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Theses and Dissertations--Art & Visual Studies Art & Visual Studies

2017

HAYASHI YASUO AND YAGI KAZUO IN POSTWAR JAPANESE HAYASHI YASUO AND YAGI KAZUO IN POSTWAR JAPANESE

CERAMICS: THE EFFECTS OF INTRAMURAL POLITICS AND CERAMICS: THE EFFECTS OF INTRAMURAL POLITICS AND

RIVALRY FOR RANK ON A CERAMIC ARTIST’S CAREER RIVALRY FOR RANK ON A CERAMIC ARTIST’S CAREER

Marilyn Rose Swan University of Kentucky, mrswan2@icloud.com Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.13023/ETD.2017.509

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Swan, Marilyn Rose, "HAYASHI YASUO AND YAGI KAZUO IN POSTWAR JAPANESE CERAMICS: THE EFFECTS OF INTRAMURAL POLITICS AND RIVALRY FOR RANK ON A CERAMIC ARTIST’S CAREER" (2017). Theses and Dissertations--Art & Visual Studies. 15. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/art_etds/15

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Dr. Andrew Maske, Major Professor

Doreen Maloney, Director of Graduate Studies

HAYASHIYASUOANDYAGIKAZUOINPOSTWARJAPANESECERAMICS:THEEFFECTSOFINTRAMURALPOLITICSANDRIVALRYFORRANK

ONACERAMICARTIST’SCAREER

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

THESIS

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

AthesissubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofMasterofArtsintheCollegeofFineArts

attheUniversityofKentucky

By

MarilynRoseSwan

Lexington,Kentucky

Director:Dr.AndrewMaske,ProfessorofArtHistory

Lexington,Kentucky

2017

Copyright©MarilynRoseSwan2017

ABSTRACTOFTHESIS

HAYASHIYASUOANDYAGIKAZUOINPOSTWARJAPANESECERAMICS:THEEFFECTSOFINTRAMURALPOLITICSANDRIVALRYFORRANKON

ACERAMICARTIST’SCAREER

TheuseandfiringofclaytomakeartinsteadofvesselswasarevolutionaryconceptinJapanwhenitfirstwasintroducedbyHayashiYasuoin1948withCloud,andexpandeduponbyYagiKazuoin1954withMr.Samsa’sWalk.Althoughbothavant-gardeartistsweremajorforcesintheadvancementofabstract,nonfunctionalceramics,Yagiisusuallygivensolecreditandoccupiesaprominentplaceintheliterature,whileHayashi’snamecanscarcelybefound,despitehisnumerousinternationalawards,largebodyofworkandcareerspanningsevendecades.Thisthesisseekstoidentifythefactorsthatinfluencedthedirectionoftheircareersandtheunbalancedreceptionoftheirwork.Itcomparestheirbackgrounds,personalitytraits,avant-gardeaffiliations,andpositionsonartandceramics,inrelationtothenormsandprerequisitesforsuccessinKyoto’sdeeplystratified,convention-boundceramiccommunity.Thepervasivepracticeofratingandsociety’semphasisonaffiliationandrankweresignificantforcesinthissituation,aswereissuesthatdividedJapan’sartworld--theseparationandunequalrankingoffineartandtraditionalcraft,orthevalueofindividualexpressionversustechniqueandtradition.Ultimately,thisstudyrevealsaninsularworldduringadecade(1946–56) ofcrisisandtransitionthatisrarelystudiedintheWestfromtheperspectiveof ceramicart.

KEYWORDS:HayashiYasuo;YagiKazuo;Shikōkai;Sōdeisha;avant-gardeJapaneseceramics;ceramicobjets.

MarilynRoseSwanDecember 11, 2017

HAYASHIYASUOANDYAGIKAZUOINPOSTWARJAPANESECERAMICS:THEEFFECTSOFINTRAMURALPOLITICSANDRIVALRYFORRANKONA

CERAMICARTIST’SCAREER

By

MarilynRoseSwan

Dr.AndrewMaskeDirectorofThesis

ProfessorDoreenMaloney DirectorofGraduateStudies

December11,2017

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Iwouldliketoacknowledgeanumberofpeoplewhoseinsightsanddirectionadvancedmyresearchandthewritingofthisthesis,particularlymyThesisChairAndrewMaske,forhisinvaluableknowledgeandguidance,andmembersofmyThesisCommittee,AnnaBrzyski,whoexpandedmyunderstandingofvisualculture,andMasamichiInoue,whoinformedmystudyoftheJapaneselanguageandculture.IwanttothankAoyamaWahei,BeatriceChang,KazukoTodate,andYasukoTsuchikanefortheirkindandincisiveresponsestomyinquiries,andmyfriendsandfamilyfortheircontinuedsupportandencouragement.Aboveall,IwishtoexpressmygratitudetoHayashiYasuo,whoseworksparkedaninterestthatledtothisthesis,andwhosededicationtoartandperseveranceinthefaceofdifficultieshelpedtosustainmyownefforts.

iv

TABLEOFCONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................................................iii

LISTOFFIGURES.......................................................................................................................................v

INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................1

THESYSTEM.............................................................................................................................................14

THEARTISTS............................................................................................................................................21

HayashiYasuo.....................................................................................................................................22

YagiKazuo.............................................................................................................................................28

THEIMPORTANCEOFCOLLECTIVES............................................................................................34

Shikōkai..................................................................................................................................................38

Sōdeisha.................................................................................................................................................42

SOCIALCONFORMITYANDCONNECTEDNESS.........................................................................45

RIVALRYFORRANK..............................................................................................................................47

INTRAMURALPOLITICS......................................................................................................................52

CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................59

BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................................................64

VITA..............................................................................................................................................................69

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure1. MaxErnst,PetrifiedForest.................................................................................................3

Figure2. Aritaporcelainplate;PabloPicasso,PolychromeBird...........................................7

Figure3. ChartofworkbyHayashiYasuo,YagiKazuo,SuzukiOsamu..........................11

Figure4. YagiIssō,ConceptualFlowerBudVase.......................................................................15

Figure5. YagiKazuoandHayashiYasuointheirstudios.....................................................21

Figure6. UnoSango,VasewithYellowGlaze.............................................................................24

Figure7. HayashiYasuo,Cloud........................................................................................................26

Figure8. Chokko-mondesign............................................................................................................27

Figure9. HayashiYasuo,HumanBody..........................................................................................27

Figure10. NumataIchiga,TravelovertheGobiDesert...........................................................29

Figure11.IsamuNoguchi,Tiger.....................................................................................................31

Figure12.YagiKazuo,Mr.Samsa’sWalk.....................................................................................31

Figure13.SogetsuSchoolavant-gardeikebanaarrangement...........................................39

Figure14. YamadaHikaru,TowerB................................................................................................43

Figure15. FukamiSueharu,TheSkyIII;NakamuraKimpei,AbsorbedinMimesis.....62

1

INTRODUCTION

Priortothemiddleofthe20thcentury,ceramicarticlesweremadetofulfill

sometypeoffunctionusuallyrelatedtofoodstorageandpreparationorthe

performanceofreligiousritualsandculturalactivities.Ingeneral,pottersadhered

totheformalconventionsoftheirtime,andpiecesreflectedtheirintended

functions.InJapan,acountryrichinceramichistoryandtraditions,theuseand

firingofclaytomakeartobjectsinsteadofvesselswasviewedasasubversive

conceptwhenitmaterializedduringtheturbulentdecadefollowingWorldWarII,

firstasanindividualisticpractice,thenasanavant-gardemovementthatcrossed

sculpturewithceramics,fineartwithcraft.Bythelate1960’s,thisnewhybridform

hadacquiredmainstreamstatus,butitsidentityandparametersremained

ambiguous,ascanbeseenbythevarietyofitsnames:kiln-firedobjets,1(obuje-yaki),

avant-gardeceramicart,abstractceramics,nonfunctionalceramics,andsculptural

ceramics.However,thesevariationsallarerootedinthedaringexperimentsof

HayashiYasuo(b.1928)andsubsequentadvancesofYagiKazuo(1918–1979).

Hayashi’shand-builtCloud(Kumo,1948)wasthefirstceramicobjettobe

exhibitedinJapan2whenitwasshowninShikōkai’ssecondexhibition,July13–18,

1948inOsaka.Hayashi’sabstractrepresentationofthehumanbodyhasbeen

1Dada and surrealist artists used the term “objet trouvé” for the objects they found and repurposed in their ironic art pieces. Avant-garde ikebana artists adopted “objet” in the name for their modernist assemblages (objet ikebana) that incorporated readymade objects. These included the nearly nonfunctional vases they commissioned from Hayashi and other ceramic artists in the late 1940’s and early 1950’s; “objet” soon became a term to describe a nonfunctional ceramic object in general.

2 Samuel J. Lurie and Beatrice L. Chang, Fired with Passion: Contemporary Japanese Ceramics (New York: Eagle Art Publishing, 2006), 31.

2

describedas“severe,evenbrutalinform.”3Itsblatantdisregardforaestheticand

technicalstandardsmusthavebeentrulyshockingatthattime,especiallyinKyoto,a

cityrenownedfortheeleganceofitsceramics.Yagifollowedsuitin1954,rejecting

traditionalconventionsgoverningtaste,function,anduseofthewheelinhis

constructionofMr.Samsa’sWalk(Zamuza-shinosampō),alsoknownasTheWalkof

Mr.Samsa. Thestrange,hoop-likeformthatheassembledoutofpre-thrownbits

andpiecessupposedlyprovokedagitationinthehighlycriticalandconservative

ceramicestablishment.4

AlthoughbothHayashiandYagiweremajorforcesintheadvancementof

nonfunctionalceramicartinJapan,Yagialoneisgenerallyrecognizedforthis

groundbreakingdevelopment.Hayashi’srighttocreditasthefirsttomakeand

exhibitceramicobjetsinJapanhasbeenwellarguedbyothersandsoisnotthe

subjectofthisthesis.Theintentionhereistosituatethegenreinthepostwar

landscape,thenidentifyandexplorethefactorsthatcontributedtotheimbalancein

treatmentofHayashiandYagiandtheirwork.Examplesofunjustexclusionabound

inarthistoryforanynumberofreasons,includingpoortiming,politics,andthe

limitationsofthecanon.Investigatingwhyandhowitoccurredinthissituationis

worthwhilebecauseitrevealsthesocialdynamicsofaninsularworldandtheir

effectsonthecareersoftwopivotalartistsduringthedecadefollowingWorldWarII

(1946–56),atimeofcrisisandtransitionthatisrarelystudiedintheWestfromthe

perspectiveofceramicart.

3 Lurie and Chang, Fired with Passion, 31. 4 Bert Winther-Tamaki, "Yagi Kazuo: The Admission of the Nonfunctional Object

into the Japanese Pottery World," Journal of Design History 12, no. 2 (1999): 132, accessed 10/24/2013, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1316309.

3

Figure 1. The surrealist paintings of Max Ernst had a powerful effect on young Japanese artists right after the war. Max Ernst, Petrified Forest (1927), oil on canvas. National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo. Source: http://collection.nmwa.go.jp/en/P.1965-0005.html.

Aftersufferingthroughtheeight-yearAsianPacificWar(1937–1945),the

Japanesepeoplehadtoadjusttodefeat,militaryoccupation,andthetotal

remodelingoftheirsocietyforthesecondtimeinlessthan100years.5Directives

fromGeneralHeadquarters,SupremeCommanderfortheAlliedPowers

(GHQ/SCAP),deprivedtheemperorofhisdivinestatus,gavewomentherightto

vote,legalizedtheJapaneseCommunistParty,andgenerallyinstituted“respectfor

fundamentalhumanrights.”6TheAlliedOccupation(1945–52)aimedtostimulate

5 The first occasion occurred during the Meiji era (1867–1912), when Japan transformed itself from a secluded cluster of semi-independent feudal domains into a unified nation trying to achieve industrial, military and cultural parity with the West.

6State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee, “United States Initial Post-Defeat Policy Relating to Japan: Part 1 – Ultimate Objectives,” chap. 5 in Modern Japan in

4

socialchangebyencouragingfreedomofexpressioninthearts;culturalexchange

withtheWestalsowasinitiated,therebyendingthestultifyingisolationthat

Japaneseartistssufferedundertheformerultra-nationalistregime.7Democratic

reformsreverberatedloudlyduringtheearlyyearsoftheoccupation,creatingthe

illusionthatage-oldnormswereirrelevantandindependencefromthemainstream

systemwaspossible.Pre-waravant-gardeartistsjoinedforceswiththeyounger

generationtodenouncetherigidconventionsandexclusiveexhibitionsystemofthe

artestablishment(gadan).Theprogressivemovementinfiltratedevenconservative

Kyoto,formerlythehomeoftheimperialcourtandstillthecenterfortraditional

artsandclassicalculture.

ThepoliticalclimateinJapanbecamemorerepressiveastheColdWar

activatedadramaticshifttotherightinU.S.politicsandareversalofthe

occupation’sgoals,fromdemocratizinganddemilitarizingJapantomakingitintoa

bulwarkagainstthespreadofcommunisminEastAsia.GeneralMacArthurenabled

thereturnofJapan’sconservativeforcesandorderedtheRedPurgeof1950.Healso

initiatedtheSubversiveActivitiesBillof1952suppressingunions,communistsand

dissidents,acategorythatincludedavant-gardeartists, whosincetheearly

Archives: Political history from the opening of the country to post-war, ed. Takashi Sasaki (Tokyo: National Diet Library, 2006), accessed December 4, 2016, http://www.ndl.go.jp/modern/e/index.

7The military regime repurposed Japan’s art world to document and glorify the war. It commissioned leading Western style (yōga) oil painters to create gigantic panoramas depicting battle scenes and acts of bravery; these campaign record paintings were exhibited throughout Japan to arouse patriotism and induce civilian support and self-sacrifice. Photojournalists and graphic designers were recruited as well, to produce propaganda materials for domestic and international distribution.Artists who did not support the war effort had to hide or were forced to serve, either on the front lines or in munitions factories.

