Designing InstructionSelecting and Using Examples During Instruction and

AssessmentMartin A. Kozloff

Copyright 2006

Quick (and Final) ReviewHere are the tools and steps in designing instruction. Let’s review them---one LAST time.

1. Learn what your state standard course of study requires you to teach. If standards are not concrete and clear, improve them. If (according to scientific research, expert opinion, and your own knowledge) important standards are missing, add them.

2. Determine what KIND of knowledge a standard is, as described in “Designing Instruction: Forms of Knowledge.” Verbal association. The U.S. Congress consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives.Concept. red, republic, colony, alliteration, amphibian, under.Rule-relationship. “When X, Y, and Z happen, economic development becomes likely.”Cognitive routine. The sequence of steps for long division or for sounding out words.The difference in how you teach these four forms of knowledge is mostly whether you teach steps (in cognitive routines) and how you use examples to communicate the idea—the concept, rule-relationship, or cognitive routine.

3. Use task analysis to determine which pre-skills and new skills students need to achieve the curriculum standard. See “Designing Instruction: Task Analysis,” for review.

4. State clear and concrete OBJECTIVES for each phase of mastery, as described in “Designing Instruction: Objectives” and “Designing Instruction: Phases of Mastery.” Specifya. What students will DO to show whether they have achieved the

standard---regarding acquisition of new knowledge, fluent USE of knowledge, generalization of knowledge to new examples, and

retention of knowledge. b. In what situation they will demonstrate acquisition, fluency,

generalization, and retention. c. The criterion for achievement regarding each phase of mastery. d. What assistance, if any, students will receive. e. How to assess whether students have achieved the criterion for

each phase of mastery. [Please see the tables on pages 22-33 in “Designing Instruction: Instructional Objectives” and your assignment for that document.]

6. Then, select sets of EXAMPLES that clearly communicate the information students need to acquire new knowledge, become fluent, generalize knowledge, and retain knowledge. Also select examples to assess achievement in each phase.

7. Finally, with all this information, plan procedures for delivering instruction for each phase of mastery. [The next part of this course.]

It’s very important at this time to review the document, “Designing instruction: Forms of knowledge.” Make sure you are firm on the following ideas.1. The goal is for students to acquire knowledge (general ideas); to use

their knowledge fluently and with new examples; and to retain knowledge.

2. There are four kinds of general ideas or cognitive knowledge. General ideas connect specific things and events. These specific

2

things or events (e.g., the thirteen original states in America) are EXAMPLES of the general idea (colony).

A company of people transplanted from their mother country to a remote province or country, and remaining subject to the jurisdiction of the parent state; as, the British colonies in America. http://dict.die.net/colony/ 3. General ideas (forms of cognitive knowledge) connect specific

things. Notice the connections here: Verbal associations. This ONE thing goes with another thing.Concepts. All these things have certain common features---redness.Rule-relationships. This SET of things goes with that set of things.Cognitive routines. All these words are sounded out the same way; all these math problems are solved the same way; all these poems are analyzed the same way.

4. You can’t communicate a general idea (the connection) by itself. You can only present example s . For instance, students can’t learn (grasp, get, figure out) the concept of---square---unless they see examples of square. Students can’t learn the routine for sounding out words, unless they see and perform examples of the routine for sounding out words WITH words. Students can’t learn the fact that Jefferson City is the capital of Missouri unless someone communicates an example of that fact---by saying it (“Boys and girls, new fact….”) or by showing it on a map.

5. Students learn (grasp) general ideas by performing “logical operations” with the examples (Engelmann, S. & Carnine, D. 1991. Theory of instruction. Eugene, OR: ADI Press). Specifically, the “learning mechanism” (eyes, ears, brain)

3

a. Examines the examples and observes (and perhaps describes with words) their features; for example, color, shape, size.b. Compares and contrasts examples, and identifies features that are the same. [Let’s imagine that the learner is talking to herself and knows the words to describe the objects.]

“This one is a circle and small, and called ‘red.’”

“This one is a circle and large, and called ‘red.’”

“This one is a triangle and small and called ‘red.’”

“This one is a triangle and large, and called ‘red.’”

“This one is a diamond, and called ‘red.’”

“Therefore, ‘red’ MAY mean the way these are the SAME---color.”

How does the learning mechanism come to this conclusion? Because all of the examples are different (size, shape) but are treated the same way (named) AND they have one SAME

4

feature. Therefore, logically, the way they are the same is likely to be why they are treated the same.c. Contrasts the examples (that share the same features and have the same name---“red”) with NONexamples that don’t have those features and don’t have that name (“not red”). Then the learning mechanism identifies the difference between the examples and the nonexamples.

“This one is a circle and small, and called ‘red.’”

“This one is a circle and small, and called ‘NOT red.’”

