Helping Students Build Social Competence - cec.sped.org/media/Files/Publications/Book...

Juliet E. Hart Barnett and Kelly J. Whalon, Editors

DADDPRISMSERIES

Volume 8

Friendship 101: Helping StudentsBuild Social Competence

© 2014 by Council for Exceptional Children

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the copyright owner.

Council for Exceptional Children 2900 Crystal Drive, Suite 1000 Arlington, VA 22202-3557 www.cec.sped.org

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data

Hart Barnett, Juliet E. Friendship 101: Helping students build social competence. Prism Series Volume 8 / Ed. Juliet E. Hart Barnett and Kelly J. Whalon. p. cm. Includes biographical references.

ISBN 978-0-86586-490-0 (soft cover)ISBN 978-0-86586-492-4 (eBook)

Cover and interior design by Tom Karabatakis

Printed in the United States of America by AGS.

First edition 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Prism 8 • 1

Chapter

Assessing Social Competence: A Step-by-Step ApproachMaureen Conroy, Kelly J. Whalon, and Jose Martinez

Joseph, a student with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attends a third-grade class at his local elementary school. Because Joseph does fairly well academically in school, he spends most of his time in this general education third-grade class, but he also receives some additional support from Ms. Coffey, a special education teacher. One of the areas that Joseph struggles with is social competence. Joseph often has difficulty reading social cues and engaging in social interactions with peers. When he does interact with his peers, the conversations are one-sided and peers often lose interest when Joseph fails to engage them in the conversation. Joseph wants to make friends, but lacks the appropriate social competence skills needed to interact successfully with his peers.

Riley is a 4-year old with significant developmental delays in the areas of communication, cognition, and social skills. In addition to receiving itinerant support through her local school district, she attends Ms. Rosie’s class in a community early childhood program five mornings a week to help facilitate her social-communicative skills and assist her in making friends. Riley likes her classmates, but often prefers to spend time alone. At this time, Riley has limited communication skills and typically uses motor behaviors (e.g., touching or pointing), but is beginning to learn to use some simple signs to communicate her needs and wants.

For many teachers, including Ms. Coffey and Ms. Rosie, teaching social competence skills is a relatively new area of educational emphasis. Although Ms. Rosie has certification in early

childhood education and received instruction on the importance of social development and play skills in young children, and Ms. Coffey is a certified special education teacher and received instruction in remedial education, neither teacher was taught how to facilitate social competence skills and individualize instruction for students with developmental disabilities (DD), such as Riley and Joseph. Fortunately, researchers have been making substantial gains in instructional techniques to help students with ASD or other DD learn the skills they need to become socially competent. This chapter highlights a step-by-step approach that teachers and other school staff can use to assess social competence skills for instructional purposes.

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2 • Friendship 101: Helping Students Build Social Competence

Introduction to Social Competence

Social competence, defined as the ability “to successfully and appropriately select and carry out interpersonal goals” (Guralnick, 1990, p. 4), is an important skill for success in life. Most children and youth acquire social competence as they naturally interact with others across a variety of situations at school and in their communities. However, for students with ASD or other DD, social competence does not always develop without explicit instruction (see Brown, Odom, & Conroy, 2001; Brown, Odom, & McConnell, 2008). Students, such as Joseph and Riley, often have difficulty engaging others in social situations, responding to social requests or bids from others, and participating in sustained, reciprocal social interactions (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Lord & McGee, 2001). Their difficulty in acquiring and displaying the skills needed to be successful in social contexts is typically a result of their delays or deficits across several key developmental domains, including communication, social, behavioral, or cognitive skills (Brown & Conroy, 2002; 2012; Kaczmarek, 2002). For example, Riley’s cognitive delay and her limited ability to use language and communication impact her ability to socially interact with her peers. On the other hand, Joseph’s behavioral excesses (restricted interests) and his inability to interpret others’ social cues impact his ability to engage in meaningful, sustained interactions with his peers. Both students present unique abilities and needs in the area of social competence, which makes using a generic instructional approach to social competence less effective for them. Similar to instruction in other skill areas in the field of special education, one size does not fit all. For students such as Joseph and Riley, instruction in the area of social competence needs to be individualized, which means beginning with an assessment of each student’s strengths and needs and developing an individualized social competence instructional plan based on the results of the assessment.

