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PROCEEDING OF THE INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON

WATER SUPPLY AND INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Hawassa University Hawassa

April 25-27, 2007

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Contents i. Welcoming Address......................................................................................................................................................... iii ii. Key Note Speech: The Waterman project, Key Challenges of Water Supply and NRM in Ethiopia........................... vii 1. Design Considerations and Community Focussed O&M measures for efficient and sustainable irrigation schemes development: the case of SNNRS ...................................................................................................................................... 11 2. Spring Water Development and Community involvement and Challenges ............................................. 30 3. Rural Water Supply Sanitation and Hygiene Program (R-WaSH): lesson learned and challenges .............................. 36 4. Protoype Micro-tube Drip irrigation .............................................................................................................................. 42 5. Distribution Floride in the drinking water supply of the rift valley ............................................................................... 49 6. Household Treatment of Raw Water with Sand Filters.................................................................................................. 64 7. Likimse Abella Water Supply and Sanitation Project: Aspects of Community Participation and Gender and Implications For Designing Rural Water Supply Schemes................................................................................................ 68 8. Multiple Use System(MUS):pictorial presentation and dicussions................................................................................ 73 9. Participatory Ecological Land Use Management ( PELUM) Association in Uganda.................................................... 86 iii. Closing Speech ............................................................................................................................................................. 89

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i. Welcoming Address By Dr. Admasu Tsegaye, Vice President for Academic and Research Affairs of Hawassa University Your Excellency, Mr. Dobias Ladies and Gentlemen, Allow me to welcome you, on behalf of the project implementing group, and inform you about the project and provide some noted to the Water Supply Situation of Ethiopia and the Research into Use context. Thank you for Hawassa University to organize this workshop. The Project Today’s workshop, “Water supply and Integrated Water Resources Management” , which is one of the 4 workshops designed under the waterman project. The full title of the project is “Dissemination of research results in semi-arid and arid ecosystem with a focus on sustainable water resources management in Ethiopia”. The objective of the project is to disseminate state of the art research results in sustainable water management through a coherent series of workshops, a Scientific Project Plan Award. The proposed specific Action will result in: -A workshop held at each of the three Ethiopian universities on one of the key water management dealt with in the project. -A scientific competition (project plan Award ) to generate ideas for implementation of research and /or new research by motivated Ethiopian researchers -Coaching and supervision (both remote and on-site) of the research implementation project planners during the project implementation period -Submission of at least six project plans is targeted, but this will depend on the scale of the projects. It is anticipated that at least one sustainable water management project at river basin scale at each university should result from the project plan award. -an international symposium to:

Discuss and disseminate findings of the project and priorities for future research , Define innovation and management strategies for advance economic productivity in

relation to rational use of water resources and Present the awards for project plans Create awareness of water management problems and potential solutions (especially in

Eastern Africa) at national and international levels - A model for improving international relations though joint research and technology

transfer within Eastern Africa The overall result of the Action should be technically and economically feasible project plans for implementation o research results or new research contributing to sustainable water management strategies for enhanced economic productivity.

This 18-month project has started last October, and this is the second workshop. The project is implemented by Universitaet f. Bodenkultur Wien (BOKU), Austria, Cranfield University (CU) united Kingdom, Czech University of agriculture in Prague (CUAP), Czech Rep. Mekelle University (MU) Ethiopia, Alemaya University (AU), Ethiopia, Hawassa University(HU) Ethiopia ,International water Management Institute (IWMI) ,Ethiopia Ethiopia Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) Ethiopia Also PELUM from Uganda, and Egeton University , Kenya. The project is supported by European union.

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The worship Today workshop, focuses on Integrated water supply and resource management Hosted by Hawassa University. The aim is to enable access and show ways of using hydrological data and information adequately to plan and implement integrated water supply and resource management. There is good baseline data(though partially scattered) and background information stemming from research projects, which is currently being underutilized. A good inventory and knowledge of water resources is a prerequisite of water management for irrigation and also for other and conflicting uses. Available data and information from various research project will be summarized for analysis and new projects planned that make use of this information repository, issues such as multi-purpose utilization ,water harvesting technologies, competing demands and water re-use will dominate this sub-topic. This particular topic is important, relevant and timely from sub-saharan Africa In general and Ethiopian context in a particular. Specially, this is a time where Ethiopia has crucially identified water is an important entry point for its socio-economic development and engaged in meeting the MDG and UAP. Context of water supply can be understood as control and management of water resources for supplying as; -water for domestic use for house hold consumption and sanitation -water for agriculture, livestock and fisheries -water for industry, hydropower generation -Water for environmental and ecosystem services The supply could be made for various sources such as surface water sources ground and rainfall. Some of the key challenges are how to: -provide safe and reliable water resources for various uses -adequately allocate water under competing water use and needs -how to integrate the management of natural resources including water Ladies and gentleman, allow me to look in to specifically the water use and supply situation of Ethiopia for few minutes. Ethiopia has 12 river basins form which 8 are basins with significant quantities of flow. One of the basins is a Lake Basin having number numerous lakes fed by a number of rivers and streams. The remaining 3 are dry basins receiving deficit rainfall that can not produce river and significant runoff overcoming evaporation. Overall, one may say Ethiopia is water endowed, while this may be true in physical terms, in economic terms Ethiopia is water scarce country. Even the physical endowment is erratic in distribution both in space and time. You may all know that the country’s potential for irrigation development is untapped and at about 6% the water supply coverage is about 50% and hydropower exploitation is about 1.5% of potential. In addition to the low level of development and utilization of the resources, the country is challenged with a number of issues such as population growth, low productivity of agriculture, to much dependence on rain fed system under high rainfall variability ,extreme degradation. Etc.

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The water supply situation Water-related diseases are the greatest diseases burdens. -annual global burden of water –related diseases is estimated at 82 Million Disability Adjusted life years (DALYs) -burden of diarrhea alone in sub-Saharan Africa is 25 Million DALYs -annual diarrhea cases in SSA: 1.2Billion which leads to 769000 deaths of children under 5 -ninety percent of deaths are children under 5 -diarrhea and Malaria are a greater burden than HIV/ Aids in SSA -most of the diseases, estimated at 70-80% are related to water borne disease Research shows that the greatest impact on reducing water related diseases comes from a combination of (Rijsberman, F2006): -improved water supply (standpipes) and -improved sanitation (latrines), combined with -improved hygiene education (hand washing) The S& T is not challenging : community- managed , low –cost technologies work and are economically cost-effective. But sanitation, particularly, requires public investment & investment is lagging behind: progress is negative meeting MDG requires faster increase in access: tripling for supply: quadrupling for sanitation. Ethiopia possesses substantial untapped water resources that could play significant role in reducing poverty, accelerating growt, and improve the supply conditions, provided hat is utilized adequately. According to PASDEP (Plan for Accelerated socio-economic Development and Eradication of poverty of Ethiopia) (PASDEP 2006) the main elements of the overall water sector strategy are to: Provide access to all of the population with clean potable water over the coming seven years; Promote enhanced irrigation development in an integrated manner to contribute to economic growth and alleviation of overtly and food insecurity; Emphasize and promote multipurpose development of water resources wherever applicable; Build capacity at different levels, particularly at sub-national level where actual implementation is taking place; Focus on low-cost, affordable, and labour-intensive technologies; Improve sanitation outcome; and Focus on gender consideration while designing projects and programs; and also provide high participation opportunities for females to benefit from construction work. According to the MDG needs assessment report (MOFED, 2004) for the Ethiopian context especially for the existing conditions of rural water supply sources has been adopted and tailored to “availability of at least 15 to 20 liters a person a day of the first five years 2000-2005 and increasing to 20 1/person b/n 2005-2010 and 251/person 2010-2015. for rural water supply access to an improved source (assumed to be 1Km) has significant implications on sustainable use of the sources as well as saving of time for the community. According to the Millennium Development Goals Report: Challenges and prospects for Ethiopia, MOFED, 2004 the following are the basic assumptions used for the coverage of year 2000.

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Description Access to clean water in % Year 2000 2005 Urban 72 82.5 Rural 24 31.4 National 30 39.4

As per the definition of MDG (target for water supply (Goal 7, Target 10) the aim is to halve the proportion of population without sustainable access to water supply by the year 2015. Accordingly the resulting computational show different targets for the three cases. Ethiopian has been implementing the water supply access projects and has been successful so far. Accordingly to the recent strategy document, the target during the PASDEP is to raise the rural population with access to potable water within 1.5 km from 44% to 80% and urban population from 80.6% to 92.5% within 0.5 km by the end 2009/10.in addition, irrigation coverage is planned to be raised from the current 5% t o8% by the end of the plan period. With respect to sanction, PASDEP will see a major program to promote and support the use of latrines- including through the Health extension program with a target of increasing rural coverage from 17.5% to 79.8% and urban sanitation coverage from 50% to 89.4% of the population These gargets in addition to securing the necessary resources and implanting them have additional challenges of ensuring the ongoing operations and maintenance of rural water supply schemes, and establishing the financial viability of urban systems. Important undertakings could also supported by research for putting in place appropriate community management structures for routine operations, and small-scale community financing mechanisms, to raise the funds for maintenance are needed.

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ii. Key Note Speech: The Waterman project, Key Challenges of Water Supply and NRM in Ethiopia Dr. Seleshi Bekele, Head, IWMI NBEA 1. The Waterman Project “Dissemination of research results in semi-arid and arid ecosystems with a focus on sustainable water resource management in Ethiopia” 2. The Workshop Focuses on Integrated water supply and resource management 3. The WS and NRM Context

April 2006

agriculture andlivestock into marginal land

inability toinvest in maintaining

or improving land productivity

population growth

Deforestation, land & water degradation

poor productivity, food insecurity

Deepeningpoverty

poor health, malnutrition

The above is aggravated by shocks related to drought, flood, war, ….

Key: How to transform this “vicious cycle” in to a “virtuous cycle”

The Poverty Vicious Cycle in Ethiopia

3.1 Water & NRM Challenge

3.2 Water and Development ∗ Water-related diseases: - Annual global burden of water-related diseases is estimated at 82 Million Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) - Burden of diarrhea alone in Sub-Saharan Africa is 25Million DALYs -Annual diarrhea cases in SSA: 1.2Billion which leads to 769 000 deaths of children under 5 - Ninety percent of deaths are children under 5 ∗ Diarrhoea and Malaria are a greater burden than HIV/Aids. ∗Most of the diseases, estimated at 70-80 % are related to water borne disease

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April 2006

Regional differential in average health burdens from diarrhoeal diseases in the 1990s

Source: Our Planet & Rijsberman, F, 2006, presentation

Water & Sanitation MDG

o Research shows that the greatest impact on reducing water related diseases comes from a combination of: improved water supply (standpipes) and improved sanitation (latrines), combined with improved hygiene education (hand washing).

o The S&T is not challenging: community-managed, low-cost technologies work and are economically cost-effective.

o But sanitation, particularly, requires public investment & investment is lagging behind PASDEP The main elements of the overall water sector strategy are to: - Provide access to all of the population with clean potable water over the coming seven years; - Promote enhanced irrigation development in an integrated manner to contribute to economic growth and alleviation of poverty and food insecurity; - Emphasize and promote multipurpose development of water resources wherever applicable; - Build capacity at different levels, particularly at sub-national level where actual implementation is taking place; - Focus on low-cost, affordable, and labor-intensive technologies; - Improve sanitation outcomes; - Focus on gender consideration while designing projects and programs; and also provide high participation opportunities for females to benefit from construction works.

