8/8/2019 Harvey (1972)

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/harvey-1972 1/13

REVOLUTIONARY THEORY

R E V O L U T IO N A R Y A N D C O U N T E R R E V OL U TIO N A R Y

T H E O R Y I N G EO G R AP HY A N D T H E P R O B LE M O FG H E T T O F O R M A T I O N

D a v i d H a r v e y

The J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y

How and why wou l d we b r i n g abou t a rev o l u t i o n i n geog raph i c t hou gh t? To ga i n some i n s i g h t

i n t o t h i s q u e s t i on i t s w o r th e x a m in i ng how r e v o l u t i o n s a nd c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n s o c c u r i n a l l

b ra nc he s o f s c i e n t i f i c t h ou g h t.

as i t o c cu rs i n t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n ce s . He s u gg e st s t h a t m o st s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y i s w ha t he

c a l l s n orm al s c i e n c e w h ic h amounts t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a l l f a c e t s o f a p a r t i c u l a r p a ra di gm

( a p ar a d i g m b e i n g t h o u g h t of a s a s e t o f c o n ce p ts , c a t e g o r i e s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a nd m et ho ds , w h i c h

a r e g e n e r a l l y a cc e pt ed t h ro u gh o ut t h e s c i e n t i f i c c om mu nity a t a g i v e n p o i n t i n t i m e ) .

p r o c e s s o f n o rm a l s c i e n c e c e r t a i n a n o m a li e s a r i s e , o b s e r v a t i o n s o r p a ra d ox e s w h i c h ca n n o t be

r e s o lv e d w i t h i n a n e x i s t i n g p ara dig m. T he se a n o m al ie s i n c r e a s i n g l y become t h e f o c u s o f a t t e n -

t i o n u n t i l s c i en c e i s p l un g ed i n t o a p e r i o d of c r i s i s i n w h ic h s p e c u l a t iv e a t te m pt s a r e made t o

s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m s p os ed b y t h e a n o m a l ie s . E v e n t u a l l y t h e r e a r i s e s o u t o f th e s e a t te m p t s a new

s e t o f c o nc e p ts , c a t e g o r i e s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d m eth od s, w h i c h s u c c e s s f u l l y r e s o l v e t h e e x i s t -

i n g d ile mm as a s w e l l a s s u c c e s s f u l l y i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e w o r t h w h i l e a s p e c ts o f t h e o l d p a ra di gm .

Thus a new para dig m i s b o r n t o b e fo l l o w e d o n c e m or e b y t h e o n se t o f n o rm al s c i e n t i f i c

a c t i v i t y . ' K u h n' s schema i s o pe n t o c r i t i c i s m o n a nu mb er o f gr o un d s. I s h a l l d i s c u s s t wo

p r o b l e m s v e r y b r i e f l y . F i rs t l y , t h e r e i s n o e x p l a n a t i o n a s t o how a n o m a li e s a r i s e an d how,

o nc e t h e y h av e a r i s e n , t h e y g e n e r a t e c r i s e s .

tw een s i g n i f i c a n t and i n s i g n i f i c a n t a n o m al ie s . Thus i t was k no wn f o r many y e a r s t h a t t h e o r b i t

o f M e rc ur y d i d n o t f i t i n t o N e wt on 's c a l c u l a t i o n s y e t t h i s a n om aly was i n s i g n i f i c a n t b e ca use i t

had no r e le va nc e when i t came t o t h e u s e o f t h e N e w to n ia n s y st e m i n a n ev e r y d a y c o n t e x t .

o n t h e o t h e r h an d, c e r t a i n an om a li es h ad a r i s e n i n , s ay , b r i d g e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e n t h e y ob -

v i o u s l y w o u l d h a v e b e e n h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t .

a n d u n c h a l l e n g e d u n t i l s o me t hi ng o f p r a c t i c a l i m p o r ta n c e an d r e l e v a n c e c o u l d n o t b e a ccom -

p l i s h e d u s i n g t h e Ne w to n ia n s ys te m . S e co n d ly , t h e r e i s t h e q u e st io n , n ev er s a t i s f a c t o r i l y

answered by Kuhn, con cern ing th e way i n which a new parad igm comes to be accep ted.

m i t s t h a t a c c e p t a n c e i s n o t a m a t t e r o f l o g i c and he t h e r e f o r e s u gg e st s t h a t i t i n v o l v e s a

l ea p o f f a i t h .

w h ic h i s n e ve r e x p l i c i t l y e xa min ed . T h i s g u i d i n g f o r c e a mo un ts t o a fu nd a me n ta l b e l i e f i n th e

v i r t u e s o f c o n t r o l and m a n i p u l a t io n o f t h e n a t u r a l e n vi ro n me n t and t h e l e a p o f f a i t h , t he n, i s

b as ed on t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e new s ys te m w i l l a l l o w a n e x te n s io n o f m a n i p u l a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l

o v e r s ome a s p e c t o f n a t u r e . Presumably once aga in i t w i l l be an

a s pe c t o f n a t u r e w hi ch i s i m p o r ta n t i n te rm s o f e v er yd a y a c t i v i t y a nd e ve ry da y l i f e as i t ex -

i s t s a t a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t i n h i s t o ry .

Thomas Kuhn p r o v i d e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h i s phenomenon

D u r i n g t h e

T h i s c r i t i c i s m ca n be m et b y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e -

I f ,

Thus th e Newton i an pa rad i gm rem a ined sa t i s fa c t o r y

Kuhn ad-

A l e a p o f f a i t h b as ed o n w h at ? U n d e r l y i n g K uh n's a n a l y s i s i s a g u i d i n g f o r c e

W h i c h a s p e c t o f n a t u r e ?

8/8/2019 Harvey (1972)

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/harvey-1972 2/13

The c e n t r a l c r i t i c i s m o f Kuhn w hi ch t he s e tw o ca se s p o i n t t o , i s h i s a b s t r a c t i o n o f s c i e n t -

i f i c knowledge from i t s m a t e r i a l i s t i c b a s i s .

s c i e n t i f i c a dva nce me nt when i t s c l e a r t h a t s c i e n t i f i c t h o ug h t i s fu n da m en ta ll y g e are d t o

m a t e r ia l a c t i v i t i e s .

been exp lo red by J.D. B e rn a l. 2 M a t e r i a l a c t i v i t y i n v o l v e s t h e m a n i p u l at i o n o f n a t u r e i n t h e

i n t e r e s t s o f man a nd s c i e n t i f i c u n d er s ta n d in g c a n no t b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n de p en d en t o f t h a t g e ne ra l

t h r u s t . B u t a t t h i s j u n c t u r e we a r e f o rc e d t o add a f u r t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e be ca use ' t h e i n t e r e s to f man' i s s u b j e c t t o a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d e pe n di ng u po n w h i c h gr ou p o f men we a r e t h i n k -

i n g o f . B e rn a l t hu s p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e s ci e nc e s i n t h e West ha ve , u n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y , b een t h e

p r e se r ve o f a m i d d l e -c l a s s g ro up a nd e ve n r e c e n tl y , w i t h t h e r i s e o f wh at i s o f t e n c a l l e d t h e

' m e ri t oc r a cy ' , t h e s c i e n t i s t i s i n v a r i a b l y dra wn i n t o m i d d le - c la s s ways o f l i f e and th o ug h t d u r -

i n g t h e c o u rs e of h i s c a r e e r. We m ust th u s ex p ec t t h e n a t u ra l s ci en ce s t a c i t l y t o r e f l e c t a

d r i v e f o r m a n i p u l at i o n and c o n t r o l o v e r th o s e a s pe ct s o f n a t u re w hi ch a r e r e l e v a n t t o c a p i t a l i s t

en t rep reneurs . Fa r more impo r t an t , however , i s t h e ha rness ing of s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y , b y a p r o-

c es s o f p a t ro n a g e a nd fu nd ed r e s ea r c h, t o t h e s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s o f t h o se who a r e i n c o n t r o l o f t h e

means o f p r o d u c t i o n. The c o a l i t i o n o f i n d u s t r y a nd g ov er nm en t h e a v i l y d i r e c t s s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y .

Thus m a n i p u l a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l mean m a n i p u l a t i o n a nd c o n t r o l i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a p a r t i c u l a r g rou p

i n s o c i e t y r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f s o c i e t y as a w ho le .3 W i th t h e se p e r s p e c ti v e s we a r e

f a r b e t t e r a b l e t o u n d e rs ta n d t h e g e n er a l t h r u s t o f s c i e n t i f i c advancement h i dd e n w i t h i n t h e r e -

c u r r e n t s c i e n t i f i c r e v o l u t i o n s w h ic h Kuhn so p e r c e p t i v e l y d e s cr i be d .