5

twentieth century had “castthemselvesassocialcritics,strategicallyfusing

modernistaestheticswithleftistpolitics.”8TheU.S.neededabaseofoperationsfor

theKoreanWar(1950–53),soitsubsidizedtherebuildingofJapan’sinfrastructure

andindustrialcapacity.TheU.S.military’sdemandforsuppliesandservices

boostedJapan’seconomy,butitalsofosteredanAmericanized,consumer-oriented

societyand“lifestylefilledwithdevicesofconvenience,initiallymadetofitthetaste

offoreigntroops.”9

TheinfluxofWesternproductsandculturearousedstrongresistancein

thosewhowantedtopreserveJapan’sculturalidentity,basedlargelyonits

traditionalarts.Potteryinparticularwasconsidered“auniquelyJapaneseformof

materialexpressionandculturalcapital.”10Thismultivalentcraftperformed

admirablyintheinternationalarenaasalucrativeexportitemandambassadorfor

Japaneseaesthetics;ceramicvesselsalsowerecentraltoprivatehome-lifeandcould

“beimaginedinintimatecontactwiththehandsandmouthsofthenation’s

people.”11Ensuringaculturalidentityseemedtodemandenshriningtraditional

ceramicformsandtechniques,viaeitherthefolk-craft(mingei)ideologythat

honoredthehumbleworkofanonymouspotters,orthecelebrationofAsian

8 Alexandra Munroe, “Avant-garde Art in Postwar Japan: The Culture and Politics of Radical Critique 1951–1970” (PhD diss., New York University, 2004), 12, accessed December 10, 2016, https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.uky.edu/docview/305166021.

9 Miwako Tezuka, “Jikken Kōbō and Takiguchi Shūzō: The New Deal Collectivism of 1950s Japan,” in “Collectivism in Twentieth-century Japanese Art,” ed. Reiko Tomii and Midori Yoshimoto, special issue, Positions: Asia Critique 21, no. 2 (Spring 2013): 364.

10 Meghen Jones, “Tomimoto Kenkichi and the Discourse of Modern Japanese Ceramics,” (PhD. diss., Boston University, 2014), 11, accessed August 20, 2017, http://hdl.handle.net/2144/14288.

11 Winter-Tamaki, 125-26.

6

antiquitiesthatdemonstratedtechnicalperfection.Anationalcampaignofcultural

preservationwasinitiatedonascale“neverbeforeseeninJapanorelsewhere”12as

anadditionalantidotetoWesternhegemony.Thegovernmentinstituteda“Living

NationalTreasure”(ningenkokuhō)programin1950toprotectcertaincraftskills,

referredtoasImportantIntangibleCulturalProperties;thesystemwasrevisedin

1954tofocusonindividualsandgroupswhoseworkexemplifiedspecifictraditional

techniques.

WhenPicasso’smodernistceramicsappearedonthescenein1951,13they

arousedexcitement,resistance,andheatedargumentsthatpittedceramic

connoisseursandthosewhosupportedpreservationofJapan’sceramictraditions

againstproponentsofWesternartwhoappreciatedPicasso’screativeoriginality.14

Picassohadbegunworkingwithclayonlyin1946,sopunditssuchasliterarycritic

HideoKobayashiconsideredhispotterycrudeandamateurish,especiallywhen

comparedwiththerefinementandcraftsmenshipofAsianceramics.15

12 Jones, 267.13 In 1951, Picasso’s pottery was displayed in two exhibits: at Exhibition of

Picasso’s Ceramics and Lithographs (Pikaso tōki sekibanga tenrankai), in Tokyo and Osaka; and at Picasso Exhibition (Pikaso-ten), in Tokyo, Osaka, and at the Ōhara Museum in Kurashiki; in 1952, his ceramics were exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art in Kamakura.

14 Yasuko Tsuchikane, “Picasso as Other: Koyama Fujio and the Polemics of Postwar Japanese Ceramics,” Review of Japanese Culture and Society, 26 (December 2014): 33-49, accessed August 17, 2017, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/roj/summary/v026/26.tsuchikane.

15 Ibid.

7

Figure 2. (Left) Arita porcelain plate (c. 1880) for export; (right) ceramic plate by Pablo Picasso, Polychrome Bird (1947). Sources: Crueger, Modern Japanese Ceramics,52; http://www.pablo-ruiz-picasso.net/work-3887.php.

Meanwhile,middle-classurbaniteswithleisuretime,expendableincome,anda

hungerforculturalactivitieswelcomedexposuretocurrentarttrendsandflockedto

exhibitionsatdepartmentstoregalleriesandnewlyopenedmuseums16wherethey

acquirednotonlyatasteformodernart,butthedesiretoownartwork.The

formerlyelitecustomofbuyinganddisplayingartathomewasnow"afashion

amongmillionsofstatus-consciouscitizens...wholearnedthroughtheschoolsand

themediathatshowingoffobjectsofbeautyimpliedrefinementandsocial

standing."17Theincreasedinterestinanddemandforartfueledtheexpansionof

Japan’sartworld,whichbenefitedbothavant-gardeandmainstreamartist.

16 Such exhibits included: 1950 Contemporary World Art Exhibition at Tokyo’s Takashimaya Department Store; work by Cezanne and Renoir in the 1951 inaugural exhibit of the Museum of Modern Art in Kamakura, Japan’s first public museum of modern art; and a 1953 survey of modern Japanese and European art at the new National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo that had opened in 1952.

17 Thomas R. H. Havens, Artist and Patron in Postwar Japan: Dance, Music, Theater, and the Visual Arts, 1955–1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 121.

8

“MostscholarshipoutsideJapanonmodernarthasfocusedonpaintingsandrelatedmedia,and,withsomeexceptions,thescholarshipthathasbeenpublishedonthetopicofJapaneseceramicsmainlyhasconcernedolderformsofexpressiondeemed“traditional.”18

Japaneseceramicsoftheimmediatepostwareraisasubjectnotwell

representedintheEnglishlanguageliterature.Thefewreferencesthatdiscuss

avant-gardeceramicartandtheinceptionofobjetstendtoskipoverHayashi’s

foundationalworkofthelate1940’s,tofocusinsteadonthelaterinnovationsofYagi

andhisassociatesinSōdeishaduringthemid1950’s.AlexandraMunroe's

exhibitioncatalogueScreamAgainsttheSky,19whichisconsideredthemost

comprehensiveEnglish-languagesourceonpostwarJapaneseart,includesseveral

discussionsofYagiandSōdeisha,butitnevermentionsHayashiorShikōkai.

SmithsoniancuratorLouiseCortandarthistorianBertWinther-Tamakihave

contributedsignificantlytotheliteratureonJapaneseceramicsandotheraspectsof

EastAsianvisualculture,buttheytooattributethefoundingofnonfunctional

ceramicstoYagi. Unfortunately,theopinionsofMunroe,CortandWinther-Tamaki

havebecomegospel,thebasisforthebiasofsubsequentpublications.Forinstance,

20thCenturyCeramicsbyEdmunddeWaal20citesMunroe'sScreamAgainsttheSky

andYagi’sexhibitioncatalogsashissourcesonpostwarinnovationsinJapan.De

Waal’sbookappearstobethesourceforAjiokaChiaki’sassertioninSinceMeiji:

PerspectivesontheJapaneseVisualArts,1868–2000thatSōdeishainitiated"perhaps

18 Jones, 278.19 Alexandra Munroe, Scream Against the Sky (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.,

1994), exhibition catalog. 20 Edmund De Waal, 20th Century Ceramics (London: Thames & Hudson Ltd.,

2003), 109-112.

9

themostsignificantcreativedevelopmentinthewakeofWorldWarII,notablythe

birthofthe'objectware'inceramics."21 CortandWinther-Tamakiarereferencedby

AllenWeissforhissimilarlybroadclaiminZenLandscapes:PerspectivesonJapanese

GardensandCeramics:"Itisgenerallyagreedthatthefirstinstanceofanon-

functionalobjectinthecontextofJapanesepotterywasYagiKazuo'sTheWalkof

Samsa."22Cort,Winther-TamakiandMunroearethemainsourcesforGlenn

Adamson’sdiscussioninThinkingThroughCraftinwhichheattributesceramic

innovationstoYagi.23

AfewsourcesdovouchforthesignificanceofHayashiandShikōkaito

ceramichistory.ArthistorianandformercuratorKazukoTodateatteststoHayashi’s

pioneeringroleandinitiationofobjets,inscholarlyjournalsandthepopularmedia

inJapanandtheU.S.InherrecentbookFiredEarth,WovenBamboo,sheclearly

statesheintroduced“thefirstnonfunctionalobjectsin1948toaworldthathadlong

consideredceramicssynonymouswithvessels.”24InFiredwithPassion,Japanese

ceramicscollectorSamuelLurieandDaiIchiArtsGallerydirectorBeatriceChang

offera“ChronologyofAbstractCeramicSculpture”itemizingtheexhibitionswhere

Hayashi’sobjetsweredisplayedandprobablyseen,theyargue,byYagibetween

21 Chiaki Ajioka, "Aspects of Twentieth-Century Crafts," in Since Meiji: Perspectives on the Japanese Visual Arts, 1868–2000, ed. Thomas J. Rimer (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2012), 408.

22 Allen S. Weiss, Zen Landscapes: Perspectives on Japanese Gardens and Ceramics (London: Reaktion Books, 2013), 177.

23 Glenn Adamson, Thinking Through Craft (Oxford, UK: Berg, 2007), 54–58. 24 Kazuko Todate, Fired Earth, Woven Bamboo: Contemporary Japanese

Ceramics and Bamboo Art from the Stanley and Mary Ann Snider Collection, with the assistance of Anne Nishimura Morse (Boston: MFA Publications, 2013), exhibition catalog, 39.

10

1948and1954.Theauthorsalsoincludeaphotographicchart(fig.3)juxtaposing

Hayashi’ssculpturalworkwiththeutilitarianvesselsmadebyYagiandSuzuki

Osamuduringthatsametimeperiod.25RupertFaulkner,seniorcuratorofJapanese

ceramicsattheVictoria&AlbertMuseum,affirmsbothHayashi’sinaugurationof

sculpturalceramicsandShikōkai’searlyleadershiproleinKyoto’savant-garde

community;hecreditsthegroupfor“encouragingthedevelopmentofavant-garde

ceramicsduringtheperiodwhenmembersoftheSōdeishawerestrugglingtofinda

directionfortheirwork,”26andforintroducingtheterracottasculpturesofIsamu

Noguchi(1904–88)atShikōkai’s1950exhibitinKyoto.

QuotesandinformationaboutHayashiusedinthisthesiscomefromhis

writing,interviewsandprivatecommunication,aswellasfromessaysbyhis

contemporaries;materialaboutYagiisbasedontherecollectionsofhis

contemporariesandquotationsfromhiswriting.Mymainsourceontheceramic

exhibitionsystemisBrianMoeran,abusinessanthropologistwhoconducted

researchinthefieldduringtheearly1980's,withafocusonthesocialinstitutions

thatinfluencedJapan’sceramicproduction,marketingandevaluation.Theart

conglomerateoftheaffluent1980’scertainlywasmorecomplexandsophisticated

thantherecoveringartworldofthe1950's.However,littlewouldhavechangedin

socialnormsorhumannatureduringthosethirtyyears:businessdealingsstillwere

orientedtowardsocialrelationsandthemaintenanceofgroupharmony;seniority

andritualsofreciprocitycontinuedtobehonored.

25 Lurie and Chang, 10. 26 Rupert Faulkner, Japanese Studio Crafts: Tradition and the Avant-garde

(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995), 62.

11

Figure 3. Chart comparing Hayashi’s sculptural pieces with the utilitarian vessels by Yagi and Suzuki Osamu, from 1948–1952. Source: Lurie and Chang, 10.

Theintensionofthisthesisistoexplorethepersonal,socialandhistorical

factorsthatmighthaveinfluencedtheartisticandprofessionaldevelopmentof

HayashiYasuoandYagiKazuoandthereceptionoftheirearlywork.Thefirst

elementtobeconsideredisJapan’smainstreamceramicsystem,includingthe

structuresandproceduresthatexistedrightafterWorldWarII,andthesystemasit

expandedalongwithJapan’seconomicrecoveryduringthe1950s.Thisdiscussion

isfollowedbyacomparisonofthebackgroundsandcharacteristicsofeachartistin

relationtothesystem.HowwelldidHayashiandYagiconformtoitsrigidnorms

12

andceramicstandards,andwhateffectdidcomplianceoritslackhaveontheir

careers?Certaininternationaldevelopmentswillbeconsideredaswell,sincethey

spurredchangeandreactionwithinJapan’spolitical,economic,andculturalspheres,

withbothpositiveandnegativerepercussionsfortheartists.TheColdWar,for

instance,aidedJapan’seconomicrecovery,whichledtoanexpandedartmarket;but

italsoenabledthereturnofreactionarypolitics,whichsmotheredtheidealismof

theearlyoccupationyearsthathadinspiredartisticindependence.Theongoing

debateoverthenation’sculturalidentityandtheroleofceramicsinthatdebatewill

beaddressedaswellsincetheseissuesinfluencedthedirectionofanddiscourseon

postwarceramicartanditsplaceontheart/craftcontinuum.

Thesocialforcesthatappeartohavegreatestsignificanceinthissituationare

theimportanceofgroupmembership,27theconsequencesofjoiningthewrong

group,28thepervasivepracticeofrating,andtheemphasisonrankorderina

verticalsociety.Thisstudyspeculatesontheramificationsofmembershipin

ShikōkaiandSōdeisha,thetwogroupstowhichHayashiandYagibelonged,andon

Hayashi’slossofaffiliationafterShikōkai’sdemise,butclosestattentionisgivento

thepressuretoattaintoprankandtherivalryitgeneratedbetweengroupsand

individuals.AccordingtosocialanthropologistChieNakane,“collaborationbetween

twoequallycompetinggroupsisalmostnon-existent”29inJapan.Whatimpactcould

rivalryhavehadoninteractionbetweenShikōkaiandSōdeisha,thetwofactions

27 Takie Sugiyama Lebra, “Belongingness,” in Japanese Patterns of Behavior (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1976), 22-37.

28 Lebra, 32. According to Lebra, in Japan “one who makes an initial error has a hard time establishing identity by belongingness.”