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April 2006

Targets of WS Coverage

39.430National31.424Rural82.572Urban20052000Year

Access to clean water in %Description2000, Plan

Current and MDG Period Plan

2,800MW794MWHP80% rural, 92.5% urban17.4% rural, 80.6% urbanSanitation8%5%Irrigation79.8% rural, 89.4% urban44% rural, 50% urbanWater supply

2009/20102005/6Description

Challenges of WS These targets have challenges of : - securing the necessary resources - ensuring the ongoing operations and maintenance of rural water supply schemes - establishing the financial viability of urban systems - appropriate community management structures - small-scale community financing mechanisms, to raise the funds for maintenance How to satisfy extensive and competing water needs and scarcity

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4. Research in to Use How do research results can be tapped in to such pictures of regional, national and

community and grass root levels? Managing knowledge can be described in terms of: Generation, application, sharing,

brokering, etc. The effort of this workshop and waterman project is not merely about doing research, but

how to put research results in to use. Conclusion Access to safe and affordable water and land is crucial in Ethiopia and rest of Africa to fight

against disease, hunger and poverty Much progress can be made by increased investments in known technologies Innovations in science and technology hold out a promise for much greater returns As we undertake applied, adoptive, adaptive research we have to establish effective means

of bringing research and translating the research results to the end users

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1. Design Considerations and Community Focussed O&M measures for efficient and sustainable irrigation schemes development: the

case of SNNRS By Mitiku Bedru, SNNPRG, Irrigation Development Authority

Abstract Ethiopia is geographically located in the horn of East Africa, between 30 and 150N latitude, and 330 and 480 E longitude. It has a total area of about 110 million ha out which 3.5 million ha is potentially good for irrigated agriculture from which 350000 ha is supposed to be suitable for small scale irrigation development. The country has huge water and land resources, and its drainage system is divided into 12 major river basins that encompass the surface water ways, the 22 natural and artificial lakes, and an enormous ground water potential that can be used for different purposes. However, due to the uneven spatial distribution of the water resources is and poor accessibility in most cases there is a high for higher level of technology and capital investment to develop and manage the available water resources. The total surface runoff and groundwater potential is estimated to be about 89.1 billion m3 per year and 17.2 billion m3 per year respectively while the average per capita water share per annum is about 1420 m3, on bases of the current population of the country. Regardless of these water resources, the agricultural system depends on the availability of rainfall and favourable climatic conditions while the sector plays the leading role in the economy of the nation, contributing to more than 85% of export and total employment, about 50% of the GDP and about 60% of the foreign exchanges. The productivity per hectare is low. Similarly, in contrast with the huge water resources the nation has, the drinking water supply and sanitation cover is poor. The Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR), is one of the drought prone and densely populated parts of Ethiopia. The region has good potential of land and water resources for irrigation development. In this regard, the region has surface water resource of about 20 billion m3 per year and ground water that is good in quality and sufficient in quantity to bring the available 648,000 ha of potential irrigable land under irrigation. The drought incidence that has affected the region since the past two three decades has forced policy makers to consider small scale irrigation as means of securing food self sufficiency. In line with the immediate need for increased production of food grains and other agricultural products the development of small-scale irrigation schemes has been regarded as an attractive option as compared to medium and large-scale irrigation schemes. Thus, in order to achieve the objective, construction of small-scale irrigation projects is being carried out in different parts of the region. The development of medium and large scale schemes is also being carried out present. Small-scale irrigation schemes are mainly smallholder projects that are entirely managed by the farmers. Despite the considerable efforts for their development, most of these schemes are being run far below the planned capacity and many do not live up to the expected economic life. In general, regardless of the huge investments for the development of the irrigation infrastructure, the performance of the irrigation schemes is low. This low performance of most schemes may be attributed generally commonly to technical aspects, such as inadequate assessment of the water balance, unreliability and/or unavailability of the estimated flow, inadequate /incomplete design, poor enforcement of the design assumptions, and poor operation and maintenance of the systems, etc. Some schemes deteriorate at an alarming rate due to lack of proper operation and maintenance.

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The deterioration of the irrigation schemes and the lack of appropriate operation and maintenance require technical solutions and management considerations to minimise their negative effects on the performance and to guarantee the sustainability of the schemes. It is well known that lifelong maintenance will increase the economic life of the schemes. The objective of this paper is generally to give insight into the problem during the workshop and share available knowledge and skills amongst the participants and use these as in put for improvement of irrigation development in general and performance of irrigation schemes in particular. Background The country is endowed with vast water resources and its drainage system is divided into 12 major river basins. There are 22 natural and artificial lakes with in the basins, and an enormous ground water potential that can be used for different purposes. However, the spatial distribution of the water resources is uneven and mostly they are inaccessible and/or need higher level of technology and capital investment to develop and manage the available water resources. The total surface runoff and groundwater potential is estimated to be about 89.1 billion m3 per year and 17.2 billion m3 per year respectively (Eyasu, 2001). From these figures the average per capita water share per annum is about 1420 m3, taking the current population of the country, which is about 75 million. Regardless of these water resources, the agricultural system depends on the availability of rainfall and favourable climatic conditions while the sector plays the leading role in the economy of the nation, contributing to more than 85% of export and total employment, about 50% of the GDP and about 60% of the foreign exchanges (www.telecom.net.et, 2003). The productivity per hectare is low. Similarly the drinking water supply and sanitation cover is poor as compared to the huge water resources the nation has. Ethiopia is characterised by food insecurity that has resulted from the high population pressure, resource base depletion, and erratic and insufficient rainfall for rainfed crop production. The situation is usually worsened by recurrent drought. Consequently, agricultural development through irrigation has been a priority for the country to achieve food self-sufficiency through increased food production in order to feed the ever-increasing population of the country. Thus irrigation has been recognised as primary means and given due attention to achieve the objective. The total irrigation potential of the country is estimated to be about 3.5 million ha of which about 350,000 ha is estimated to be suitable for small-scale irrigation development (www.telecom.net.et, 2003). Currently the development of small-scale irrigation schemes has received much attention to boost up the agricultural production of the rural community. The Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR), is one of the drought prone and densely populated parts of Ethiopia. As some preliminary studies indicate the region has good potential of land and water resources for irrigation development. In this regard, the region has enormous water resources such as rivers, lakes, springs and ground water that are good in quality and sufficient in quantity to bring the available 648,000 ha of potential irrigable land under irrigation. According to the master plan studies of the basins in the region, it receives an annual rainfall of 150 - 3000 mm in which the lowlands receive about 200 - 600 mm of rainfall. The mean annual rainfall generally ranges from 400 - 2,200 mm. The hydrologic network of the basins indicates that there are more than 262 perennial and at least 134 intermittent rivers. The average flow (water resources potential) in the region is more than 20 billion m3 per year (Co-

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SAERSAR, 2002). The mean annual temperature of the region in general ranges from 15 to 30 0C and this favours production of several types of crops with in the region. The rainfall has an erratic nature, both in occurrence (timely and spatial distribution) and amount. It has an undependable pattern and hence has affected rainfed agriculture severely since long time thereby resulting in successive drought occurrences. The total amount of the annual rainfalls recorded at some meteorological stations might indicate that there is sufficient rainfall. However, in most cases most part of the annual rainfall occurs over a short period of time and ceases without supporting the growth of most of the crops grown in the region. This means that although the annual rainfall is expected to be high, it falls ahead of time or comes too late or even stops short in mid-season. The required amount is not available at the right time due to its erratic occurrences earlier or later than the normal agricultural season. Figure 2 shows the distribution of amounts of the annual rainfalls recorded at some stations in the region (Bureau of Planning and Economic Development, 1998).

Figure 1: Isohyets of the mean annual rainfall over the region

Figure 2: Amounts of the annual rainfall recorded at some meteorological stations in the region

Caution: The delineation of boundaries on this map must not be considered authoritative.

Caution: The delineation of boundaries on this map must not be considered authoritative.

0.0

500.0

1000.0

1500.0

2000.0

2500.0

3000.0

3500.0

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995The years of rainfall records

Awass

Wolyta Sodo

Boditi

Kemba

Keyafer

Bonga

Yeki

Tepi

Wushwush

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Existing Agricultural Setting and Irrigation Practices in the Region The region is endowed with vast fertile land, suitable for food and cash crop production as well as livestock development. The potentially irrigable land along the Omo River alone is 250,000ha. From the total landmass of the region, the agriculturally suitable land is found to be about 36.6%, of which only about 40% is under cultivation (AFD Program for irrigation development in Amhara, Oromia and Southern Regions, 1999). The region has an immense cultural and ecological diversity ranging from arid to semi-arid areas. The lowlands of monotone forests are inhabited by pastoralists whereas the upper "dega", where there is high rainfall, is inhabited by sedentary agriculturalists. In the region agriculture has an important place both in provision of food and cash crop products as well as the generation of employment. The economy of the region is predominantly based on agriculture with about 90% of the population being engaged in agricultural activities. The regional agriculture is characterized by peasant farming. The wide range of agro-ecological conditions permits a variety of farming systems. Cereals are predominantly produced in the region, while root crops like "enset" (false banana), cassava, yam, taro and sweet potato have a considerable place in the economy of the region. Coffee, cotton and spices production is the major farming activity carried out for cash earning in some parts of the region (AFD Program for irrigation development in Amhara, Oromia and Southern Regions, 1999). The region also has a large livestock reserve that accounts for about 20% of the nation's livestock population. Livestock products, especially hide and skins are the second major export products next to coffee. The performance of the agricultural sector has remained poor. This is because the sector in the region is inhabited by many problems that include drought, backward agricultural practice, inadequate input supply and credit, the absence of strong development infrastructure and in some zones over population that has resulted in fragmented holding of the farm lands. As a result of these factors mainly, a recurrent food insecurity situation occurs in many parts of the region. The situation is usually worsened by an unreliable rainfall pattern accompanied by frequent drought occurrence that leads to food security problems. Following the drought incidence that has affected the region since the past two three decades the policy makers have considered irrigation development in general and small scale irrigation in particular as means of food security with more attention given to house hold food security and improvements in the living standards of the cattle breeder and agricultural communities. In line with the immediate need for increased production of food grains and other agricultural products the development of small-scale irrigation schemes has been regarded as an attractive option as compared to medium and large-scale irrigation schemes. Thus, in order to achieve the objective, construction of small-scale irrigation projects is being carried out in different parts of the region. But as the development of small scale irrigation schemes involves study and design on small agricultural lands covering up to 200 ha, the irrigation coverage has remained very poor. Thus to bring extensive irrigation coverage in short time, currently the developments of medium scale (201 – 3000 ha) and large scale (> 3000 ha) irrigation schemes are being considered, the development of large scale schemes being undertaken by Ministry of Water Resources. There are more than one hundred irrigation schemes in the region having aggregated capacity to irrigate around 40000 ha including the traditionally irrigated lands developed by farmers. This figure amounts only about 10 percent of the irrigation potential of the region. Out of the total irrigated lands, the farmers traditionally developed nearly 7,000 ha, mainly in the Amaro Special

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Woreda and Gamo Gofa zone (Co-SAERSAR, 1998). The modern irrigation schemes were developed by both the government institutions and NGOs. Water Abstraction Methods The irrigation development is carried out mainly in moisture stress areas by ensuring the participation of the rural communities and involving highly trained manpower that would do the study and design of small/ medium scale irrigation schemes by employing different water abstraction technologies that would allow the farming communities to produce crops reliably at least once, twice or more than twice per year. The water abstraction technologies generally include perennial river diversion, spate irrigation on Spate Rivers, damming (reservoirs), and pumping river/ ground water, using different energy sources such as wind, solar, diesel, etc. But in the irrigation development undertaken so far the most priority and attention was given for river diversion though a few schemes have been developed using the other water abstraction alternatives. The river diversion focussed irrigation development, however, has resulted in inequitable concentration of schemes in a few areas only. Design and Operation and Maintenance of the Schemes Sustainable and reliable performance of irrigation schemes can depend on the provision of well-designed irrigation networks needed to supply the required water to the farm plots, structures to regulate the flows, field water application methods and on how they are operated and maintained. This requires an irrigation system that consists of the irrigation infrastructure, which includes facilities for water acquisition, conveyance, regulation, measurement and on farm application of water, and the management component that is responsible for operation and maintenance of the infrastructure. In this section the design considerations and operation and maintenance of the irrigation schemes in the region. Design Considerations In this section the design aspects related to the determination of crop water requirement, irrigation water requirement, irrigation scheduling and field irrigation methods, and design of irrigation canals in general and the prevailing situations in particular area dealt. Several factors and aspects can be considered in designing irrigation schemes. The main design considerations and assumptions for irrigation systems in many cases take in to account different technical and operational factors based on which the functional components of the irrigation systems are determined. These design considerations and assumptions are mainly dictated by the prevailing site conditions such as topographic feature of the irrigable land, the type and characteristics of the soils, crops to be grown, the hydrological and climatological conditions of the area, the type of the water resource available for irrigation, etc. Also the economic considerations for development as well as operation of the irrigation schemes also play the major role in the decisions regarding the choice and design of irrigation schemes. In relation to the different considerations and design criteria different functional components can be provided for the irrigation and drainage systems. Following the feasibility study, the first step in the design of an irrigation system is the delineation of the area to be irrigated and preparation of a tentative layout of the canals, more generally the conveyance network. The selection of the area to be irrigated depends primarily on the suitability of the irrigable soils and the availability of irrigation water within the context of the project objectives and the required resources (fund, manpower, logistics, etc.) for the development (Horst, 1998). Topography of the area generally governs the layout and the type of irrigation method to be adopted. Owning to the prevailing site conditions, economic and socio-economic considerations, different types of technical choices can be selected and adopted in the design of an irrigation system. The

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widely selected option in design of the irrigation schemes includes gravity systems and pressurised irrigation systems. On the basis of the technical choice (option) and the layout of the irrigation network, a design decision is made on two main design aspects which include the determination of the capacities of the conveyance systems and the type of the various structures to be adopted to divide the water to the various parts of the system. The general design activities for any irrigation scheme include several steps that involve different considerations, assumptions and decisions to the extent that is possible. The major activities include the main design steps such as preparation of cropping policy and computation of the corresponding crop water requirement and irrigation requirement, preparation of layout and design of conveyance networks and associated structures for irrigation water supply to the farm plots, field irrigation method to apply water on the farm and removal of excess water from the farm, and selection and design of a suitable headwork for acquisition and abstraction of the water for irrigation. Irrigation scheduling involves the preparation and application of flow and time schedules for the supply of irrigation water to farm plots to meet water requirements in a selected manner. Irrigation scheduling should be done at all levels of activity in an irrigation scheme, from farm to intake point of the irrigation water. A conventional derivation of the irrigation water delivery schedule at farm level is presented in Figure 3 (Horst, 1998). The irrigation water delivery scheduling is a result of the integration of different boundary conditions, design decisions and choices and assumptions made at farm level and main supply level.