I t h as f r e q u e n t l y b ee n q u e s t io n e d w h e th e r o r n o t K u h n' s a n a l y s i s c o u l d b e e xt en d ed t o t h e

s o c i a l s c ie n ce s . Kuhn a pp ea rs t o t a k e t h e v i ew t h a t t h e s o c i a l s c ie n c es a r e ' p r e - s c i e n t i f i c ' i n

t h e s en se t h a t no one s o c i a l s c i e n c e ha s r e a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t c o rp u s o f g e n e r a l l y a c c ep t ed co n -

cep t s , ca teg or ies , r e l a t i on sh ips , and methods wh ich f o rm a pa rad igm.

s c ie n c es as b e i n g p r e - s c i e n t i f i c i s i n f a c t q u i t e g en er al among p h il os o ph e rs o f ~ c i e n c e . ~ u t a

q u i c k s u rv e y o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h o u g h t i n t h e s o c i a l s c ie n c es shows t h a t r e v o l u t i o n s d o in d ee d

occur and t h a t such occur rences a re marked by many o f t he same f ea tu res wh ich Kuhn id e n t i f i e d i n

t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n ce s .

f o r economic t hough t, wh ich was subsequen t l y b u i l t upon by R ica rdo .

ce ed ed i n d o in g so me th in g e s s e n t i a l l y s i m i l a r .

o l u t i o n s i n t h o u g h t i n ec on om ic s a n d h i s a n a l y s i s i n many r e s pe c t s p a r a l l e l s t h a t o f K u hn 's w i t h ,

h ow ev er , a c o u p l e o f e x t r a t w i s t s t o i t .

a s s e r t s, was a c r i s i s g e n e ra te d b y t h e f a i l u r e o f pre -Keynes ian economics t o dea l w i t h t he mos t

p r e s s i n g a nd s i . g n i f i c a n t p r o b le m o f t h e 1 9 3 0 's - namely, unemployment. Unemployment pr ov id ed a

s i g n i f i c a n t anoma ly . Thus Johnson sugges t s t ha t :

Kuhn pr o v id e s an i d e a l i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

T h i s m a t e r i a l i s t i c b a s i s f o r t h e a dva ncem ent o f s c i e n t i f i c kn ow le dg e has

T h i s v ie w o f t h e s o c i a l

T h er e i s n o q u e s t i o n t h a t Adam S mi t h p r o v i d e d a p a r a d i g m a t i c f o r m u l a t i o n

I n modern t im es Keynes suc-

Joh nso n, i n a r e c e n t a r t i c l e , e x p l o r e s s uc h r e v -

A t t h e h e a r t o f t h e K e y ne s ia n r e v o l u t i o n , J oh ns on

b y f a r t h e mo st h e l p f u l c i rc u m st a nc e f o r t h e r a p i d p r o p a g a t i o n o f a new and r e v o l u t i o n a r yt h e or y i s t h e e x i s te n c e o f an e s t a b li s h e d o rt ho d ox y w hi ch i s c l e a r l y i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h emost s a l i e n t f a c ts o f r e a l i t y , and y e t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y c o nf id e nt o f i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l power t o

a t t em p t t o e x p l a i n th os e f ac t s, and i n i t s e f f o r t s t o d o so exposes i t s i ncompetence i n al u d i c r o u s f a s h i o n .5

Thu s o b j e c t i v e s o c i a l r e a l i t i e s o f t h e t i m e o v e r t o o k t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l wisdom a nd s e rv e d t o e xp os e

i t s f a i l i n gs :

I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n o f g e n e ra l c o n f u s i o n and o bv io u s i r r e l e v a n c e o f o rt h od o x e co no mics t or e a l p ro bl em s, t h e way was o pe n f o r a new t h e o r y t h a t o f f e r e d a c o n v i n c i n g e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h en a t u r e o f t h e p r o bl e m a nd a s e t o f p o l i c y p r e s c r i p t i o n s b a s e d o n t h a t e x p l a n a t i o n .

2

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http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/harvey-1972 3/13

So f a r , t h e s i m i l a r i t y t o Kuhn i s q u i t e r em a rk ab le .

s i d e r a t i o n s some of w h ic h r e a l l y s te m fro m t h e s o c i o l og y o f s c i en c e i t s e l f .

t h a t t o b e a c c e p t e d a t h e o r y n ee ds t o p o ss es s f i v e m ai n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

But Johnson then adds cer ta in new con-

He thus suggests

F i r s t , i t had t o a t t a c k t h e c e n t r a l p r o p o s i t i o n o f c o n s e r v a t iv e o rt h od o xy .. . i t h a newb u t a c a d e m i c a l l y a c c ep t a b l e a n a l y s i s t h a t r e v e r s e d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n ... econd, th e th eo ry hadt o a pp ea r t o b e new, y e t a b so rb a s much as p o s s i b l e o f t h e v a l i d o r a t l e a s t n o t r e a d i l yd i s p u t a b l e c om po ne nt s o f e x i s t i n g o r t h od o x t h e o r y . I n t h i s p ro ce ss , i t h e l p s g r e a t l y t og i ve o l d concepts new and con fus ing names, and t o emphas ize as c ru c i a l a n a l y t i c a l s t e p s t h a t

h av e p r e v i o u s l y b e en t a k e n a s p l a t i t u d i n o u s ... Th i r d , th e new theo r y had to hav e th e ap -p r o p r i a t e d e gr ee o f d i f f i c u l t y t o understand...^^ t h a t s e n i o r a ca de mic c o l l e a g u e s w ou ld f i n di t n e i t h e r ea sy n o r w o rt h w h i l e t o s tu d y, s o t h a t t h e y w ou ld wa st e t h e i r e f f o r t s o n p er -i p h e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l issues , and so o f f e r th em s el ve s a s ea sy m ar ks f o r c r i t i c i s m a nd d i s -m i s s a l b y t h e i r yo u ng e r a nd h u n g r i e r c o l l e a g u e s . A t th e same t im e t he new theo ry had toa pp ea r b o t h d i f f i c u l t enough t o ch a l le n g e t he i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t o f y ou ng er c o l l e ag u e sa nd st u d e n t s , b u t a c t u a l l y e a sy enough f o r them t o m a s t er a d e q u a t e ly w i t h s u f f i c i e n t i n -v es tm e nt o f i n t e l l e c t u a l e n de av or .. . F o u r th , t h e new t h e o r y h a d t o o f f e r t o t h e more g i f t e dand l es s op po r tu n i s t i c s c ho la r s a new me thodology mor e appea l i ng t han thos e c u r r en t l ya v a i l a b l e . . . F i n a l l y , ( i t had t o o f f e r ) an i m p o rt a n t e m p i r i ca l r e l a t i o n s h i p . . . t o m easure.

The h i s t o r y o f g e og ra ph ic t h o ug h t i n t h e l a s t t e n y e a rs i s e x a c t l y m i r ro r e d i n t h i s a n a l y s i s .

The c e n t r a l p r o p o s i t i o n o f t h e o l d g e og ra ph y was t h e q u a l i t a t i v e an d t h e u n iq u e a nd t h i s

c l e a r l y c o u ld n o t r e s i s t t h e d r i v e i n t h e s o c i a l s ci en ce s a s a w ho le t o wa rd s t o o l s o f s o c i a l

m a n i p u l a t i o n an d c o n t r o l w h i c h r e q u i r e d an u n de r s t a n d in g o f t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e and t h e g e n e r a l .

T h er e ca n be no d o u b t e i t h e r t h a t d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n p r o ce s s o l d c on c ep t s we re g i v e n new

and con fus ing names and tha t f a i r l y p l a t i t u d i n o u s a ss um p ti on s we re s u b j e c t t o r i g o r o u s

a n a l y t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

a ll ow e d t h e op p o r t u n it y t o p i l l o r y t h e e l d e r s t at es me n i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e p a r t i c u l a r l y when-

e v e r t h e y v e n t u r e d i n t o i ss u e s r e l a t e d t o t h e n e w l y e m er gi ng o r t h o d o xy . C e r t a i n l y , t h e

qu an t i ta t i v e movement p r ov i ded a c h a l l e n g e o f a p p r o p r i a t e d i f f i c u l t y and opened u p t h e p r os -

pec t f o r new me thodo log ies many o f w h i ch w e re t o be qu i te r ew a r d ing i n ter ms o f t he an -

a l y t i c i n s i g h t s t h e y g en er at ed .

d i s tan c e decay fun c t i o n , th e th r es h o ld and the r ange o f a good , and the measu rement o f

s p a t i a l p a t t e r n , we found th r ee appa r e n t l y c r u c i a l new em p i r i c a l t o p i c s w hi c h we c ou ld s pend

an i no r d ina te amoun t o f t i m e i n v e s t i g a t i n g .

p r e te d p a r t l y i n te rm s o f a c h a l l e n g i n g new s e t o f i d e a s t o b e a nsw ere d, p a r t l y as a r a t h e r

s ha bb y s t r u g g l e f o r p ow er and s t a t u s w i t h i n a d i s c i p l i n a r y fr am ew or k, a nd p a r t l y as a

r es p on s e t o o u t s i d e p r e s su r e s t o come u p w i t h m eans f o r m a n i p u l a t i o n a nd c o n t r o l i n wh at may

b r o a d l y be d e f i n e d as ' t h e p l a n n in g f i e l d . ' I n ca se a n yo ne m i s i n t e r p r e t s my remarks as

p o i n t i n g a f i n g e r a t one p a r t i c u l a r g ro up, l e t me s ay t h a t a l l o f us we re i n v o l v e d i n t h i s

process and t h a t t he re was and i s no way i n wh ich we co u l d and can escape such invo lvem ent .

Johnson a l s o i n tr o d uc e s t he te rm ' c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n ' i n t o h i s a n a l ys i s . I n t h i s

r e ga r d h i s t h o u g ht i s n o t v e r y e n l i g h t e n i n g s i n c e he c l e a r l y h as an ax e t o g r i n d a g a i n s t

the mone ta r i s t s whom he des igna tes as c ou n te r - r e v o l u t i o na r i es even though a s i g n i f i c a n t

a no ma ly ( t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n f l a t i o n and u ne mp lo ym en t) e x i s t s a s a p r e s s i n g c h a l l e n g e t o

the Keynesian o r thodox y . Bu t the r e i s s om e th in g v e ry i m p o r t a n t t o t h i s n o t i o n w h ic h r e -

q u i r e s a n a l y s i s , f o r i t seems i n t u i t i v e l y p l a u s i b l e t o t h i n k o f t h e movement o f i de a s i n

t h e s o c i a l s c i en c e s a s a m ovem ent ba se d on r e v o l u t i o n an d c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n i n c o n t r a s t

t o t h e n a t u r a l s c i en c e s t o w hi ch s u ch a n o t i o n d oe s n o t a p p ea r t o b e so i m m e d i a t e l y a p p l i c -

ab le .

ad igm f o r m a t i o n i n t h e n a t u r a l s c ienc es . Tha t pa r adigm fo r m a t i o n i s bas ed on the ex tens i on

6

Nor can i t be d en ie d t h a t t h e s o - c a ll e d q u a n t i t a t i v e r e v o l u t i o n

Las t l y , new th in gs t o meas ur e w e re i n abundanc e and i n the

The qu an t i ta t i v e movemen t c an thus be i n te r -

,

Me ca n a n a l y z e t h e p henom ena o f c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n b y u s i n g o u r i n s i g h t i n t o p a r -

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o f t h e a b i l i t y t o m an i p ul a te and c o n t r o l na tu ra l l y oc cur r i n g phenomena. S i m i la r l y , we can

a n t i c i p a t e t h a t t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e b e hi nd p ara dig m f o r m a ti o n i n t h e s o c ia l s ci en c es i s t h e

m a n i p u l a t i o n a nd c o n t r o l o f human a c t i v i t y a n d s o c i a l phenomena i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f man.