29 Chie Nakane, Japanese Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), 53.

13

withinKyoto’ssmallcircleofavant-gardeceramicartists?Sinceawarenessofrank

also“contributestotheencouragementofcompetitionamongpeers,”30howmight

thedesireforprimacyhaveaffectedthenaturallyambitiousYagiandhisrelations

withHayashi?

30 Ibid., 77.

14

THESYSTEM

"Prewar organizations and exhibitions tended towards the positioning of ceramics as modernist art on par with Euro-American painting and sculpture, but wartime and postwar organizations and exhibitions tended towards the promotion of ceramics as material embodiments of the nation and as central to postwar recovery."31

TheTaishoperiod(1912–1926)wasarelativelyliberalandpeacefulerathat

spawnedpoliticalreforms,artisticinnovations,aswellaseffortstomodernize

ceramicsandcounterbalancetheoverlytechnicaldirectionofMeijierapottery

designedforforeignmarketsandinternationalexpositions.32Thedominant

movementinceramicsatthetimewastowardindividualistexpression33and

originality,asmanifestedbyitspioneers,TomimotoKenkichi,KusubeYaichiand

YagiIssō,YagiKazuo’sfather(fig.4).Theseindividualistpotterssigned,named,and

exhibitedone-of-a-kindvesselsandlobbiedtohaveartceramics(bijutsutōki)

classifiedasfineart.Meanwhile,YanagiSōetsu,HamadaShōji,andKwaiKanjirō

werepursuinganalternatemodelthatprizedthespiritualqualitiesinherentin

Japanesefolk-craft(mingei,anabbreviationofminshu-tekikogei)producedby

selfless,unnamedcraftsmen.Yanagiopposedartcrafts(bijutsukōgei)“madebya

few,forafew,atahighprice”34becausetheyweredivorcedfromtheneedsof

peopleandreflected“thepersonalityoftheartistratherthanthecharacterofthe

31 Jones, 237. 32Inui Yoshiaki, “Modern Ceramic Art: Its Beginnings and Development,” in

Current Trends in Ceramics: Vessels and Objects, Aichi Prefectural Ceramic Museum (Seto: Aichi Prefectural Ceramic Museum, 1994), exhibit catalog, 12.

33Jones, 33.34 Yanagi Sōetsu, The Unknown Craftsman: A Japanese Insight into Beauty,

adapted by Bernard Leach (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1972), 198.

15

craft.”35Heclaimedtheordinaryhandmadewaresforeverydayuse(getemono)

“revealtheidentityofourracewiththeirbeautyrisingfromnatureandthebloodof

ourhomeland,notfollowingforeigntechniqueorimitatingforeigncountries.”36

Thereisanobviousnationalistictonetothisrhetoricandtohiscomparisonof

potters’livesinJapan,where“peoplehaveaspecialinclinationandregardfor

ceramics,”37andtheWest,whereindustrially-producedimplements(kōgyō)arethe

norm,andwherethereisalackofrespect,support,and“fewvestigesoftraditionin

thesphereofhandcrafts.”38

Figure 4. Yagi Issō, Conceptual Flower Bud Vase (Hoga no i kabin, 1929), celadon porcelain, 34.3 x 20.3 cm. Source: http://kagedo.com/wordpress/artist/yagi-isso.

35 Ibid., 199. 36 Yuko Kikuchi, “Hybridity and the Oriental Orientalism of Mingei Theory,”

Journal of Design History 10, No. 4 (1997), 346, accessed August 17, 2017, https://readingeastasia.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/yuko-kikuchi-hybridity-and-oriental-orientalism.

37 Yanagi, 219. 38 Ibid., 218.

16

Duringthewar,culturalorganizationseitherceasedtooperateorwere

redirectedtoservethenationaleffort.Assoonasthewarended,Japan’sartworld

resumedthebusinessoforganizingjuriedexhibitions:thefirstKyōten(Kyoto

MunicipalArtExhibition)washeldNovember21–December10,1945;thefirst

Nitten(JapanArtExhibition)washeldinTokyo,March1–31,1946.Despitethe

liberalreformsoftheAlliedOccupation,theformalexhibitionsocieties(bijutsu

dantai)andoldestceramicdynastiesmaintainedatightgriponallaspectsoflifein

Kyoto’sceramiccommunity.39Winther-Tamakinotesthe“strikingdegreeof

sovereignty”withinthisworld,adomain“definedbydistinctivecanons,ancient

histories,factionaldivisions,commoditiesandinstitutions,”40themostimportantof

whichisthejuriedexhibition,“acomplexhierarchicalorganizationstructured

somethingliketheacademicsalonoflatenineteenth-centuryParis.”41Throughout

thepotteryworld,“adelicateandintricatesystemofranking”42basedonseniority

prevailed:thestudiosandschools,withtheirascendingranksofapprentices,

teachers,headmaster(iemoto);theexhibitionsocietiesandartassociations,with

theirvaryingdegreesofmembershipandcorrespondinglevelsofauthority;the

juriesandexecutivecommitteesthatselectedartforexhibitsandprizes.

Strongbondsofinterdependencylinkedindividualsofunequalstatus(e.g.,

master/apprentice),withpersonsonalllevelsneedingpatronagefromtheirsenior

39 Louise Allison Cort, “Crawling Through Mud: Avant-garde Ceramics in Postwar Japan” (Sixth Annual Dorothy Perkins Lecture, Alfred University, NY, October 14, 2003), under “Context,” accessed July 3, 2014, http://ceramicsmuseum.alfred.edu/perkins_lect_series/cort.

40 Winther-Tamaki, 124.41Ibid.42 Nakane, Japanese Society, 25.

17

associates(senpai),whileprovidingsupporttothosebeneaththem(kōhai),in

exchangefortheirloyaltyandservice.Apersonappointedtotheprestigious

positionofexhibitjurorwasindebtedtosomeoneabovehimontheexecutive

committeewhoalsohadtopayinsomewayforthefavorofhiselevatedposition;

thejuror’s“continuedallegianceanddeferencetohisimmediateseniorinthe

verticalstructuremayintheendleadtohisbeingelectedasamemberofthe

executivecommittee."43 Deep-seatedawarenessofrank(jōretsuishiki)influenced

allinteractionsandbehaviors,suchaswhereapersonsatinameeting,whenand

howoftenhegaveanopinion.Respectforrankalsoaffectedthedecision-making

processofexhibitionjurorsandjudges,inhibitingthemfromexpressing

disagreementwithsomeoneofsuperiorstatus.Ultimately,theceramicpieces

selectedforexhibitionorawardswerethosefavoredbythecommitteechairmen,

“whothemselveswereappointedonthebasisofseniorityintheceramicart

world.”44Althoughpiecesweresupposedlysubmittedanonymously,Moeranfound

thatjudges“madeittheirbusinesstobeawareofwhohadsubmittedwhat”45and

oftenbasedselectionsontheirpersonaltiesoranartist’scredentialsratherthanthe

aestheticmeritsofhissubmissions,forwhichtherewerenoclearstandardsanyway.

Tosucceedinthissystemwheresocialcreditoutweighedworthiness,an

artistneededgoodinterpersonalskillsinadditiontomasteryofhismedium.Italso

43 Brian Moeran, “The Art World of Contemporary Japanese Ceramics,” Journal of Japanese Studies 13, no.1 (1987): 39, accessed October 24, 2013, http://www.jstor.org/stable/132585.

44Brian Moeran, “How to Award a Prize: An Ethnography of a Juried Ceramic Art Exhibition in Japan,” (paper presented at the Seventh Conference of the European Research Network, Vienna, Austria, September 5–7, 2012), 11, accessed September 20, 2015, http://hdl.handle.net/10398/8510.

45 Ibid., 15.

18

helpedtobeconnectedtooneofKyoto'sceramicdynastiesbybirth,adoption,

and/orapprenticing.Theseearlyblessingsaffordedpreferentialtreatmentwithin

thesystem,animportantadvantagewhencompetingtoexhibitorneeding

recommendationstojoinanexhibitionsociety.Membershipinaneliteassociation

wasacriticalgatewaytoadvancement.Itprovidedaccesstoanetworkofinfluential

connections,upwardmobilitythroughtherankstopositionsofauthoritywithinthe

organization,andeventuallytoprestigiousappointmentsinthelargerceramic

world,suchasaninvitationtoserveonanexhibitjuryorawardcommittee.46

AnincreaseddemandforartaccompaniedJapan’seconomicrecoveryofthe

1950’s,encouragingthedevelopmentofnewmarketsandexhibitvenuesthatwere

welcomealternativestothenationalandassociation-controlledsalons.The

showingandsellingofmainstreamart,oncecharacterizedas"genteelandquietly

profitable,"47wasbecomingabustlingcommercialoperationpartneredbyagents

frombusinessandculture.Departmentstoresequippedwithgalleryspaceand

shopperscosponsoredexhibitsinconjunctionwithmajornewspapersoffering

promotionalservices,advertisingspaceandsubscribers;inreturnforsupporting

thearts,thesebusinessentitieshopedtoacquireprestigeandsocialcreditsaswell

asanincreaseincustomersandsales.Theculturalcomponentoftheenterprise

consistedofcriticsandauthoritiesfrommuseums,universities,andart

46 Moeran, “The Art World of Contemporary Japanese Ceramics,” 38. For an artist to attain full membership in a top rated society like the Nitten (Japan Fine Arts Exhibition), he was required to exhibit work in ten of its annual exhibitions and to win awards.

47 Havens, 118.

19

organizationswholenttheexhibitscredibility;viewersandprospectivebuyers

reliedontheseartexpertstoprovidebackgroundinformation,interpretation,and

recommendationsforpurchasingart.Meanwhile,anartistwasdependentonthe

goodwillandservicesofallparticipantsinthesystem—gallerydirectorstoaccept

andhosthisexhibits,journaliststopromotehiswork,artcriticstogivehimgood

reviewsandrecommendations,andteacherstowriteendorsements—with

gratuitiesandgiftsexpectedofhiminreturn.Ultimately,theartistrequiredbuyers,

notjustfortheincome,butbecausesalesfigureswereanimportantdeterminantof

anartist’srank;inaddition,asuccessfulexhibitsatisfiedthesponsorsandincreased

thelikelihoodoftheircontinuedpatronage.

Whilethemainstreamartworldfocusedonalreadypopularartistswhowere

easytomarket,therewerenew“entrypointstotheartworld”48foryoung,

unknownandunconventionalartistsaswell,sponsoredbynonprofitartists’groups,

municipalandprefecturalgovernments.Oneofthemostinclusiveofthesewasthe

shiten(citysalon)inauguratedin1948inAshiya,asmallcitylocatedbetweenOsaka

andKobe.Itwelcomedsubmissionsbyavant-gardeartists,amateursandeven

children.Thenon-juriedindependentexhibitionwasanotherlessrestrictiveexhibit

optionasitcircumventedmuchofthefavoritism,cronyism,andorthodoxy

associatedwithjuryselection.Thefirstofthesewaslaunchedin1947bytheJapan

ArtSociety(Nihonbijutsu-kai,orNichibiforshort),acoalitionofprogressiveartists

andcollectives.Nichibi’sNihonIndependentExhibition(Nihonandepandan-ten)was

48 Reiko Tomii, “Introduction: Collectivism in Twentieth-Century Japanese Art with a Focus on Operational Aspects of Dantai,” in Tomii and Yoshimoto, Positions: Asia Critique,247.

20

followedin1949byonewithasimilarnamesponsoredbyYomiuriNewspaper;it

eventuallywasrenamedYomiuriandepandan-ten.49

Anartistalsocouldgivehimselfasoloshow,butthatwasaveryexpensive

andtimeconsumingbusinessashewouldhavetorentagalleryspaceandcoverall

exhibitcostsandtaskshimself.50Unfortunately,thiswasHayashi’sonlyoptionafter

Shikōkaidisbandedin1957.Hehostedoneexhibitin1958inTokyo;twoin1959,in

OsakaandTokyo;andonein1960inTokyo.Asoloshowdidprovidecertain

advantagesthatsometimescompensatedforthecosts,suchasbettercontrolof

locationandtiming,plusmoreprofitfromsales.Italsoadvertisedanartist’sserious

intent,whichcouldamplifyhispublicimage.Butbestofall,itgavehimthe

undividedattentionofviewersandcritics.Yagihostedfoursoloshowsafterhis

breakthroughwithMr.Samsa’sWalk(twoin1954,inKyotoandTokyo;onein1955

inOsaka;andonein1956inTokyo),evenwhileexhibitingannuallywithSōdeisha.

49Tomii, “Introduction: Collectivism in Twentieth-Century Japanese Art,”253.50 Havens, 124. The artist had to produce and fund "posters, an opening,

sometimes a catalog, and the obligatory picture post cards bearing a few words of greeting from a teacher or critic, for which the artist pays an honorarium."

21

THEARTISTS

Figure 5. Yagi Kazuo (left), and Hayashi Yasuo (right) in their studios. Sources: https://www.pinterest.com; Gallery 16, Shikokai:1947-1956, 32.

HayashiYasuoandYagiKazuowerecontemporariesbutnotcolleagues,

thoughtheybothlivedandworkedinKyoto’ssmallpotteryenclaveofGojōzakaand

werepartofitsevensmalleravant-gardecircle.Thetwohadcontrasting

backgroundsandopinionsonartandceramics.Hayashihadoriginallystudied

traditionalpaintingandhadnospecialtraininginceramics,regardedclayprimarily

asamediumofexpression,andthoughtofhimselfasanartist(geijutsuka)rather

thanapotter(toūgeika).Yagigrewupimmersedinceramicideologyandtraditions,

remainedfocusedonhismaterial,andidentifiedasbothapotterandanartist.The

twomenalsohadoppositepersonalitiesanddomains.ReticentHayashiwasan

22

independent-mindedindividualistwhopreferredtheprivateworldofhisstudioto

beingoutinpublic,buildingalliancesandseekingattention,whereasthesocial

environmentwaswhereextrovertedandassertiveYagiflourished.51Yagihad

strongtieswithinthecommunity,whichaidedhisadvancementandmadethe

ceramicestablishmentwillingtoforgivehisavant-gardeaffiliation;however

concernforwhatothersthought,aswellasobligationstohisfamily,initially

impededhisartisticindependence.Hayashi,ontheotherhand,wasaprecocious

pioneerwhoexperimentedfearlessly,buthelackedthesocialsupportthatwould

havegivenhimaccesstoopportunitiesandpossiblymitigatedhisindividualistic

behaviorandlackofsocialcompliance.Thetwoartistsalsobelongedtodifferent

avant-gardefactions:YagiwasthefounderandleaderofSōdeisha(Crawling

ThroughMudAssociation),agroupoflocalpottersunitedbytheirinterestinclay;

HayashiwasamemberofShikōkai(TheSocietyoftheFourHarvests),amore

revolutionaryceramicgroupconcernedwithmodernistissues.