“This one is a circle and small, and called ‘NOT red.’”

“They are all small and all circles, but one is called ‘red’ and the other two are called ‘not red.’ The one way they are different must be what makes the difference in what they are called.”

“This one is a triangle and small, and called ‘red.’”

“This one is a triangle and small, and called NOT red.’”

“They are both small and all triangles, but one is called ‘red’ and the other is called ‘not red.’ The one way they are different must be what makes the difference in what they are called.”

5

d. Finally, the learning mechanism puts all that information together and “grasps” the connection.

“Ah Ha! ’Red’ means THAT COLOR, which all of the things called ‘red’ have but which NONE of the things called ‘not red’ have.” It’s exactly the same logical operations if a student watches the teacher sound out different words, or analyze different poems and documents, or solve different equations---and the student finally grasps the general series of steps in the routine.

6. The teacher can’t present examples and nonexamples in a random sort of way. The teacher must present a certain range of examples, that have certain features, in a certain order, and then juxtapose (put next to each other) examples and NONexamples---so that the learning mechanism can quickly and without confusion examine, identify features, compare and contrast, and draw a conclusion---which IS grasping the general idea.

7. There is a general and effective procedure for teaching; e.g., gaining attention, framing the task, modeling new information, presenting examples, correcting errors, etc. However, the general procedure is slightly different depending on whether you are teaching a verbal association, concept, rule-relationship, or cognitive routine. Please notice some of the difference when you review “Designing instruction: Forms of knowledge.” Note how examples and nonexamples are presented. Note how students’ knowledge is assessed in the phase of acquisition, with immediate and delayed acquisition tests.

The next section expands on number 6, above.

Revealing General Ideas with Examples. Acquisition Phase

6

We’ll discuss the selection and use of examples for each phase of mastery. Let’s begin with acquisition. This is the phase when students FIRST learn (get, figure out, grasp) a general idea (such as a concept) from examples and nonexamples presented by the teacher. In the phase of fluency, the teacher uses examples to help students perform their knowledge more quickly and effortlessly. In the phase of generalization, the teacher helps students learn to apply their knowledge to new examples. And in the phase of retention, the teacher uses examples to help students to retain their knowledge.

1. Use several examples to teach a concept, rule relationship, or cognitive strategy. You can’t use just one example.

Why? Because one example has many features. Mr. Kamal is teaching the concept---civil war. [civil war: A war between factions of the same country. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/100-20/10020gl.htm Mr. Kamal describes the main features of the civil war in the United States. He describes armies, battles, weapons, generals, ships, fortifications, states, events that led to the outbreak, and so forth. So, WHAT IS (what features define) civil war? It’s impossible to know for sure. Why? Because the one example (with all of those features) enables students to draw many logical (but wrong) conclusions.

Fred. “Civil war is when armies fight.”Joe. “Civil war is when they use cannons.”Jose. “Civil war is when northern armies fight southern armies.”Deb. “Civil war is war that kills many soldiers.”

The one example does not communicate which features are the DEFINING features. [A war between factions of the same country.] If Mr. Kamal later describes the civil war in early Rome (a war that has some of the same features as the American Civil War—weapons, groups,

7

generals), will students easily identify the features that make them both civil wars? No. http://www.interlog.com/~gilgames/civwar.htm

Here’s another example of how you can’t use just one example. Mr. Smith taught his students the sounds that go with several letters. Now he’s teaching students the cognitive routine for sounding out words using those letters.

“Boys and girls, I’ll show you how to sound out words. Here I go.”

m a o------->

He puts his finger on the ball, slowly slides his finger to the right, and says mmmmaaa.

Will this one example of the routine teach all students (especially diverse learners) the GENERAL set of steps for sounding out words? No. Watch what happens next, when he reverse the letters.

a m o------->

“Okay, boys and girls. Your turn. Sound it out.”

Ginny. “mmmaaa.” [The one example, above, of ma, taught Ginny that you are supposed to say mmm first.]

Maria. “aaa…..mmmm” [The one example, above, did NOT teach Maria the rule that you blend the sounds together.]

Chuck. “Huh?” [The one example was not enough for Chuck to learn the steps.]

8

Therefore, during the phase of acquisition---when you are trying to teach a new concept, rule-relationship, or cognitive routine, use several examples. [Note. This does not apply to teaching verbal associations. Because there IS only ONE example. There is only one example of the fact that The six New England states are Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. So, you merely STATE the verbal association and students memorize it. But for concepts, rule-relationships, and cognitive routines you DO need several examples in an acquisition set.

Acquisition Set. In the phase of acquisition, the examples are called an acquisition set. In each lesson you use part of the set. How do you select examples for the acquisition set? Here’s a guideline.

