that is the I quadrant (positive)—ID
= f(UDS) of the MOSFET (Fig. 2).
However, in the presented case, the transistor
rectifier, the authors do not use the I quadrant (positive),
but instead the III quadrant (negative) of the MOSFET
static characteristics (Fig. 2) that is used for AC-DC
rectifying, thus yielding the much lower voltage drop
across the switches in comparison to the voltage drop
of silicon power diodes.
Fig. 3 shows a simplified physical model of a
conventional AC-DC converter generator (with an
electronic converter, with opto-couplers, acting as a
transistor rectifier in the double-way connection) for
HSVs.
Fig. 2 First and third quadrants of output static characteristics of (a) MOSFET with a built-in fast, shunt-freewheeling diode and (b) its transient characteristics.
High-Performance AC-DC Power Electronic Converter Generator for Hybrid-Solar Vehicles
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Fig. 3 Physical model of a conventional AC-DC converter generator (with an electronic converter, with opto-couplers, acting as a transistor rectifier in the double-way connection) for HSVs.
Fig. 4 Physical model of an high-performance AC-DC converter generator (with an electronic converter, without opto-couplers, acting as a transistor rectifier in the double-way connection) for HSVs.
Electronic-switch control has been achieved in a
simple way, by using the secondary diode rectifier,
loaded on its output with the current stabilizer, which is
realized on the JFET (junction gate field-effect
transistor). The auxiliary diode rectifier is realised on
LED opto-couplers: (D1+)-(D3+), (D1-)-(D3-), which
acts as the switch controller, using the L0601
integrated circuit containing quad opto-couplers.
Phototransistors of opto-couplers: (Q1+)-(Q3+),
(Q1-)-(Q3-) have been used to control the rectifier’s
electronic switches to generate the MOSFETs’ control
pulses. The simulation physical model of the novel
AC-DC converter in the double-way connection is
shown in Fig. 4. This physical model, simulated as the
AC-DC converter without the use of optoelectronic
separation can be implemented as a high-power
High-Performance AC-DC Power Electronic Converter Generator for Hybrid-Solar Vehicles
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integrated circuit. This is what we as authors
understand by the novel AC-DC converter.
The fundamental problem with the AC-DC
converter’s electronic-switch control lies in the
detection and identification of the sense of direction of
the current flowing through each of the diodes D1+,
D3+, D5+, D2-, D4-, D6- (Fig. 4) and the generation of
control signals for the MOSFET’s gates, which at a
predetermined time shunt a diode’s activity during the
electrical-current conduction.
3. Mathematical Model of a Novel AC-DC Converter
A physical model of the novel AC-DC converter,
acting as a transistor rectifier in a three-phase
double-way connection is shown in Fig. 5.
The performance of the AC-DC converter in the
double-way connection is often seen as a composition
of two complementary single-way connections.
In power supply connection in a wye, assuming that,
the potential of the point (z) is equal to the potential
point (0), as shown in Fig. 5, the relationship between
the AC-DC converter’s input and output voltages can
be written as:
u
up vp wpp v
un vn wnn w
UU C C C
UU C C C
U
(1)
where, Eq. (1) defines the elements of the commutation
matrix Ckl, the existing commutating functions of
appropriate commutating nodes “kl”, which in the case
of an AC-DC converter operating as a transistor
rectifier are functions of time. Because the
commutation is done in those moments when the
respective input terminals of AC-DC converter (Fig. 5)
comes to equate the value of instantaneous values of
voltage (e.g., voltage rectifier), or the instantaneous
values of currents (e.g., current rectifier).
Omitting the process of commutation—a current
switching follows at an infinitely short time, and adopts
a zero value of resistance (RDS(ON) = 0) in the ON-state.
Elements Ckl of the commutation matrix take two
values:
an electronic switch in the ON-state
an electronic switch in the OFF-state
1
0 klC
(2)
For the proper operation of the transistor rectifier in
the double-way connection, the switch control in
various branches should be such that:
1, 1, 1up un vp vn wp wnC C C C C C (3)
this means that, at any instant of time, the two
electronic switches in each phase (or branch) of the
AC-DC converter cannot simultaneously conduct an
electrical current. Since Un = -Up and Upn = Up – Un,
then Eq. (1) for the AC-DC converter’s output voltage
can also be written as:
u
F up un vp vn wp wn vpn
w
U
U U C C C C C C U
U
(4)
The AC-DC converter’s output voltage in the
double-way connection as a function of the input line
voltages at power supply connection in wye, as shown
in Fig. 5.