Figure 3: Factors involved in conventional derivation of the field water delivery schedule

Soil Water (quality

and quantity)Socio-economic and

political factorsClimate

Possible types of crops

Cropping calendar (√ )

Potential evapotranspiration (√ )

Rainfall

Crop water requirements

Effective rainfall (√ )

Topography Infiltration rate

Readily available moisture

Root Depth Irrigation requirements

Irrigation methods

Possible farm deliveries (flow rates, intervals, delivery times)

Mainly derived from (√ ) Design choices and

assumption

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The design decisions regarding the water delivery schedules at farm level have to be concerned with the agronomic and agro-hydrological aspects of irrigation at field level while the design choices at the main level have to be primarily related to technological, economical and operational considerations. The type of the crops grown and their cropping calendar and water availability for irrigation together with other interrelated factors such as soils of the area, climatic conditions, etc. can affect the design decisions regarding the number of irrigations and their timing. The number of irrigations and their timings vary widely for different crops. Crop choices are basically derived from the suitability of the soils and climatic conditions of the development area, the availability of water for irrigation as well as the local practices of crop production. Based on the types of crops an assumed cropping calendar is determined. After the cropping calendar is established, the irrigation requirement is determined on basis of which an irrigation scheduling is estimated for design of the conveyance network. The availability of water for irrigation is a major factor that can influence the design of the irrigation water delivery schedules. If sufficient water is available all the time the irrigation scheduling will be prepared to supply the required water to meet the demand of all the proposed crops in the command area without any restriction. On the other hand, during the periods of water shortage two possible approaches can generally be adopted to overcome the water shortage over that period. These are restrictions on crops and restrictions on water. However, in schemes in which proper irrigation planning is not practised, like the small scale irrigation schemes that are managed by the beneficiary communities, none of these approaches can be applied during the period of water shortage, as it is necessary to plan and implement these approaches in cases of the availability of limited water to meet the demand for water in the scheme. The consequence of lack of such a planning may be either loss in yield to some level or complete failure of crops in extreme cases. The type of irrigation method chosen together with the irrigation requirements and the soil and plant characteristics (readily available moisture and root depth) also determine the possibilities for water delivery to farms. The delivery of water to farms can broadly be classified as continuous, rotational and supply on demand (FAO, 1992). With the continuous method of supply the system is constantly in operation with supply adjusted to the changing irrigation requirements over the season. Continuous delivery, however, is only practical for large farms and in small-scale irrigation schemes it is mainly used for the main canals supplying acreages of 50 ha or more (FAO, 1992). In general, however, individual continuous delivery to small farms will result in flows too small to handle and will be subject to large percolation losses. Thus in view of this, in all the small-scale irrigation schemes in the region the water delivery to each farm is on an intermittent (rotational) basis. Three different variables can be considered in designing intermittent or rotational supply schedules. The three different variables of irrigation scheduling for the intermittent or rotational supply schedules include the flow rate or unit flow called “main d’eau”-Qm in l/s, the irrigation water delivery time td in hours and the irrigation interval T in days. The changing irrigation requirements during the growing season can be met by changing one or more of the three variables. However from practical point of view and consideration of simplicity in management, generally only one of the variables should be changed. It can be noted that changing the duration of supply (td) leads to odd delivery times and is thus can seldom be practised. In this regard the remaining practical methods of water delivery scheduling involve changing either or both of the

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two variables i.e. changing either the irrigation interval T or the unit flow rate that is the “main d’eau”-Qm or both. From operational simplicity point of view irrigation scheduling by changing only the irrigation interval T is preferable compared to the other variables, td and Qm. In this method the whole system (or subsystem) can be adjusted for one “main d’eau”-Qm. By closing the system (or subsystem) for longer or shorter periods, the varying irrigation requirements over the growing season can be met. Moreover from the point of view of the flow size that can be handled by one farmer and also flow rate known to the farmer, designing supply of one fixed discharge; one “main d’eau”-Qm should be preferred. On the other hand designing the irrigation schedule with changing unit flows (Qm) requires readjustment of the structures for every change in the flow rate that results in a more complicated operation requirement and subsequently need for more skilled operators. In small-scale irrigation schemes where farmers own small plots and are responsible for operating the system, designing such a supply system with more requirements for complicated operation may be unjustifiable both from the technical and economical point of view. The main aim of any water delivery scheduling is to supply irrigation water to farm plots (may be localised) and the crops in equitable proportion of the available water in order to meet the crop water requirements in a given set of operational objectives as much as possible. In dry (semi-arid or arid) areas, where little or no rain falls, the total water need of the crops is supplied by irrigation. On the other hand, in humid and temperate areas the amount and occurrence of natural rainfall is often not enough and erratic in its distribution to support normal crop growth. Thus irrigation supplies extra water supplementing rainfall in order to improve crop yield and quality. The field irrigation methods or irrigation practices are the ways to spread the water supplied by a conveyance and distribution network as uniformly as possible over the farm plots and in the soil in order to supply the crop root (Depeweg, 1998). The irrigation water supplied to the field basically infiltrates into the soil and part of it is stored in the root zone of the crops except paddy (and other crops and trees that are unaffected by standing in water for long periods) fields where a layer of water is made to stand over the field from where the crops can use the water for evapotanspiration. Water can be supplied to the fields by different ways that involve different rates of water application such as surface irrigation methods that include furrow, border or basin, sub-surface irrigation methods and overhead irrigation methods such as sprinkler, or drip or low head drip systems. The choice on the method by which water will be made available to crops generally depends on the infiltration rate of the soils, topography of the land (slopes, the need for land levelling, erosion hazard, etc.) and the type of crops (row crops, rice or others). Furthermore socio-economic reasons like labour availability and initial investment also play significant role in adopting a field method for irrigation. The commonly practised ways of supplying fields with irrigation water for wetting the root zone of crops are broadly classified under the three broad basic irrigation methods that include surface irrigation, sub-surface irrigation and overhead irrigation methods. That means the irrigation water may be supplied to the crops by flooding the field surface, by applying water beneath the soil surface, by spraying the water under pressure or by supplying it in small drops. In surface irrigation water runs over the surface so that it infiltrates into the soil whereas sub-surface irrigation water enters into the soil at depth until capillary action raises it to the root zone.

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Opposed to both the surface irrigation and sub-surface irrigation methods the overhead irrigation involves spraying water over the field by a pressurised system so that the water can infiltrate into the soil in such a way that it damages neither the crop nor the soil. Drip or trickle irrigation exhibits a similar pattern except that water is supplied by a low pressurised system and the water application is localised to the roots of the crops. The difference between all the methods may arise from the water efficiency in meeting the crop demand and the superiority of one method over the other may be merely the result of too much or too little water being applied. In all the cases the main factor is the management as there may be no fault in actual method of irrigation. Thus selection of an irrigation method should be based on technical, social and economical considerations. The surface irrigation method in which the irrigation water is supplied by surface (gravity) flooding is the most widely used method of artificial water supply to farm plots. In surface irrigation water is spread across the land using basin, border or furrow methods. In these irrigation methods either the entire field is flooded as in the case of basin irrigation, or the water is fed in to the small channels as in the case of furrow irrigation or strips of land as in the case of border irrigation. These water supply methods constitute more than 95% of all the irrigation water supplies to the irrigated plots in the world today (Depeweg, 1998). From this it can be concluded that the irrigation methods other than surface methods (sub-surface irrigation, overhead irrigation methods and other methods such as watering plants with cans, etc) constitute less than 5% of the total water applications to irrigated fields. The conveyance networks of the existing irrigation schemes generally consist of main canals, secondary and tertiary level canals, and surface irrigation methods, mainly wild flooding that is commonly considered in all schemes. The main headworks, main canals and secondary and/or tertiary canals constitute the major infrastructure components in most irrigation schemes. However some of the schemes constructed by the NGO’s do not consist of the distribution systems needed to bring water to individual farm plots. At feasibility and design level of the schemes, the irrigation scheduling is generally prepared considering the physical properties of the soils such as water retention capacity, the infiltration rate, the types and development stages of the proposed crops, and the prevailing climatic factors during the growing season, etc. In this regard the irrigation interval and amount of net irrigation water requirement is determined for design purposes. However, in practice such clear irrigation schedule that dictates the timely and adequate supply of water to support optimal growth of the crops and that can help the farmers easily adopt the right application of water supply are not prepared in most designs. As a result, the trend and irrigation practice of farmers in most cases is far from the design expectation. In the case of most schemes in the region, the status of the farmer meaning the qualification of the farm owner and his proficiency and receptivity to implement the design considerations is also too low. The farmers mostly use their own cropping calendar, cropping pattern, irrigation intervals and water delivery duration as they like. In general the designed cropping pattern and irrigation scheduling is never met in practice wherever irrigation is practised. Thus this necessitates for a better design of irrigation scheduling which farmers can easily adopt to irrigate their plots and should apply to meet the production level that is used in the economic evaluation of the schemes. Regarding the choice of irrigation methods in the region the surface methods of water application are generally considered in all schemes. In this regard, mainly from high initial investment requirement point of view other irrigation methods such as sprinkler or drip or subsurface methods are never designed and practised. The widely used surface method involves undersigned flooding to irrigation plots.

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Thus design and construction of field irrigation methods is an ignored aspect in the development of the small-scale irrigation schemes in the region. Since appropriate irrigation methods are not designed and implemented the farmers are compelled to use wild flooding simply by inundating their fields with irrigation water. In this regard the farmers adopt their own ways to irrigate their farm plots, with considerably high loss of irrigation water as shown in the figure below. Basically the layout of the irrigation network is prepared in such a way that water flows by gravity from the canal system to the fields. This mostly involves flooding the fields with irrigation water that is diverted from the supply system to the farms. Of course this method can be effective when the land is well prepared and level. Figure 4: Traditional field water application The water application involves allowing an uncontrolled flood to spread over the fields. The size of the streams diverted to the field is uncontrolled and unmeasured. Uniform distribution of water can never be obtained in this method because of highly uneven water application resulting from major surface undulations over the farm plots. Thus consequently the water application efficiency becomes too low in the sense that part of the farm gets excess water while the remaining part receives less water likely limiting the optimal growth of the crops and hence causing yield reduction. From the problems associated with the field water application it can be seen that there is a need for design and provision of appropriate field irrigation methods. The other design problem in relation to field water application is associated with the scatter of plots. Farms have to be irrigated from the field canals through the plot intakes. The field canals have to be constructed by the farmers themselves. However, the layout of the field canals and the location of the plot intakes are usually made to suit the topography of the command area with no regard to the farm boundary. With respect to this, a number of farms are divided into two or three parts by the lay out of the field canals that necessitate irrigation of the farms from two or more field canals. In such cases the farmers whose plots are located between the supply canal and other farms do not allow the others to cross their farms for delivery of irrigation water thereby interrupting the irrigation of the farms as shown in the Figure 5. The farmers who own their land with such cases irrigate only part of their land that has direct access to field canals or they breach the main or secondary or tertiary canals at some points and divert the water to their fields.

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Figure 5: Blocked flow to farm plots Since appropriate irrigation methods are not designed and implemented the farmers are compelled to use wild flooding, simply by inundating their fields with irrigation water. The size of the streams diverted to the field is unmeasured as no flow control and measuring structures are provided. In general the following problems in relation to the technical inefficiencies in field irrigation are encountered in all schemes.