HayashiYasuo(b.1928)

Hayashi’sfather,HayashiMokū,wasanunaffiliatedpotterinpoorhealthwho

sporadicallyproducedmold-madetablewareatastudioawayfromhome.He

doesn’tappeartohaveexertedmuchauthorityoverhisson’seducationanddidn't

51All people have, to varying degrees, a public (omote) side that they reveal outside (soto), and a private (ura) side reserved for inside (uchi) and home. Yagi shows more of the former tendency, while Hayashi is inclined toward the latter. Their complementary personalities reflect the duality of human nature that psychiatrist Takeo Doi says is “prominent in the Japanese consciousness of human relations.” Takeo Doi, The Anatomy of Self: The Individual Versus Society, trans. Mark A. Harbison (New York: Kodansha International, 1986), 24.

23

expecthimtobecomeapotter.Instead,youngHayashichosetostudytraditional

stylepainting(Nihonga)atwhichheexcelled,risingtofirstrankinhisclass.His

studieswereinterruptedwhenthegovernmentbeganmobilizingschoolchildrento

aidthewareffortandhewasassignedtohelptransportgunpowder.Hayashi

recalledlivinginanareasurroundedbymilitarybaseswhereheneverheard any

intellectualconversation.52Atagefifteen,heagainshowedhisindependentnature

bychoosingtojointheNavalAirForce,despitehisfather'spreferenceforthearmy.

Hayashihadbeenindoctrinatedsincechildhoodinself-sacrificeforhisemperorand

country,sohevolunteeredfortrainingasakamikazepilotintheSpringof1945.He

wasscheduledtoflyhisoneandonlymissionjustasthewarendedinAugust1945.

HayashireturnedhometoKyotofeelinglostandwithoutpurpose.Hislife,

likehissociety,hadbeenturnedupsidedown,53andpublicopinionhadturned

againstkamikazepilots,whichmadehimfeeluncomfortable.Thecityhadbeen

sparedtherelentlessbombinginflictedonTokyoandotherurbancenters,butthe

economywasinruinsandpeoplewerestarving.Hesaidhetriedtoresumehis

studyofpaintingbutfeltoutofplaceatschoolanddissatisfiedwiththemedium's

lackofsubstance.54Meanwhile,hisparentsweretryingtorevivethefamilypottery

businessandneededhishelp,sohewenttoworkinhisfather’sstudio.Thiswashis

firstrealexperienceworkingwithclayandthree-dimensionalform.

52Hayashi Yasuo, interview by Okumura Yasuhiko and Sakagami Shinobu, July 4, 2011, Oral History Archives of Japanese Art, accessed January 20, 2014, http://www.oralarthistory.org/index_en.php.

53 Hayashi Yasuo, interview by Okumura and Sakagami (2011). 54 Ibid.

24

Hayashidelvedintothematerialwithhandsunencumberedbyyearsof

formaltrainingorthedemandsofthewheel;hisperspectivewasthatofanartist

exploringthepropertiesandpotentialofanewmedium.Hehadnodesiretomake

functionalceramicsorusethewheel,butheknewheneededabetterunderstanding

ofceramicprocesses.55Whenhetriedjoininganassociationforyoungpotters,

however,hewasrefusedforlackofrecommendationsfromthreehigh-ranking

Nittenmembers.Luckily,theavant-gardemovementpresentedanalternative

sourceofaffiliationandtrainingthatsuitedhimbetter(fig.6).Hewasinvitedtoan

organizationalmeetingofShikōkaiatthehomeofUnoSango(1902–1980)wherehe

wasexhilaratedbythesightofaMaxErnstreproduction—hisfirstencounterwith

surrealistart.UnderUno’stutelage,HayashilearnedaboutWesternartmovements

andmetinternationallyacclaimedprogressiveartists,e.g.,thepainterYoshiharaJirō

Figure 6. Uno Sango, Vase with Yellow Glaze (ca. 1950), 34 × 24 × 20 cm. Source: Shigaraki Ceramic Cultural Park, http://www.sccp.jp/search/detail/?id=J-271.

55Ibid.

25

(1905–1972),andikebanamastersTeshigaharaSōfū(1900–1979),ŌharaHōun

(1908–1995),andNakayamaBunpo(1899–1986).AlthoughHayashifound

Shikōkaidebatesandlecturesintellectuallystimulating,hecreditsthehumblework

ofmakingmoldsinhisfather'sstudioforshowinghimhowtoapplytheprinciples

ofabstractart.Theprocessofwrappingobjectsinplastergavehimhands-on

practicalexperienceinthemechanicsofsimplificationandreducingformstotheir

essentialplanes.56

Hayashiandhiscontemporarieswereseekingavocabularythatwouldevoke

theidealistspiritoftheearlyoccupationyears,57whentheresurrectionofhumanity

wasoneofthegreatthemesinart.Hayashiwantedtorenderthehumanforminan

expressivestylethatwouldcommunicatedirectlywithaviewer’ssoul.58Hecalled

thefirstofhisgroundbreakingpiecesCloud(fig.7),thoughitsheftandglossy

surfacechallengeassociationwithanynormalcloud.Whenaskedifthepiece

alludedtoHiroshima,Hayashiadmittedhisworkwasrootedinthewarexperience,

whenthevalueofhumanlifewas“lighterthanaleaf,”59buthedeniedhavinghad

anyconsciouspoliticalintention(directreferencetothebombwasforbiddenatthat

timebyoccupationpolicy).Hesaidthepiecereferredtothehumanbody,andthatit

wasquitesexualifviewedfromacertainangle.60Unfortunately,thissideofCloudis

neverseen;thepiecealwaysisrepresentedinprofilefromthesameangle,showing

56 Hayashi Yasuo, interview by Okumura and Sakagami (2011). 57 Tezuka, 355. 58 Hayashi Yasuo, “Artist’s Statement,” China Ceramic Net, accessed November

2, 2013, http://artcn.net/worldstudio/asianpr/YasuoHayashi/index.htm. This website is no longer useable and may contain malwear.

59 Hayashi Yasuo, interview by Yōko Horikawa, at Gallery 16, Kyoto, on July 18, 2014.

60 Ibid.

26

amuscularupper-body,headjoinedtofist,suggestingself-containedpoweror

internalizedrage.

Figure 7. Hayashi Yasuo, Cloud (Kumo) (1948), coil built, black glaze, 33.7 x 33 x 27.5 cm. Mishō-ryū Nakayama Bunpokai. Source: Todate, Fired Earth, Woven Bamboo (Fig. 3), 17.

InresponsetocriticismfromUnothathisorganic-lookingearlypieceslacked

straightlinesandreliedtooheavilyoncurves,Hayashibeganresearchingsolutions

inbothWesternandEasternart.Heinvestigatedtheuseofgeometricformin

modernEuropeanart,andthendiscoveredamotiffromhisownculturethat

resonatedwithhisunderstandingofcubism.Thechokko-monpattern(fig.8)wasan

elaboratearc-and-straight-linedesignusedduringtheKofunera(ca.250–550A.D.)

todecoratefuneraryartifacts;ithasbeendescribedas"rectangularpanelscutby

opposeddiagonals,wheretheresultingquadrantsareinturnreducedtonumerous

arcsbyintersectingcurvinglines." 61Thisabstractdesign,whichHayashihas

61 J. E. Kidder, Early Japanese Art: The Great Tombs and Treasures (London: Thames and Hudson, 1964), 121, quoted in Claudia Zancan, "Decorated Tombs in Southwest Japan" (master’s thesis, University of Leiden, 2013), 70, accessed March 29, 2016, https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/21067. According to Zancan, the chokko-mon motif was used mostly on funerary artifacts (mirrors, clay figurines, and

27

creditedasthefoundationofhisartisticexpression,62possessed"geometricaland

mathematicalelements...extremelyimportantinfigurativeart."63 The

incorporationoftheseelementsisevidentinHumanBody(Jintai,1950)(fig.9).

Figure 8. The chokko-mon arc-and-straight-line design. Source: J.E. Kidder, Early Japanese Art, 162, in Claudia Zancan, "Decorated Tombs in Southwest Japan," 71.

Figure 9. Hayashi Yasuo, Human Body (Jintai) (1950), coil built stoneware, white and black glazes, 45.5 x 23.4 x 19.8 cm. Wakayama Prefectural Museum of Modern Art. Source: Hayashi Yasuo, The Works of Hayashi Yasuo, 36.

swords), examples of which were found on Kyushu and Honshu.

62 Hayashi Yasuo, The Works of Yasuo Hayashi (Tokyo: A. & A. Publishing, 1998), 197.

63 Hayashi, “Artist’s Statement,” China Ceramic Net.

28

ArthistorianYoshikawaItsujinotedHumanBodyforits“completeintegrationof

WesternvisionandtheJapanesemodeofexpression."64

YagiKazuo(1918–1979)

In1919,theyearafterYagi’sbirth,hisfather,YagiIssō(1895–1974)joined

withKusubeYaichiandseveralotherindividualistpotterstoformSekidōkai(the

RedClayGroup).Theirintensionwastoreformandelevateceramics,whichstill

suffered,alongwiththeothertraditionalcrafts,“underthestrainofitsinferior

statusinthereigninghierarchy.”65Theireffortstoendtheexclusionofceramics

fromtheTeiten(ImperialArtsExhibition)didcontributetosystemicchangeandthe

additionofanart-craftcategory(bijutsukôgei)tothenationalfine-artsalonin1927.

Theindividualistpotters’actualceramicinnovations,however,weresuperficial(e.g.,

theygavetheirvesselsromanticnames)andchallengedneitherformnorfunction.

YagiIssōwasweddedtothevesseltraditionandneverwaveredinhisbeliefthat

potteryshouldbemadeforuse,notjustdisplay.

Likehisfather,YagiKazuotrainedattheKyotoInstituteofCeramicswherehe

alsostudiedsculpture,athisfather’sinsistence,togetabetterunderstandingof

three-dimensionalform.In1939,“Yagirecalledthathefelta‘strangethrill’when

64 From Yoshikawa Itsuji's review “Exposition d’art Japonais au musée Cernuschi,” Art d'aujourd'hui 2, no. 4 (March 1951) 26-27, quoted in Louise Allison Cort, “Japanese Encounters with Clay,” in Isamu Noguchi and Modern Japanese Ceramics: A Close Embrace of the Earth, Louise Allison Cort and Bert Winther-Tamaki (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 2003), 147.

65 Winther-Tamaki, 127.

29

ProfessorNumatarecommendedthathesubmithisworktothedivisionof

sculptureratherthancrafts,”buthishopesweredashedwhenhisfatherrefused.66

NumataIchiga(1873-1954)wasafigurinemakerwhohadstudiedsculpturein

PariswithRodinandceramicprocessesattheSèvresPorcelainFactory.Hemust

havefeltstymiedbytheconstraintsandinferiorstatusimposedonceramicartin

Japanbecausehetried“toleadhisstudentsawayfromtheconventionalsubjectsof

Japaneseceramicornaments(okimono),whichhedismissedasfrivolous,andto

introducethemtoceramicsculpture(tōchō)asagenreofseriousart.”67

Figure 10. Numata Ichiga, Travel over the Gobi Desert (1937), ceramic, 19.5 × 41 × 14 cm. National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto. Source: http://search.artmuseums.go.jp/search_e/records.php?sakuhin=154322.

Unfortunately,Numatadidnotbenefitpersonallyfromhisattempttoelevatethe

craft.Heisknown,notasasculptor,butbythelessertitleoffigurinemaker,andhis

work—mostlysmall,beautifullyrenderedanimalfigurines(fig.10)—hasbeen

relegatedtotheokimonocategory.

66 Winther-Tamaki, 128. 67 Cort, “Japanese Encounters with Clay,” 120.

30

In1940,followingabriefperiodinthearmy,Yagibecameinvolvedwitha

groupofavant-gardepainters,exhibitingwiththem,exploringWesternart,and

“creatingceramicsinthestyleofBrancusiorMoore.”68Atthetime,hestruggled

withdoubtsaboutwhetherhe“wasreally‘aseriousartist’andthissenseof

insecuritywouldbeheightenedbywhatotherswouldsay.”69Fearingimprisonment

bytheultraconservativeregime,helefttheavant-gardegroupandrevertedtothe

coverofclassicalforms.Afterthewar,YagireconnectedwithWesternartand

foundedSōdeishawithYamadaHikaru(1924–2001)andSuzukiOsamu(1926–

2001).YagiwantedtobreakawayfromtheKyotostyle,sohesteppedbackseven

centuriesormoretoSongdynastyCizhou(Tz’u-chou)stonewareformsandthick

whiteslipcoating,intowhichheincisedPicasso-likeimagesusingaPaulKlee-like

line.Heworkedthiswayforseveralyearsuntilhebecameawareoftheirrelevance

ofclassicalforeignmodelstohisowntimeandplace.Theshockingoriginalitythat

hesawintheceramicsbyPicassoandNoguchi(fig.11)inspiredhimtoexperiment

withasymmetricalshapesandmultipleoroff-centeredopenings.

Yagi’srealbreakthroughcamewhenhefreedhimselffromthedictatesofthe

wheelandhisfather'sinsistenceonutility.In1954,heassembledMr.Samsa'sWalk

(fig.12)outofpieceshehadthrownseparately,thusreducingthewheelfromits

roleasco-creatortothatofameretool.Whenhestoodhishoop-likestructureon

itsside,Yagieliminatedanysemblanceofusefulness,thusturninghisbackon

68 Uchiyama, "Yagi Kazuo: The Maverick Genius of Contemporary Ceramics," in Yagi Kazuo: A Retrospective, National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto (Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shinbun, 2004), exhibition catalog, 14.