Select a range of acquisition examples (of concepts, rule-relationships, and cognitive routines) whose FEATURES represent the examples to which students will later generalize their knowledge. [You may want to read that again.] Do you want students easily to generalize the concept---red---to the whole range of red---dark to light; reddish orange to reddish blue? Yes. Therefore, when you teach---red---use examples whose features range from lighter to darker, and from orangish to plain red to bluish red. [But start with the most common red.]

If you teach the routine for sounding out words, do you want students to be able to generalize the sounding out routine to words that are vowel-consonant (am, it); consonant-vowel (ma); consonant-vowel-consonant (cat); consonant blends (flow, snap); words with stop sounds (cat) and words with continuous sounds (fun)? Yes. Therefore, your acquisition set should include examples of all of these. [But start with the easiest---am]

9

If you teach students the routine for multiplication, do you want students to generalize the routine to problems with odd and even numbers, and to problems where the larger number is sometimes on top and sometimes on the bottom? Yes. Therefore, your acquisition set should include examples of all of these. [But start with the most common examples.]

Stipulation errors. Ms. Ruger used medium red only as her acquisition set for teaching the concept red. What do these examples tell students red is? Medium red. What do you think happened when she later showed dark red and asked, “Is this red?” Many of her students said, “NO. Not red.” They made an error. Why? Because the medium red examples communicated (STIPULATED) that “red” means medium red. This is called a stipulation error. The range of examples was BIASED in some way. Too narrow. What students learned (“red” means medium only) did not match the WIDER RANGE of red. So when asked about red examples that were outside of their definition, they did not see these as red.

Mr. Kimber used the following to teach students what fractions are. 3/4 5/7 12/34 1/3 9/15 3/5 4/9Do these represent the whole range of fractions? No. Are they biased in some way? Yes. The denominators are all larger than the numerators. Later, Mr. Kimber says,“Boys and girls, is this a fraction?” 4/3Some students will say “No. Not a fraction.” Why? Because his biased set of examples above, stipulated (taught) that fractions have larger denominators.To avoid stipulation errors, and to make it easier for students to generalize knowledge to unfamiliar examples, make sure your acquisition set covers the variety of features of whatever you are teaching. But when you FIRST start teaching, use the most common examples.

10

2. Teach students that things that look DIFFERENT in many ways are the SAME in the essential ways, and therefore should be treated (named, solved, sounded out, analyzed) the same way.

You don’t want students to get stuck on unimportant details. You have to teach them that, for instance: (1) the letters are different, but you sound out these words the same way because they are all regular words; (2) the numbers and the unknowns are different, but you solve these algebra problems the same way because they are all equations with one unknown; (3) their outer appearance is different, but you can use the same concepts to describe these animals because they are all vertebrates; (4) the letters may be different, but you can conjugate these French verbs the same way because they are all “er” verbs. In other words, present examples from the acquisition set in a way that shows how the examples are the same (in the essential features) despite differences (in unessential features—letters, numbers).

How do you teach that “these (words are sounded out, problems are solved, poems are analyzed, verbs are conjugated) the same way even though they are different in certain features”? [Please look at the five examples of red on pages 3 and 4, above.] The rule is:

Show examples that are greatly different in irrelevant features, but treat (name, solve, sound them out, analyze) them the same way.

For instance,Mr. Garand is teaching his eighth graders the concept---amphibian.http://www.redpath-museum.mcgill.ca/Qbp/herps/herps.html He can’t do it with only one example. If he shows the example below and says, “This is an amphibian,” some students may “get” (conclude) that “amphibian” means thing with bulging eyes.

11

Or thing with thick forelegs.Or frog.And he can’t show examples of amphibians that are brown only, because those examples would stipulate that all amphibians are brown. Therefore, when shown a green amphibian and asked, “Is this an amphibian?” some students will say No. A stipulation error.So, Mr. Garand uses examples in his acquisition set whose features vary as the whole range of amphibian features vary. Color, shape, species, tail/no tail. First, he teaches the verbal definition of amphibian---because amphibian is a higher-order concept.

“Amphibians consist of three groups: frogs, salamanders and caecilians. Amphibians have smooth, scaleless skin, and no true claws.” [Please review the procedure for teaching higher-order concepts, beginning on page 25 of “Designing Instruction: Forms of Knowledge.”]

Then Mr. Garand presents examples to show SAMENESS---to show the common, defining features. Notice that: (1) the examples VARY (differ) in color, shape, species, and tail/no tail; (2) but they are the same in the features specified in the verbal definition (smooth scaleless skin; no true claws); and (3) Mr. Garand TREATS (in this case he names) them the same way---“This….is an amphibian.”Mr. Garand is using the “sameness principle” (Engelmann & Carnine, 1991. Theory of Instruction.) Follow the students’ “learning mechanism” as it uses the examples to “grasp” the concept from the way Mr. Garand presents the examples. [Please don’t think that I’m making this---teaching the concept amphibian---more complicated than it is. It only seems that way because you already know what an amphibian is and you know how to

12

figure things out. Even so, the procedure for presenting examples, below, is the same no matter what you are teaching—even complex ideas.]