Assessment-Based Social Competence Instruction

Social competence is a complex skill set that is influenced by a number of factors, including our own social competence abilities, the social competence abilities of those we interact with, and the social requirements of varying contexts (Brown & Conroy, 2002; Kaczmarek, 2002; McConnell, 2002; Odom, McConnell, & Brown, 2008). Thus, we recommend approaching the assessment of social competence skills by engaging in a multiphase and multistep approach beginning with standardized assessments to examine the individual’s strengths and needs and then moving into ecological and functional assessments to gather information about factors that influence social opportunities, which can set the stage for social competence instruction (See Figure 1.1).

Assessing Social Competence: A Step-by-Step Approach | Prism 8 • 3

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Figure 1.1Assessment-Based Social Competence Instructional Process

Phase 1: Standardized Assessments

Assessment of social competence for students with ASD or other DD should begin with a comprehensive evaluation of their strengths and needs across all developmental areas and domains: vision and hearing abilities; intellectual abilities; speech, language, and communication abilities; fine and gross motor skills; and social, emotional, and behavioral deficits and excesses. Because all of these developmental areas may influence the development and display of social skills, it is important to know in which areas the student may demonstrate deficits or delays. Typically, during this initial phase of assessment, standardized measures are used. In the area of social competence, several standardized assessments are available that provide a broad picture of how a student is performing in the area of social competence in comparison to similarly aged peers (See Cunningham, 2012; Sigafoos, Schlosser, Green, O’Reilly, & Lancioni, 2008).

Because social skills may vary across settings and situational learning activities, when gathering formal assessment information in the area of social competence McConnell (2002) recommends using multiple informants and tools to produce an authentic, representative, and accurate assessment of the student’s social skills. Once the student’s overall strengths and needs are assessed, we recommend using an eco-behavioral and functional approach to assessment to help improve how the student uses these capabilities within social situations and to help the teacher identify contextually situated social skill needs and opportunities.

Phase 2: Eco-Behavioral Assessment

Social skills vary depending on the types of social settings we encounter, and different social contexts require all of us to engage in different types of social skills. For example, in school settings, the social skills needed to be successful at lunch or during recess are quite different from the social skills required for success during a teacher lesson. Engaging in socially appropriate behaviors (that is, reading the social expectations and cues across these contexts) is an important part of developing

Phase 1:StandardizedAssessment

Phase 2:Eco-Behavioral

Assessment

Phase 3:NaturalisticObservation

IndividualizedInstructional Plans

for PromotingSocial

Competence


social competence. For instance, Riley needs to know that when she is in a group play situation with her classmates, it is socially inappropriate to grab toys and other materials from her peers. Likewise, Joseph needs to be able to listen to and collaborate with his peers during cooperative learning activities without making irrelevant remarks or perseverating on his own interests. He also needs to learn to provide his peers with the opportunity to share their ideas and thoughts. Thus, using an eco-behavioral approach to social skill assessment can help teachers identify the most salient and context-specific skills to target for instruction and appropriate replacement social skills.

Once again, a multicomponent assessment that includes directly observing social skills in naturally occurring social interactions is recommended (Guralnick, 2010; Kaczmarek, 2002; Murdock, Cost, & Tieso, 2007). We suggest using the following steps as part of the eco-behavioral assessment to assist in gathering all essential assessment data needed for designing an individualized social competence instructional plan.

Step 1: Identifying contexts that provide social opportunities. To increase the likelihood for success of interventions aimed at increasing social competence of students with ASD or other DD, it is necessary to identify contexts that provide these students opportunities to interact with socially competent peers. A good place to start is by interviewing teachers or caregivers about situations and activities that can be targeted for instruction of social competence and which of these activities are enjoyable for the student. For example, if Riley enjoys playing at the water table, she will be more likely to engage in appropriate social behaviors with peers during water play as opposed to when she is engaging in a nonpreferred activity, such as finger painting. Because there is a strong academic focus in school settings, there are limited times when students are provided structured social opportunities during the school day. However, given the importance of social competence, it is important for practitioners to explore all opportunities that may exist for students to interact with their peers. For example, Joseph’s teacher may want to target social skills instruction right before the school day starts, at lunch or recess, or embedded within cooperative learning groups during an academic lesson. In other words, students interact with others, including their peers, throughout the school day; thus, teachers and school staff need to identify opportunities that can help set the stage for learning social competence skills.

Step 2: Identifying social materials. Researchers have found that identifying preferences of materials to include in social opportunities can help when designing effective interventions (Boyd, Conroy, Mancil, Nakao, & Alter, 2007). In addition to identifying times or activities throughout the day that set the context for teaching social competence skills, it is also important to identify materials or topics of conversation that increase the likelihood of appropriate social interactions. Students with ASD, such as Joseph, can become preoccupied with a specific object or want to discuss a particular topic for long periods of time, which may interfere with peer interactions. However, with some students, embedding preferred materials within the social activity is more likely to increase interactions with peers. Thus, we recommend that teachers or school staff identify materials that can be incorporated into social competence instruction and are likely to increase the student’s engagement in social interactions (rather than interfere with them). Interviewing the teacher or other school staff about students’ preferences may help to identify these materials, or the teacher may want to conduct a more systematic preference assessment (see Boyd et al., 2007; Magnum, Fredrick, Pabico, & Roane, 2012).