69 Ibid., 13.

31

anothercornerstoneofJapaneseceramics.Asimportantashisiconicpiecewasto

thedevelopmentofavant-gardeceramics,however,itstillcamesevenyearsafter

Hayashi’sCloud,thefirstceramicobjet.

Figure 11. Isamu Noguchi, Tiger (Tora, 1952), unglazed stoneware, 25.7 x 37.5 x 13.7 cm. San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. Source: Cort and Winther-Tamaki, 50.

Figure 12. Yagi Kazuo, Mr. Samsa’s Walk (Zamuza-shi no sampō, 1954), wheel thrown parts, stoneware with Jokan glaze, 27.5 x 27 x 14 cm. Private collection. Photograph by Robert Yellin. Source: “Who’s Who – Japanese Ceramic Artists,” http://www.e-yakimono.net/html/whoiswho.

32

Throughouthislife,Yagiseemeduncomfortableabouthisdualidentityasan

artistandacraftsman.Hehaddeeptiestotheworldofcraftandfunctional

ceramics,buthewasattractedtotheexcitingpossibilitiesofpersonalexpressionas

wellasthehigherstatusassociatedwiththefinearts.Hedefendedhissubmission

tothesculpturedivisionofthe1956Kyōten,stating"IdoubtwhethertheworkI

wouldliketosubmitwouldberecognizedascraft,andImyselfdon'tthinkofitas

craft."70However,SasayamaTadayasu,afoundingmemberofShigarakiSculpture

GroupwhojoinedSōdeishain1967,remembersYagisaying“inadeprecatingKyoto

dialect,‘Wejustmakebowls!’WhenasayoungmanIarguedthatteabowlswerea

classicproductofauthoritarianism,Yagidismissedmyargument,sayingthat‘tea

bowlsarealsocraft!’Icouldnotcontradicthim.”71

Yagiwouldoftenrefertohimselfas“justatea-bowlmaker”(chawanya).Itis

doubtfulhechosethishumbleidentificationoutofmodestyorevenfalsehumility.

Thetitlepossiblywasassumedasafoil,thussignaling“self-prideinaceramicartist

beingabletomakesuchworkswhenthecommonviewisthatpottersarearank

below‘real’artists.”72Winther-Tamakisuggestsasimilarinterpretation:that

chawanayawasusedforcontrast,asaninvitationto“hisviewerstosavourthe

radicalstridesofhisworkwhichareapparentonlyifhisworkisclassifiedwiththat

70 Kyoto Shimbun (February 5, 1956), quoted in Cort, “Crawling Through Mud,” under “The issue of the potter’s identity.”

71 Sasayama Tadayasu, “Concept: Between the Vessel and the Non-vessel,” Tadayasu Sasayama Web Page, accessed 1/27/17, http://www.eonet.ne.jp/~sasayamatadayasu.

72 Uchiyama Takeo, “The Ceramic Artist Kazuo Yagi,” in Kazuo Yagi Ten, National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto (Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 1981), exhibition catalog.

33

ofsuchteabowlmakersasthosedepictedinthetaleofMusashi.”73 Theauthor,

YoshikawaEiji,comparestwoarchetypalcharacters:askilledbutnamelesstea-bowl

maker;andawealthymasterofclassicalarts.Theteabowlmadebythelatter

suggested“‘somethingregalandarrogant’”aboutitsmaker,asthoughhewas“big

anddaring”and“didn’tregardotherpeopleasbeingquitehuman.”74Yagihadread

thispopularstoryinhisyouthandlaterreferredtoitinanessay.Healsohad

idolizedtheskillofaneighborwhoresembledthehumblepotterinthestory,75so

thatcharacter,oreventheanonymouscraftsmenofthemingeimovement,might

havebeenbehindhischoiceofanepithet;givenYagi’spersonalityandmultiple

talents,it’slikelyhealsorelatedtothe“regalandarrogant”manaswell.

73 Winther-Tamaki, 137-38. 74 Ibid, 126-27. 75 Ibid, 127.

34

THEIMPORTANCEOFCOLLECTIVES

AoyamaWahei,ownerofYūfukuGalleryinTokyo,attributesmuchofYagi's

personalsuccesstothesuccessofhisgroup.76Theimportanceofthegroupis

evidentinallaspectsofJapaneselife;infact,“tothosediscussingwhattheyseeas

thepeculiarlyJapanesesocialstructure,nofeatureismoresalientthantheideaof

grouporientation.”77Nakanedifferentiatesbetweengroupsbasedonattribute,such

asageorprofession,andgroupsformedwithinaspecificinstitutionalframe

(meaninglocationorbainJapanese),suchasaschoolorcompany;shecreditsthe

institutionalunitas“thebasisofJapanesesocialorganization”78andthe

predominantelementbywhichpeopleinJapanidentifyandintroducethemselves.

Aperson’sprimarygroupfulfillshisneedforbelongingandsocialengagement;in

return,heputsthegoalsofhisgroupaheadofhispersonalagendaanddevotes

himselftomaintaininggroupsolidarity.Cohesioncanbereinforced,Nakanesays,by

feelingsof“rivalryagainstothersimilargroups.”79

ArthistorianReikoTomiinotestheremarkableproliferationofartists’

collectivesinJapansincethelatenineteenthcenturyandcreditscollectivismasthe

forcethatpropelled“theevolutionofitsartpracticesandinstitutionsinthepast

76 Private communication with Aoyama Wahei, email, 2014. 77 Harumi Befu, Hegemony of Homogeneity: An Anthropological Analysis of

Nihonjinron (Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press, 2001), 20. 78 Chie Nakane, “Criteria of Group Formation,” in Japanese Culture and

Behavior: Selected Readings, rev. ed., ed. Takie Sugiyama Lebra and William P. Lebra (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986), 173.

79 Ibid., 178.

35

century.”80ForAliciaVolkandotherhistoriansofJapanesemodernart,“artists’

groupsformtheoverarchingstructuralframeworkuponwhichnarrativesof

historicalchangeanddevelopmenthavebeenfashioned.Theyaretheanchorsinan

otherwisechaoticseaofempiricalandideologicalcomplexity.”81Artcollectivesalso

functionedas“strategicalliances(primarily)ofartistsmotivatedtoseekandcreate

alternativestotheexistingoptions,betheyartistic/expressiveorsocial/operational

orboth."82Forexample,aftertheMinistryofEducationestablishedtheBunten

(FineArtsExhibition)in1907,privateexhibitionsocieties(bijutsudantai)

materializedinoppositionorasanalternativetoit.83Theroleofthesesocieties,

Tomiipointsout,wasto“supplement,ratherthansupplant”84thegovernmentsalon,

andeventhosewhoappearedtoopposeitemulateditssystemforjuryingexhibits

andawardingprizes.Inadditiontohostingexhibits,thesestable,formally

organizedassociationsfulfilledthegamutofartists’personal,professionaland

socialneeds;theyalsoprovidedtraining,cultivatedpatrons,andlobbiedthosein

power“forthevitalsignificanceofarttothenationalmission.”85Duringthewar,

80 Tomii, 228.

81 Alicia Volk, "Authority, Autonomy, and the Early Taishō 'Avant-Garde'," in Tomii and Yoshimoto, Positions: Asia Critique, 452.

82 Tomii, 232. 83 Modeled after the French salon, the Bunten (1907–18) exhibited only the fine

arts: Western style oil painting (yōga); quasi-traditional Japanese painting (Nihonga); and sculpture. Ceramics and other crafts were exhibited in the Nōten (The Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce Crafts Exhibition) which opened in 1913. Over the years, the national fine-arts salon changed names several times: the Teiten (Imperial Fine Arts Academy Exhibition, 1919–34), which expanded in 1927 to include an “art crafts” section; Shin-Bunten (New Ministry of Education Fine Arts Exhibition, 1937–44); and the Nitten (Japan Art Exhibition, 1946).

84 Tomii, 242. She likens the bijutsu dantai to chūkan dantai (in-between groups) that functioned in politics, finance and other sectors.

85 Volk, 458.

36

artists’groupsformedmainlytosecureworkandalivelihood,“ratherthanto

promotethewarorpursuenewartisticpossibilities."86

ArtistcollectivescertainlyflourishedamidthechaosthatfollowedWorldWar

II,"springinguplikebambooshootsaftertherain."87Membershipinsometypeof

organizationwasstillthenorm,despiteAlliedOccupationpoliciespromoting

individualismorthefearamongintellectualsoflosing"subjectiveautonomy"

(shutaisei).88Artistsstillfelttheneedtobepartofacollectiveforidentity,

camaraderie,protection,andsupport.Manyofthepostwarartgroupscame

togetherquickly,thendisbandedormergedwithotherlike-mindedgroups.Unlike

thestablebijutsudantai,theselooselyorganizedcollectives(shūdan)tendedtobe

short-lived,sothelifetimeloyaltyofamemberwasnotaconsideration,andsome

artistsparticipatedsimultaneouslyinmorethanoneshūdan.

Ofthemanyceramicgroupsthatrevivedorformedrightafterthewar,the

twothatweremostsignificanttomodernJapaneseceramicartemergedinKyoto

almostatthesametime—firstShikōkai(1947–1957)andthenSōdeisha(1948–

1998).Thename“Shikōkai”(usuallytranslatedasthe“SocietyofFourHarvests"or

“FourCultivations”)referstogroup’smulti-disciplinaryandevenmetaphysical

aspirations,asarticulatedinitsmissionstatement:“Letuscultivateinthefour

86 Maki Kaneko, “New Art Collectives in the Service of the War: The Formation

of Art Organizations During the Asia-Pacific War,” in Tomii and Yoshimoto, Positions: Asia Critique, 340.

87 Yagi Kazuo, “Watashi no jijōden (My Autobiography),” in Kokkoku no honō (Steady flame) (Kyoto: Shinshindō shuppan, 1981), quoted in Cort, “Crawling Through Mud,” under “Sōdeisha.”

88 Ming Tiampo, "Gutai Chain: The Collective Spirit of Individualism," in Tomii and Yoshimoto, Positions: Asia Critique, 387.

37

directionsandeightquadrants;letuscultivatetherealmofthefourthdimension.”89

Sōdeisha(CrawlingThroughMudGroup)wasamoredown-to-earthgroupfocused

onceramics,asitsnamesuggests.Theterm“sōdei”,derivedfromaChineseessayon

ceramics,referstoaglazescarresemblingthetrailleftbyanearthworm.90Thetwo

organizationssharedmanycommonalities,inadditiontohavingofficesonthesame

street.Theywereopposedtoaffiliatingwithmainstreamceramicassociationsor

participatingintheirjuriedexhibitions.Theyalsohadprogressiveidealsin

common,suchas“freedomfromregulation,thecelebrationofartisticindividuality,

andhungerforcontemporaneity...withEuro-Americanmodernism.”91

AccordingtoNakane,“independentsimilargroupswithinthesamefieldof

activity”92areapttocompeteratherthancooperateandoftenvieweachotherwith

hostility,evenwhentheysharesimilargoalsandactivities.93Sothetwofactionsof

Kyoto’savant-gardeprobablywererivalscompetingforleadershipofthenew

ceramicmovement.Initially,Shikōkaiwasthefront-runner,butitdisbandedafter

onlytenyears;Sōdeisha,meanwhile,steadilygainedmomentum,newmembers,and

positiveattentionathomeandabroad.InCort’sopinion,itbecame“thecenterpoint

forthedevelopmentofabstract,sculpturalceramicswithinJapan.”94

89 From Shikōkai’s statement of purpose, quoted in Cort, “Japanese Encounters with Clay,” 147.

90 Cort, “Japanese Encounters with Clay,” 159; and Winther-Tamaki, 129. 91 Munroe, Scream Against the Sky, 132. 92 Nakane, Japanese Society, 109. 93 Ibid., 50. 94 Cort, “Japanese Encounters with Clay,” 157.

38

Shikōkai

ShikōkaihelditsfoundingceremonyonNovember17,1947,andthree

monthslateropeneditsfirstexhibit,attheAsahiArtGalleryinKyoto;thegroup

hostedtwomoreexhibitsin1948,atgalleriesinOsakaandOkayama,and

participatedinanavant-gardeikebanaexhibitioninOsaka.Shikōkaialsodisplayed

artworkbyKandinskyandNoguchi’sterra-cottasculptureatitssixthexhibition,July

22–30,1950,atMarubutsuDepartmentStoreinKyoto.Thesourceofthis

extraordinarymomentumwasthegroup’sfounderandleader,45-year-oldUno

Sango(1902–1988),thefourthsonofUnoNinmatsuI.UnoSangowasawell-

establishedpotterinhisownrightwhohadbeendesignated“holderofKyotoskills”

inceramicsbythegovernmentin1942.95Thetenceramicartistswhoinitially

joinedhimweremuchyoungermenwhohadgrownupintheintellectualvacuumof

wartimeJapanandknewnothingaboutWesternart.Unowantedto“opentheir

eyestotheworldofplasticartotherthantheirspecialty.”96Ultimately,he

envisionedagroupcomposedofartistsfromdifferentdisciplineswhowouldwork

intheirownareasofinterestbutcometogetherasagroup.97Hehopednotonlyfor

thesynergisticeffectsuchcross-fertilizationmightproduce,butthatexhibitingwith

paintersandsculptorswouldhelpelevatemodernistceramicstoafineartform,

abovetheleveloftraditionalcrafts.

95 Cort, “Japanese Encounters with Clay,” 212. Incidentally, Noguchi studied ceramics with Uno Ninmatsu I for five months in 1931.