I m n e d i a t e l y t h e q u e s t i o n a r i s e s a s t o who i s g o i n g t o c o n t r o l whom, i n whose i n t e r e s t i s t h e

c o n t r o l l i n g go i n g t o b e, and if o n t r o l i s e x er ci se d i n th e i n t e r e s t o f a l l , who i s g oi ng t o

t a k e i t up on t he ms el ve s t o d e f i n e t h a t p u b l i c i n t e r e s t ? We a r e th u s f o r c e d t o c o n f r o n t

d i r e c t l y i n t h e s o c ia l s ci en ce s wh at a r i s e s o n l y i n d i r e c t l y i n t he na tu r a l sc iences , namely,t h e s o c i a l b a se s a nd i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c o n t r o l a nd m a n i p u l a t i o n . We w o ul d b e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y

f o o l i s h t o p re su pp os e t h a t t h e se ba se s a r e e q u i t a b l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y . Our

h i s t o r y u p u n t i l t h e p r e se n t t im e shows t h a t t h e y a r e u s u a l l y h i g h l y c o n c e n tr a te d w i t h i n a

few key groupings i n s o c i e t y . T he se gr ou p s may b e b e n e v o l e n t o r e x p l o i t a t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t

t o o t h e r g ro up s. T h is , h owe ver, i s n o t t h e i s s u e . The p o i n t i s t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n ce fo r m-

u l a t e s co n ce p ts , c a t e g o r i e s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a nd m eth od s, w h i c h a r e n o t i n d ep e n d e nt o f t h e

e x i s t i n g s o c i al r e l a t i o n s h i p s wh ic h e x i s t i n s o ci e ty .

s e l v e s t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e v e r y phenomena t h e y a r e d e s i g ne d t o d e s c r i b e .

the or y upon which a new paradigm i s based w i l l on ly ga in genera l acceptance i f t h e n a t u r e

o f t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e mbodied i n t h e t h e o ry a r e a c t u a l i z e d i n t h e r e a l w o rl d.

c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y i s on e w h ic h i s d e l i b e r a t e l y p ro po se d t o d e a l w i t h a p ro po se d

r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y i n su c h a ma nn er t h a t t h e t h r e a t e n e d s o c i a l c ha ng es w hi c h g e n e r a l

a c ce p ta n ce o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y w o u ld g e n e ra t e a r e , e i t h e r b y c o o p t a t i o n o r su b-

v e r s i on , p r e v e n te d f r o m b e i n g r e a l i z e d .

p l i c i t l y be exa min ed b y s t u d y i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b et we en t h e p o l i t i c a l economy o f Adam

Smith and Ricardo on the one hand, and Kar l Marx on the ot he r . I n t h i s r e g a r d E ng el s, i n

t he P re face t o Volume I 1 o f C a p i t a l , p r o v i d e s some q u i t e e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n s i g h t s .

was t h e charge t h a t Marx had p l ag ia r i ze d t h e t heory o f su r p lu s va lue . Marx, however , had

c le a r l y acknowledged t h a t bo th Adam Smi th and R ica rdo had d i scussed and p a r t i a l l y under -

s t o o d t h e n a t u r e o f s u r p l u s v a l u e .

u t t e r a n c e s o n s u r p l u s v a l u e a nd how i t was t h a t M a rx ' s t h e o r y o f s u r p l u s v a l u e ' s t r u c k home

l i k e a th u n d e r b ol t o u t o f a c l e a r s k y . I7 To e x p l a i n t h i s E ng els r e s o r t e d t o a n a na lo gy

w i t h a n i n c i d e n t i n th e h i s t o r y o f ch e m i st r y w hic h, q u i t e c o i n c i d e n ta l l y , t u r n s o u t t o b e

one o f t h e i n s p i r a t i o n s f o r K uh n's t h e s i s r e g a r d i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e o f r e v o l u t i o n s i n n a t u r a l

s ci en ce .8 The i n c i d e n t c on ce rn s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tw ee n L a v o i s i e r a nd P r i e s t l e y i n t h e

d i s c o v e r y o f o xy ge n.

e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e be tw ee n them was, how ever, t h a t P r i e s t l e y i n s i s t e d f o r t h e r e s t o f h i s

l i f e i n se ek in g t o i n t e r p r e t h i s r e s u l t s i n te rm s o f t h e o l d p h l o gi s to n t h e or y and he t he re -

f o re c a l l e d h i s d i s co v e ry ' d e p h l o g i s t i c a t e d a i r ' .

d i s c o v e r y c o u l d n o t be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h e o l d p h l o g i s t o n t h e o r y a s i t was and, as a co n-

sequence , was ab le t o rec on s t r uc t t he t h eo re t i ca l f ramework o f chemis t r y on a comp le te l y new

bas i s . Thus bo th Engels and Kuhn sugges t t h a t Lavo is i e r was t he ' r e a l d i sc ove re r o f oxygen

v is - a -v i s t h e o th e rs who had on ly p roduced i t wi th ou t know ing wha t t hey had p roduced . '

Thus the concepts used are them-

A r e v o l u t i o n a r y

A

T h i s p r oc es s o f r e v o l u t i o n and c o u n t e r- r e v ol u t io n i n s o c i a l sc ience can mos t ex -

A t i s sue ,

Thus Enge ls se t s o u t t o ex p l a in wha t was new i n Marx ' s

B o th r a n s i m i l a r e xp e ri m en ts a nd pr od uc ed s i m i l a r r e s u l t s . The

L a v o i s i e r , h ow eve r, r e c o g n iz e d t h a t h i s

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Enge ls c on t i nues :

M arx s t an d s i n t h e same r e l a t i o n t o h i s p re d ec e ss or s i n t h e t h e o r y o f s u r p l u s v a l u e asL a v o i si e r s to o d t o P r i e s t l e y . . . The e x i s t e n c e o f t h a t . p a r t o f t h e v a l u e o f p r o d u c t s wh ic hwe now c a l l s u r p lus - v a lue had been as c e r ta i n ed l o ng be fo r e Ma rx . I t had a l s o been s ta tedw i t h m ore o r l e s s p r e c i s i o n w ha t i t c o n s is t e d o f ... u t one d i d n o t g e t a ny f u r t h e r . . .( a l l e c onomis ts ) r emained p r i s on e r s o f the ec onomic c a te go r i es as they had come down tothem. And he to o k a vi e w d i r e c t l y o p p o s i t e t o t h a t o fa l l h i s p redec es s or s . What they had r ega r ded as a s o lu t i o n , he c ons ide r ed bu t a p r ob lem.He saw t h a t h e had t o d e al n e i t h e r w i t h d e p h l o g i s t i c a t e d a i r n o r w i t h f i r e a i r , b u t w i t h

oxygen - t h a t h e r e i t was n o t s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f s t a t i n g an econ om ic f a c t o r o f p o i n t i n go u t t h e c o n f l i c t b etw ee n t h i s f a c t a nd e t e r n a l j u s t i c e and m o r a l i t y , b u t o f e x p l a in i n g af a c t w h i ch was d e s t i n e d t o r e v o l u t i o n i z e a l l e co no mic s, a nd w h i ch o f f e r e d t o h i m who knewhow to use i t t h e k ey t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a 17 c a p i t a l i s t p r od u ct io n .h i s s t a r t i n g p o i n t h e examined a l l t h e ec onomic c a t ego r i es w h i c h he found a t hand , j u s tas L a v o i s i e r p r o ce e d in g fr o m o xy ge n had e xa mined t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f p h l o g i s t i c c h e m i ~ t r y . ~

Now Marx appeared upon the scene.

With t h i s f a c t as

The Ma r x i s t t heo r y was c l e a r l y dange rous i n t h a t i t a p pe a re d t o p r o v i d e t h e k e y t o u n d er -

s t a nd i ng c a p i t a l i s t p r o d uc t i on f r o m t h e p o i n t of v ie w o f t ho se n o t i n c o n t r o l o f t h e means

o f p r o d u c t i o n and c o n se q u e n tl y t h e c a t e g o r i e s , concepts , e la t i o ns h ip s , and methods w hi c h

h ad t h e p o t e n t i a l t o f o r m a p a ra d i gm w er e a n enorm ous t h r e a t t o t h e po we r s t r u c t u r e o f t h e

c a p i t a l i s t w o r l d . T he s ub se q ue nt e m er g e nc e * of t h e m a r g i n a l t h e o r y o f v a l u e d i d a way w i t h

much o f t h e b a s i c s o f S m i t h ' s and R i c a rd o ' s a n a l y s i s ( i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e l a b o r t h e o r y o f

v a l u e ) and a l s o i n c i d e n t a l l y s e rv e d t o t u r n back t h e M a r x i s t c h a l le n g e i n e co no mi cs . The

c o u n t e r - r e v o lu t i o n a r y c o o p t a t i o n o f M a r x i s t t h e o r y i n R u s si a a f t e r L e n i n ' s de a t h, a nd t h e

s i m i l a r c o u n t e r - r e v o lu t i o n a r y c o o p t a t i o n o f m uch o f t h e M a r x i s t l a ng ua ge i n t o W e st er n

s o c i o l o g y ( s o much so t h a t some s o c i o l o g i s t s s u g ge s t t h a t "we a r e a l l M a r x i s t s n o w'') w i t h -

o u t c o n ve y in g t h e es se nc e o f M a r x i s t t h i n k i n g , h as e f f e c t i v e l y p r ev e nt e d th e t r u e f l o w e r i n g

o f M a r x i s t t h o u g h t a nd c o n c o m i t a n t l y t h e e me rg enc e o f t h a t h u m a n i s t i c s o c i e t y wh

e n vi sa g ed . B o t h t h e c on c e pt s a nd t h e p r o j e c t e d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e mb od ie d i n

w e r e f r u s t r a t e d .