• Inefficient water distribution, application and utilisation; • Uneven distribution of irrigation water over farm plots; • Soil erosion hazards; • Inequitable use and poor system performance.

Operation and Maintenance of the Schemes It has become a matter of increasing concern in recent years that the performance of many irrigation schemes has fallen short of expectation. This is due to a number of factors but no doubt the lack of proper operation and maintenance is an overriding cause for the malfunctioning of the schemes. Small-scale irrigation schemes are mainly smallholder developments that are entirely managed by the farmers. Once construction of irrigation system facilities is completed, responsibility of care, operation, and maintenance usually passes from the construction agency to the beneficiaries. In this connection, all the small-scale irrigation schemes that have been developed in the region are entirely managed by the beneficiary farmers in which case the farmers are expected to operate and maintain the schemes. To achieve the objective of the development of the schemes and to ensure sustainable and efficient use, proper management of the schemes is as important as the design and construction of the schemes. This means that proper operation of irrigation systems and regular maintenance of the facilities plays a crucial role for a reliable and better performance of the schemes on a sustainable basis. Generally community organisations can play important roles in the management of small-scale irrigation schemes. Most institutions, which are essential for running smallholder irrigation schemes, center on the community organisations. In this regard, the schemes can basically be handed over to the farmers who may be organised in Water Users Associations that are considered to be the responsible entities for management of the irrigation systems and co-ordination of the farmers for maintenance. However the successful operation and maintenance of the systems depends on the capabilities of the users to handle it in appropriate way.

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Operation of an irrigation scheme encompasses many activities including storing and/or diverting irrigation water, conveying and delivering the water as well as disposal or reuse of drainage water. The emphasis in regard to the need for proper operation of any irrigation system arises from the importance of delivering irrigation water to the supply points at the right time and at the proper rate and duration. Thus the main objective of operating irrigation systems is the timely delivery of the irrigation water necessary to satisfy the crop water requirements. To achieve the objective of the operation of irrigation systems there are certain activities to be performed. These should include planning the operation that involves preparation of the irrigation schedules, implementation of the plan, which involves the actual water distribution, and monitoring of the operation that requires collection of data related to water use and preparation of the corresponding reports. To undertake these tasks different kinds of personnel may be required with specific qualifications depending on the type of water distribution and other local characteristics. Planning the operation is basically to match supply with demand as closely as possible. It may be a complex or simple activity based on the nature of the system (very large or small) and hence the complexity or simplicity of the planning process varies from case to case depending on the scope for manipulating supplies to meet demand. Here it should be noted that planning is essential in any case. As water is a scarce resource in irrigation schemes, planning is important to suit the actual situations of water availability and the demand. The main steps in the preparation of an irrigation operation plan at least should include:

• Estimating future water supply; • Estimating water demand for the expected cropping calendar and pattern; • Matching the supply and demand based on the availability of water.

From the above given steps it can be seen that planning of the operation is a routine activity and not a task of one time only that there is a need for frequent study and updating of water supplies to meet the varying water demands. In this regard it may be necessary to make decisions on the cropping pattern for the coming season and compute the water needs for the crops, and in cases of water shortages it becomes necessary to distribute the deficit or take some other measure to overcome the deficit. The water distribution involves allocation of water in the conveyance system and operation of the associated irrigation facilities (structures) in the system according to pre-set supply schedules. This requires considerable efforts to manage the water flow and distribution in the conveyance network, and the timely delivery of the planned water supply to the farm plots through appropriate operation of the structures in the system. In farmers-managed schemes the group of farmers who act as scheme operators generally manages the operation of the system. In such schemes farmers are usually free to select their own cropping pattern and make decisions on what crops to grow for the coming irrigation season. In deciding the type of crops the farmer basically considers crops that meet the family's basic food requirements and crops that can be sold in the market at a profit (FAO, 1996). The cultivation of the selected crops will require a different set of inputs such as seed, fertilizer, and labour in addition to irrigation water. In this regard the farmer must be confident that all the required inputs will be available in sufficient quantity to grow the selected crops in a satisfactory manner. Concerning the inputs such as seed and fertiliser, the farmer can check with one or more suppliers to handle the situation easily. Also for labour inputs, the farmer can use his or her own

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experience to judge whether the labour and the available resources are adequate to do the farm activities such as land preparation, planting, weeding, irrigation, plant protection, harvesting, transportation and threshing for the selected crops. With regard to newly introduced crops, the farmer can use the experience of other farmers or can ask an agricultural extension agent for advice. Regarding the supply of irrigation water, however, it is practically more difficult for the farmers to check by themselves whether this input will be available at the right time and in sufficient quantities to support the crops of their choice. This is mainly because:

• The farmer does not know the balance between the total water needs of the scheme and the total water available for the scheme;

• The farmer has lack of technical skills in planning, implementing and monitoring the system;

• The farmer does not have technical capability to control the allocation and distribution of irrigation water in the scheme.

In farmers-managed schemes where the farmers are absolutely free to select their own cropping pattern and use their own skills for water allocation and distribution in the irrigation system, a risky situation may develop during the irrigation season. In this case the water resources available to the scheme may be less than the demand and no longer adequate to meet the irrigation needs of the farmers in the scheme. This is a common situation that is encountered in the irrigation development undertakings in the region. The water allocation and distribution in the irrigation system is entirely done by the farmers in all the schemes. Generally there is a significant gap and the most important thing for the gap here is the status of the farmer meaning the qualification of the farm owner and his proficiency and receptivity to implement the design considerations. Series problem is usually encountered due to the unavailability /unreliability/ of the estimated water resources for the irrigation. This is mainly due to lack of reliable data /limited data at planning stage and in most cases the water resources available from the river diversion schemes is much less than what was estimated during the studies. Consequently crop failures or low levels of yield are observed in most of the existing irrigation schemes. In this case it is apparently becoming important to consider ways of improving water availability in the irrigation networks. One of the methods may involve providing water harvesting facilities with in the water conveyance networks so that water can be temporarily stored at different points with in the command area from the conveyance network using the water harvesting facilities during times of higher flows in the river and the same stored water can be used during the times of low flows in the rivers as shown in the figure below. Such options are technically sound and also economically feasible except they occupy small part of the agricultural land and they may create favourable conditions for water borne and water related diseases.

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Figure 6: Water conveyance combined with water harvesting facilities to improve water availability Another factor that is related to the design and contributes to the poor performance and sustainability of the irrigation schemes in many cases is the siltation of the canal network and lack of subsequent routine maintenance of the irrigation systems. Canals are designed assuming non-silting velocities at design discharge. Moreover the uniform flow and the equilibrium sediment transport conditions are often the basic design considerations, which in fact seldom prevail in an irrigation channel due to operation of the irrigation structures and variation in discharge in the system. Different scenarios regarding the discharges in the canal other than the design discharge and the corresponding sediment transport conditions are often neglected. Thus canal sedimentation problems in general and the subsequent lifetime maintenance programmes in particular are not considered at the design stage. In practice, sedimentation of the canals and night storage ponds, as shown in the figure below, clogging of the culverts and other road crossings are common scenarios in most of the irrigation schemes in the region, thereby interrupting the performance and decreasing the reliability of the system. In general the watershed of most schemes is bare and degradation is increasing from time to time in turn creating tension on irrigation schemes. Moreover the yield from the watersheds for most of the schemes is decreasing due to the same reasons, which require considerations to be taken into account for the expansion of irrigated agriculture. Figure 7: Canal and/ or night storage pond sedimentation. The main aim of any operational activity is to distribute the irrigation water within the canal networks and ultimately to the farm plots in equitable proportion of the available water in order to meet the water demands in a given set of operational objectives as much as possible. This requires design and provision of several types of facilities for the flow control and a sound

Escape

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organisational set up for the operational activities. Regardless of the common principles the type and quality of the facilities for flow control system and the organisational set up for operation, however, varies based on the scale of the schemes. In this regard, medium or large-scale schemes can use highly automated and mechanised flow control systems and fully staffed and institutionalised organisational set up for operational activities as compared to smallholder schemes in which case simpler systems are mainly used. Even the simpler structures are not well operated as per the design provisions as the pictures below depict the situation in some schemes.

Figure 8: Traditional operation on division boxes to divide flow into the branching canals. The irrigation network is perhaps the most costly element of an irrigation scheme and is designed and constructed to last a long time (FAO, 1982). However, it is usually observed that irrigation schemes show great discrepancy from the original design and construction. Because of neglecting maintenance in most cases, silt deposition, weed infestation, malfunctioning of structures and other undesirable situations make it practically difficult to control the flow in the system. As a result, the system becomes unable to deliver the necessary water and distribute it equitably. In general the best constructed system will fail if maintenance is neglected and hence proper maintenance is of utmost importance to ensure a sustainable use of the system for the planned period of time or longer. The objective of maintenance of an irrigation or drainage system thus, may be concerned with keeping the system in top operating conditions at all times ensuring the longest life and greatest use of system facilities by providing adequate maintenance and replacement (Johnston and Robertson (eds.), 1982). To this point it may be important to achieve the foregoing objectives at the lowest possible costs and avoid interruption in water deliveries due to failure of the system, particularly at times when crop damage would occur through regular planning and implementation of maintenance works. The need for maintenance activities may arise right from the time the system is put in operation, or under some circumstances, when part of the system is under construction. That is to say that under certain conditions maintenance may be needed before construction is completed and the system as a whole is placed in operation. Keeping regular maintenance work on all facilities in a system is the cornerstone for the successful function of any irrigation and drainage system. In this regard preventive maintenance is most important as it helps to maintain a smooth-working system thereby ensuring uninterrupted water service to the water users. On the contrary performance of most of the schemes in the region has remained very low due to lack of proper maintenance. The poor maintenance of most irrigation schemes arises mainly from:

• Lack of sufficient funds and other resources for planning, implementing and monitoring the maintenance work;

• Lack of technical capacity and to some extent interest by the farmers in participating or collaborating in the maintenance work;

• Above all poor organisation of the work.

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Like other activities in irrigation development maintenance work requires appropriate planning, implementing and monitoring of the activities. Obtaining the longest and greatest use of irrigation and drainage facilities thus can best be accomplished by providing good maintenance through a program of systematic improvement and replacements. Planning is essential to the success of any maintenance activity. For better planning it may require an inventory of needs for the maintenance work. This in turn requires appropriate personnel with relevant experience to identify maintenance needs, plan and implement the corrective measures. In the cases of the small-scale irrigation schemes in the region, where the farmers fully take the responsibility of the management, the farmers perhaps are given the accountability for the routine maintenance of the system. The main activities under this category include clearing and cleaning the canal sections, structures and repairing the canal breaches. The success under such cases, however, entirely depends on the capability of the farmers to identify the maintenance needs, plan and implement the maintenance work and most importantly their interest in participating or collaborating in the maintenance work. Indeed this is a practical problem in the region. The farmers are given the responsibility of undertaking the maintenance work in which case some schemes failed in short time to give any irrigation service.

Figure 9: A photographic view of an Earthen Canal The farmers lack the required technical capacity to plan and implement maintenance for the system. It can be extremely difficult for the farmers to provide the required lining and keep the canal sections as per the design especially in the cases of earthen canals and to maintain irrigation structures as these require higher skills such as surveying, etc. Thus it is vital to devise a methodology that would enable the farmers to maintain the canal while cleaning the silted up canal sections and patching or lining the breached or seeping canal sections. For this purpose the following approach can be included in the design. It involves providing permanent bench marks at canal bed level and sides at regular change of the canal and preparing mobile modules of different sizes for the different canal sections as shown in Figure 10. These tools can help the farmers to keep the canal slope and shape. The mobile modules can be prepared from locally available materials and can be given to the farmers. Construction of prototype of the approved design on the demonstration plots will help the farmers understand the system easily.