96 Takahashi Toru, “Space of Ceramics in the Works of Yasuo Hayashi,” in Hayashi, The Works of Yasuo Hayashi, 13.

97 Hayashi Yasuo, interview by Okumura and Sakagami (2011).

39

TheearliestandmostpivotalinterdisciplinaryconnectionUnocreatedfor

thegroupwaswiththeleadersoftheavant-gardeschoolofflowerarranging(zen’ei

ikebana).TeshigaharaSōfū,alsoasculptorandpainter,foundedtheTokyo-based

SōgetsuSchoolofikebanain1926.Hemodernizedthetraditionalartformwithhis

large-scalesurrealistassemblagesincorporatingfoundobjectsandindustrial

materials,astylecalled“objetikebana.”MishōryūSchoolmasterNakayamaBunpo

inspiredHayashitocreateCloudandotherearlypiecesbyrequestingvasesthat

weresoavant-gardetheywouldbehardtouseforflowerarrangement.Theyoung

ceramicartistsreapedmanybenefitsfromtheirassociationwiththeikebana

masters:creativestimulationandanincentivetoexperiment,amarketfortheir

Figure 13. Sogetsu School avant-garde ikebana arrangement. Teshigahara Sōfū, Sogetsu School: Best of Ikebana (fig. 58), 69.

40

unconventionalceramics,opportunitiesfortheirworktobeseeninikebana

exhibitions,andcredibilityasavant-gardeartists.Thecollaborationendedinthe

early1950'sasShikōkaimembersmaturedandcametoresenttheirsubordinate

statusintherelationshipandthecasualtreatmentoftheirartwork.

In1949,UnoactedonhisgoaltodiversifyShikōkaiandunilaterallyinvited

painters,sculptorsandaphotographertojointhegroup.Unfortunately,hisattempt

backfiredontwolevels,causinginternalandexternaldiscord.Hefailedtoseek

groupconsensusanddidnotadequatelyexplainhisintensionstothenewcomers,so

"neithertheoriginalyoungmembers,whopersistentlyadvocatedavant-garde

ceramicart,northenewmembersfullyunderstoodwhyitwasnecessaryforthem

tounitetogetherasagroup." 98Insteadofproducingcreativesynergy,the

incorporationofotherdisciplineswasadivisiveactthatweakenedShikōkaiand

contributedtoitsearlydemise.

Uno’sauthoritarianleadershipstyleandmishandlingofShikōkai’s

diversificationwerenottheonlycausesofthegroup’sdisintegration.Members’

geographicdispersalanddilutedloyaltiesunderminedthegroup’ssolidarity.Bythe

mid-1950’s,manyofthememberslivedtoofarfromKyototoattendmeetings

regularly,99andsomealsobeganparticipatinginanew,moreprogressivegroup,the

ContemporaryArtDiscussionGroup(Gendaibijutsukondankai,1951-57),orGenbi

forshort,thatwasopentoallKansaiareaartistsandcraftsmenengagedinthe

98 Okumura Yasuhiko, "Yasuo Hayashi: The Evolution of His Art" in Hayashi,

The Works of Yasuo Hayashi, 145. 99 Hayashi Yasuo, interview by Okumura and Sakagami (2011).

41

plasticarts.100Economicdifficultiesstemmingfromthelossoftheikebanamarket

forcedShikōkaimemberstolookfornewsourcesofincome,andsometurnedtothe

worldofcrafts.Uno’sabandonmentofavant-gardeprinciplestohelporganizea

mainstreamcraftassociation,Nihonkōgeikai(JapanCraftsSociety),wasthe

ultimateblowthatbrokethegroupapart.Shikōkainolongerhadamissionthat

coulduniteitscurrentmembers,northerevolutionaryideologyandzealtoattract

newfollowers.Inanyevent,Japan’sprogressiveartworldwasexperiencinga

“paradigmaticshiftfromkindaitogendai(moderntocontemporary),101moving

awayfrom“theabstractionsofhighartforthepoetryofquotidianexistence.”102

Shikōkai’sexhibition-basedstyleofcollaborationwassupersededbyanaction-

orientedmodelthatbroughtpractitionersfromtheartsandtechnologytogetherin

aninformalrelationshipbasedoncreativeactivity.Oneoftheearliestexampleswas

Tokyo-basedJikkenkōbō(ExperimentalWorkshop,1951–57),composedofvisual

artists,musicians,poets,alightingdesignerandanengineer.Theirtheatrical

productionsconfrontedthematerialism,consumerismandmechanizationoflifein

postwarJapan.IntheOsaka-Kobearea,YoshiharaJirōfoundedGutai(1954–1971),

anamethatmeans“concreteness,”reflectingthephysicalityofGutaiproductions

andmembers’struggletomaintainindividualitywithincommunity.Inhisfamous

actionpainting/performancepieceChallengingMud(Doroniidomu,1955),Shiraga

Kazuowrestledwithmud,sandandrockstoexpresshisoppositionto

100 Genbi was organized by Yoshihara Jirō, who later founded The Gutai Group, and avant-garde calligrapher Morita Shiryū, who helped establish the Bokujin-Kai (Ink Human Society) in 1952; Shiraga Kazuo, another future Gutai member, participated in Genbi as well.

101Tomii, 234.102 Monroe, “Avant-garde Art in Postwar Japan,” 283.

42

totalitarianism.Healsoarticulatedthisideainanessay,“The Formation of the

Individual,” stating,“thestrongeraperson’swill,themoretheycanresistexternal

forces.”103

Sōdeisha

“Weoriginallycametogetherasagroupbecausewefeltthatasindividuals

wewereisolated,butthattogetherwecouldsupportandencourageeachother...In

theearlystages,wesharedeachother’sproblemsand,althoughwewereinconflict

witheachotherattimes,wewerelikeafamily,”Yagiwrotein1977,ontheoccasion

ofSōdeisha’sthirtiethanniversary.104Thisclose-knitgroupwasfoundedin1948by

Yagiandtwoyoungerassociates,YamadaHikaruandSuzukiOsamu.105Allwere

Kyotopotterswhoseprimaryinterestwasintheirmaterial.Thoughtheyprofessed

avant-gardeprinciples,SōdeishamemberswereatfirsttooenmeshedinKyoto’s

ceramicestablishmenttoeasilybreakawayfromitsaestheticconventions,

dependenceonthewheel,andadherencetothecardinalruleoffunction.They

eventuallyrecognizedthelimitationsofapplyingmodernsurfacedesignstoforeign

historicalmodelsandsoughtmoreexpressivepossibilities.InspiredbyPicasso’s

andNoguchi’sasymmetricalhand-builtforms,theystartedmanipulatingtheir

vesselsintoirregularshapeswithmultipleand/oroff-centeredopenings.Then,in

103 Tiampo, 386. Shiraga’s essay, accompanied by photographs of his performance, was published in the fourth issue of the group’s journal Gutai.

104 Australian Gallery Directors’ Council, Sōdeisha: Avant-Garde Japanese Ceramics (n.p.: Australian Gallery Directors Council, 1979), exhibition catalog, 63.

105 Matsui Yoshisuke and Kanō Tetsuo also were founding members, but they resigned in in 1949. Previously, they were members of the Young Pottery-makers’ Collective (Seinen Sakutōka Shūdan) with Yagi, Yamada and Suzuki.

43

1954,Yagiconstructedaseriesofpieces,themostmemorableofwhichwasMr.

Samsa'sWalk,thatlaunchedthegroupinaboldnewdirection.Sōdeishamembers

alsorejectedornamentationandtheuseofbeautifulglazes,evenleavingmuchof

theirworkunglazed.Theirdeparturefromacceptedstandardsandpracticeswas,in

LouiseCort’sview,thegroup’s“centralcontributiontotheliberationofmodern

Japaneseceramicform.”106

AccordingtoFaulkner,Sōdeishaachievednationalrecognitionin1959when

itsmembers’workwas“givenprideofplace”amongtheavant-gardepieces

displayedinacontemporaryceramicsexhibitionattheTokyoNationalMuseumof

ModernArt.107Sōdeisha’sinfluenceexpandedsteadilyduetomembers’collective

andindividualeffortsmaintaininganambitiousexhibitionschedule.Initsfirst

seventeenyears,Sōdeishahostedtwenty-eightgroupexhibitions,holdingone

Figure 14. Yamada Hikaru, Tower B (Tō B, 1964), stoneware with Oribe glaze, 36.7 x 43 x 19.5 cm. The National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto.

106 Cort, “Japanese Encounters with Clay,” 167. 107 Faulkner, 65.

44

everyyearattheKyotoMunicipalMuseumofArtandusuallyanotheratagalleryin

Tokyo.Inaddition,Yagi,Suzuki,andYamadaexhibitedindividuallyandoftenwon

prizesatnationalandinternationalcompetitions.Sōdeishamemberswere

successfulinthecommercializedartmarketaswell,duetotheirgroup’sclear

identityandYagi’sforcefulpersonality.Despiteitsgrowth,Sōdeisharemained

unifiedbyitscoreoforiginalmembers;itincludedtwentyceramicartistsby1960.

Hayashievenjoinedin1962,stayingwiththegroupuntil1977.AlthoughYagidied

in1979,Sōdeishacarriedonuntil1998,whenitdisbandedafteritsfiftieth

exhibition.

45

SOCIALCONFORMITYANDCONNECTEDNESS

InthetraditionalsocietyofGojōzaka,conformitywouldhavebeenthenorm,

avaluedattributethatcontributedtosocialcompatibilityandthemaintenanceof

community,whereasidiosyncraticorindividualisticbehaviorswouldnothavebeen

welcomedastheyweakenedgroupunity.Moeranpointsoutthat“whenapotteris

accusedofnotmakingatraditionallyshapedteacup,heisreallybeingaccusedof

steppingoutoflinefromtherestofthepotteryhouseholdsandattemptingtogo

thingsalone.”108Hayashi’sindependentnatureandlackoftraininginceramicsset

himapartanddeprivedhimofopportunitiesthatwouldhavecomefrompersonal

connectionswithintheceramicsystem.Asthefirstoneto“stepoutofline”with

Cloud,healsomusthavebornethebruntoftheestablishment’scondemnation.In

fact,hisunorthodoxpieces“weretreatedlikejunkandbombardedwithhumiliating

commentsatthecommunitykiln.”109Yagi,ontheotherhand,waswellconnectedto

theceramiccommunityandinitiallymorecompliantwithitsnorms,sohis

advancementwasassured.BythetimeheproducedMr.Samsa’sWalkin1954,

modernistceramicsalreadyhadgainedsomedegreeofacceptance,largelydueto

thepopularityofthePicassoexhibitions.Avant-gardepieceshadevenbeen

includedinthe1950exhibitofJapaneseceramicsatMuséeCernuschiinParis,and

artcriticsathomeweredebatinghowtoevaluatesuchunconventionalwork.

WhilebothartistswerepartofKyoto’savant-gardecircle,Yagi’saffiliation

wasmoremoderateandthusbettertoleratedthanHayashi’sinvolvement.

108 Moeran, “Japanese Ceramics and the Discourse of ‘Tradition’,” 220. 109Hayashi, interview by Okumura and Sakagami.

46

Shikōkai’sinterdisciplinaryventures(mildwhencomparedtothoseofJikkenkōbō

andGutai)weretooadvancedforKyoto’sconservativeceramicsestablishment

whichconsideredmixingwithothermediaaseriousbreachofcustom.Also,

Shikōkai’sdesiretoelevateceramicartabovethelevelofcraftmusthavedemeaned

thestatusofthetraditionalcraftsmenandcausedadditionalbadfeelingsinthe

community.ArroganceisdetestedinJapan,Lebrasays,becauseitisperceivedas

“lookingdownonothers…andsometimeselicitsretaliationbythepersonwho

suffersalossofface.”110

110 Lebra, 128.

47

RIVALRYFORRANK

Emphasisonrankinthatverticallystructuredsocietyinjectedfierce

competitionintoeverysituation,creatingabreedinggroundforcontentionwithin

whichlike-mindedindividualsandgroupsengagedinacontinuousstrugglefor

primacy.Theratingoforganizationsoccursonalllevelsofsociety(e.g.,government

ministries,companiesinthesamefield,orhouseholdsinavillage),anditusuallyis

basedonagroup’slongevity,withtheoldestorganizationawardedthehighestrank

ofichi-ryū(first-rate).ThismeansthatShikōkaiinitiallywouldhavehadahigher

rankthanSōdeishaduetoitsearlierestablishmentinKyoto;anditwouldhavebeen

difficultforSōdeishatoreversetheorder,becauseoncerankwasdetermined,it

customarilywasmaintained.111Agroupcouldimproveitsstatus,however,“through

theacquisitionofadditionalpoliticalandeconomicpowerandinfluence,”112which

suggeststhatSōdeishamighthavebeenmotivatedtoacquirethosegame-changing

assetsinordertoimproveitspositioninthecompetitiveceramicworld.

Understandably,Sōdeishamemberswouldhavebeenreluctanttopromotearival

groupbecause,asNakanepointsout,therankofagrouphadasignificanteffecton

thestatusofitsindividualmembers,andthosebelongingtoahighrankedgroup

tendedtolookdownonmembersofthelowerrankedgroup.113SowhenSuzuki

OsamuwasinterviewedforBijutsukōgeimagazineandwasaskediftherewereany

111 Nakane, Japanese Society, 91. 112 Ibid., 88. 113 Ibid., 109.

48

othergroupsmakingceramicobjets,hereportedlysaidthattherewerenone.114

Meanwhile,ShikōkaistillexistedandhadanofficedownthestreetfromSōdeisha’s

office.

Thepressureforhigherrankthatdrovesimilargroupstocompetealso

impelledindividualsofthesamestatus(dōryō)totrytosurpasseachotherand

attaintheprivilegesofahigherrating.ThiswasthecaseinKyoto,whereonlythose

atthepeakofthepeckingorderhadtherighttostrut"proudlyupanddownthe

middleoftheslopinglanesinthepotters'quarter,whileotherskepttotheside." 115

Itwasawell-knownfactthatbitterrivalryexistedbetweentop-rankedceramic

mastersKiyomizuRokubeiVI(1901-1980)andKusubeYaichi(1897-1984):“When

ajournalistwentovertoone'shouse,itwasforewarnedthattheother'snamemust

neverbementioned.SuchwasthetenseartisticairinKyotointhe1930stothe

1950s." 116Yagi’sfamilylivednext-doortotheRokubeihousehold,andhisfatherwas

Kusube’sformerschoolmateandcolleagueinSekidōkai.Thecontentious

relationshipofthetwomasterseasilycouldhaveinfluencedYagi’sideasabouthow

rivalsinteracted.