R e v o lu t i o n and c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n i n t ho ug ht a r e t h e r e f o r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o

This may

s ci en ce s i n a manner w h ic h i s n o t a p p a r en t l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f n a t u r a l s ci en ce .

i n t ho ug ht c an no t u l t i m a t e l y b e d iv o r ce d f r om r e v o l u t i o n s i n p r a c t i c e .

ch Marx

the concepts

t h e s o c i a l

Revol uti ns

p o i n t t o t he

c o n c lu s i on t h a t s o c i a l s ci en ce s a re in de ed i n a p r e - s c i e n t i f i c s t a t e . T h i s c o nc l us i on i s

i l l - f o u n d e d , h ow ev er , s i n c e t h e n a t u r a l s c i en c e s ha ve ne v e r b ee n w r e s te d f o r a ny l e n g t h o f

t i m e o u t o f t h e c o n t r o l o f a r e s t r i c t e d i n t e r e s t gr ou p and i t i s t h i s f a c t r a t h e r t h an a n yt h in g

i n h e r e n t i n t h e n a t u r e o f n a t u r a l s c ie n ce k no wled ge i t s e l f w hi ch a c co un ts f o r t h e l a c k o f

c o u n te r - re v o l ut i o ns i n t h e n a t u r a l s c ie nc es . I n o t h e r w ord s t h e r e v o l u t i o n s o f t h ou gh t t h a t

a r e a cc om pl is he d pose no t h r e a t t o t h e e x i s t i n g o rd e r s i n c e t h e y a r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h t h e r e -

q ui re m en ts o f t h a t e x i s t i n g o rd e r b r o a dl y i n m in d. T h i s i s n o t t o s ay t h a t t h e r e a r e n o t some

u nc om f or ta bl e s o c i a l p ro ble ms t o r e s o l v e en r o ut e , f o r s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o ve r y i s n o t p r e d i c t a b l e

and i t c an t h e r e f o r e be t h e s ou r c e o f s o c i a l t e n s i o n . What t h i s s u g g e st s h ow ev er, i s t h a t t h e

n a t u r a l sc i en c es a r e i n a p r e - s o c i a l s t a t e . Thus q ue s t i o ns o f s o c i a l a c t i o n and s o c i a l

c o n t r o l , w h ic h t h e te c hn i qu e s o f n a t u r a l s c i e nc e f r e q u e n t l y h e l p t o r e s o l v e , a r e n o t i n c o r p o r -

a te d i n t o n a t u r a l s c ie n c e i t s e l f . I n f a c t t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n f e t i s h i s m a bo u t k ee pi ng them o u t

s i n c e i n c o r p o r a t i n g them w i l l s up po se dl y ' b i a s ' r e s e a rc h co nd uc te d a t t h e b e h e st o f t h e e x i s t -

i n g s o c i a l o r d e r.

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s s e r i o u s l y a r e r e a l i nd ee d. C o n tr a ry t o p o p u la r o p i n io n , t h e re f o r e, i t seems

a p p r o p r i a t e t o c on cl ud e t h a t t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c ienc e i s i n g en e r a l much s u p e r i o r t o

The consequen t mo r a l di lemmas f o r thos e s c ie n t i s t s who tak e th e i r s o c ia l

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t h a t o f n a t u r a l s c ie n c e and t h a t t h e e ve n tu a l f u s i o n o f t h e tw o f i e l d s o f s t u dy w i l l not come

a b o u t t h r o u g h a t te m p ts t o ' s c i e n t i z e ' s o c i a l s c ie n ce , b u t w i l l i n s te a d r e q u i r e t h e s o c i a l i z a -

t i o n o f n a t u ra l -s c ie n ce . l0 Th is may mean t h e rep lacement o f man ip u la t i on and con t ro l by t he

r e a l i z a t i o n o f human p o t e n t i a l as t h e b a s i c c r i t e r i o n f o r p a ra di gm ac ce pt an ce .

e v e nt a l l a s p ec ts o f s c ie n c e w i l l e x p er i en c e b o t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y a nd c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y

phases of tho ug ht which w i l l u n d ou b t ed l y b e a s s o c i a te d w i t h r e v o l u t i o n s a nd c o u n t e r - r e v o lu -

t i o n s i n s o c i a l p r a c t i c e .How and why would we b r i n g about a re vo lu t i on

i n g e og r ap h ic t h ou g h t? The q u a n t i t a t i v e r e v o l u t i o n ha s r u n i t s c ou r se and d i m i n i s h i n g m a r g in a l

r e t u r n s a r e ap p a re n t ly s e t t i n g i n a s y e t a n o th e r p i e c e o f f a c t o r i a l e co lo gy , y e t a n o th e r a t -

t e m p t t o me as ur e t h e d i s t a n c e d ec ay e f fe c t , y e t a n o th e r a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y t h e r a n g e o f a good,

s erv e t o t e l l us l e s s and l e s s a bo u t a n y t h in g o f g r e a t r e le v an c e. I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e

y ou ng er p e o pl e now, a m b i t i o u s a s t h e q u a n t i f i e r s w ere i n t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s , a l i t t l e hu ng ry ,

somewhat s t a r v e d o f i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g s t o d o. So t h e r e a r e m urmurs o f d i s c o n t e n t w i t h i n t h e

s o c ia l s t r u c t u r e of t h e d i s c i p l i n e as t h e q u a n t i f i e r s e s t a b l i s h a f i r m g r i p on t h e ' p r o d u ct i o n '

o f g r a d ua t e s t u d e n t s a n d o n t h e c u r r i c u l a of v a r i o u s d e pa rt me n ts . T h i s s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n

w i t h i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o j u s t i f y a r e v o lu t i o n i n th ou gh t ( no r sh ou ld i t be)b u t t h e c o n d i t i o n i s t h e re . More i mp o rt an t, t h e r e i s a c l e a r d i s p a r i t y be tw ee n t h e s op h i st o -

c a t e d t h e o r e t i c a l a nd m e t h o d o lo g i c a l f ra m ew or k w hi c h we a r e u s i n g a nd o u r a b i l i t y t o s a y a ny -

t h i n g r e a l l y m e a n in g fu l a b o u t e ve n ts a s t h e y u n f o l d a r ou n d us.

between wha t we p u rp or t t o ex p l a i n and man ipu la te and wha t ac tu a l l y happens .

eco log ica l p rob lem, an u rban p rob lem, an in t e rn a t io na l t r ad e prob lem, and y e t we seem inca pab le

o f s a y i n g a n y t h i n g o f a ny d e p t h o r p r o f u n d i t y a b o ut a ny o f t hem.

a pp ea rs t r i t e an d r a t h e r l u d i c r o u s . It i s r i p e f o r

over t h row.

o r e l s e f o r e ve r ( t h r o ug h l a c k o f c r e d i b i l i t y o r , even worse, t hr ou g h t h e f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r i a -

t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s oc i a l c o n d it i on s ) r em ai n s i l e n t . It i s t h e e m erg in g o b j e c t i v e s o c i a l

c o n d i ti o n s a nd o u r p a t e n t i n a b i l i t y t o c op e w i t h them wh ic h e s s e n t i a l l y e x p l a in s t h e n e c e s s it y

f o r a r e v o l u t i o n i n geograph ic t hough t .

There are a number o f paths we cou ld ta ke.

We c o u ld , as some a pp ea r t o s u gg e st , a ba nd on t h e p o s i t i v i s t b a s i s o f t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e movement

f o r an a b s t r a c t i d e a l i s m and ho pe t h a t o b j e c t i v e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s w i l l i m p r o v e o f t h e i r o w n

a c c or d o r t h a t c o n c ep ts f o r g e d t h ro u g h i d e a l i s t modes o f t h o u g h t w i l l e v e n t u a l l y a c h i e ve

enough co n t e n t t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e c r e a t i v e change o f o b j e c t i v e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s .

e ve r, a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f i d e a li s m t h a t i t i s f o r e v e r doomed t o s ea rc h f r u i t l e s s l y f o r r e a l

c o n t e n t . We c o u l d a l s o r e j e c t t h e p o s i t i v i s t b a s i s o f t h e 1 9 6 0' s f o r a p he no me no lo gic al b a s i s .

T h i s a p pe ar s more a t t r a c t i v e s i n c e i t a t l e a s t s e rv e s t o ke ep us i n c o n t a ct w i t h t h e c o nc ep t o f

man as a being i n c o n s t a n t se ns uo us i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e s o c i a l a nd n a t u r a l r e a l i t i e s w h ic h

sur round him. Yet phenomenolog ica l approaches can lead us i n t o i d e a l i s m o r b ack i n t o n a i v e

p o s i t i v i s t e m p i r ic i s m j u s t as e a s i l y as t h e y c an i n t o a s o c i a l l y a ware f or m o f m a t e r ia l i s m .

T h e s o - c a l l e d b e h a v i o r a l r e v o l u t i o n i n g eo gr ap hy i s p o i n t e d i n a l l o f t he se d i r e c t i o n s.

m ost f r u i t f u l s t ra t e g y a t t h i s j u n c t u re i s t h e re f o re t o e x p l o re t h a t a re a o f u n de rs ta nd in g i n

w h i c h c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f p o s i t i v i s m , m a t e r i a l is m, a nd p he no me no lo gy, o v e r l a p t o p r o v i d e a de -

q u at e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l r e a l i t y i n w hi ch we f i n d ou r s el v e s. T h i s o v e r la p i s m os t

I n s uc h a n

L e t us r e t u r n now t o t h e i n i t i a l q u e st io n .

There are too many anomal ies

T he re i s a n

When we do say something i t

I n s h o rt , o u r p a ra dig m i s n o t c o p in g w e l l .