4. Computer Simulation and Analytical Studies of the AC-DC Converter in the Double-way Connection
An important advantage of the novel AC-DC
converter under consideration is the use of
reverse-conducting MOSFETs in order to reduce
voltage drops across the electronic switches. The
physical model of the novel AC-DC converter in the
double-way connection, without the use of
optoelectronic separation, and which does not require a
separate power supply is easy to implement in
integrated technology, as shown in Fig. 4.
In order to perform a rapid computer simulation of
novel the AC-DC converter, we adopted a simplified
simulated physical model of the three-phase AC power
source.
High-Performance AC-DC Power Electronic Converter Generator for Hybrid-Solar Vehicles
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Fig. 5 Physical model of the AC-DC converter, acting as a transistor rectifier in the three-phase double-way connection (at the power supply connection in a delta or wye) with a rectifier output load.
In Figs. 6-9 selected, characteristic waveforms
during normal operation are shown, both in the AC-DC
converter’s circuits, as well as the MOSFETs
gate-pulses control circuits.
As an example, Figs. 6 and 8 show the waveforms of
the neutral voltage in relation to ground, power-supply,
voltages and the control voltage across the gate of the
MOSFET. When the transistor is given the function of
current conduction, the shunt freewheeling diode
current is much smaller.
Fig. 8 shows the waveforms of the currents flowing
through the AC-DC converter’s electronic switches,
and the voltages across switches, both in the ON-state
as well as OFF-state (blocking).
At the same time, the nominal values (ratings) of
supply AC voltages were chosen as those corresponding
to the high-performance AC-DC converter generator’s
average load in real conditions. For a comparison of the
currents and voltage drops, as well as to estimate the
power losses on the conventional AC-DC converter
acting as a diode rectifier’s electronic switches and
novel AC-DC converter’s switches, we performed the
Time (ms)
Fig. 6 Selected waveforms of the voltages and currents in the novel AC-DC converter in the double-way connection at the frequency of 60 Hz.
V (
V)/
I (A
)
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Time (ms)
Fig. 7 Waveforms of the currents and voltages of the novel AC-DC converter in the double-way connection.
Time (ms)
Fig. 8 Another selected waveforms of the novel AC-DC converter’s voltages and currents in the double-way connection with frequency of 60 Hz.
following experiment: We conducted a computer
simulation of the novel AC-DC converter, with one of
the MOSFETs disabled (M6 in Fig. 4).
The function of the current conduction in the AC-DC
converter is taken over by the D6- diode.
The waveform shown in Figs. 8 and 9 shows the
difference in the voltage drops between the D6- diode
and MOSFET current conduction in the adjacent
branch of the double-way connection (part of the
waveform under the of the zero-axis). Moreover, there
occurs much lower voltage drop across the MOSFET
during current conduction, compared to the voltage
drop across the conventional AC-DC converter with
power diodes, causing a significant reduction in heat
losses, and the difference in the voltage drops across
the electronic switch results in an increase in the output
voltage, as shown in Fig. 9 [20-23].
Significant reduction in voltage drops across the
MOSFET, compared to voltage drops across the power
diode, is confirmed in the experimental studies given
below.
5. Experimental Studies
An AC-DC converter of the advanced AC-DC
V (
V)/
I (A
) V
(V
)/I
(A)
50
0
-50
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Time (ms)
Fig. 9 Selected waveforms of the novel AC-DC converter’s voltages, currents and power losses to heat (comparison of electronic switches’ conduction).
(a) (b)
Fig. 10 A view and a physical model of FM600TU-3A module interconnections.
commutator generator is made on the six
reverse-conducting MOSFETs integrated module in a
single enclosure using a new generation FM600 type
TU-3A Mitsubishi electric semiconductor (Fig. 10).
The main advantages of this module compared to
others of this kind are:
very low ON-state resistance RDS(ON) = 1.5 mΩ
(typical) RDS(ON) = 2.2 mΩ (max);
fast freewheeling diodes, parallel to the
MOSFETs, built-in thermistor temperature sensor for a
temperature control module;
convenient terminals for connection to the
electrical power supply;
favorable load parameters: UDS = 150 V, ID = 300 A
(maximum current pulse 600 A), each of the six built-in
MOSFETs.
The maximum power loss through dissipated heat is
of 960 W, and the instantaneous power load may reach
1,300 W. Each of MOSFETs of the module is an
almost ideal electronic switch. Its drain current in
OFF-state cannot exceed the value of 1 mA, and the
saturation voltage UDS at a current conduction of 300 A,
and at 25 °C is of 0.66 V.