Asayoungman,Yagicaredaboutwhatothersthoughtofhim.117Desiring

recognitionandstatus,helongedtohaveworkacceptedinthegovernmentsalonso

hecould“putonthefaceofanartistwhenwalkingupanddownGojozaka...Until

114 Hayashi Yasuo, interview by Horikawa (2014). 115 Cort, "Crawling Through Mud,” under “Context.” 116 Aoyama Wahei, Chapter One: “The Birth of Sōdeisha,” Kyoto -- To Travel the

Past, In Search of the New (December 11, 2004), accessed May 20, 2015, http://www.e-yakimono.net/japanese-ceramics-now/jcn-2.html.

117Uchiyama, "Yagi Kazuo: The Maverick Genius of Contemporary Ceramics," 14.

49

thenIhadnotwalkedinthecenteroftheroadbutstayedtotheside.”118Society’s

emphasisonrankandthehighstakesofKyoto’scompetitiveceramicscene

intensifiedYagi’sambitioustendencies,Iargue,asdidthepressureoffamily

expectationsandthesizeofhisfathers’footprint.Inaddition,IsuspectYagineeded

toassuageinsecuritiesthatlingeredfromhisearlydifficultiesasastudentinart

classesandrejectionbysalonjuries.Hisself-criticalnaturemadehimjudgehimself

asharshlyashejudgedothers,withhis“coldandpenetratingeye...alwaysdirected

inwardonhimselfaswellastowardtheoutsideworld."119

Yagi’scompetitivetendenciessurfaced,itseems,evenwhenhewastryingto

behelpful.Forinstance,in1953,YagihelpedTsujiShindōputtestpiecesintothe

kilnwhenthesculptorwasstillnewtoceramics.TsujirelatedhowYagiloadedhis

ownworkandthenhe“putmineintotheleast-desirablespaceatthetopofthe

chamber.”120Yagialsowasnotoriousforhissharptongueandpenchantfor

belittlingopponentsinpublic,especiallywhendrinking.UchiyamaTakeo,director

emeritusofKyoto'sNationalMuseumofModernArt,hadbeenpartofYagi'ssocial

groupinhisyouthandhadnotonlywitnessedYagi’sabilityto"hurttheother

person'sfeelingswithhisinnerclaws,”121buthadexperiencedithimself:“Itwas

easyenoughlisteningwithinterestasheattackedsomeoneelse...However,it

118 Yagi Kazuo, “Watashi no jijōden (My autobiography),” in Yagi Kazuo,

Kokkoku no honō (Steady Flame) (Kyoto: Shinshindō shuppan, 1981), 15, quoted in Cort, “Crawling Through Mud,” under “The issue of exhibitions.”

119 Uchiyama, “The Ceramic Artist Kazuo Yagi,” in Kazuo Yagi ten (Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 1981), exhibition catalog.

120 Shigaraki Ceramic Cultural Park, Tsukurite tachi no genzō gendai no tōgei, 39, quoted in Cort, “Japanese Encounters with Clay,” 153.

121 Uchiyama, “Yagi Kazuo: The Maverick Genius of Contemporary Ceramics,” 12.

50

wasn'tmuchfunwhenhisclawsweredirectedatme."122Yagievenbraggedinhis

memoirsaboutenjoyingthesportandbeingabletomaintaintherightbalance

betweenhisowngratificationandhisadversary’spain.

Weoftenhavefuntryingtohurteachotherjustalittle.Youcouldn'tinflicttoomuchpainbecauseitcouldmeantheendofthefriendship.So,ratherthanbeingtoocruelwe'djustbealittlebitcruelwhilealsolickingthewoundsinflictedonus.ThereisacertaincreativityinthisactivityandImustsayitcanbecomeanartform. 123

Yagiobviouslyhadtheabilitytodisableanadversary,buthewouldhavehad

torelyonindirecttactics,perhapsinnuendoorthestrategicplacementofgossip,

sinceopendisplayofhostilitywastaboo.Moerannotedtheprevalenceandpower

ofgossip"inanartworldwhichtakesonitsorganizationalformprimarilyasaresult

ofnetworksandpersonalconnections.”Heacknowledgedthecommonuseofgossip

asawaytocommunicateinprivatewhatcan’tbestatedinpublic,butheaffirmed

that“somegossipisundoubtedlymalicious."124Evenanonverbalsignalassubtleas

adismissivetwistofthelipsisaneffectivewaytodiscreditsomeoneinasociety

where“peopleareinordinatelysensitivereceptorsofsocialstimuli.”125Thisfine-

tunedawarenessofothers’opinions,Lebrasays,whencombinedwithatypically

highlevelofemotionalvulnerability,makeswoundingpeopleaneasyand“effective

strategyforsocialsanction.WhenEgowantstopunishAlter,allhehastodoisto

122 Ibid., 12-13. 123 Uchiyama, “Yagi Kazuo: The Maverick Genius,” 12. 124 Moeran, “The Art World of Contemporary Japanese Ceramics,” 48n45. 125 Lebra, Japanese Patterns of Behavior, 48.

51

showhisorsomeoneelse’sdispleasure,toalludetoAlter’smisbehavior,ormore

severely,toembarrassAlterinfrontofothers.”126

UchiyamaobservedthatYagi"enjoyedcoveringhistraces,rarely'revealing

hissources.'"127Whenaskedwhichartistshelpedhimbreakawayfromutilitarian

ceramics,hecreditedNoguchiandPicasso,128aswellastheabstractsculptureof

TsujiShindō.YagihadtohavebeenawareofHayashi’ssculpturalworkinlate1940

andearly1950,whenhehimselfwassearchingforanewdirection,buthenever

wouldmentionHayashiasoneofhissources.Thatisnotsurprising,sinceYagi

probablywouldn’tcreditarival,especiallysomeonetenyearshisjunior.129

126 Lebra, Japanese Patterns of Behavior, 43. 127 Uchiyama, “Yagi Kazuo: The Maverick Genius,” 12. 128 Ibid., 15. 129 What did seem surprising was the absence of any sign of relationship between

Hayashi and Yagi at the start of their careers. They worked in such proximity and undoubtedly participated in some of the same avant-garde events. Were they never heard discussing each other’s work, or debating their divergent views on art and ceramics? Aoyama Wahei noted an equally curious absence of interaction between two of Yagi's former students, Akiyama Yo and Takiguchi Kazuo, saying “Kyoto potters are usually a closely knit bunch, and the lack of connection is somewhat puzzling." Aoyama Wahei, Chapter 2: "Takiguchi Kazuo and Akiyama Yo," Kyoto — To Travel the Past, In Search of the New (December 17, 2004), accessed February 22, 2016, http://www.e-yakimono.net/html/jcn-3.html.

52

INTRAMURALPOLITICS

"HayashihasnevermadethesplashinJapanthatYagiKazuo...andSuzuki

Osamuhave,"claimFrederickBaekland,Japaneseceramicsconnoisseur,andRobert

Moes,formerheadoftheBrooklynMuseumAsianArtDepartment.130“Fiveofthe

sixprizeshewonfrom1950–86havebeenatforeigninternationalceramics

exhibitions...andhisworkisbetterrepresentedinforeignthaninJapanese

museums.”ThisstatementregardingHayashi’slackofrecognitioninJapan

comprisesthefirstpublicacknowledgementofanissuetheartisthaswrestledwith

fordecadesinprivate.

Hayashisuspectsthatthesuppressionofhiscareerathomestemmedfrom

thepositivereceptionhispieceHumanBodyreceivedinthe1950Expositiond'Art

JaponaisatMuséeCernuschiinParis.131ThiswasthefirstexhibitofJapaneseartto

beheldabroadsincebeforethewar,andthusitwasanimportantopportunityfor

thenationtoregaininternationalprestige.132KoyamaFujio,thencuratorof

ceramicsattheTokyoNationalMuseum,initiatedanationalopencompetitionin

Japantoattractasbroadaspectrumofpottersaspossible,notonlythoseconnected

tothegovernmentsponsoredexhibition,majorschoolsandassociations,but

membersofavant-gardegroupsaswellasunaffiliatedpotters.HeandSerge

Elisséeff,assistantdirectoroftheCernuschiMuseum,usedamerit-basedprocessto

130 Fred Baekland and Robert Moes, Modern Japanese Ceramics in American Collections (New York: Japan Society, 1993), 189.

131 Hayashi Yasuo, interview by Horikawa (2014). 132 Exposition d'Art Japonais was at the Musée Cernuschi November 28, 1950–

March 1951; in Vallauris July–September 1951; and in Kamakura February–March 1952.

53

chooseforty-nineartists,includingafewwhowereyoungandunknown,which

surprisedeventhemedia:

KyotonewspapersreportedwithastonishmentthatthejudgeshadnotsimplyfocusedontheworkoftheleadingfiguresintheKyotoceramicsworld,aswouldbeexpectedforacomparableexhibitioninJapan,butinsteadhadchosenbroadlyfromKyoto’s‘greatkilns,middlekilns,andnewkilns.’133

Koyamaanticipatedthatthisdemocraticprocesswoulddispleasetheelders,sohe

“wascarefultocreditElisséeff(theoutsiderwhocoulddaretodefyconvention)

withsoleresponsibilityfortheselection.”134

YoshikawaItsujiaccompaniedtheexhibitiontoFranceandrevieweditfor

theFrenchjournalArtd'aujourd'hui.HeandtheFrenchartcriticspraisedNoguchi,

TomimotoKenkichi,UnoSango,andHayashiforbeing"focusedontheart,notthe

techniques,"135andtheyonlynotedthetechnicallyexcellentpiecesofthetraditional

mastersfortheirlackofflexibilityandspirit.InJapan,wherestatussurpasses

merit,136suchunorthodoxevaluationsneverwouldhavebeenpublished.Anyone

whoisnottoprank“rarelyhasachancetoenjoypublicappraisalandprestige.”137

Instead,aninferior,likeHayashi,isexpectedto“supportandprotectthesuperior’s

statusevenatthecostofhisownstatus”138orincurretaliation.WhenYoshikawa

returnedtoJapanandreportedonExpositiond'ArtJaponaisataceramics

133 Kyoto Shinbun (1 August 1950), quoted in Cort, “Japanese Encounters with Clay,” 105.

134 Cort, “Japanese Encounters with Clay,” 105. 135 Hayashi Yasuo, interview by Okumura and Sakagami (2011). 136 Nakane, 68. 137 Ibid., 49. 138 Lebra, Japanese Patterns of Behavior, 81. Lebra illustrates this point with a

story from the popular novel Shiroi Kyotō in which a surgeon named Zaizen “allows his own professional reputation to rise beyond that of” his department head who then seeks revenge for this humiliation “by plotting to bar Zaizen as his successor.”

54

conference,"hewassurroundedandattackedbytheelders...becausetheirown

workdidn'tgetattention."139Fearinglossofface,theelderssuppressedallmention

oftheexhibitionintheJapanesemedia.

Hayashi’spunishmentforhisunseemlysuccessappearstohavebegunwith

hisexclusionfromthe1951exhibitofcontemporaryJapaneseceramicsheldin

Faenza,Italy.IttoowascuratedbyKoyama,whoincludedtheSōdeishaartistsbut

notHayashi,despite—orbecauseof—Hayashi’ssuccessinParis(andpossibly

Koyama’swishtoavoidconflict).Theinfluenceofpoliticsandfactionalismonthe

selectionorexclusionofJapanesecraftsmenforforeignexhibitionsinthe1950’s

seemstohavebeenafairlycommonphenomenon.Favoritismmighthavebeena

factorintheexclusionofTomimotoKenkichiandcertainothermajorceramicartists

fromthe1956–63AmericanexhibitionofJapanesecraft,JapaneseLifeCulture,

curatedbyKoyamaaswell.Eitherfactionalismorinterpersonalconflictmotivated

Rosanjintowithdrawfroma1956exhibitattheChicagoArtInstitutewhenhe

foundoutthatTomimotowasparticipating.140

Bythe1970’s,Hayashi’sworkwasearningrecognitionabroadandmajor

awardsininternationalceramiccompetitions.In1972,hewasawardedFirstPrize

attheInternationalCompetitionofContemporaryArtisticCeramicsinFaenza,Italy;

FirstPrizeattheInternationalCeramics’73,UniversityofCalgary,Canada;Grand

Prixd'Honneurinthe1974BiennaleInternationaledeCéramiqued’ArtdeVallauris,

France,andMédailled'Orinthe1986Biennale;andGrandPrémiointhe1987

139 Hayashi Yasuo, interview by Okumura and Sakagami (2011). 140 Jones, 263-66.

55

BienalInternacionaldeÓbidos,inPortugal.InJapan,betweentheyears1958and

1985,hehad“twenty-fiveone-manshowsinTokyo,KyotoandOsaka,andhewas

askedtoexecuteatleasteightlarge-scalepubliccommissions.”141Kimura

Shigenobu,artdirectorofKobe’sNationalMuseum,classifiedHayashi’sworkas

ceramicsculptureinthemodeofTsujiShindōandsaidHayashi’spieceswere“subtle

indesignespeciallyinthecombinationofconcaveandconvexportions.”142Finally,

in1994,HayashiwashonoredwiththeKyo-tenPrizeattheKyotoCityExhibition.

However,Hayashistillreceiveslittleornocredit,athomeorabroad,forhisearly,

andmostimportant,innovations—beingthefirstinJapantocreateceramicobjets,

anddevisinganativesystemfororganizingspacebasedontheKofunerachokko-

mondesign.Hayashicertainlydidn’tgettheattentionthattheJapanese-American

sculptorIsamuNoguchireceivedforexploringhisJapaneseheritage;Noguchi'suse

ofKofun-erahaniwafiguresisnotedroutinelyindiscussionsofhisabstractceramics

andhisinfluenceonYagiandotheryoungJapanesepotterswhowantedtocreate

workbasedontheirownculture.Asearlyas1950,Hayashi’sabstractceramic

sculpturesdemonstratedhissuccessfulsynthesisofancientandmodern,Eastern

andWesternelements.Thatsameyear,Yagiwasstillconcernedwiththesurfaceof

hisvesselsandhowtoharmonize“thepaintingthemesofmodernFrenchartists

suchasPicassoandKleewiththeshibui143flavoroftheJapanesepotter'swheel."144

141 Baekland and Moes, Modern Japanese Ceramics in American Collections,

189. 142 Shigenobu Kimura, "The Path to the Space of Optical Illusions," in Hayashi,

The Works of Yasuo Hayashi, 6. 143The online dictionary Jisho defines shibui as “astringent” (tart like the taste of

an unripe persimmon) or “austere; elegant (and unobtrusive).” http://jisho.org.