Mr. Garand. “This Leopard Frog is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

Mr. Garand. “This Spadefoot Toad is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

Students. “Since they are different colors, but are still called amphibian, color logically is not the defining feature. Also, the first one was called frog and this one is called toad, but they are both called amphibians. Therefore, being a frog is not what makes an animal an amphibian.”

Mr. Garand. “This Cope’s Grey Treefrog is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

13

Students. “The first two were on the ground and this one is in a tree, but they are all called amphibian. Therefore, being on the ground vs. in a tree is not what makes an animal an amphibian. Also, the first two were spotty colored, but this one is a solid color. Therefore, being spotty vs. being a solid color is not what makes an animal an amphibian.”

Ms. Garand. “This bullfrog is an amphibian” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

Students. “All of the other examples were small, and this one is HUGE. But they are all called amphibian. Therefore

14

being small vs. being large can’t be what makes an animal an amphibian.”

Mr. Garand. “This Tiger Salamander is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

Students. “Wow, I thought amphibians had no tails! But this has a tail and is called amphibian. Therefore, having a tail vs. not having a tail is not what defines amphibian. Also, I thought that amphibians were either frogs or toads. Now I

see that being a frog or toad is not what defines amphibian, because Salamanders are also

amphibians.”

Mr. Garand. “This Redback Salamander is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws.]

15

Students. “These two examples teach me that being a solid color or having stripes does not define a Salamander as an amphibian. Now I get it! Color, size, being on the ground or in a tree, having bulging eyes or flat eyes, stripped or solid, spotted or solid do not define amphibian. Only smooth scaleless skin and no true claws defines amphibian.”

Do you think students usually talk themselves through the logical operations of figuring out what the examples communicate? If students are FLUENT at thinking, then they probably don’t. Making the comparisons and contrasts and drawing conclusions is automatic. But what if students are not fluent at thinking things through? Students with language and learning difficulties; diverse learners. Then it IS a good idea to teach students HOW to think. Observe; describe features; compare and contrast; identify what goes together (e.g. is the same) and what is different. 3. Teach students that things that look the SAME in many ways are DIFFERENT in the ESSENTIAL ways, and therefore should be treated (named, sounded out, solved, analyzed) differently.

So far, we have a range of examples, and we present them in a way that reveals which features (the defining features) are the same. How? We show examples that differ in IRRELEVANT ways (color, size, tail, shape) but are the same in smooth skin and no true claws. We do one more thing to ensure that students “get it”---learn the general idea from the examples. We show students things that look the same in many ways but differ in a few essential ways, and are treated DIFFERENTLY. How do you show clearly that examples are different, in a way that reveals the defining or important features? Simple.

Juxtapose (that is, present right next to each other or in rapid alternating sequence) both examples and nonexamples that are very similar in irrelevant ways, but that are different in the essential ways,

16

and TREAT (e.g., name) them differently. [This is called the difference principle. Engelmann & Carnine, 1991.]For instance,

"This IS a simile. She was LIKE a breath of fresh air.” This is NOT a simile. She WAS a breath of fresh air.This IS a simile. The desert was hot AS an oven.This is NOT a simile. The desert WAS an oven.

Do you see that each pair is the same in irrelevant ways---she, breath, fresh air; desert, hot, oven). The only way the pairs are different (one says “like” or “as,” and the other does not) logically must be what makes the difference between simile and not simile.

Here’s how Mr. Garand did it. First (as you saw above), he teaches---“These are the same.” He presents examples that differ in many ways (color, size, tail) but are the same in the defining way (smooth skin; no true claws). Then (below) he teaches----“But these are different.” He presents some of the examples and juxtaposes then with NONexamples that are the SAME in many ways but different in the defining way. Watch. Here’s Mr. Garand teaching SAMENESS as above.

Mr. Garand. “This Leopard Frog is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

Mr. Garand. “This Spadefoot Toad is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

17

Mr. Garand. “This Cope’s Grey Treefrog is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

Ms. Garand. “This bullfrog is an amphibian” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

18

Mr. Garand. “This Tiger Salamander is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

Now Mr. Garand teaches DIFFERENT.

Mr. Garand. “This Redback Salamander is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws.]

Mr. Garand. “This Sand Lizard is not an amphibian." [Scaly skin; true claws]

19

Mr. Garand. “This Tiger Salamander is an amphibian.” [smooth scaleless skin; no true claws]

“This Spotted Lizard is not an amphibian.” [Scaly skin; true claws]

Students. “I get it. Even if they are both spotted, or both brown, or both have tails, or both have bulging eyes and pudgy noses, they are amphibians ONLY if they have smooth scaleless skin and no true claws.