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Figure 10: Proposed provisions in the canal from the point of the requirement for maintenance by the community

Figure 11: A prototype of an approved design constructed in a demonstration plot (experience share visit in Tanzania, 2006) The other important point is to train some artisans amongst the farmers in maintenance of irrigation structures so that they can execute the maintenance of some irrigation structures timely and regularly. In addition deployment of irrigation technicians for some time during the start of the irrigation schemes will extremely help the irrigation water users to acquire the required skills in planning irrigation and irrigation system operation and routine maintenance of the irrigation facilities. Conclusion and Recommendations In general, regardless of the huge investments for the development of the infrastructure, the performance of the irrigation schemes is low. That is, despite the considerable investments for their development, most of these schemes are being run far below the planned capacity and many do not live up to the expected economic life. This low performance of each scheme may be attributed to the conditions that prevail at each site, but in most cases the problems can be related commonly to technical aspects, such as

L= length between 2 bench marks

yF

mm 11

m m 11

B

L

B= Bed width

F = free boardy = flow depth

∇

∇

Permanent bench marks at canal bed level in specified chainage to maintain canal slope

mm11 A mobile module to

maintain the canal shape

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inadequate assessment of the water balance, unreliability and/or unavailability of the estimated flow, inadequate /incomplete design, poor enforcement of the design assumptions, and poor operation and maintenance of the systems, etc. Some schemes deteriorate at an alarming rate due to lack of proper operation and maintenance. The deterioration of the irrigation schemes and the lack of appropriate operation and maintenance require technical solutions and management considerations to minimise their negative effects on the performance and to guarantee the sustainability of the schemes. It is well known that lifelong maintenance will increase the economic life of the schemes. Some studies show that the farmers are incapable to handle themselves the operation and maintenance of the irrigation systems mainly due to lack of technical and also financial capability as well as lack of strong community based management institutions such as legalised Water Users Associations. The existing farmer organisations (water users committees) are week to mobilise the farmers for the O&M. This indicates that there is a need for an improved operation and maintenance approach in which both farmers and technical personnel such irrigation technicians, to assist the farmers so that the farmers are supported technically; thereby getting an opportunity for technology transfer to reach a level where they can fully handle the system. To mobilize the farmers for improved O&M of schemes it is also necessary to organise them in a WUA that can be recognised as legal entities to represent the water users. Generally the following points are recommended in order to improve the development of the irrigation schemes in the region:

• Participation of the farmers at the identification, design and implementation level so that the agricultural, social and economic factors and implications can be incorporated in the design assumptions;

• Design and provide an irrigation system that consists of the conveyance and distribution network, the required irrigation structures and the field irrigation facilities;

• Design and provide a demonstration plot to teach the farmers in view of the required operation and maintenance activities, deploy irrigation technicians so as to provide technical assistance in planning and preparation of cropping pattern, irrigation scheduling and maintenance works, provide prototypes to increase the level of understanding the system for the farmers;

• Organise the farmers in a legally and truly mandated WUA. The organisation of the farmers in the WUA should be effected at the identification phase so that the association can mobilise the farmers from the beginning of the development of the scheme. The WUA should be encouraged to maintain relations with other organisations to obtain credit, input and market facilities;

• Train the farmers on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks; motivate them to grow cash crops and to pay fees for maintenance purpose. Train artisans on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks amongst the farmers so that they can do the O&M themselves;

• Include land reallocation as part of irrigation development program especially in irrigated lands. This would help to improve the irrigation water distribution at farm level;

• The sediment load from the poorly managed watersheds aggravates the canal situation problem in most schemes. Therefore watershed based irrigation development should be considered in irrigation development in order to include watershed development;

• Strengthening the linkage and co-operation between the different stakeholders that are involved in irrigation development and management is highly required to implement the watershed/ basin based irrigation development;

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• Irrigation development is a socio-technical aspect in which both technical as well as social factors can influence the performance of the irrigation schemes. The present research has tried to cite only the problems related to the technical mainly to design and O&M aspects of the schemes. Thus further research is recommended in social, marketing as well as technical aspects of the schemes to support the development endeavours in irrigated agriculture;

• The lay out of the irrigation system, particularly the field canals and the location of the plot intakes should be given attention to suit both the topographic features of the command area and the farm boundary as much as possible.

REFERENCES Dahmen E.R., 1994, Irrigation scheduling, IHE, Lecture notes; Depeweg, H.W.T, 1998, Field Irrigation and Drainage, Surface Irrigation Methods, IHE, Lecture notes; Depeweg, H.W.T, 2001, Off-farm Irrigation and Drainage, Design and Operation of Tertiary Units, IHE, Lecture notes; Depeweg, H.W.T, 2001, Structures in Irrigation Networks, Hydraulic Aspects - Part I, IHE, Lecture notes; Depeweg, H.W.T, 2001, Structures in Irrigation Networks, Hydraulic Aspects - Part II, IHE, Lecture notes; Ethiopian telecommunication corporation web site: www.telecom.net.et, October, 2003; Evaluation Report on the Existing Irrigation Projects, Co-SAERSAR, May 1999, Awassa; Eyasu Yazew H., 2001, Development and Management of Irrigated lands in Tigray, Ethiopia, Ph.D. Research proposal; FAO, 1996, Irrigation scheme Operation and Maintenance, Irrigation Water Management Training manual No. 10 FAO, Irrigation and drainage paper 24, 1992, Crop Water Requirements; FAO, Irrigation and drainage paper 40, 1982, Organisation, Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Schemes; Finalisation of feasibility study, Part 1: Final Report, November 1999, AFD Program for irrigation development in Amhara, Oromia and Southern Regions, Ministry of water Resources, Ethiopia; Hofwegen, P.J.M. van, 1998, Irrigation and Drainage systems Management, IHE, Lecture notes; Jan Ubels and Lucas Horst (eds.), 1993, Irrigation Design in Africa, Towards an interactive method, the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation (CTA), the Netherlands. Johnston and Robertson (eds.), 1982, Management, Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation and Drainage Systems, American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE Manuals and reports on Engineering Practice No. 57; Lucas Horst, 1998, The Dilemmas of Water Division, Considerations and Criteria for Irrigation System Design, International Water Management Institute, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands; Schultz, E., 2000, Land and water development, IHE, Delft, the Netherlands, Lecture notes; Sector review report, 1998/99, Co-SAERSRAR, Awassa, Ethiopia; Socio-economic profile, December 1998, Bureau of planning and economic development, Southern Nations, Nationalities and people's Regional State, Awassa, Ethiopia; Mitiku B.G., 2003, Design, Operation and Maintenance Measures for Sustainable Small Scale Irrigation Schemes, MSc Thesis, IHE, Delft, The Netherlands.

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2. Spring Water Development and Community involvement and Challenges

By: Berhanu Alemseged, South Water Works Construction Enterprise What is a spring? Springs are the natural emergence of ground water on the surface of the ground.

The flow of the ground water on the surface occurs when a weak zone on the ground is created due to volcanic activities, fracturing, and landslide etc. Hydrologic Cycle

Spring Classification Springs are classified according to their natural occurrences as follows: Depression springs

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Contact Springs

Fault Springs

Joint Springs Such springs are also the results of geological phenomenon, which created fractures and weathered zones on an originally impermeable stratum.

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Artesian springs

An aquifer sandwiched between impervious layers carries water under pressure, which comes out on the surface through cracks or openings as an artesian spring. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The selection of spring as a source for water supply of a village or town should be based on the following technical factors. 1) YIELD 2) QUALITY

The minimum yield should be sufficient enough to meet at least the average daily demand of the design population.

A laboratory analysis on the spring's water should confirm that the spring yields water of satisfactory quality that meets the required health standards Spring Development Structures 1) CAPPING STRUCTURE 2) COLLECTION CHAMBER CAPPING STRUCTURE This structure has two fold functions of gathering all out let points (eyes) so that all water is led towards the collection chamber at the same time covering the whole area containing the contributing outlets . COLLECTION CHAMBER Water is led to this box via weep holes or steel mesh embedded on the outlet side of the capping. The collection chamber will have a sand trap pool, discharge through a measuring weir to the intake wet well, in which the intake pipe is installed; together with a valve chamber.

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Development of spring in a shallow bearing area

Properly Constructed Springs

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Community involvement 1) Clearing and preparing access road to the spring site 2) Clearance of the spring eyes and the surrounding area 3) Transporting construction materials to site. Treatment steps Some of the steps required for treatment of water from surface sources are not needed for water from springs

Challenges •Change of natural spring flow direction •Reduction in spring yield •Underestimated spring yield RAPPORTEUR’S COMPILATION ON THE ABOVE PRESENTATIONS Session Chairperson: Dr Tilahun Hordofa Session Raporteur: Desalegn Chemeda (Dr) During this session, there were two presentations: Design Considerations in Water Supply and Spring Development Techniques by Mr Mitiku Bedru and Mr Berhanu Alemseged, respectively. Questions and comments raised by the workshop participants based on those presentations are summarized as follows: - Design Considerations in Water Supply

Questions:

• Issue with regard to uncertainties surrounding the maximum land size for small-scale irrigation scheme; some literatures fix the maximum at 200 ha of land size and others at 300 ha.

• SNNP water bureau normally handover the schemes to the water users association after completion of the construction. However, who is providing the technical backstopping for the farmers after that onwards?

• Is there a smooth handover of the scheme between the bureaus of agriculture and water?

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• How does the community get involved in the planning, design, construction and operation of the schemes? The community should get involved at all stages to have effective way of managing the schemes.

• What are your recommendations that might help us as insight for future research topics?

• What are the reasons behind the failures of small scale irrigation schemes in the SNNP? Why most water users associations are not considering the schemes as their own property?

Comments:

• The figures cited with regard to the annual water flows of Ethiopia seem to be inaccurate; underestimation of surface water and overestimation of groundwater.

Presenter’s reaction:

The presenter accepted the comments forwarded and gave his reflection on each question and doubt raised by the participants. He revealed that there is no clear functional assignment given to the water resource bureau with regard to irrigation agronomy. This is normally handled by extension agents of bureau of agriculture while water resource bureau of responsible for the operation and maintenance of the schemes. He also revealed that the beneficiaries (local farming communities) are normally consulted during the planning and design stages of the schemes and contribute labour during the construction stage. However, the operation and maintenance of the schemes are within the jurisdiction of water resources bureau. He admitted that this stage hasn’t been given due consideration so far and need to be priority of the bureau.

- Spring Development Techniques:

Questions:

• Issues of sustainability with regard to spring development; the protection and conservation of watersheds contributing to the springs.

• On the challenges put forward by the presenter; identification of the type of aquifer, geometrical features and estimation of the reserve should be included the challenges.

Comments:

• Types of springs should also include non-gravitational forces.

Presenter’s reaction:

After accepting the comment forwarded by one of the participants, the presenter revealed that the watershed management issue is the most difficult one and needs the attention of all stakeholders and policy makers. He admitted that he can’t deal with this issue at this point in time.

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36

3. Rural Water Supply Sanitation and Hygiene Program (R-WaSH): lesson learned and challenges By Tolingiyo Woreda Support Group Minimum Sanitation and Hygiene Package

1. Keeping Potable Water Clean 2. Hand Washing 3. Construction and use of Latrine

Various Participatory tools are used in the program:

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The Recent Developments and Issues in R-WaSH Programme The previous Approach: - Government decided which communities should get new facilities - Top down community not involved in decision making - Women are excluded Government decided which communities should get new facilities Government selected the technologies to be used Government paid for the new systems Government sited and constructed the facilities Government operated. Maintained & repaired them.

The new approach : Community ownership & Management (com) - The community members identify their own needs and request woreda assist once

- Form WASHCO and mobilize their own Resource - Promote the full involvement of women in the planning implementation and decision

making Woreda Support Group

- provides technical assistance to woreda to help biked R-WaSH program - Assists and trading R-WaSH Team in all program planning and management

Woreda Water Team - owner of R-WaSH program at woreda level - promote community ownership and management

Community Facilitators Team - Facilitate full community participation - Facilitate active women’s involvement

WASHCO - manage WASH on behalf of community - organise community and WASHCO meetings

Technical service providers - Provides technical, social and management development service to communities in

support of the R-WaSH program.

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WASH VOLUNTEERS Encourage house holds in neigh boor hood to choose plan, construct and manage improvements to their water hygiene and sanitation Action - 50 % of WASH Vols are women In phase one The WSG in promotion & pre – selection Implemented stakeholder orientation program promote R-WaSH program at two levels: - Woreda Level- to ensure on going stakeholders commitment and support for the Program, - Community Level- to create awareness and encourage informed Demand for the improved /community- owned and managed WASH facilities

- Pre- selection of communities to be supported by the program completed - Facilitated community application and woreda reification.