The ob je c t i v e soc ia l c on d i t i on s demand t h a t we say something sens ib le and coheren t

How shou ld we accompl ish such a re vo lu t i on ?

I t i s , how-

The

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c l e a r l y e x p l or e d i n M a r x i s t t ho ug ht .

1844 and i n th e German Ideo l ogy gave h i s sys tem o f tho ugh t a power fu l and appe a l i ng phenomeno-

l o g i c a l b a s i s . l l T h e re a r e a l s o c e r t a i n t h i n g s w h i c h M a rx is m a nd p o s i t i v i s m h av e i n comnon.

They b o t h h av e a m a t e r i a l i s t b as e a nd b o t h r e s o r t t o a n a n a l y t i c m et ho d. The e s s e n t i a l d i f -

f e r e nc e o f c o u r s e i s t h a t p o s i t i v i s m s i m p l y s ee ks t o u n d e rs t a nd t h e w o r l d w he re as M ar xi sm

seeks t o change i t . P u t a n o t h e r way, p o s i t i v i s m dr aw s i t s c a t e g o r i e s a nd c o n ce p t s f r om an

e x i s t i n g r e a l i t y w i t h a l l o f i t s d e f ec t s w h i l e M a r x i s t c a t e go r i es and co nc ep ts a r e fo r m ul -a te d t hr ou g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f d i a l e c t i c a l method t o h i s t o r y as i t s w r i t t e n h e r e an d now

t h r o ug h e v e n t s a nd a c t i o n s . The p o s i t i v i s t m et ho d i n v o l v e s f o r e xa mple , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f

t r a d i t i o n a l b i- va lu e d A r i s t o t e l i a n l o g i c t o t e s t hypotheses ( t h e n u l l h y p ot he s i s o f s t a t i s t -

i c a l i n f er e n ce i s p u r e l y a n A r i s t o t e l i a n d ev i ce ) . Thus h yp ot he se s a r e e i t h e r t r u e o r f a l s e

and onc e c a tego r i z ed ev e r r ema in so . T h e d i a l e c t i c o n t h e o t h e r h a n d p r o p o s e s a process o f

u n d er st a nd i ng w h i ch a 1 o ws t h e i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f o p po s it e s, i n c o r p o r a t e s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s

and p ar ad ox es , an d p o i n t s t o t h e p ro ce ss es o f r e s o l u t i o n . I n s o f a r as i t i s a t a l l r e l e va nt

t o t a l k o f t r u t h and f a l s i t y , t r u t h l i e s i n th e d i a l e c t i c a l p ro ce ss r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e s t a t e -

m en ts d e r i v e d f r o m t h e p r oc e ss , w h i c h ca n b e d e s i gn a t e d ' t r u e ' o n l y a t a g i v e n p o i n t i n t i m e

an d w h i c h i n a ny ca se a r e c o n t r a d i c t e d b y o t h e r ' t r u e ' s t a t e m en t s . T h i s me th od a l l o w s u s t oi n v e r t a na ly se s i f n ec es sa ry , t o re g a r d s o l u t i o n s as p ro bl em s , t o r e g a r d q u e s t i o n s as

s o l ut i ons . I 2

I s h a l l b r i e f l y su mm ariz e a n ex te nd e d a rg um en t o n u r b a n l a n d u s e t h e o r y t o p r o v i d e a n

examp le o f how t he s t r a t eg y d es c r i be d abov e wo r ks .

G eo gra ph er s d re w much o f t h e i r i n i t i a l i n s p i r a t i o n f ro m t h e C hi ca go s ch o ol o f s o c i o l -

o g i s t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y P a rk and Bu rg es s) who n o te d t h a t c i t i e s e x h i b i t e d c e r t a i n r e g u l a r i t i e s

i n s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e . T h is s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e was h e l d t o g e th e r b y some c u l t u r a l l y d e ri v e d

f or m o f s o c i a l s o l i d a r i t y w hi ch P ark c a l l e d ' t h e m or al o r d e r .' 1 3

80 y ea r s b e fo r e Par k and Bur ges s, no ted the phenomenon o f c onc e n t r i c z oning, i n te r p r e te d i t

i n econo mic c l a s s t er ms , and i d e n t i f i e d t h e m a rk e t mechanism o p e r a t i n g u nd e r c a p i t a l i s t i n -s t i t u t i o n s as t h e g e n e r a t in g f o r c e b e h i nd t h e u r ba n s t r u c t u r e .

i s i n s i g h t f u l and w o r th q u o ti n g:

Mar x, i n the Ec onomic and Ph i l os oph i c Manus c r i p ts o f

Engel s , w r i t i n g some

H i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f M an ch es te r

" M an ch es te r c o n t a i n s , a t i t s h e a r t , a r a t h e r e xt en d ed co mm e rc ia l d i s t r i c t , p er ha ps

N e a r l y t h e w h ol e d i s t r i c t i s ab and on ed by d w e l l e r s , an d i s l o n e l y a nd de s e r te dh a l f a m i l e l o n g and a b o u t as b r oa d , a nd c o n s i s t i n g a l m o s t w h o l l y o f o f f i c e s a nd wa re -houses.a t n i g h t .... he d i s t r i c t i s c u t t h ro u gh b y c e r t a i n m a in t h o ro u g h f a re s upon w h ic h t h e v a s tt r a f f i c c on ce nt ra te s, and i n w hi ch t h e gro un d l e v e l i s l i n e d w i t h b r i l l i a n t sho ps. I nt h e s e s t r e e t s t h e u p p er f l o o r s a r e o c c up i e d, h e r e an d t h e r e , a nd t h e r e i s a go od d e a l o fl i f e upon them u n t i l l a t e a t n i g h t . W i th t he ex ce pt io n o f t h i s com merc ia l d i s t r i c t , a l lManchester proper , a l l Sa l fo r d and H ulme .. . a r e a l l unmixed w o r k in g peop le ' s qua r te r s ,s t re t ch in g l i k e a g i r d l e , a v e r a g in g a m i l e and a h a l f i n b re a d t h , a ro un d t h e c o mm er ci ald i s t r i c t .

m i dd le b o ur g eo i si e i n r e g u l a r l y l a i d o u t s t r e e t s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f w or ki ng q ua r te r s . . .t h e u pp e r b o u r g e o i s i e i n re m ot e r v i l l a s w i t h g ar de ns ... n f r e e , w ho les om e c o u n t r y a i r , i nf i ne , c omf o r tab l e homes, p as se d ev e r y h a l f o r q u a r t e r h o u r by o mn ib us es g o i n g i n t o t h ec i t y . And t h e f i n e s t p a r t o f t h e ar ra ng em en t i s t h i s , t h a t t h e members o f t h e moneya r i s t o c r a c y c an t a k e t h e s h o r t e s t r o a d t hr ou gh t h e m i d dl e o f a l l t h e l a b o u r i n g d i s t r i c t sw i t h o u t e v er s e ei ng t h a t t h e y a r e i n t h e m id s t o f t h e g ri my m i se r y t h a t l u r k s t o t h er i g h t a nd l e f t . F or t h e t h or o ug h fa r es l e a d i n g f ro m t h e Exchange i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s o u t o ft h e c i t y a r e l i n e d , o n b o t h si d e s , w i t h a n a l m o s t u n br ok en s e r i e s o f s ho ps , a nd a r e sok e p t i n t h e h an ds o f t h e m i d d l e an d l ow el - b o u r g e o i s i e . . . ( h a t ) t h e y s u f f i c e t o c on ce alfrom t he eyes o f t he we al th y men and women o f s tr on g s tomachs and weak ner ves t he mi se ryand g r ime w h i c h for m the c omp lement o f t h e i r w ea l th . . .I know very we l l t h a t t h i s h y p o -c r i t i c a l p l a n i s more o r l e s s common t o a l l g r e a t c i t i e s ; I know, t o o , t h a t t h e r e t a i l

O u t s id e , b e yo nd t h i s g i r d l e , l i v e s t h e u pp e r a nd m i d d l e b o u r g e o i s i e , t h e

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d e a l e r s a r e f o r c e d b y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r b u si ne s s t o t a k e p o s se s si o n o f t h e g r e a t h ig hw ay s;

I now th a t t h e re a re more good bu i l d in gs t han bad ones upon such s t re e t s eve rywhere , andt h a t t h e va l u e o f l a n d i s g r e a t e r ne ar them th a n i n re mo te d i s t r i c t s ; b u t a t the same t ime,I ave never seen so s y s t e m at i c a s h u t t i n g o u t o f t h e w o r k in g c l a s s f r o m t h e t h o r o u g h fa r e s ,so t e n d e r a c on c ea l me n t o f e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h m i g h t a f f r o n t t h e e y e a nd t h e n e r v e s o f t h eb o u r g e o i s i e , as i n M an ch e st er .i n g t o p l a n a f t e r o f f i c i a l r e g u l a t i o n s , i s m ore ou tg ro w th o f a cc i d en t , t h a n any o t h e r c i t y ;and when I o n s i d e r i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n t h e ea ge r as su ra nc es o f t h e m i d d l e c l a s s , t h a t t h ew o r k i n g c l a s s i s d o i n g f am o us ly , I c a n no t h e l p f e e l i n g t h a t t h e l i b e r a l m a n u fa c tu r er s, t h e

B ig Wigs o f Manchester , a r e n o t so i n n oc e nt a f t e r a l l , i n t h e m a t te r o f t h i s s e n s i t i v emethod o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . 1 4

And y e t , i n o t h e r r e s pe c t s , M a nc he st er i s l e s s b u i l t a cc or d-

The d e s c r i p t i o n p r o v i d e d b y En g el s ca n, w i t h o u t t o o much a d a p t a t i o n , b e a p p l i e d t o t h e

c on te mp or ar y Am eri ca n c i t y w h ic h su g ge s ts t h a t c a p i t a l i s t c i t i e s t e n d to wa rd s a s i m i l a r i t y o f

s t ru c t u r e because t he bas i c f o r ces mod i f y in g them a re t h e same. Ce r t a in passages w r i t t e n by