Here’s one more example of juxtaposing examples in a way that reveals important differences IN the examples that makes the difference in how you TREAT the examples. Ms. Ruger is given students practice sounding out words. She points to a word and says, “Sound it out.” Then she points to the next word and shows students exactly where and how it is different.

20

sit This juxtaposition teaches students to pay attention to the

fit beginning letter. Students learn that the difference in the

lit letter makes the difference in what the words say and mean.

sit This juxtaposition teaches students to pay attention to the

set middle sound. Students see again that the difference in the

sot letter makes the difference in what the words say and mean.

sit This juxtaposition teaches students to pay attention to the

sits final letters. Students see once more that the difference in the sitting letters makes the difference in what the words say and mean.

4. Present examples in a sequence that makes acquisition (learning the general idea) easy, and that makes generalization (later on) successful.

Mr. Osborn taught his students the sounds that go with several letters. Now he is teaching them to sound out words with those letters. He begins with these examples.

zuluzilch

xerxesGood idea? No. Why? First of all, these letters and words are hard to say. So students are going to make errors sounding out the words. This will harm their learning the general routine for sounding out. Second, how often does anyone read words with x and z? Not often. And how often does anyone read or write xerxes or zilch or zulu? Even less often.

Isn’t the following a better idea?

21

ammasa [pseudo-word]mat

Yes, this is better. Why? The letters and the words are used a lot---in many words. And they are easy to say. Therefore, students won’t make a lot of mistakes and become discouraged.

Here are some guidelines. Let’s say you have many examples in your acquisition set.1. Begin with examples (letters whose sounds to teach, words to sound

out, addition problems, poems to analyze, historical documents to read) that will be easier.

2. Begin with examples that are common, high-frequency, used a lot.3. Begin with examples that are regular---not exceptions. The word

“said” is certainly used a lot. But it is an irregular word. You don’t sound it out. If you do, you end up with saaaahiiid.

4. Separate instruction on items that could be confusing---because of similarities. Wait until students are firm on one before introducing the other. For instance, b and d look the same. So teach that d says /d/ well before you teach that b says /b/. Likewise, teach one kind of cell division (e.g., mitosis) WELL before you teach the other (meiosis)http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/comparison.html

Let’s summarize.1. Use several examples to teach concepts, rule-relationships, and

cognitive routines.2. Select a set of examples whose features vary the same way that

the features of examples vary outside of acquisition instruction, so that students can easily generalize to new examples.

22

3. The examples you present should cover the range of variations—light red to dark red, small triangles to large triangles, short words to longer words, math problems with few operations to math problem with many operations—so that students do not wrongly conclude (make stipulation errors) that a concept, rule, or routine only applies to a narrow range.“I can’t solve that kind of problem. It’s long.”“I cant read those new words. The letters are arranged differently.”

4. Juxtapose (present next to each other) examples that are different in irrelevant ways, but clearly reveal the essential way that they are the same.

“They have different numbers, but they are all equations with one unknown. So, you solve them the same way.”

3 + x = 12 8 + x = 32 22 – x = 14

5. Juxtapose (present next to each other) examples and nonexamples that are the same in irrelevant ways, but differ in the essential way that makes them different.

“They have similar numbers, but the placement of the exponent makes the difference in how you expand them.”

2 2 4 (12- 3) vs. 4(12-3)

6. During acquisition, present examples (from which students are supposed to learn the general idea) in a sequence from easier to harder; more useful now to more useful later; more frequently used to less frequently used; regular to exceptions; and separate instruction on items who similarities may be confusing.

23

Using Examples to Teach the Other Three Phases of Mastery and Using Examples to Assess in All Four Phases of

Mastery

There are three tables, below. The first summarizes the document, “Designing Instruction: Phases of Mastery.” The second and third tables summarize the document, “Designing Instruction: Instructional Objectives.” These tables will help you to organize and firm up a great deal of information. Make sure that you focus on the use of sets of examples for instruction and for assessment.

24

Summary of Phases of Mastery

Acquisition of Verbal Associations, Concepts, or Rule-relationships.

Fluency Generalization Retention

Definition The student learns a new verbal association, concept, rule-relationship, or cognitive routine from the examples (and perhaps nonexamples) presented and described---the acquisition set.

Accurate, rapid, smooth (nearly automatic) performance.

The accurate application or transfer of knowledge to new examples---called a generalization set.

Knowledge remains firm (accurate and fluent) despite the passage of time and despite acquiring new and possibly interfering knowledge.

Relevant Instructional Objectives or Aims

Accuracy. 100% correct.