In phase two Community Mobilization & planning The WSG

- Facilitated selection and contract of CFTS - Trained CFTS - CFTS with coaching from WSG

• User community aware of & committed to R-WaSH program • Community water sanitation needs identified and data collected • WASHCO trained with basic planning management & WaSH plan prepared and

approved by user community

LESSONS LEARNED • Rural/ community centred/ decentralized management participatory approach

started /Emerged • Promoted the direct INVOLVEMENT of communities, particularly included

women’ Women WASHCO member 40-60 to even some women appointed in even some women appointed in a few case chair palsy 50% of WASH volunteers are women o Community meetings to discuss on WaSH was unusually accepted o Capacity Building in every aspect deep in the communities

Challenges - Frequent structural adjustment and sub- sequent change of people at Woreda level - The weak coordination/ collaboration among the sector stake-holders needs to be

improved - Delays - Lack of trust from Past experience and problems ;The community refuses to involve

because of bad experiences with committees in the past ,Same people on every committee and also Some committees are dominated by one or two powerful members

- Traditional valves communities object to the election of women - Work load still stops women from attending - Some woman lack confidence and self- steem

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39

WaSH Network Diagram WSG Woreda Council Woreda WaSH Team Community Facilitation Team Technical Service Provider WaSH Volunteers WaSH Committee Caretakers User Community

Approve WASH Strategic Plan and budget Monitor implementation of the Woreda Wash Plan Advocacy on WASH issues

Strategic Planning Community Promotion & Pre-SelectionContract and supervise CFTs & TSPs Monitoring and Evaluation

Facilitation and training to support: • Participatory Planning • Implementation • Managing money • WaSH awareness & action• O&M management

• Design WS systems • Siting of boreholes • WS Construction • Civil works construction • Pump installation • Spares and repairs • Latrine Building • Caretaker training

• Lead the planning process• Raise and manage money• Supervise construction • Organise maintenance • WaSH promotion

Lead the WaSH Promotion process through house to house visits and group meetings

Maintenance and repairs Manage tools and spare parts Educate users

• Select WASHCO, WaSH Volunteers, and Caretakers • Help to plan and construct W&S facilities • Contribute funds for O&M • Participate in WaSH planning and action • Help with maintenance of new facilities

Training & coaching

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40

SUSTAINABLE TECHNOLOGY CHOICES

Water and Sanitation Facilities are community services just like electricity and roads. If they are to be long term use to the community and their country they must be

sustainable The technology must be understandable and physically with in the capability of the

people responsible for operation and maintenance Spare parts and equipment need to be easily obtainable preferably at community level The technology must be affordable to operate and maintain for the community

bearing these costs The technology or level of service provided must be attractive and culturally

acceptable to the users An appropriate technology is by definition a sustainable one but is doesn’t have

necessarily to be low cost Based on this reality R-WaSH program gives more emphasis for operation and

maintenance activities and system management.

Case1 Water source is spring Power disable generator Delivery pipe is very long of about 4 Km Distribution only two water points Supply Capacity very inadequate than that of the communities demand Operation cost requires,1 litre of fuel per a week Affordability, the users community are complying not to be able to afford it Therefore, the water supply system is nearly to cease functional unless and otherwise,

the power source is shifted to electrical energy and at the same time additional water points have to be installed

Case2 The catholic church has been installed a wind mill to drive borehole pump for user

communities in Himbanch PA ,Bolososroe Woreda ,Wolita Zone. The water supply system was constructed in 1984(before 20 years) The operation and maintenance cost is very negligible even if its investment cost is

relatively higher than that of hand pump fitted shallow well. Over 200 people, one junior secondary school and the Catholic Church itself are

getting water from this water supply scheme From these two cases, one can understand and conclude that how and to what extent

the technology options, affordability of operation and maintenance costs are playing a significant role on sustainability and dependable performance.

Service level at rural water supply system is not neccessariltly governed by higher investment costs

Case 3

There are three shallow wells fitted with handpumps in kola barena kebele,mirab abya woreda,gamogofazone

The water supply schemes are serving on average for 60 households their investment costs were about 80,000 birr each

When they failed to be functional they need an area mechanic with complete equipment and tools from the zone

Their construction activities utilizes less local labour and naturally available resource

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41

Case 4 There are also hand dug wells fitted with hand pumps in Wagiffo and Molle kebeles

same woreda and same zone The water supply schemes are serving on average, for 60 households There investment cost were about 20,000 birr each Their construction activities demanded and involved more labours from the localities

and made use of the locally available natural resource like stone, sand, and gravel From these the required service level and water supply demand can be obtained by

incurring 1/3 times less investment costs and can encourage the participation and involvement of local labours and natural resource.

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42

4. Prototype Micro-tube Drip irrigation Presenter : Ato Fassil Eshetu Introduction

The Micro tube Drip irrigation is small agricultural production unit with area coverage of 15m2.

It is designed to generate income, improve food security and halt the process of desertification in the arid and semi arid lands of Ethiopia

Micro tube drip irrigation is a simple and relatively maintenance free irrigation technology that will allow farmers to enjoy the advantages of modern drip irrigation , which increase

yields of better quality produce, and high water use efficiency. The micro tube is the simplest and cheapest of all drippers. It was the forerunner, but is still

commonly used in the U.S.A and Australia, without any particular problems since 1976. The Micro Tube Drip Irrigation System Working Principles 1 The reservoir

If the drip lines are the arteries of micro tube drip irrigation system, the reservoir is the heart of the system.

The closer it is to meeting the following standards, the more it is that crop cultivation will be successful. 1.1 Location

The bottom of the reservoir needs to be at least 0.8 meter above the surface of the field to be irrigated. Naturally, it should be as close to the water source as possible.

1.2 Capacity

Considering the status of farmers the reservoir can be any type at least with a capacity of 20 liters.

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43

The system can operate at low pressure head of 0.8m, while still giving reasonably even

distribution of water along the irrigation lines

1.3 Outlets

Siphons: Water flows freely under gravity provided the outlet is lower than the inlet. But, all the air must be taken out of the pipe to create a vacuum.

When this happens the atmospheric pressure on the open water surface pushes water into the pipe to fill the vacuum and once it is full of water it will begin to flow. Under these condition the pipe is working as a Siphon.

Taking the air out of a pipeline is known as priming. Note that an air valve can be a simple gate valve that is opened manually to release air and

then closed to stop air from re-entering the pipe

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44

Remember atmospheric pressure drives a siphon and this limited to 10 m head of water. So the 1.5 m is a safe practical limit.

1.4 Covers

It is crucial that the reservoir opening be covered (with a straw mat to prevent evaporation, algae multiplication and entry of objects. 2. Filter In drip irrigation system filters are important in order to reduce the hazard of blockage or clogging due to solid particle suspended in water and organic matter.

Variety of filters are available nowadays but they are expansive. Therefore to make micro drip system cheaper and accessible for farmers, it is must to do it

locally On 28 September 2003, the research team of micro tube drip irrigation made an efficient double screen filter using simple material

Which is mainly used for suspended solid materials.

2.1 Materials: Two different size perforated plastic bottle, double mesh cloth, flexible hose (4.5mm diameter), small size stone (weight factor).

First water get the double mesh cloth of the bigger perforated plastic bottle and then flow to the double mesh cloth smaller perforated plastic bottle,

________________________________WATERMAN____________________________

45

Through all this movement the water is filter, which will flow through the smaller perforated bottle to the flexible hose.

The supply flexible hose which is smaller in diameter (4.5mm) deliver water to the bigger diameter (13.5 mm) lateral (irrigation line). 3. Supply line

Supply line is a flexible hose, which convey water form smaller perforated plastic bottle to the irrigation line.

Since the capacity of the reservoir is small (20 liters), the diameter of the supply line should be smaller to deliver water slowly and uniformly to the irrigation line. 4.5mm diameter is selected based on experience and availability 4. Irrigation line

Irrigation line contains the micro tube which are equally spaced, the diameter of the irrigation line is much bigger compared to the supply line , this is because the tolerable pressure variations in the irrigation line are lower.

And as a consequence pipes of a larger diameter are required. 13mm diameter is selected based on experience and availability.

5. Micro tube as dripper

The main prerequisite for a drip system is a uniform discharge rate along the dripper lines The function of the micro tube is to allow constant and uniform discharge rate of water

together with a controlled reduction of the water pressure in the dripper line.

The micro tubes are installed on flexible, plastic-made laterals. The inside diameter of the laterals is 13 mm

The spacing between the micro tubes is uniform. The laterals are stretched along the bed or along the line of plants or trees

________________________________WATERMAN____________________________

46

The resistance to flow through a micro tube can be considered as being approximately proportional to the tube length

By increasing the length it is possible to increase the diameter of the tube, without changing the resistance of the flow.

In this way a low discharge rate can be obtained of a tube with a larger diameter, which is less prone to clogging.

A micro tube having 20 cm length is selected by trial and error. And 0.9 mm diameter is selected based on experience and availability. The micro tube inserted in the irrigation line at 50 cm interval, following the straight line , the

direction of insertion should be against the movement of water Since the installation is, in such a way that the drop in discharge rate between the first and last

dripper does not exceed 10 %. When irrigation is stopped, the system drains at the lower parts of the field and this causes

suction in the micro tubes at the higher elevations. Soil may be drawn in, which gives rise to clogging of the tubes

The problem can be prevented by provided a small clearance (using “Y” shaped small stick)

between the laterals and the ground.

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47

6. Fertilization It is recommended to add 100 grams of urea per 1 m3 of water that is 2 grams per day

Discharge at different height

Uniformity Coefficient

Distribution Uniformity

(Discharge) at 0 cm height UC = 42.55

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5

Disatnce in meter

Disc

harge

in lit

ers / h

r

________________________________WATERMAN____________________________

48

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49

5. Distribution Floride in the drinking water supply of the rift valley By: SNNPRG Bureau of Water resources Development Team

INTRODUCTION •Water supply in terms of both quantity & quality is essential to human existence • Little attention is given to the issue of water quality •Water quality problems have to be identified to take correction action before a crisis situation develops •To maintain and improve the quality of water resources accurate and timely water quality data are needed •Information about the chemical quality of GW helps to avoid un necessary expense/adverse effect on human •Efforts were made and are being made to identify and address the problem of excess fluoride in drinking water supply in SNNPR with the assistance of UNICEF •Water sources with high fluoride are being consumed by communities in SNNPR Background •Total pop. Of SNNPR is estimated to be 15million(1998EC) •24% is estimated to live in Rift valley areas •Rift valley areas of SNNPR have problem of high fluoride waters •It is the most wide spread of water quality problem •It has been decided by the regional Bo WRD that fluoride mapping to be carried out •Total no. of schemes are more than 7,000 •21% of the total schemes are located in fluoride affected areas •322 water supply schemes were investigated •22%of the total schemes of fluoride affected areas investigated

•GW with 2.4mg/l may routinely be used

•About 156(48%) of the total investigated schemes identified to have fluoride level >1.5mg/l

•GW with high fluoride identified out of major rift zone(Basketo,5.16mg/l &Yem,4.3mg/l)

Number of schemes investigated

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

Alab

a

Awas

a Zuri

a

Bena

tsem

ay

Daloc

ha

Hame

r

Kons

o

Lanfu

ro

Mare

ko

Mes

kan

Silti

Name of Affected Woredas

Num

ber o

f sch

emes

sampled schemesTotal Schemes

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50

Meskan Woreda Total number of schemes 126 •6 BH(excluding Butajira town) •34 SW •62 HDW •24 Springs •Schemes selected for analysis 35(rift valley areas): - 28% of the total schemes. •5 BH •13SW •17HDW(with pump) Meskan Woreda

32

51

17

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

<1.5 1.5-3.0 >3.0

Fluoride value(mg/l)

Perce

nt of

samp

les an

alyse

d(%)

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Mareko Woreda Total number of schemes 39(2005) •10 BH(2 with out pump) •21 SW •8 HDW •Schemes selected for analysis 18(rift valley areas) 46% of the total schemes. •7 BH •10SW •1HDW(with pump)

Mareko Woreda

33

50

17

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

<1.5 1.5-3.0 >3.0

Fluoride Value(mg/l)

Perc

ent o

f sam

ples

an

alys

ed(%

)

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Lanforo Woreda •Total number of schemes 19(2005) •12 BH •4 SW •3 HDW •Schemes selected for analysis 18(rift valley areas): - 95% of the total schemes. •12 BH •3SW •3HDW(with pump) Lanfuro Woreda

16.6

50

33

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

<1.5 1 .5-3 .0 >3 .0

Fluoride value(mg/l)

Perce

nt of

samp

les an

alyse

d(%)

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Dalocha Woreda •Total number of schemes 19(2005) •11 BH •4 SW •4 Spring •Schemes selected for analysis 14(rift valley areas): - 74% of the total schemes. •11 BH •2SW •1SP Da lo ch a W o re d a

35.7

57

7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

< 1.5 1.5-3.0 >3. 0

F lu o r ide v a lu e (m g /l )

Perc

ent o

f sam

ples

ana

lyse

d(%

)

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Silti Woreda •Total number of schemes 46(2005) •13 BH •11 SW •6HDW •16 Spring •Schemes selected for analysis 14(rift valley areas): - 30% of the total schemes. •12 BH •11SW •2HDW •2SP

•

Silti Woreda

70.3

18.511

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

<1.5 1.5-3.0 >3.0

Fluoride value(mg/l)

Percen

t of sa

mples

analy

sed(%

)

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55

Alaba Special Woreda

•Total number of schemes 22(2005)

•22 BH

•Schemes selected for analysis 18: - 81.8% of the total schemes.