Enge ls, f o r examp le , compare w i t h t hose t y p i c a l l y con ta in ed i n con tempora ry governmenta l r e -

por ts on urban prob lems (such as the Kerner Commiss ion Repor t15) . I t t he re fo re seems a p i t y

t h a t we c o n t i n u e t o l o o k t o P a r k a nd Bu rg es s f o r i n s p i r a t i o n ( a s do t h e C h i ca go g e o g ra p h e rs )

i n s t e a d o f f o l l ow ing up t h e approach adop ted by Enge ls .

c l o s e l y r e l a t e s t o t h a t o f E n ge ls a r i s e s f r o m v on T hV ne n' s a n a l y s i s w h i ch h as b ee n a p p l i e d b y

A lonso and Muth16 t o t he u rban la nd marke t .

t h ro u g h a p ro ce ss o f c o m p e t i t i v e b i d d i n g f o r t h e l a n d .

d i f f e r e n t r e so u r ce s w i t h w h ic h t o b i d a nd a v a r i e t y o f c i t y s t r u c t u r e s c an emerge d e pe nd in g

u po n t h e p r e f er e n ce s o f t h e r i c h g ro u ps who c a n a lw a y s u se t h e i r r e s o u r c e s t o d o m in a te t h e

p r e f e re n c e s o f p o or gr ou p s. T h i s i s t h e n a t u r a l o utco me of m o de ls b u i l t o n n e o - c l a s s i c a l

m a r g i n a l i s t p r i n c i p l e s - m o d e l s w h i c h a r e g e n e r a l l y r e g a rd e d a s P a re t o o p t i m a l .

i s g e n e r a l ly conceded t h a t t h e r e i s c o n s id e r ab l e d i s e q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e Am erica n c i t y a t t h e

present t ime as employment has become suburbanized but poor populat ions have been exc luded

f r o m s u bu r ba n l o c a t i o n s b y a v a r i e t y o f dev ices ( such as zon ing ) . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n ot e

t h a t many o f t h e p o l i c i e s p r op os ed by l i b e r a l g ro up s ( p l a n n e r s , c i v i l r i g h t s gr ou ps , e t c )

amoun t t o ad voca t ing a r e t u r n t o e q u i l i b r i u m o f t h e s o r t i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e Alonso-Muth f or m-

u l a t i o n . T h i s i s s up p o rt e d b y l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s who a r e i n some c as es s u f f e r i n g l a b o r s h o r t -

a ge s i n su b ur ba n l o c a t i o n s .

w hi ch t h e p oo r s t i l l l i v e where t h e y ca n l e a s t a f f o r d t o l i v e - - i n o t h e r words a r e t u r n t o t h e

s t a t u s q u o o f t h e s o r t d e s c r i b e d b y En g el s i s b e i n g ad vo c at ed . How ca n we i d e n t i f y m ore r e v -

o l u t i o n a r y s o l u t i o n s ?

i t and found i t b r o a d l y c o r r e c t a s a mo de l o f r e s i d e n t i a l l a n d u se i n Chicago.

t h e ' t he o r y i s t r u e , i n th e se nse us ed by l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s t s .

i d e n t i f y w h at t h e p ro bl em i s . What f o r Mu th wou ld be regarded as a success fu l t e s t o f a t heory

we r e g a r d as an i n d i c a t o r o f w h at t h e p ro b le m i s . The t h e o r y p r e d i c t s t h a t t h e p o o r g ro u ps w i l l

l i v e where th e y c an l e a s t a f f o r d t o l i v e . T he re fo re , t h e o n l y v a l i d p o l i c y i s t o e l i m i na t e t h e

c o nd i t i o ns w hic h g i v e r i s e t o t h e t r u t h o f t h e t h e o r y .

model o f t h e u r b an l a n d m a r k et t o become not r u e . The si m p l e st ap pr oa ch t o t h i s i s t o e l i m i n -

a t e t h e m echa nism w hi c h g i v e s r i s e t o t h e t r u t h o f t h e t h e o r y .

c o m p e t it i v e b i d d i n g f o r t h e u se o f t h e l an d . I f we e l im in at e t h i s mechanism we w i l l presumably

e l i m i n a t e t h e r e s u l t .

u r ba n l a n d m a rk e t and a s o c i a l i z e d c o n t r o l o f t h e h o u si n g s e c t o r .

I n f a c t t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t most

I n t hese mode ls u rban land use i s de te rm ined

D i f f e r e n t g ro up s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n ha ve

D e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e n o r m a t i v e m od el c an be t ak e n as an i n d i c a t i o n o f d i s e q u i l i b r i u m . I t

A l l o f t he s e pr op o sa ls i n d i c a t e r e t u r n i n g t o an e q u i l i b r i u m i n

Muth sough t t o show t h a t t he no rm at i ve mode l he dev ised had em p i r i ca l r e levance . He tested

Let us assume

T h i s t r u t h c a n be us ed t o h e l p us

I n ot he r words we want th e von Thznen

The m ec ha nis m i n t h i s c as e i s

C o m p e t i t i v e b i d d i n g s h o u ld t h e r e f o r e b e r e p l a c e d by a s o c i a l l y c o n t r o l l e d

We w o ul d t h u s r e n d e r t h e

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von T h h e n t h e o ry i r r e l e v a n t t o o ur u n de rs ta nd in g o f s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e o f c i t i e s .

cess has begun i n Cuba and i n Havana c o m p e t i t i v e b i d d i n g h as b ee n c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e d as

have r e n t a l pay ments on many d w e l l i ng s . 17

a ni sm w hi c h i s assumed f o r t h e p u r p os e o f t h e t h e o r y i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e same as t h e r e a l

m ech anism s wh i ch g e n e r a t e r e s u l t s i n a cc o r d w i t h t h e t h e o r y . We s h ou l d m e re l y be a l e r t e d t o

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e ma rk et mechanism i s a t f a u l t and l o o k f o r f u r t h e r p r o o f o f t h e co n-te n t i o n . Th i s p r o o f c an be ga ined f r om an a rgumen t s temming f r om th e gene r a l c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s

o f c a p i t a l i s m and m a rk et b e h a v i or . A mar k e t s ys tem becomes po s s i b le unde r c on d i t i o ns o f

r e s o u r c e s c a r c i t y f o r o n l y u n de r t h es e c o n d i t i o n s c an p r i c e - f i x i n g c om m od it y e xc ha ng e m a r ke t s

a r i s e . The ex te ns io n o f ma r k e t exc hange has a l l ow e d an immense i nc r e as e i n th e p r odu c t i o n of

w e a l t h .

r e l i e s upon s c a r c i t y f o r i t s f u n c t io n in g . It f o l l o w s t h a t i f s c a r c i t y i s e l i m i n a t e d t h e n t h e

m a rk et economy w h ic h i s t h e s o ur c e o f p r o d u c t i v e w e a lt h u n de r c a p i t a l i s m i s l i a b l e t o c o l l a p s e .

Y et c a p i t a l i s m i s a lw ay s i n c r e a s i n g i t s p r o d u c ti v e c a p ac i t y.

i n s t i t u t i o n s and mechanism s a r e f or me d t o e n su re t h a t s c a r c i t y do es n o t di sa p p ea r . I n f a c t

many i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e g ea re d t o t h e m a in te na nc e o f s c a r c i t y ( u n i v e r s i t i e s b e in g a p ri m e e x-a mp le , a l t h o u gh t h i s i s a lw ay s done i n t h e name o f ' q u a l i t y ' ) .

a l i s m and ma r k e t ex change ec onomies w ould i n d i c a te t h a t a ma jo r ba r r i e r t o t h e e l im i n a t i o n o f

s c a r c i t y i n advanced p r o d uc t i ve s o c i e t i e s l i k e t h e U . S . A . l i e s i n t h e co mp li ca te d s e t o f

i n t e r l o c k i n g i n s t i t u t io n s ( f i n a n c ia 1 , j u d i c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , and so on) which sup-

p o r t t h e m a r k e t p r o c e s s .

u r ban hous ing ma r k e t .

f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , d ev el op er s, and s o o n) a r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n ho u si ng p e r s e b u t a r e

i n t e r e s t e d i n m ax im iz in g t h e i r r e t u r n s ( re n t s , i n t e r e s t , p r o f i t -- o r as Marx c a l l ed i t ,

s u r p l u s v a l u e ) .c a p i t a l i s t e n t r e p r e ne u r ia l b eh av io r, t h e n e t o u tp u t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s among them a l l i s t o

w r i t e o f f u s e - v a l u e s i n ho us in g i n one p a r t o f t h e c i t y i n o r d e r t o r ea p e xch an ge -va lu es i n

a no th er p a r t o f t h e c i t y . I n o t h e r words, s c a r c i t y i s b ei ng cr ea t ed i n one p a r t o f t h e c i t y

so t h a t t h e m ar ke t ca n fu n c t i o n ( a t a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f p r o f i t ) a t t h e o t h e r end.

c es s c an be de ta i l ed . I f t h i s p r oc e ss i s g e n er a l , a nd t h e e v id e n c e s u g ge s t s t h a t i t s , t h e n

we mu st a n t i c i p a t e t h a t t h e m a rk e t p ro c es s w i l l n a t u r a l l y c o u n t e r a c t a ny p o l i c i e s d e si gn e d t o

e l i m i n a t e s c a r c i t y i n t h e ho u si n g m a rk et . A ga in , t h e r e a r e some d i s t u r b i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s b e-

tween the accounts p ro v id ed by Enge ls and con temporary u rban po l i c y p rob lems.