Accuracy plus speed (rate), usually with respect to a benchmark.

When presented with a generalization set (new but similar examples) students respond accurately and quickly.

When presented with a retention set (a sample of earlier items worked on), students respond accurately and quickly.

Relevant InstructionalProcedures

Focused instruction: clear and concrete objective; gain attention; frame; model, lead, immediate

Modeling fluent performance

Special cues; e.g., for tempo.

Repetition

1. Review and firm up knowledge to be generalized.

2. Use a generalization set (new

1. Every day, before each lesson on a particular subject, review (assess) a sample of what you have

acquisition test; examples and nonexamples; error correction; delayed acquisition test; review. Examples and nonexamples are selected from an acquisition set.

(practice)

Speed drills (practice)

Work on fluency should at first be with familiar materials—text to read, math problems to solve. Why?

If you use NEW examples, you are really working on generalization. Therefore, if students do poorly on fluency assessments, you won’t know if they just can’t generalize or whether they were never firm to begin with.

examples) that are similar to earlier examples that students learned.

3. Assure students they can do it.

4. Provide reminders.

5. Correct errors.

already worked on in that subject.

2. Separate instruction on items that may be confusing; e.g., simile and metaphor.

3. Provide written routines or diagrams that students can use to guide and check themselves

Pre-instruction assessment

Assess pre-skills or background knowledge essential to the new material.

Measure rate (correct and errors) before instruction on fluency

Review/test knowledge you want students to generalize.

Review/test knowledge you want students to retain. This would probably be the most current delayed acquisition test—after a lesson or unit.

26

During-instruction, or progress-monitoring assessment

Immediate acquisition test/check after the model (“This letter makes the sound ffff”) and the lead (“Say it with me.”).

The immediate acquisition test/check is, for example, “Your turn. (What sound?” “Is this granite?” “Now, you solve the problem.”)

Frequent (e.g., daily) measure of rate (correct and errors) during instruction on fluency, in relation to a fluency aim or benchmark

Add new examples to the growing generalization set. Have students work them.

Add examples from the most recent lessons and rotate examples from earlier lessons, to form a retention set.

Do this every time to assess retention.

Post-instruction, or outcome assessment

Delayed acquisition test using all of the new material.

“Read these words. First word. What word?...Next word. What word?”

Or, “Is this an example of tyranny? [Yes] How do you know?... Is this an example of a republic? [No] How do you know?”

Rate (correct and errors) at the end of instruction on fluency, in relation to a fluency aim or benchmark.

If students have responded accurately to past generalization sets, the latest one given is the outcome assessment.

If students have responded accurately to past retention sets, the latest one given is the outcomeassessment.

27

Curriculum standard as written.Grade 1 1.02 Demonstrate decoding and word recognition strategies and skills:Generate the sounds from all the letters and appropriate letter patterns which should include consonant blends and long and short vowel patterns.

Curriculum standard with improved writing: clear and concrete.Students say the correct sound when presented with letters in isolation. [That is, not in words.] These letters include all consonants, all vowels (long and short), and consonant blends (st, br, bl, fr, fl, cr, sm, gr, etc.).

Phase of mastery

What students will DO; in what SITUATION; with what ASSISTANCE, if any; and at what CRITERION of achievement.

Assessment

Acquisition 1. “The teacher (points to a letter on the board, points to a letter in her phonics book, points to a letter on a phonics card). The teacher says, ‘What sound?’ (or ‘What sound does this letter make?’). Students answer correctly within three seconds. The criterion is 100% correct responses from the class. No assistance is given.”

After modeling the sound that goes with new letter, and leading students to see the letter and say the sound, the teacher gives and immediate acquisition test to the whole class.[points to letter.] “What sound?”

Then the teacher assesses individual students.

Teacher calls on student, points to a letter, and says, “What sound?”

Students answer correctly within three seconds. The criterion is 100% correct responses from the class.

Fluency-building

1. “The teacher (points to a letter on the board, points to a letter in her phonics book, points to a letter on a phonics card). The teacher says, ‘What sound?’ (or ‘What sound does this letter make?’). Students answer correctly within two seconds. The criterion is 100% correct responses from the

[From a fluency set of letters already worked on]

The teacher points to a letter and says “What sound?”

Students answer correctly within two seconds. The

class. To assist students, and especially diverse learners, to say it fast, the teacher moves her finger quickly under the letter, from left to right when she says, ‘What sound.’” [Notice that the benchmark or criterion is now two seconds. This is one second faster than in the phase of acquisition.]

criterion is 100% correct responses from the class.

Generalization 2. “Using a generalization set of familiar letters but now in different sizes, colors, placements on the page, and styles, the teacher (points to a letter on the board, points to a letter in her phonics book, points to a letter on a phonics card). The teacher says, ‘What sound?’ (or ‘What sound does this letter make?’). Students answer correctly within three seconds. The criterion is 100% correct responses from the class. No assistance is given.”