56

InJapan,oneisnotsupposedtocomplainaboutbeingslightedortreated

unjustly.Resignation(akirame)seemstobetheexpectedresponse,thewiseand

matureattitudethat“providesatension-reducingalternativetotheloserina

cultureobsessedwithsuccessandstatus-elevation.”145Hayashiabidedbythisnorm

duringtheearlydaysofhiscareer,believing(rathernaively)thatdevotiontohisart

ultimatelywouldberewarded.Heeventuallygrewfrustratedbyhislackof

recognitioninJapanandtheestablishment’sexpectationthathesacrificehimselffor

thegoodofthefield.Asayouthduringthewar,hehadbeenwillingtodothatforhis

country,butnotthistime.“Myonlywaytoprotestwasthroughmywork,”Hayashi

said,“bycreatingmyworkwithallmysoul.”146

Yagi’srisetoprominencewasenabledbytheceramicestablishment,aswas

Hayashi’smarginalization.Yagiwascanonizedinthe1970’sbyInuiYoshiaki,a

powerfulfigureinacademicandculturalcircleswhowasaprofessoratKyoto

UniversityandcuratoratNationalMuseumofModernArt.AccordingtoWinther-

Tamaki,Inui’smonographsandcatalogueessaysframedYagi’sworkasthe

exemplificationofJapaneseceramics’distinctiveflavor,alàNihonjinron(discourseof

Japanesepeople),along-standingnationaldiscussionaimedatidentifying

characteristicsuniquetotheJapanesepeopleandculture.InuideemphasizedYagi’s

modernistsculpture(tooclosetoWesternart)andstressedhisconnectiontothe

144 Asahi Shimbun, 28 March 1950, quoted in Cort, “Japanese Encounters with

Clay,” 161. 145 Lebra, 254. 146 Private communication with Hayashi, September 23, 2014.

57

“mythsandtraditionsofthepotteryworld”andcrafts,147eventhoughYagi

consciouslyavoided“thechanceeffectsofthekiln(yōhen),thespontaneousblisters

andblusheslovedbyJapaneseteamasters.”148TheNihonjinrondiscourseofthe

1970’swasdesignedtohighlightculturalandracialqualitiesthatwould“explain

andjustifythenation’sfinancialcompetitiveness.”149Duringthe1950’s,therehad

beenasimilarsurgeofculturalnationalism,thoughtheintentionthenwastofend

offWesterndominance.Inbothinstances,themethodsandcurrencywerethe

same—theconceptualization,preservationandpromotionof“traditional”crafts,to

symbolizetheessenceofJapaneseculture.Thegovernment“hammeredcraftfirmly

intotheboxof‘tradition’,”150andencouragedpottersandothercraftartists“notto

achieveinnovationorexpressartisticideasbuttopreserve‘traditional’

techniques.”151

Forafewdecadesafterthewar,theboundaryseparatingavant-gardeartand

craftremainedpermeable,andceramicswereincludedwiththefineartmediain

multi-disciplinaryexhibitionsthatfocusedonmodernismratherthangenreor

media.Forinstance,duringthe1950’sand1960’s,Hayashiparticipatedinsuch

nonspecificshowsasAshiyaMunicipalExhibition,Kyoto'sExhibitionofAvant-Garde

Artists,ModernArtFairinKobeandOsaka,ExhibitionofNon-FigurativeArtinOsaka,

ExhibitionofExcellentWorksofContemporaryArtinKyoto,andSelectedArt

ExhibitionbyMainichiNewspapersinKyoto.Bythe1970’s,however,theschism

147 Winther-Tamaki, 137. 148 Ibid. 149 Winther-Tamaki, 137. 150 Jones, 22. 151 Ibid., 282.

58

betweenmodernartandJapan’straditionalartformshaddeepenedoncemore.

Ceramicartwasforcedbackintothecraftcategoryandagainrestrictedtoexhibits

devotedtoceramicsorshowsfeaturingthedecorativeorappliedartsandcrafts.

Ceramics,nomatterhowavant-gardeorabstract,wereexcludedfromcontemporary

artexhibitswhichfavoredtheusualfineartmedia,plusworkmadefromlightbulbs,

money,skin,mud,etc.--everymaterialexceptclay.

Theartestablishment’srenewedsegregationofartandcraftmusthave

frustratedHayashiandotherswhohadstruggledtoelevatetheirmediumand

expandexhibitopportunities.Yagi,ontheotherhand,wasabletooperateonboth

sidesofthedivide.In1962,hebeganproducingalineoftablewarewithYamada

HikaruunderthenameMonkōbō(CornerWorkshop),andheoftenreferredto

himselfas“justatea-bowlmaker,”allthewhilecreatingandbeingcelebratedforhis

avant-gardeceramicsculpture.HavingMr.Samsa’sWalkandhisotherkiln-fired

objetspromotedas“emblemsofnationalidentity”152onlyenhancedhisstatus.

152Winther-Tamaki, 136.

59

CONCLUSION

ThespiritofliberationthatoccupiedJapanrightafterthewarfosteredhope

andprogressivethinking.Itemboldenedyoungceramicartiststoassumecontrolof

theirownaffairsanddefyconvention,whichultimatelyledtoanewdirectionin

kiln-firedclay.Thoughinitiallyscornedbytheconservativeestablishment,the

innovativeworkofHayashiYasuoandYagiKazuodevelopedintothefieldof

nonfunctionalceramicart,forwhichYagiusuallyreceivessolecredit.Meanwhile,

Hayashi,theintrepidtrailblazer,isbarelyrecognized,andreferencestohiminthe

literaturearehardtofind,despitehismonumentalbodyofwork153andacareerthat

spanssevendecades.

Hayashiattributesthesuppressionofhiscareertohisyouthfulsuccessin

Japan’sfirstpostwarinternationalartexhibition,atMuséeCernuschi.Thepraisehe,

theyoungestartist,receivedinFrance,wasconsideredpoliticallyincorrectinJapan,

anditundoubtedlyprovokedresentmentamongtheseniormasters,leadingtohis

exclusionfromsubsequentdomesticandinternationalexhibitions.However,the

persistenceofHayashi’sprofessionaldifficultiesinJapansuggeststheinvolvement

ofadditionalelements,thefirstbeinghisbasicincongruencewiththeelitistceramic

culture.Inthatreactionary,convention-boundworld,anonconformingindividualist

wascertaintobeestranged,especiallysomeonelackingpedigree,socialsupport,or

formaltraining.Yagi,ontheotherhand,wasmoreinharmonywithhissocietyand

153Okumura, 144. More than 470 of Hayashi’s pieces were accounted for in 1998. The number would be larger today, since Hayashi is still producing work.

60

blessedwiththeattributesforsuccess.Hehadbeenwelltrainedinceramics,hada

strongnetworkoffamilyandcommunityties,andpossessedaforcefulpersonality

andgoodsocialskills.

Belongingtoagroupwas,andstillis,thenorminJapan,proofofan

individual’scomplianceandsocialacceptability.Inadditiontofulfillingmembers’

personal,socialandprofessionalneeds,thegroupwasanimportantsourceof

identity,soitscollectiverankandreputationreallymattered.Ofthetwoavant-

gardeceramicgroupsthatformedinpostwarKyoto,Shikōkaiwasthemoreblatantly

anti-establishment.Afteritdisbanded,Hayashistruggledforseveralyearswithout

groupsupport.ThefactthathejoinedSōdeishaindicatesthelevelofdesperationhe

musthavefeltasanunaffiliatedartist.UnlikeShikōkai,down-to-earthSōdeisha

confineditsactivismtopushingthelimitsofclay,soitwasabletomaintaingood

relationswiththeceramiccommunity.Thegroup’slongevityandconsistentidentity

aidedmembers’effortstoachievesuccessinthemarketplace.

ThemostinjuriouselementinHayashi’ssituation,Icontend,wasthe

ubiquitoussystemofratingthatactivatedrivalryandinjectedcompetitioninto

everyactivityandsituationinJapan.ThedesirefortoprankdroveambitiousYagito

exploitHayashi’svulnerabilityasanoutsider.ThesuppressionofHayashi’scareer

bytheestablishmentgaveYagiaclearpathtoascendencyinthefieldandthetitleof

founderofnonfunctionalceramics.Hislegacywasguaranteedinthe1970’swhen

hisworkandprocessweremadetosymbolizetheuniquenessandsuperiorityof

Japan’sculture.

61

Thegovernment’sprivilegingoftraditionalcraftsinthe1950’shada

significantandlastingeffectonartistsproducingsculpturalceramics.Creative

originality,insteadofbeinganasset,renderedthemineligibleforthehighestrankin

ceramics—LivingNationalTreasurestatus,reservedforpotterswhoreplicated

traditionaltechniquesandwhoparticipatedintheJapaneseTraditionalArtsand

CraftsExhibition(Nihondentokogeiten).154Avant-gardeceramicistslikeHayashi

soonwereexcludedaswellfromtheworldofcontemporaryartanddeniedaccessto

itsexhibitionsbecausetheirworkwasmadeoffiredclayandthusdefinedascraft.

Lookingbeyondthepersonalperspectiveoftheseartiststoabroaderviewof

thefield,manyquestionsandpossibletopicsforresearchcometomind.For

instance,howhaveviewers’perceptionsofJapanesevisualculturebeenaffectedby

theseparationofartandcraftandthesegregationofimportantartistssuchas

AkiyamaYo(b.1953),NakamuraKimpei(b.1935),orFukamiSueharu(b.1947),

whoseworkisexhibitedinaseparatecraftgalleryatTokyo’sNationalMuseumof

ModernArt?

154 Aoyama Wahei, “A Critique of the Living National Treasure System,” Japanese Pottery Information Center, accessed May 26, 2015, http://www.e-yakimono.net/html/lnt-critique-aoyama.html.

62

Figure 15. (Left) Fukami Sueharu, The Sky III (1990), porcelain, 12.5 x 121.5 x 27.5 cm. (Right) Nakamura Kimpei, Absorbed in Mimesis (1987), stoneware, 51 x 32.5 x 32.5 cm. Craft Gallery, National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo.

Howhastheexclusionofceramicartfromtheworldofcontemporaryartaffected

youngpractitioners?UedaJumpei(b.1978),2005MFAgraduatefromKyotoCity

UniversityofArts,feelsceramicsisatthebottomoftheJapaneseartworld’s

invisiblehierarchy,andhewonders“howmanyartists’identitiesareformedin

responsetothat.”155AonoChia(b.1974),whoreceivedherMFAin1999fromTama

ArtUniversity,Tokyo,sayssheusesclaybecausesheenjoystheprocess,“butthat

doesn’tmeanthatIwantthefinishedproducttobelimitedtobeingviewedonly

withintherealmof‘ceramicart.’”156Fromanarthistoricalperspective,howhasthe

segregationofthismediumskewedcurrentandfuturescholarship?Arthistorian

155 D. H. Rosen, “New Millenium Japanese Ceramics,” in Northern Clay Center, New Millennium Japanese Ceramics: Rejecting Labels and Embracing Clay, edited by Emily Galusha (Minneapolis: Northern Clay Center, 2011), 13.

156 Ibid., 17.

63

MeghenJonesbelievesithasalteredthediscourseonmodernJapaneseart.

“ScholarsandcuratorsofmodernJapanesearthistoryhavetendednottoconsider

theroleofcraft,includingceramics,asintrinsicto”itshistory.Thisomission“from

themajorityofhistoriesandinstitutionsofmodernart,”Jonesclaims,“perpetuates

classificationsystemsinitiatedinthelatenineteenthcentury.”157

Thestartingpointofthisthesisistheinceptionofabstract,nonfunctional

ceramicsinJapan,withafocusonthetwoyoungmenwhowereresponsibleforits

origination.Thebackdropfortheirstoryisthedeeplystratified,convention-bound

worldofceramicswhoseconstraintsloosenedjustenoughrightafterthewarforthe

avant-gardemovementtotakeroot.Thisstudyexploresthesocialnormsthat

advantagedoneartistoveranother,andthepressuresthatfosteredrivalryamong

groupsandindividuals.ItalsodepictssomeofthedichotomiesthatdividedJapan’s

artworldatthattime(e.g.,theclassificationofartandcraft;originalexpression

versustechnicalproficiency),andinternationalarttrendsthatimpactedJapan’s

avant-garde(e.g.,theshiftfrommoderntocontemporaryart).Ultimately,itishoped

thispaperrevealsthecomplexityofthesituationwithinwhichHayashiYasuoand

YagiKazuointroducedabstractnonfunctionalceramicsandestablishestheideathat

theemergenceofthisartformwasmorecomplicatedthanhasbeenthought.

157 Jones, 21-22.

64

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VITA

Hartford, Connecticut was where I was born. I earned a Bachelor of Science Degree in Publications and Art at Simmons College in Boston, Massachusetts, while also attending the Museum School of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. In New York City, I worked as an Editorial Assistant in the Children’s Book Department at W.W. Norton Publishing Company; Art Editor for Children’s Books at E.P. Dutton Publishing Company; and Manager of the Book Review Department at R.R. Bowker’s School Library Journal, while taking art classes at the New School for Social Research and the Art Students’ League. In Lexington, Kentucky, I earned a Master of Arts Degree from the University of Kentucky, College of Communication, while working as Communications and Media Specialist at the University of Kentucky Markey Cancer Center, and then as Communications and Public Information Specialist at the Kentucky Department for Public Health, Adult Health Branch. I earned a Master of Fine Arts Degree at the University of Kentucky, College of Fine Arts; served for a semester as Instructor of Introduction to Art at Bluegrass Community and Technical College, Lawrenceburg Branch, and for a semester as a University of Kentucky Teaching Assistant for Foundations in Art. I also served as Fiber Studio Instructor at the University of Kentucky for several semesters, while working on a Master of Arts Degree in Art History.

Marilyn Rose Swan