E n ge ls d e s c r i b e d t h e a t t e m p ts a t u rb a n re n ew a l i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y :

T h i s p r o -

We o u gh t n o t t o a c c e pt t h i s a r gu me nt t o o r e a d i l y , f o r i t i s o f t e n t h e c as e t h a t t h e mech-

We t h e r e f o r e f i n d a p a ra do x, n am ely t h a t w e a l t h i s p ro du ce d u n de r a sy st em w h i c h

To r e s o l v e t h i s d i l emna many

A g en er al a n a l y s i s o f c a p i t -

I f we l o o k v e ry c a r e f u l l y we c an i d e n t i f y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h i s g e n e ra l c o n d i t i o n i n t h e

C ommer cial op e r a to r s i n the hous ing ma r k e t ( l and lo r d s , bank s and o the r

Even i f e ac h o p e r a t o r b eh ave s e t h i c a l l y , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e u s u a l norms o f

T h i s p r o -

Here i s how

I n r e a l i t y t h e b o u r g e o i s i e has o n l y o ne m ethod o f s o l v i n g t h e h o u s in g q u e s ti o n a f t e r-t s f a s h i o n - t h a t i s t o s ay, o f s o lv i ng i t i n su ch a way t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n c o n t i n u a l l yreproduces i s e l f anew. ? h is method i c a l l ed "Haussmann" . I meanth e p ra c t i ce which has now become gene ral o f m a ki ng b re ac he s i n t h e w o r k in g c l a s s q u a r t e r so f o ur b i g to wn s, and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n are as w hi ch a r e c e n t r a l l y s i t u a t e d , q u i t e a p a r t f ro mw he th er t h i s i s done f ro m c o n s i d e ra t i o n s o f p u b l i c h e a l t h and f o r b e a u t i f y i n g t h e t ow n, o ro wi ng t o t h e demand f o r b i g c e n t r a l l y s i t u a t e d b u s in e ss p r em is es , o r ow in g t o t r a f f i c r e -qu i r emen ts, s uch as the l ay in g dow n o f r a i lw a y s , s t r e e t s ( w h i c h some times appea r t o hav et he s t r a t e g i c a im o f m aki ng ba r r ic a d e f i g h t i n g more d i f f i c u l t ) . . . No m a t t e r how d i f f e r e n tthe reasons may be, t h e r e s u l t i s e ve ry wh er e t h e same; t h e s c a nd a lo u s a l l e y s d i s a p p e a r t othe acc ompaniment o f l a v i s h s e l f - p r a i s e f r om the bou r geo i s i e on acc oun t o f the t r emendous

By "Haussmann" .

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success, bu t they appear agai n immediate ly somewhere e l se and o f t e n i n the imned iate neigh-borhood! .... he b reed ing p laces of d i sease , th e in famous ho les and ce l l a r s i n wh i ch thec a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n c o n fi n es o u r w o rk e rs n i g h t a f t e r n i g h t , a r e n o t a b ol is h e d ;

they a re merely sh i f t ed e lsewhere! The same economic n ec ess i ty which produced them i n thef i r s t p l a ce , p ro du ce s them i n t h e n e x t p l a c e a l s o . As l o n g as t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o -d u c t i o n c o n ti n ue s t o e x i s t , i t s f o l l y t o hope f o r a n i s o l a t e d s o l u t i o n t o t h e h ou si ng

q u e s t io n o r of any o t h e r s o c i a l q u e s t i o n a f f e c t i n g t h e f a t e o f t h e w o rk er s. The s o l u t i o nl i e s i n t h e a b o l i t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p ro d uc ti on and t h e a p p r o pr i a ti o n o f a l l t h emeans o f l i f e a nd l a b o u r b y t h e w or k in g c l a s s i t s e l f . 1 8

It i s d i f f i c u l t t o a v o i d c o n c l u d i n g f ro m t h e a cc um ul at ed e v i d en c e t h a t E n ge ls was p r o b a b ly

r i g h t . T he re i s good r ea s on t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e m ar ke t mechanism i s t h e c u l p r i t i n a s o r d i d

drama. And y e t i t s c u r i o u s t h a t a l t h ou g h a l l s e r i o u s a n a l y s t s co nc ed e t h e s e r io u sn e s s o f

c e r t a i n o f o u r c o nt em p or ar y u rb a n p ro ble ms , few c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e f o r c e s w h ic h r u l e a t

th e very hea r t o f our economic system. We thus d i scuss e very th ing excep t the bas i c char-

a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t m a rk e t economy. We d e v i s e a l l manner o f s o l u t i o n s e xc e p t t h os e

wh ich m igh t cha l l enge the con t i nuance o f th a t economy. Such d i scuss io ns and so l u t i on s wh ich

so a v o i d t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s e rv e o n l y t o make us l o o k f o o l i s h , f o r t h e y e v e n t u a l l y l e a d u s t o

d i scover , r a the r be la ted l y , what Engel s was on l y too we l l aware i n 1872 -- t h a t c a p i t a l -

i s t s o l u t i o n s p r o v id e no f o u nd a t i on f o r d e a l i n g w i t h d e t e r i o r a t e d s o c i a l c o n d i t io n s w h ic h a res t r u c t u r a l l y ne c es s ar y f o r t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m . S uch s o l u t i o n s a r e m ere "d ep h-

l o g i s t i c a t e d a i r . " We can, i f we w i l l , d i s c o v e r o x yg en and a l l t h a t goes w i t h i t by sub-

j e c t i n g t h e v e ry b a sis o f o ur c a p i t a l i s t s o c ie t y ( w i t h a l l i t s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s ca r c it i es )

t o a r i g o r o u s and c r i t i c a l e x a mi na ti on .

a dd re ss i t s e l f t o . What does t h i s t a sk e n t a i l ?

F i rs t , l e t me say what i t do es n o t e n t a i l .

v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e g h e t t o s . We h av e e no ug h i n f o r m a t i o n a l re a d y and

i t i s a waste o f energy and resources t o spend our t im e on such work . I n fac t , mapping even

m ore e vi de n ce o f man 's p a t e n t i n h u ma n i ty t o man i s c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n t h e s e ns e t h a t i t

a l l o w s t h e b le e di ng - he a rt l i b e r a l t o p r e t e n d he i s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a s o l u t i o n when he i n f a c ti s n ot . T he re i s a l r e a d y enough i n f o r m a t i o n i n c on -

g res s ion a l r epor ts , d a i l y newspapers , books , a r t i c l e s , and so on, t o p r o v i d e us w i th a l l t he

evidence we need.

moral mas turb at io n o f t he s o r t which accompanies th e maso chis t ic assemblage o f some huge dos-

s i e r on t h e d a i l y i n j u s t i c e s t o t h e p op ul ac e o f t h e g h et to , o v e r w h ic h we b e a t o ur b r e as ts ,

c o m ni s er a te w i t h e ach o t h e r, b e f o r e r e t i r i n g t o o u r f i r e s i d e co m f o rt s . T h is , t o o , i s c o u n te r

r e v o l u t i o n a r y f o r i t m e re ly s e rv es t o e x p i a t e g u i l t w i t h o u t o u r e v e r b e i n g f o r ce d t o f a c e t h e

fundamental i ssues l e t a l one do any th ing abou t them. Nor i s i t a s o l u t io n t o i n du lg e i n t h a t

emot ional t o u r is m w hi ch a t t r a c t s us t o l i v e and wo rk w i t h t h e p o or ' f o r a w h i l e ' i n th e hope

t h a t we c an r e a l l y h e l p them i mp ro v e t h e i r l o t . T h is , t oo , i s c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t io n a r y , f o r sowhat i f we help a community win a play-ground in one summer o f work t o f i n d t he schoo l de te -

r i o r a t e s i n t h e f a l l ? These a r e t h e p at h s we s ho u ld n o t ta k e.

us f r o m t h e e s s e n t i a l t a s k a t han d.

t i o n o f a new parad igm fo r so F ia l geograph i c though t th rough a deep and p ro found c r i t i q u e o f

o u r e x i s t i n g a n a l y t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s .

d em ics, a f t e r a l l , w o r ki n g w i t h t h e t o o l s o f t h e aca dem ic t r a d e .

I t i s t h i s t a s k w hi ch a r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y m us t

I t does n o t e n t a i l y e t a n ot h er e m p i r i ca l i n -

T h is k i n d o f e m p i ri c is m i s i r r e l e v a n t .

Our t a s k d oes n o t l i e h e re . Nor does i t l i e i n wh at ca n o n l y be t erm ed

They m e re l y s e r ve t o d i v e r t

Th i s imned ia te task i s no th in g more nor l es s than the se l f - con sc ious and aware cons t ruc -

Th i s i s what we a re bes t equipped t o do . We are aca-

Our t as k i s t h e r e f o r e t o

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mo b i l i ze ou r powers o f t hough t t o f o rm u la te concep ts and ca te gor ie s , t he or ie s and a rguments ,

wh ich we can app l y i n t he p rocess o f b r i ng in g abou t a humaniz ing soc ia l change. These con-

c e p t s a nd c a t e g o r i e s c a nn o t b e f o r m u l a t e d i n a b s t r a c t i o n . They m us t b e f o r g e d r e a l i s t i c a l l y

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e ve n t s a nd a c t i o n s a s t h e y u n f o l d ar ou n d u s . C e r t a i n l y , e m p i r i c a l e v -

i de n ce , t h e a l r e a d y a ss em ble d d o s s i e r s , a nd t h e e x p e r ie n c e s g a in e d i n t h e c o n u n i t y c a n b e

made use o f here.

le ss we syn the s iz e i t i n t o p o w e r fu l p a t t e r n s o f t h ou g h t.on e x i s t i n g r e a l i t y . I t h as t o e mbrace a l t e r n a t i v e s c r e a t i v e l y . We c a nn o t a f f o r d t o p l a n

f o r t h e f u t u r e on t h e ba s is o f p o s i t i v i s t t h eo ry f o r t o do so w o ul d m e r el y b e t o r e i n f o r c e

the s t a tus quo .

c o r p o r a t e a nd re as se mb le a l l t h a t i s u s e f u l a nd v a l u a b le w i t h i n t h a t c o rp u s o f t h e or y . We

can r e -s t ru c t u re t h e f or m ul at io n o f e x i s t i n g t he o ry i n t he l i g h t o f p o ss i bl e l i n e s o f f u t u r e

a c t i o n . We c an c r i t i q u e e x i s t i n g t h e o r i e s as ' me re a p o l o g e t i c s ' f o r t h e d om in an t f o r c e i n

o u r s o c i e t y - t h e c a p i t a l i s t m ar ke t s ys te m and a l l i t s c on co mi ta nt i n s t i t u t i o n s .