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Step 3: Identifying socially competent partners. In addition to identifying contexts and activities that promote social opportunities and interactions, it is important to identify social partners for students with ASD or other DD. Once again, identifying and including socially competent peers within social activities will increase the likelihood of students with ASD or other DD appropriately engaging in social behaviors during the targeted instructional times. Researchers have found that specific peer characteristics, such as the same gender, similar age, familiarity, and possessing the cognitive and social abilities required for social competence, are likely to increase the chances of students with ASD or other DD engaging in appropriate social behaviors (e.g., see Buysse, 1993; Guralnick, Neville, Hammond, & Connor, 2007; Hartup & Moore, 1990). In addition to possessing favorable characteristics, social partners should be motivated to interact with students with ASD or other DD. Increased effort on the part of the peers to interact socially with students with ASD or other DD increases the likelihood of the social interactions, which in turn increases the effectiveness of the interventions (e.g., English, Goldstein, Shafer, & Kaczmarek, 1997; Kohler, Greteman, Raschke, & Highnam, 2007).

Step 4: Identify critical context-specific social competence skills. Remember, social competence skills come in all forms and serve multiple purposes. For example, a nod or a smile acknowledges another person in the same manner as saying “hello.” Working together on a puzzle or sharing the same art materials without talking to one another is also a form of social interaction in addition to sustained conversations with others. Many times, the type of activity and the social rules of that activity govern the type of socially appropriate behaviors. To identify critical social competence skills for a particular activity, we recommend directly observing the activity and identifying the skills that socially competent peers display.

For example, Ms. Coffey thinks that Joseph may initiate more often than his peers, so she watches the social behaviors of other students to determine how often they initiate in different settings and contexts. Peers can also be helpful in developing the intervention (e.g., Delano & Snell, 2006; Gena, 2006). If Ms. Rosie wants to teach Riley to initiate, peers are a great source for knowing how to join in or approach each other. By watching peers, Ms. Rosie can identify individually age-appropriate social skills to target for instruction so that Riley can effectively join in or invite peers to play.

Phase 3: Using Naturalistic Observation to Identify Instructional Targets

Because social competence is demonstrated naturally through interactions between students and their same-age peers (Odom et al., 2008), observation serves as the most direct method of assessment to help inform instructional planning (Guralnick, 2010; Kaczmarek, 2002). As mentioned, developing social competence can be difficult for students with ASD or other DD because social competence is influenced by a number of elements, including the social situation, skills of others, and characteristics of the student (Kaczmarek, 2002). Fortunately, school settings provide an optimal venue for observing students’ social competence skills, as there are a number of meaningful social contexts throughout a typical school day that provide opportunities for learning social skills (e.g., arriving, departing, recess, lunch). Once again, observation of the target student’s social skills can be most effectively implemented using a step-by-step approach.

Step 1: Observe and compare student’s social competence skills. Ms. Coffey and Ms. Rosie plan to use observation to assess Joseph and Riley’s current social skill strengths and needs during the school day. Ms. Coffey is concerned because Joseph is not well received by his peers,


and a couple of peers have even begun actively avoiding Joseph. Ms. Coffey is hoping that she can identify instructional targets for helping both Joseph and his peers to build new and repair existing relationships.

Ms. Rosie will use direct observation to help her gain a better understanding of Riley’s social interaction skills. Because Riley is withdrawn during play and has limited verbal language abilities, Ms. Rosie is unsure how often Riley is initiating toward her peers. She has seen Riley playing near peers, but other than grabbing materials, she can’t remember the last time she saw Riley initiate. Ms. Rosie feels that Riley is getting more and more isolated from her peer group and would like to see Riley involve peers in her play more often.

Based on an interdisciplinary review of social competence, Kaczmarek (2002) presents three levels of social competence that begin with (1) specific, isolated skills necessary to engage in social interactions (e.g., greetings, initiations, responses) that when successfully applied in combination can result in (2) interactive, reciprocal communication (e.g., topic maintenance, engaged time interacting) that achieves a social goal. When children and youth are able to effectively socially interact with others, these interactions facilitate (3) peer acceptance and ultimately friendships. It is also important to observe if students display any problematic behaviors that may interfere with social interactions. Therefore, the frequency and quality of social initiations, responses, and interactions are often observation targets (Odom et al., 2008) as well as problem behaviors.