[From a generalization set of familiar letters but of different colors, styles, sizes, and placements]The teacher points to a letter and says “What sound?”

Students answer correctly within three seconds. The criterion is 100% correct responses from the class.

Retention 1. “Using a retention set of earlier and more recently taught letters, the teacher (points to a letter on the board, points to a letter in her phonics book, points to a letter on a phonics card). The teacher says, ‘What sound?’ (or ‘What sound does this letter make?’). Students answer correctly within three seconds. The criterion is 100% correct responses from the class. No assistance is given.”

[From a retention set of earlier and more recently taught letters] The teacher points to a letter and says, ‘What sound?’

Students answer correctly within three seconds. The criterion is 100% correct responses from the class.

29

Curriculum standard as written.Students will appreciate different literary genres.

Curriculum standard with improved writing: clear and concrete.Students will define, identify examples of, and compare and contrast different literacy genres.

Phase of mastery

What students will DO; in what SITUATION; with what ASSISTANCE, if any; and at what CRITERION of achievement.

Assessment

Acquisition 1. “Given the names of different literacy genres (Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology), students state or write definitions that include the main features of each genre, and give an example of each within five minutes. No assistance is given.”

2. [The set of examples---acquisition set—consists of examples that the teacher used to teach the concepts.] “Given a set of examples of writing from different genres (Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology), students (1) identify the genres of the examples and then (2) compare and contrast the examples/genres by identifying similar and dissimilar features.

Students write a short paper

describing their findings.

Students have one day (approximately three hours) to do this. Students with language and learning difficulties are provided a sheet with key words for each definition. They also are provided a template for a paper. The template has

1. The teacher writes the names of literacy genres (Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology) one at a time on the board. The teacher says, “Write a definition for each genre. Make sure to include the main features of each genre, and give an example of each. You have five minutes for each one.

2. Students are given excerpts (approximately two paragraphs in length) from different genres, at least two excerpts each (Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology).

The task is to (1) state the genre of

each sample; (2) write a short paper

that lists the similarities and differences between the genres.

Students have one day (approximately three hours) to do this.

Students with language and learning difficulties are provided a sheet with key words for each definition. They

30

spaces to write the features of each genre.”

also are provided a template for a paper. The template has spaces to write the features of each genre.”

Fluency-building

[The set of fluency examples consists of examples that the teacher used to teach the concepts during acquisition.] Given a set of one- or two-sentence samples of different genres (Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology), students identify the genre of each sample within 10 seconds. Students are correct on at least 80% of the samples.

The teacher says, “I will read a small sample of a genre (Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, and theology). When I finish, you think of the genre and write in down on your sheet. You have 10 seconds.”

“There once was a man from Nantucket. Who carried his cat in a bucket.”

Generalization 1. “Given a set new examples of writing from different literacy genres (Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology), students identify each example within two minutes. Students are correct on at least 80% of the samples.

Students with language and learning difficulties are provided a sheet with key words for each definition.

2. “Given the names of different literacy genres (Romantic poetry,

1. Students are given NEW excerpts (approximately two paragraphs in length) from different genres, at least two excerpts each (Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology).

The teacher says, “Read each excerpt and write its name over the excerpt.”

Students have 20 minutes and 10 excerpts. They are expected to get 80% correct.

Students with language and learning difficulties are provided a sheet with key words for each definition.

2. The teacher says, “Write at least two paragraphs that

31

metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology), students write two paragraphs that represent each genre. Students have one day (approximately three hours) to do this. Students with language and learning difficulties are given a sheet with definitions and examples of each genre. This assistance is faded out as students are observed to write in each genre without using the assists.”

represent each of the following genres: Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology.”

You have one hour today; home tonight; and one hour tomorrow.”

Students with language and learning difficulties are given a sheet with definitions and examples of each genre.

Retention 1. [A set of retention examples is developed from the total examples students have worked with so far]

Given both one- and two-line excerpts and two-paragraph long excerpts of different literacy genres (Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology), students (1) identify the genre of each excerpt; and (2) state the features that define the excerpt.

Students with language and learning difficulties are given a sheet with definitions and examples of each genre. This assistance is faded out as students are observed to write in each genre without using the assists.”

1. [A set of retention examples is developed from the total examples students have worked with so far]

Students are given a set of excerpts (one- and two-line excerpts and two-paragraph long excerpts) from different genres, at least two excerpts each (Romantic poetry, metaphysical poetry, fiction, historical texts, theology).

The teacher says, “Here

are excerpts that you’ve seen before. Read each one; label its genre; and state the features that define the excerpt. You have 30 minutes.