manner we w i l l b e a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c i r cu m s ta n c e s u nd e r w h i ch l o c a t i o n t h e o r y c an be

u se d t o c r e a t e b e t t e r f u t u r e s a nd t h e c i r cu m s ta n c e s i n w h ic h i t r e i n f o r c e s modes o f t h o u g h t

c o n d uc i ve t o t h e m a in te n an c e o f t h e s t a t u s quo . The p rob lem i n many cases i s no t t he marg in -a l i s t m eth od p e r s e o r o p t i m i z i n g t e ch n i q ue s p e r se , b u t t h a t t h e s e me th od s a r e b e i n g a p p l i e d

i n t h e w ro ng c o n t e x t .

ary concept and so i s a ny f o r m u l a t i o n . w h ic h c a l l s f o r t h e m a x im i z a t i o n o f an y one o f t h e

p a r t i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s u r p lu s v a lu e ( s uc h as r e n t o r r e t u r n o n c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t) . Y et

p ro gr am mi ng s o l u t i o n s a r e c l e a r l y e x t r e m e l y r e l e v a n t d e v i c e s f o r u n d e r s ta n d i n g how r e s ou r c es

c an b e s t be m o b i l i z e d f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u r p l u s v a lu e .1 9 F o r m u l a ti o n s ba se d o n t h e

a ch ie ve me nt o f e q u a l i t y i n d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e a l s o c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y u n l e s s t h e y a r e d e r i v e d

f r om a n u n d e rs t a n d in g o f h ow p r o d u c t i o n i s o r g a n i z e d t o c r e a t e s u r p l u s v al ue .* O By examining

q u e s t i o n s su ch a s t h e se we c a n a t l e a s t b e g i n t o e v a l u a t e e x i s t i n g t h e o r y a nd i n t he p rocess

(who knows?) perhaps begin t o de r i ve th e l ineaments o f new the ory .

ca te gor ie s and re la t i o nsh ips , i n t o such a supe r io r sys tem o f t hough t when judged aga ns t t he

r e a l i t i e s w h ic h r e q u i r e e x p la n a ti o n, t h a t we su cc ee d i n m ak in g a l l o p p o s i t i o n t o t h a system

o f t h ou g h t l o o k l u d i c r o u s . S i n c e we a re , f o r t h e m o st p a r t , o u r own w o r s t op po ne nt s i n t h i s

mat te r , many o f us w i l l f i n d t h a t a f i r s t i n i t i a l s t e p o n t h i s p a t h w i l l be t o d i s c o m f o r t o u r -

s e l v e s , t o make o u r s e l ve s l o o k l u d i c r o u s t o o u r s e lv e s . T h i s i s n o t e as y, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f we

a r e pos se sse d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l p r i d e .

g raph ic t hough t i s bound t o be t empered by commi tmen t t o rev o lu t i o na ry p ra c t i ce .

t h e g e n er a l a c ce p ta n ce o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y w i l l depend upon the s t rengths and accompl ish-

m en ts o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e . H er e t h e r e w i l l be many hard pers onal de c is ion s t o make.

D e c i s i on s t h a t r e q u i r e ' r e a l ' as o pp os ed t o ' me re l i b e r a l ' c om mitm en t f o r i t i s i n de e d ve r y

c o m f o r t ab l e t o b e a m e r e l i b e r a l . Bu t i f con d i t i ons a re as se r iou s as many o f us be l i eve ,

t h e n i n c r e a s i n g l y we w i l l come t o r e c o g n iz e t h a t n o t h i n g much c an b e l o s t b y t h a t k i n d o f

commitment and th a t a lmo st ev er y th in g s tands t o be ga ined shou ld we make i t and succeed.

B u t a l l o f t h o s e e xp e r ie n c e s an d a l l o f t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n means n o t h i n g un -

B u t o u r t h o u g h t c a n n o t r e s t m e r e l y

Yet , as i n t he f o rmat i on o f any new paradigm, we mus t be p repared t o i n -

I n t h i s

P a r et o o p t i m a l i t y as i t e n t e r s l o c a t i o n t h e o r y i s a c o u n t e r -r e v o lu t i o n -

A r e v o l u t i o n i n s c i e n t i f i c t h o ug h t i s a cc om pl is he d b y m a r s h a l l i n g c on ce pt s a nd deas,

F u r t h er , t h e e mergence o f a t r u e r e v o l u t i o n i n g eo -

C e r t a i n l y

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NOTES

'Kuhn, T. S., 1962, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, (Chicago).

2Bernal, J. D., 1971 edition, Science in History, (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts).

'u.Rose, H. and Rose, S., 1969, Science and Society, (Penguin Books,

'Kuhn, op. cit., p. 37; Nagel, E., 1961, The Structure of Science,

5Johson, H, G.,

Harmondsworth, Middx.).

(Free Press, New York).

"The Keynesian Revolution and the Monetarist Counter-revolution",

American Economic Review, 61, No. 2, pp. 1-14.

drawing my attention to this reference.

I would like to thank Gene Mumy for

%bid.-.'Marx, K., 1967 editicn, Capital, Volume 2, (International Publishers, New York), preface

(by F. Engels); this whole incident is discussed in depth in Althusser, L. and Balibar, E.,

1970, Reading Capital. (NLB, London.)

8Kuhn, op. cit., pp. 52-6.

'Marx, op. cit., pp. 11-18.

"Marx clearly envisaged this kind of resolution of the conflict between the natural and social

sciences. See Marx, K., 1964 edition, The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844,

(International Publishers, New York), p . 164.

l1Marx, K., 1971 edition, The German Ideology (International Publishers, New York);

The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, 9. it. Marx derived his phenomenological

position from Hegel, G., 1967 edition, The Phenomenology of Mind (Harper Torchbooks,

New York).

12Marx also derived his dialectical method from Hegel. See The Economic and Philosophic

Manuscripts of 1844, op. cit., pp. 170-193.

l3Park, R. E., "The Urban Community as a Spatial Pattern and a Moral Order," in Burgess, E. W.

1926, The Urban Community, (Chicago University Press, Chicago).

"Engels, F., 1962 edition, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844,

(Allen and Unwin, London) pp. 46-7.

"Kerner Commission, 1968, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders,

(Bantam Books, New York).

16Alonso, W., 1964, Location and Land Use, (Harvard U.P., Cambridge, Mass.); Muth, R . , 1969,

Cities and Housinq (Chicago University Press, Chicago).

17Valdes, N. P., 1971, "Health and Revolution in Cuba," Science and Society (351, pp. 311-35.

l8Engels, F., 1935 edition, The Housing Question (International Publishers,New York) p. 23-

l9The experience of Russian central planning in this regard provides some interesting lessons

as Kantrovitch developed programming solutions to many of the allocation distribution

problems which arose in the economy--see Ellman, M., 1971, Soviet Planning Today,

(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge . This suggests that some of the programming solutions

to urban location problems may be more useful than not as the basis for a revolutionzry urban

land use theory.

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20Marx, K., Capital, Volume 3 (op. cit.), pp. 876-86. It is on this ground that I now reject

See Harvey, D., 1971, "Social Justice and Spatial Systems,"

my attempt in a previous paper to examine questions'of distribution in a manner distinct

from the problem of production.

in Peet , R., (ed. , Geographical Perspectives on American Poverty, Antipode Monographs in

Social Geography, No. 1, 1972, pp. 87-106.

C O M M E N T S ON H A R V E Y

W H Y A R AD IC A L G E O G R A P H Y M U S T B E M A R X I S T

Steen F o l k e

U n i v e r s i t y of C o p e n h a g e n

Wha t soci al science needs i s Zess use of

ela bor ate techn iques and more courage t otackZe, rather than dodge, the central i ssu es .But t o demand t ha t is t o ignore the socialreasons that have made social science whati t i s . r

J. D. B e r n a l , S c i e n c e i n H i s t o r y

I t i s n o t a c c id e n t a l t h a t g eo gr ap hy a nd t h e o t h e r s o c i a l s c ie n ce s h a ve e v o lv e d i n t o h i g h l y

s o ph i st i ca t ed , t e ch n iq ue -o r i en t ed , b u t l a r g e l y d e s c r i p t iv e d i s c i p l i n e s w i t h l i t t l e re le va n ce

f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f a c u t e and s e em i ng ly c h r o n i c s o c i e t a l p ro bl em s. One may p o i n t t o t he

i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e ( g ov er nm e nt s an d bu s in e s se s ) who f i n a n c e a n d u t i l i z e s o c i a l r e s e ar c h .

may p o i n t a l s o t o t h e s o c i a l b ac kg ro un d ( m id d le -u p pe r c l a s s ) o f t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f s o c i a l

s c i e n t i s t s . O r one may quote Marx and Engels : "What e l s e d oe s t h e h i s t o r y o f i d e a s p r ov e,

t h an t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o d uc t i on changes i t s c h a r ac t e r i n p r o p o r t i o n as m a t e r i a l p r o d uc t i on

i s changed? The r u l i n g i deas o f eac h age hav e ev e r been the i deas o f i t s r u l i n g c l a s s. " lTo t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e s o c i a l s c i en c e s ha ve d e v el o pe d t h e o r y , s uc h t h e o r y h as r e f l e c t e d

t h e v a lu e s an d i n t e r e s t s o f t h e r u l i n g c l a s s . The fu n da m en ta l m ech anism s o f o u r s o c i a l

s y s tem- -the ma r k e t mec hani sm, t he p r o f i t mo t i v e , e tc . - - have r a r e l y been ques t i oned . To the

e x t e n t t h a t t h e s o c i a l s c i e nc e s ha ve t r i e d t o de a l w i t h s o c i a l p r ob le ms , t h i s has b ee n w i t h i n

the f ramework o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . Sometimes t h i s l i m i t a t i o n has been e x p l i c i t l y s t at e d,

mo r e o f ten i t has been t a c i t l y assumed.

One

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