When conducting naturalistic observation in particular contexts, instructors will want to determine how the student’s social skills match up to the social skills required for success (i.e., those skills previously identified through the eco-behavioral assessment). For example, when comparing Riley at the water station to her peers, Ms. Rosie found that Riley did not initiate with peers or share toys with others and unintentionally splashed other children when she got excited. To increase her peer-related social competence skills, Riley needs to learn how to initiate with her peers, respond to her peers’ initiations, share toys with her peers for an extended period of time, and apologize if she accidently splashes others during her play.

Many researchers have developed coding systems to observe social effectiveness (Kaczmarek, 2002). For example, available coding schemes include various types of initiations (e.g., gaining attention, imitating, commenting, asking questions, making requests, sharing, offering suggestions), responses (e.g., contingent responses, imitating and following a peer), and interactions (e.g., initiation and response sequence, duration of interaction). In addition, coding schemes often address whether or not evidence of a target social skill (e.g., initiations to peers) is appropriate (e.g., asking a peer to play) or inappropriate (e.g., grabbing a toy away from a peer). Also, some coding systems define inappropriate behaviors that can result in negative peer interactions (e.g., inappropriate topic changes, competing with peers, ignoring peers, aggression) and identify the maintaining consequences (e.g., Conroy, Boyd, Asmus, & Madera, 2007; Conroy & Brown, 2002; Stichter & Conroy, 2006. Coding schemes using similar behavior combinations (i.e., initiations, responses, interactions) have been developed for use with young children (e.g., Boyd, Conroy, Asmus, & McKenney, 2011; Brown, Odom, & Holcombe, 1996; Guralnick & Groom, 1987), school-age children (e.g., Murdock et al., 2007; Theimann & Goldstein, 2001), and adolescents (e.g., Chung & Carter, 2013; Cutts & Sigafoos, 2001).


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To help assess Joseph and Riley’s social interactions skills, Ms. Coffey and Ms. Rosie each have decided to observe three target behaviors for their respective students and developed individualized operational definitions (see Table 1.1). As you can see, these include both appropriate social skills as well as behaviors that may interfere with social skill development.

Table 1.1Examples of Social Competence Target Behaviors

Target behavior Example

Initiations Joseph makes a verbal comment or request directed toward a peer to get a response. An initiation is counted as inappropriate if it is an abrupt change in topic or is inconsistent with the topic.

Riley makes a gesture toward a peer to gain attention, join in an activity, share an item, or get a response.

Responses Appropriate Response: Joseph verbally responds to a peer initiation and the response is related to the topic.

Inappropriate response: Joseph verbally responds to a peer but deviates from the topic or ignores a peer initiation.

Positive response: Riley uses a gesture (e.g., nods her head) to respond immediately after a peer initiation acknowledging the peer initiation.

No response: Riley does not respond to or ignores a peer initiation.

Interactions Joseph is engaged in a conversation with two or more peers by contributing or attending to the topic.

Engagement Riley is actively participating in play with peers (e.g., sharing toys).

Observing all instances of a behavior (i.e., event recording) can be challenging for teachers in a classroom context, which is why sampling methods are also recommended. Partial interval recording is a commonly used sampling method, and involves setting an interval (5–10 s) and documenting if the target behavior occurred at all during that interval. Figure 1.2 is a sample


of Ms. Coffey’s partial interval (10-s intervals) coding sheet taken during a 10-min recess observation Ms. Coffey uses the same recording method when she observes Joseph at lunch, waiting for the bus, and in his cooperative learning group.

Figure 1.2Sample Coding During Joseph’s Recess

Target behavior 10-s intervals

Intervals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20Initiations − − + − + 0 0 + − 0 +

−+ −

− − + + − + + −

−

Responses − + − + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + − 0 0 − +Interactions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0Initiations and responses: Record a + if an appropriate initiation or response occurred in an interval, a − if an inappropriate initiation or response occurred, and a 0 if no initiation occurred and there was no opportunity for a response. If both an appropriate and inappropriate interaction occurred, record a + and −.

Interactions: Record a 1 if an interaction occurred and a 0 if an interaction did not occur.

Another recording procedure is momentary time sampling. In this method, the teacher sets an interval (e.g., 10 s) and records if the behavior occurred at the end of that interval. This method is less effective for lower frequency behaviors. Ms. Rosie has decided to use partial interval recording to observe Riley. Because Riley rarely initiates, Ms. Rosie is worried that she may miss some important information using momentary time sampling.