Figs. 11-15 show the results of bench experimental
studies in the form of voltage waveforms on electronic
switches of novel and conventional AC-DC converters
in double-way connections.
Below the zero-axis in the oscillograms (Figs. 11a
and 11b), one can see the voltage on the switch with the
positive value (during ON-state), while above this
zero-axis—the reverse voltage, which due to the
relatively large maximum value of this voltage has
been recorded only partially.
Comparing the voltage waveforms for the
V (
V)/
I (A
) P
(W
)
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conventional and novel AC-DC converters’ electronic
switches, one can easily notice a significant decrease in
the voltage drop across the conductive MOSFET
(Fig. 11b)—the voltage-drop value, while applying
gate control signal is very low, almost imperceptible,
while for the conventional AC-DC converter (Fig. 11a),
it is significant, around 0.8 V.
The presence of a significant voltage drop across the
conventional AC-DC converter’s electronic switches
causes them to overheat and causes deterioration of
energy efficiency, as well as the need for effective
ventilation of the conventional AC-DC converter,
which generates more power dissipation caused using
an additional fan. Fig. 12 shows the voltage waveforms
on the electronic switch and switch’s gate voltage of
the conventional and novel AC-DC converters.
The waveforms depicted in Figs. 12-14 show that,
through controlling of the AC-DC converter’s
electronic switches, one can achieve a substantial
improvement of the energetic parameters.
These minimize, in the analogous degree, the power
losses and increase an efficiency of the AC-DC
converter, and thus the energetic efficiency. In this case,
the rectification of the armature phase currents is
almost perfect.
Fig. 15 shows the novel AC-DC converter-driver’s
mounting plate, based on IR2136 integrated circuit,
which is installed on a connector box of the MOSFET
module, located in the terminal box of the advanced
AC-DC converter generator for connected HSVs.
(a) (b)
Fig. 11 Voltage waveforms on electronic switches: (a) a conventional AC-DC converter; (b) a novel AC-DC converter in the double-way connection, at the load current 20 A.
(a) (b)
Fig. 12 Voltage waveforms across the switch and switch’s gate voltage of the novel AC-DC converter: (a) a conventional AC-DC converter; (b) a novel AC-DC converter in the double-way connection, at the load current of 20 A.
High-Performance AC-DC Power Electronic Converter Generator for Hybrid-Solar Vehicles
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(a) (b)
Fig. 13 Influence of switches’ control pulses of the novel AC-DC converter upon on voltage-drop value during ON-state.
Fig. 14 Voltage waveforms across the electronic switch of the transistor rectifier in the double-way connection during an advanced AC-DC converter generator operation at an increase of an AC-DC converter generator’s shaft rotational speed and a load current of 20 A.
(a) (b)
Fig. 15 View of the novel AC-DC converter-driver’s plate based the integrated IR2136, and its installation in the terminal box of the advanced AC-DC converter generator for HSVs.
The driver plate is designed with the assumption
that, the controller’s output terminals are at the
same time the connector (plugs) of the MOSFET
module. This allows to avoid additional wired
connections between the mounting plate and the
MOSFET module’s driver. In this way, the resistance,
inductance and capacitance parasitic values are
reduced, and a more compact design of the modified
electronic AC-DC converter of the electrical machine
is achieved.
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6. Conclusions
The paper presents the principle of the
high-performance AC-DC converter generator with the
novel AC-DC converter with in a double-way
connection.
The results of computer simulation waveforms of
power and voltages are also given as well as of the
currents of the novel AC-DC converter in three-phase
double-way connections using PSPICE (personal
computer simulation program with the integrated
circuits and emphasis). The possibility of using a novel
AC-DC converter in low-voltage power supply
systems is indicated. In comparison with the
conventional AC-DC converters (realized on the
silicon power diodes), the novel AC-DC converter
exhibits a number of advantages, namely: They have a
much lower forward-voltage drop, and therefore less
power losses on heat, and better energetic efficiency
and reliability. These AC-DC converters can be made
in the form of a MC (modular circuit) or an ASIC
(application specified integrated circuit). Computer
simulation allowed for the imitation of any selected
waveforms of voltages and currents in the novel
AC-DC converter. This simulation also confirmed the
benefits of using a high-performance AC-DC converter
generator with a novel AC-DC converter (with no
opto-couplers) instead of a conventional AC-DC
converter (with opto-couplers), those benefits being the
higher energetic efficiency (reduction of power losses
caused by the heat in the electronic converter) and the
associated reliability.
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