•18 BH

Alaba sp. Woreda

5.6

33.3

61.1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

<1.5 1.5-3.0 >3.0

Fluoride value(mg/l)

Perc

ent o

f sam

ples

an

alys

ed(%

)

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56

Awassa Zuria Total number of schemes 240(2005) •3BH •81 SW •26HDW •99Spring •1RIT •Schemes selected for analysis 41. •13BH(including industries& organizations) •11 SW •10HDW •7Spring(3Hot sp.)

Awassa Zuria Woreda

14

58.5

10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

<1.5 1.5-3.0 >3.0

Fluoride value(mg/l)

Per

cent

of s

ampl

es a

naly

sed(

%)

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Konso Special Woreda •Total number of schemes 78(2005) •13 BH •50 SW •18 Spring(4with HP) •Schemes selected for analysis 47: - 60% of the total schemes. •8 BH •33SW •5 Spring •1 pond

•

Konso sp.Woreda

74.5

14.910.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

<1.5 1.5-3.0 >3.0

Fluoride value(mg/l)

Perc

ent o

f sam

ples

ana

lyse

d(%

)

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Benastemay Woreda •Total number of schemes 58(2005) •1BH •47 SW •10HDW •Schemes selected for analysis 42(72% of the total schemes). •1BH •40SW •1HDW

Benatsemay Woreda

73.8

19

7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

<1.5 1.5-3.0 >3.0

Fluoride value(mg/l)

Per

cent

of s

ampl

es

anal

ysed

(%)

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59

Bakogazer Woreda •Total number of schemes 116(2005) •1BH •17 SW •59HDW •39Spring •Schemes selected for analysis 17(14% of the total schemes). •8SW •7HDW •2Spring

Bakogazer Woreda

90.9

9

00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

<1.5 1.5-3.0 >3.0

Fluoride value(mg/l)

Perc

ent o

f sam

ples

ana

lyse

d(%

)

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60

Hamer Woreda Total number of schemes 60(2005) •2BH •52 SW •4HDW •2Spring •Schemes selected for analysis 58( 97% of the total schemes). •2BH •50 SW •4HDW •2Spring

Hamer Woreda

60

30

10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

<1.5 1.5-3.0 >3.0

Fluoride

Perc

ent o

f sam

ples

ana

lyse

d

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Table:- Manifestation of Dental Fluorosis in School Children

54743678853859

14060636140022537804510297

SidamaGuragheSiltiWolayitaKonsoAlabaGamoGoffa

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.

Remark% AffectedTotal no. of students examined

Zone/Sp.WoredaS.no

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Skeletal Fluorosis

•Manifested in Dimtu Town

•Where high fluoride level is recorded

•Consistent with the level of fluoride

•Temperature is high

•People complained of physical impairment

•Scale formation in boiler in tobacco farm station (special case)

Maximum records of fluoride in target Areas

5.6H.SpringMirabe qocheSiltiSilti10.

9.35LakeLake chamoArbaminchGamogofa9.

4.15SpringOrmbiyaKonsoKonso sp.wereda8.

13.10BHBendoAlabaAlabasp.wereda7.

6.3SWErboreHamerS/Omo6.

18.53BHkudassaLanfuroSilti5.

2.05SWAlgeMirab AbayaGamogofa4.

8.85SpringBilate tobacco farm

DamotWoydeWolayita3.

2.46BHKoshe townKosheGuraghe2.

>11BHAwassa Flour FactoryAwassa ZuriaSidama1.

Remark

Fluoride level(mg/l

Source typeSite nameWeredaZoneNo.

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63

•Fluorosis problem has been more serious in Alaba, Lanfuro, Mareko& Damot woyde

•Communities in these areas consume GW (BH&SP)with fluoride con. 5mg/l and above

•Prevention of dental and skeletal fluorosis depend:-

Obtaining alternative sources

The utilization of defluoridation plants

•In areas like Konso, Mareko, Awassazuria there is a possibility of getting alternative source of water in the same locality

•Alternative water sources are rare in areas like Alaba and Dimtu/chericho

•Rain water harvesting or development and implementation of simple and economical method of defluoridation technique is crucial in areas where there is no other alternative source Future Plan

•Further study on the distribution of fluoride

•Correlate the fluoride distribution with the geology of the area

•Implement defluoridation techniques both at Household & community level

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6. Household Treatment of Raw Water with Sand Filters by Adam Kenenea, Moltot Z.(Hawassa University, tambek72@yahoo.com)

Abstract Use of the conventional water treatment plants in the rural and suburban areas of developing countries in general and Ethiopia in particular is impracticable. This is due to the economic and settlement characteristics of the population. Small scale water treatment processes seem to be suitable method of providing relatively clean water for those who draw their water supplies form unprotected wells, ponds and streams .In this research, a sand filter has been designed that can be made from locally available materials, and that can be operated and maintained by the householder. The unit is designed to operate under declining rate taking into account the intermittent nature of collecting water in rural areas. The efficiency of the household sand filter has been checked by testing the bacteriological and physical qualities of the raw water and the filtered water. Results obtained up to date show that the unit produces considerable improvement in the bacteriological and aesthetic qualities of the raw water. Introduction Water is a commodity without which life on earth would be impossible .Its availability alone is not sufficient to sustain life. Its quality is also of paramount importance. Of course, millions of people lose their precious lives each year due to diseases spread through consumption of contaminated water. It has been reported that about eighty percent of all infections in the world are associated with unsafe water (IRC, 1983). In Ethiopia, more than 85% of the total population live in rural areas. Out of these only about 31% get access to safe water ,with the remaining 69% drawing their water supplies from unprotected source such as streams, ponds, wells, etc.(Schotanus,1996). Apparently, water from these sources has a large chance of being contaminated with fecal matter; as a result about 80% of diseases prevalent among the people of the country are water-related (UNICEF, 1992). In addition, the existence of suspended solids, algae and organic matter make the water unsuitable for human consumption .The removal of these impurities from water is absolutely necessary if a reduction in the incidence of water-related disease is envisaged. The installation of conventional water treatment plants in rural and suburban area of developing countries is, at present, impractical due to economic reasons and the settlement characteristics of the population. Hence, small scale water treatment processes are more justified methods in such case. Several methods of household water treatment have been used in different parts of the world, some of them traditional and some supported scientifically. Among the most common ones are boiling, straining (by cloth), storage to remove silt load, the use of natural coagulants such as chitosan, moringa and nirmali seeds (Schulz and Okun, 1984; Mayer et al, 1995), up flow–down flow filters (pickford,1991), ceramic candles and home made sand filters(Gebre-Emanuel, 1977). Each method has a varying degree of efficiency in removing impurities from water. Straining and storage bring about partial removal of suspended matter in the water. Coagulation with natural Coagulants removes both solids and bacteria but the bacteria regenerate if the water is kept unused for a long time (usually about 24 hours). This is attributed to the organic material present in the seeds (Schuzl and Okun, 1984; Mayer et al, 1995). Upflow-downflow filters produce an effluent that is hygienically safe but they need a minimum of three jars (Pickford, 1991).The homemade sand filter is effective in reducing turbididity considerably but the filtered water is not safe from bacteriological point of view.

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65

Looking at the list of methods mentioned above and the actual health situation in rural areas, it’s doubtless to say that there is a strong need for a simple cost-effective method of water treatment in this areas. The aim of this project is to come up with a modification of the home-made sand filter that ensures removal of solids, pathogenic organisms and organic matter in the raw water, thus remedying the defects of the home-made sand filter. Fundamental of slow sand Filtration Removal of Impurities The removal of impurities in slow sand filters is brought about by a combination of different processes such as sedimentation, absorption, straining and biological action. The biological processes that take place in the Schmuzdeecke of the filter are capable of reducing the total bacteria control by factor of 103 to 104 and the E.coli content by a factor of 102 to 103 (Schulz and Okun, 1984). In a properly operated sand filter, the effluent may bacteriologically be safe for drinking, thereby avoiding the need for disinfection. Although sand filters retain suspended matter present in the raw water, they clog easily in a short period if the raw water turbidity is greater than 50 NUT (Schulz and Okun,1984). The suspended matter is retained within the top 0.5 to 2cm of the filter bed. This allows the filter to be cleaned by scraping away the top 2cm of sand after a certain period of operation. When water of high turbidity is encountered, some sort of pretreatment should be used to bring the turbidity down to the desired value. Part of the organic matter present in the raw water is retained in the top layer of the filter sand but organic matter of low mass density goes deep in to the sand bed, it will be absorbed to the sand grains whereupon it is broken down by the biological film that has already been established. Once the sand is matured, inorganic impurities accumulated on the filter sand grains are transformed by biochemical and bacterial activities. Thus, soluble ferrous and manganese compounds are transformed to insoluble ferric and manganic oxide hydrates that become part of the coating around the sand grains (IRC,1983). Modification to the home made Sand Filter The home-made sand filter works under declining head, i.e. water that is added will completely drain out after a certain time and the filter bed dries out leading to the inactivation of biological organisms in the sand bed. The biological organisms are the essential components of the filtration process that play the major role in the removal of pathogenic organisms from the water. Therefore, to remedy the defects of the home-made filter, it may be essential to ensure the existence of some layer of supernatant water on top of the sand bed at all times to keep the biological film active and alive. In this research, this is realized by modifying the outlet pipe from the filter tank so that the out let pipe rises 5cm above the top of the filter sand. The depth of the filter sand in this experiment is limited to about 30-40cm to provide a sufficient space for accommodating raw water over the sand bed. Fig 2 shows schematic diagrams of the home-made sand filter and the modified household sand filter. Design and Construction of the Household Sand Filter Filter Capacity The filter capacity is such that the amount of water treated per day is sufficient to sustain an average rural household. Typical water demand assessments for rural and suburban communities collecting water from surface sources show that the average per capital consumption (drinking) is usually below 15 liters per day (IRC, 1983; Sinderman, 1995). Each time the tank

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accommodates about 50liters, totaling to 100liters of water per day, which is sufficient for an average family of 7 persons at the demand indicated above. Each 50liter of filtered water is ready for use after 3 to 4 hours of operation. If water is added continuously, the unit can treat up to 300liters of raw water per day. Characteristics of filter components Supernatant Water: maximum of 35cm and 5cm Filter gravel: provided in three layers Layer Depth Size(grain dia) Top 3-4cm 0.6mm-1.18mm Middle 3-4cm 1.18mm-4.75mm Bottom 3-4cm >4.75mm Filter sand: 30-40cm deep; Effective Size(E.S)=0.15-0.35mm and uniformity coefficient(u.c)=1.5-3.0 Tank diameter: 40cm; total depth of 1m (fig 1). Construction of the Filter tank The 1m high and 40 cm diameter tank was constructed by plastering 1:2 cement mortar on a bamboo matting framework layer by layer. A ½ inch outlet pipe with its accessories (filtration rate controls and drain valves and a tap) was then fitted to the tank after curing is complete. Preparation of Filters Sand and Gravel Local sand of with the above mentioned effective grain size was washed on a 7.5 mm sieve and air-dried. Organic matter in the sand was then separated by flotation in a tank filled with water. The sand was air-dried again and passed through a 4.75mm sieve to separate gravel. The filter gravel was prepared by passing the clean sand through 4.75mm, 1.18mm and 0.60mm sieves. The respective grain size gravels were placed in the tank with decreasing grain size upward (fig. 1). Operation principles Raw water is added to the tank from the top. The experimental filter has no arrangement for filling from underneath at the beginning of the operation cycle. Therefore, to minimize the effects of air binding, a thin layer of sand is placed and water is added until it just levels with the sand. Again another layer of sand is added followed by water. This process is repeated until the required depth of sand is placed in the tank. With this method the amount of negative pressure that developed is quite small and the bed is stabilized immediately. After the sand is filled, care is taken not to damage the bed during adding water. The energy of the falling water is dissipated by a sample arrangement. A cover of a plastic water container is placed on top of the sand bed and water is added on to this plastic, thus distributing the water slowly on to the same bed. After the first day of filling, a minimum supernatant water layer of 5cm is maintained on top of the sand which makes the plastic to float. Water added on the plastic cover (of course, any floating material can be used) will lose its energy entirely when it reaches the sand bed. Therefore, it does not inflict any damage on the schmuzdecke, nor does it cause resuspension of settled matter. Filtration Rate control Although the filter works under declining rate of filtration, it is essential to control the maximum rate of filtration to get effluent of good quality. This is provided by fitting a gate valve on the outlet line as shown in fig 2.2. The maximum filtration rate at the beginning of the operation cycle is set at 0.2m/h with the gate almost closed. The rate adjusted to this value raising the rate slowly over several hours. As resistance to the downward flow of water increases the rate drops

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to less than 0.1m/h after two weeks of operation at average raw water turbidity less than 50NTU. The head is recovered by opening the control valve by one round to raise the maximum filtration rate to 0.2m/h again, the regulation being done slowly. This rate approximately yields 20liters (one plastic bucket) in one hour.