Step 2: Identifying motivating consequences. Individuals socially interact for a reason. For students with ASD or other DD, the reason or social goal may not be readily apparent because behaviors used to achieve these goals can be unexpected and obscure intent. As a result, some coding schemes attempt to identify what happens before and after an interaction to determine what motivates or reinforces the interaction (Boyd et al., 2011; Brown et al., 1996; Conroy & Brown, 2002; Conroy et al., 2007). For example, Ms. Coffey observed Joseph on the playground and found that he frequently initiated toward his peers, but that these initiations were about a preferred topic: maps. Joseph’s peers responded, but often left the conversation quickly. When a peer left the conversation, Joseph immediately sought a new peer and again initiated a discussion about maps. In this observation, it became clear to Ms. Coffey that in addition to talking about maps, Joseph really enjoyed getting attention from his peers even though it was brief and occasionally negative. In contrast, Ms. Rosie found that Riley never initiated toward her peers, but she happily played alone next to them. Riley occasionally invented her own play that peers found interesting, and they initiated toward Riley to play. Although Riley never protested, she ignored her peers’ initiations and when she did respond she imitated their play behavior.

Both Ms. Coffey and Ms. Rosie can use this information to help plan a social intervention. For example, Ms. Coffey may decide to target turn taking and perspective taking for Joseph to increase his initiations and maintain interactions with his peers. Because Riley seems interested in play and the actions of her peers, and Riley’s peers are interested in her, Ms. Rosie may plan a peer-mediated


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intervention to help Riley’s peers successfully engage her in an interaction while also supporting Riley’s communication so that she can effectively and meaningfully respond to peers. Therefore, we also recommend identifying the consequences that maintain students’ appropriate or inappropriate social skills. By identifying consequences that reinforce appropriate social skills, we are likely to design more effective interventions.

Putting All the Pieces Together

Through this multiphase assessment process, teachers and school staff can gather all the data and develop a multicomponent, assessment-based intervention that matches the student’s individual needs and strengths. Components of the plan should include (a) targeted social skills selected for instruction based on the student’s strengths and needs and the appropriateness of the context, (b) antecedent factors that are likely to increase social exchanges (e.g., contexts, activities, materials, peers), and (c) consequences that serve as reinforcers and will increase the student’s social skills. Once an individualized instructional program has been developed, teachers will want to use ongoing progress monitoring to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention.

Supports and Resources

It can be difficult for teachers to observe social communication while providing instruction and support in the classroom. Other school personnel can be a good support when working on setting new intervention goals and monitoring progress. For example, school psychologists or special educators are great resources for setting up a progress monitoring system. Paraprofessionals, other school personnel, and volunteers can be helpful in recording data. A local university may have college students looking for service learning opportunities. Learning to code is a great skill to develop while also supporting a teacher. In addition, a number of applications for iPads/iPods are helpful in setting up a data collection system. Many of them have programs that can be used to create an interval recording system, which makes it easy for paraprofessionals, volunteers, or other support staff to help with data collection. Ms. Coffey set up her system using Behavior Tracker Pro, and her paraprofessional assists with collecting data during different interactive activities. Table 1.2 provides a few examples of data collection apps for the iPad and iPod.


Table 1.2Behavior-Tracking Applications for iPad/iPod

Application Web site Description Cost

ABC Data Pro http://www.cbtaonline.com/drupal/welcome

Tracks frequency and interval data. Data is exported via e-mail and is accessible in Excel.

$27.99

Autism Tracker Pro

http://www.trackandshareapps.com/autism

Tracks and graphs frequency data. Exports graphs via e-mail, Dropbox, iCloud, or Twitter.

$9.99

Behavior LENS http://www.behaviorlensapp.com

Tracks and graphs behavior. Used to collect frequency, duration, and interval data. Exports graphs via e-mail.

$29.99

Behavior Tracker Pro

http://www.behaviortrackerpro.com

Tracks and graphs behavior. Used to collect frequency, duration, and interval data. Data is exported via e-mail and is accessible in Excel.

$29.99

iBehavewell http://www.ibehavewell.com/ibehavewell.com/welcome.html

Tracks frequency data. Data is graphed and exported via e-mail.

$0.99

Intervals, duration, and frequency apps

http://www.elocinsoft.com/intervals

elocinSoft has three applications available. One collects interval data ($9.99), one duration data ($4.99), and the third frequency data ($0.99). Data is exported via e-mail, iTunes, or Dropbox, and is accessible in Excel.

$0.99$4.99$9.99


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