Students achieve 90% accuracy.

Students with language and learning difficulties are given a sheet with definitions and examples of each genre.

32

Curriculum standard as written.

1.06 Recognize and use social studies terms in written and oral reports.

Curriculum standard with improved writing: clear and concrete.Given vocabulary words in texts and/or used by the teacher in presentations, students will say or write the correct definitions, including the essential features of the concept. Students will use the proper vocabulary words in papers that they write and in oral presentations.

Phase of mastery

What students will DO; in what SITUATION; with what ASSISTANCE, if any; and at what CRITERION of achievement.

Assessment

Acquisition 1. “The teacher says the name of a concept (such as tyranny, monarchy, unalienable rights, usurpation, the people). Students write or say the correct verbal definition, including main features of the concept, and provide at least two examples, within five minutes. As an assist, diverse learners are allowed to use their note cards to formulate answers. As their answers become more fluent, the cards are faded out.”

The set of five cards is the acquisition set.

1. The teacher says, “I’ll say a vocabulary word and you write the definition on your test sheet. You have five minutes. Get ready. monarchy.”

Students achieve 90% correct answers.

Fluency-building 1. “When a concept is named, students say the correct verbal definition, including main features of the concept, and provide at least one example. They meet a criterion of 90% accuracy and define at least two concepts per minute. As an assist, diverse learners are allowed to use their note cards to formulate answers. As their answers become more fluent, the cards are faded

out.”

1. Students work in pairs, and switch off. One student holds up a card with the name of a concept, and names the concept. The other student gives the verbal definition, with at least one example, within 30 seconds.

As an assist, diverse learners are allowed to use their note cards to formulate answers. As their answers become more students become more fluent, the cards are faded out.”

Generalization 1. “Students are given work sheets that contain paragraphs with

1. The teacher makes a list of vocabulary

33

blanks for students to fill in with vocabulary words the students have already learned in the phase of acquisition. For example,

‘The Declaration of Independence says that human beings are born with rights that have been given by their Creator. These are called ____________ rights. The Declaration also speaks about actions by King George that exceed his social contract with the colonies. These acts are ________________ of his power.’

[inalienable rights; usurpations of his power.]. Students work a sheet with 20 blanks in 10 minutes or less with 90% accuracy.

Diverse learners are at first allowed to use their vocabulary note cards and are given

more time, as needed.”

2. “The teacher gives a new example or a nonexample of a concept . The teacher asks, ‘Is this (tyranny, monarchy, representative democracy, an unalienable right, a usurpation)?’

The (class, small group, individual) answers correctly within 10 seconds.

The teacher then asks, ‘How do you know?’ The (class, small group, individual) correctly answers the question, using the definition of the concept, within 10 seconds.

The (class, small group, individual) meets the criterion of 90% correct responses for the generalization set.

Diverse learners are assisted by their note cards and have additional time as needed to answer.”

words/concepts that students have already learned (acquisition phase).

The teacher also writes sentences that students have not seen, with blanks that can be filled by the different vocabulary words.[A generalization set.]

“Here are sentences. Each one has one or blanks to fill in with vocabulary words that you have learned. There are 30 blanks. You have 15 minutes.”

Students are 90% accurate.

Diverse learners are at first allowed to use their vocabulary note cards and are given more time, as needed.”

2.The teacher makes a generalization set of new examples and nonexamples of concepts/vocabulary words the students have already learned.

The teacher says, “I’ll give an example of something and I’ll ask you if it is one or another (political system, amendment, war). You’ll tell me whether it is. Then I’ll ask you how you know. Use your definitions to answer.”

The teacher says, “One ruler, who has absolute power, obtained through conquest or inheritance.

34

Is that representative democracy?....

“How do you know?”Students answer each question within 10 seconds and with 90% accuracy.

Diverse learners are assisted by their note cards and have additional time as needed to answer.”

Retention 1. “The teacher says the name of a concept (such as tyranny, monarchy, unalienable rights, usurpation, the people).

Students write or say the correct verbal definition, including main features of the concept, and provide at least two examples, within five minutes.

They meet a criterion of 90% accuracy.

As an assist, diverse learners are allowed to use their note cards to formulate answers. As their answers become more fluent, the cards are faded out.”

The set of 15 cards is the retention set. [The retention set changes with each practice or assessment of retention. Earlier concepts are put on the back burner for awhile and newer ones are added.]

1.The teacher develops a retention set of concepts/vocabulary words that have been worked on to date.

The teacher says, “I’ll say a vocabulary word and you write the definition, including the main features of the concept. Also write an example. You have five minutes for each one.”

Students are accurate with at least 90% of the words.

As an assist, diverse learners are allowed to use their note cards to formulate answers. As their answers become more fluent, the cards are faded out.”

35