Supernatant water maximum depth 40cm

Sand media maximum thickness 40cm

Gravel 0.6 -1.18mm, 3cm 1.18- 4.75mm , 3cm >4.75 mm, 3cm

Stone 10cm

Out let minimum 5cm above the sand media sand

Control valve and flash out valve

Fig 1. Components of house hold filter (not to scale)

Fig 2.1 Homemade filter Fig 2.2 Modified homemade filter

Filter media

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7. Likimse Abella Water Supply and Sanitation Project: Aspects of Community Participation and Gender and Implications For Designing Rural Water Supply Schemes

By Fromsa Taye, Associate Director for Awassa Program Office 1. Project Background Likimse Abella Water Supply and Sanitation Project (LAWSSP) serves the population of two woredas, namely, Soddo Zuria and Humbo Woredas. Likimse is a place where five bubbling springs were capped in the highland part of Soddo Zuria to the south west of which lies most of the lowlands of Humbo Woreda. Abella, on the other hand, is one of the far end destination kebeles of Humbo Woreeda where Likimse spring has been taken to with the view to serving the lowland part of same woreda. Both Soddo Zuria and Humbo Woredas belong to Wolaita Zone of Southern Nations-Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional Government (SNNPRG).

a. Spring yield: 45.3 liters/second b. Year project started: December 1999 c. Year project completed: September 2001 d. Inauguration day: February 28, 2002 e. Implementing agency: World Vision Ethiopia Humbo Area Development Program

(ADP) f. Partners: Regional Water Resources Development Bureau, Wolaita Zone Admin and

LDs, Soddo and Humbo Woredas Admins and LOs and both woredas’ communities. g. Donor Agency: Government of Australia through Australia Agency for International

Development (AUSAID) with the mediation of World Vision Australia 2. Project Objectives Immediate Objective:

a. To improve access to safe water supplies and public health facilities for about 64,310 people living in Humbo and Soddo Zuria Woredas

Long-term Objectives: b. To significantly reduce the prevalence of water-borne and hygiene related diseases c. To improve communities productivity through the reduction of morbidity and

mortality rates

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3. Major Project Components Accomplished No. Particulars Unit of Measure Accomplishments Remarks 1 Pipeline

excavation, pipe laying and soil back filling

Km 129 59 KM of 6” and 4” pipes and 70 Km of 2” and 1½” pipes

2 Construction of crossing structures for pipelines

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3 Water points No. 41 4 Cattle troughs No. 10 5 Washing basins No. 38 6 Water tankers No. 2 150,000 cubic

liters each 7 Kebeles served No. 14 8 Population

served No. 64,310

Project Costs Up on completion and inauguration total project costs stood at 6.2 million Ethiopian Birr. The project was completed in three years and it was implemented by World Vision Ethiopia employees (both management and engineering staff together) with technical advice (design development and ratification in particular) and supervision from Government Offices. Community Participation • Manifested in the form of IRRR (initiation, resourcefulness, relationship and responsibility

sharing) • Labor contribution: excavation of trenches and soil back filling after pipes were laid • Material contributions: sands and stones were supplied partially by the community • Cost sharing/recovery approaches where encouraged as communities started charging for use

of water for later maintenance activities Problems and Challenges Faced During Implementation

• Initially the task of implementing Likimse Abella Water and Supply and Sanitation Project seemed impossible because there were: Rough terrains Numerous crossing gorges, gullies

• Painstaking mapping and surveying activities that were so daunting as walking on foot through those long distances were difficult

• Project of that size was not implemented in World Vision Ethiopia and the senior management had to take tough decisions to make either to proceed with or drop the project,

• Initial cool reception of the project by Government authorities because of design issues and daunting proposal of taking spring water to very long distances

• Initially no funds were committed at the initial planning stage

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• Huge and technically demanding design alteration took place to have a massive and elevated spring cap that rests on pillars sank in marshy ground

• Work slowed down because laborers faced volcanic rocks with small digging hoes • During the first year of the project implementation period drought relief occurred in

Humbo, resulting in the reduced number of laborers for digging trenches On the inauguration day most notable officials were present on the occasion and testified to the difficulties of getting Likimse Abella WatSan Project operational within less than three years. After listening to the briefings given by World Vision Ethiopia management at the inauguration ceremony, the following officials were quoted as saying:

“If it were me facing all those difficulties, I would have simply given up. We are glad, however, that Likimse has challenged us to revisit our rural water supply design and strategy.” H.E. Shiferaw Jarso, ex-Minister, Ministry of Water Resources Development “What we have learnt from Likimse is that having money and skill does not determine success – sacrifice is also required.” H.E. Hailemariam Dessalegn, ex-State President for SNNPRG

Project Impacts

Women Focused Impacts: • Time and distance traveled to fetch drinking water reduced significantly • Easy access to potable water source enabled women to have time for other productive

engagements • Minimized women workload • Number of girls going to school has now increased as fetching water from different

distances is no more a problem for them • Likimse relieved women and girls from walking at night to fetch water which often put

them at risk of rape and abduction Other Important Impacts to Note: • Horticulture and sugar cane production started/increased because of water overflow at

distribution points • Return of many villagers who had previously abandoned their home villages, e.g. Gerba

village dwellers returned to their home villages from highland areas • Improved personal hygiene due to availability of more water with washing basins and

continuous awareness training workshops on personal hygiene • Good school attendance for children as school along the pipelines have got access to clean

water • Adequate water for health institutions along the main pipelines

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Learnings and Implications for Designing and Implementing Rural Water Supply Schemes • Likimse Abella WatSan Project stretches 129 KM from its source at Likimse to the

lowland parts of Humbo Woreda covering 14 kebele administrations • It is a project with a multifaceted purpose, addressing not only communities’ drinking

water need but also is a package for addressing other socio-economic needs of the communities (by integrating such aspects as agriculture, health, education, gender, etc.).

• A community water organization strategy document developed for Likimse Abella Project has been adopted by Wolaita Zone Council for application to other similar water projects in the zone

• Administrative costs of the project were well contained (3 permanent staff working on the project while administrative backstopping was given to the project from the nearby Humbo ADP)

• With a flow up to 45.3 liters per second and drop of 100 meters at two tankers with 150,000 M3 of water each, the pipelines carry water to the lowland only using gravity – reducing huge running costs (equipment, machines, fuels, etc.)

• By using gravity to transport water Likimse stands out to be one of the giant rural water supply schemes not only in SNNPRS but also in Ethiopia.

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8. Multiple Use System(MUS):pictorial presentation and dicussions

By: Gayatree (IWMI)

What is multiple use of water?

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9. Participatory Ecological Land Use Management ( PELUM) Association in Uganda

– Association is a regional network of over 160 civil society organizations. – member organisations are in 10 countries of east, central and southern Africa. – works in the area of sustainable agriculture and Natural resource management –PELUM in Uganda PELUM Uganda is

- a network of 28 member organizations - members work together to improve the livelihoods in rural communities.

PELUM Promotes

- food security, - natural resource management and - use of indigenous knowledge. PELUM facilitates

- experiential learning through exposure visits, - topical dialogue and - debate at national and regional level. INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN UGANDA:A CASE OF LAKE GEORGE WATER BASIN PROJECT Lake George

Mid Western Uganda Bordered by 3 districts 8 landing sites

Problems

Poor access to safe drinking water and sanitation Poor health A menaced productivity of the lake Environment Degradation

Operational Objective Sustainable improvement of the living conditions of the rural population through an improved access to drinking water and sanitation Strategic objective Stimulating of IWRM in the catchments area of Lake George through an active involvement and strengthening of the civil society and local authorities.

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Strategy Action works on structures that guarantee a coherent and sustainable management of the lake and the catchments area and stimulate consultation between all stakeholders in IWRM

The three districts legally responsible for the planning, implementation and monitoring Delegated to

–Village councils –fishing communities –User committees –Farmer groups Strategy continued Projects works in close collaboration with the district and LAGBIMO LAGBIMO -Lake George Basin Management organisation Institution created by the bordering districts Staffed by the districts Aims at optimising the management of the lake resources across the district boarders Offers platform for Knowledge management Capitalisation support to the districts

Operational Approaches Implementation through WATSAN committees, BMUs, LC’s and change agents. Participatory planning and integration of project work plan into the local government plan at

s/county and district levels Use of private sector in construction work Making children a focal target group in the promotion of H & S Setting up of household H & S demos and institutional structures Institutional development and sustainability of the infrastructure.

Beneficiaries The project targets communities living on the 8 landing sites and in the rural areas around the lake Implementation Progress Water hygiene and sanitation development 08 shallow wells, 03 Improved spring 02 rain water harvesting tank, 08 eco-san latrine in households 01 institutional eco-san at the landing site 02 pit latrines in schools 01 pit latrine at the market 07 H & S demo facilities (dish racks, bathing shelter, hand washing facilities and compost pits 01 garbage skip at the market

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Implementation Progress Consultative / review meetings –Initial sensitisation meeting at the s/county and village level (signing of M.O.U’s –07 Consultative meetings at village level on allocation of household H&S demos. –Planning Meetings in the two primary schools –Sustainability strategic meeting with stakeholders Achievements Involvement of local government participation in participatory planning, monitoring of programme progress –Promotion of non-polluting sanitation technologies such as eco-san latrines. –Raising awareness on sources of pollution in and around lake George basin Challenges

Slow behavioural change within communities Difficult in securing commitment from local government officials Migratory behaviour of landing site dwellers. Inability to access men on the landing sites during the day

The child-to –child approach in schools leaves out many non school going children

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iii. Closing Speech By Mr. Jemal Reshid, Head of Water resources Development Bureau, SNNPRS

Your Excellency the Ambassador of Czech Republic Dear Participants of the Workshop Ladies and Gentlemen!! It gives me great pleasure to be here at this remarkable occasion of the International Workshop on: "Water Supply and Integrated Water Resources Management" organized at Hawassa University. As you all know, the issue of Integrated Water Resources Management is becoming a global concern to meet and/or to over come the ever increasing and competing demand for different uses over the scarce water resources. The need for integrated water resources management is increasing from time to time since it has been recognized at a tool to ensure equitable, efficient and sustainable uses of the scarce water resources we have thereby meeting the different water supply demands. This is part of the in our case we can take this us part of NMDG & PASDEP. In line with this, you the scholars and also our useful stakeholders in water sector, have been brain storming and discussing for the last 3 days in order to draft the ways and means of dissemination of research Results and technologies so that they reach the end users. The workshop mainly focused on topics such as water supply and integrated resources management issues, irrigation development and management, aspects of knowledge sharing, researching to use, knowledge gap, dissemination and action planning which are areas of the most attention to foster integrated water resources management. I am confident to say that workshop has met its higher objectives and to this end I do congratulate all of you for the successful completion of the workshop. I hope your outcomes will reach the beneficiaries including our water sector and will have a profound impact on the end users. Lastly I feel very honoured to have the chance to make this closing remark and I would like to take this opportunity to thank BOKU-University of Austria - the initiator of this Water Project; The European Union - the funding organization for this project; The partners in this project: Namely;

1. University of Hawassa 2. University of Haromaya 3. University of Mekelle 4. Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research 5. International Water management Institute 6. PELUM - Uganda 7. Egerten University of Kenya 8. University of Agriculture, Prague, Czech 9. Cran field University of Technology, England and

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The Participants, Namely;

- The Office of President: Hawassa University - SNNPRS Bureau of Agriculture and Natural resources Development - SNNPRS Bureau of Water Resources Development - The Research Institute, - Farmers - Consultants - NGOs for their invaluable participation for the successful

completion of the workshop. Last but not least, I would like to thank the hosting University and the organizing committee for the efforts made to make the workshop a success. Now we have come to last point of the workshop and I officially declare that the workshop has ended and I wish you a safe trip back home. Thank you!