Hardik Itt Project

8/8/2019 Hardik Itt Project

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HISTORY OF COMPUTERComputers were initially large machines that could fill entire rooms. Some were

operated using large vacuum tubes that formed the basis of today's transistors. In

order to operate such machines, punch cards were used. One of the first such

examples of this was the Jacquard loom. In 1833 Charles Babbage invented his

different engines, an early calculator. Together with the punch card design, hecreated the analytical engines. Regrettably the engine never saw completion due to

political issues.

Over time computers became more and more powerful, with the introduction of the

ubiquitous microprocessor driving forward development. Gordon Moore, one of the

co-founders of Intel, invented Moore law, which predicted that the number of

transistors that could be placed on an integrated circuit inexpensively doubled every2 years. This law has held true to a certain degree, and it can be seen in motion

every day with the introduction of more and more powerful microprocessors and

larger hard drives and memory modules.


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A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.

A computer can also be defined as an electronic machine that accepts input (data),

processes it and gives out results(information) A computer is an electronic device

that can perform a variety of operation in accordance with a set of instruction

called program

What is a computer?


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Some computers that came and went in the history of computing

Notable ComputersSome modern examples are

ENIAC

A behemoth of a machine weighing 27 tones, ENIAC stood for

Electrical Numerical Integrator and Computer. The ENIAC used

thousands ofvacuum tubes and a punch card mechanism. It

was originally used to perform calculations for the hydrogen

bomb, and later saw use in calculating artillery firing tables.

Working out the programming on paper took weeks, andperforming the necessary wiring took days. The ENIAC saw

service until October 2, 1955


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Altair8800

A microcomputer design from 1975, the Altair is the computer that is believed to

have started the personal computer revolution. It also formed the basis of Microsoft's

first product: a programming language called Altair Basic. The computer was sold as a

kit requiring assembly by the user, although pre-assembled kits could be bought for a

higher price. The Altair defied sales forecasts by selling thousands instead of

hundreds to computer hobbyists, accelerating a growing hacker culture.

Commodore 64

An 8 bit computer introduced in January 1982, the Commodore rose to become thebest selling personal computer of all time. Utilizing the Commodore BASIC

programming language licensed from Microsoft, the Commodore was able to host

over 10,000 commercial programs. Aside from office productivity tools such as word

processors and spreadsheets, the Commodore was also host to a number of games

and even game development environments such as the Shoot'Em-Up Construction Kit.


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Due to its advanced graphics and audio systems, along with the inclusion of a cartridge

slot, the Commodore was seen more as a gaming device than a productivity tool. Over

20,000 games were released for the Commodore, up to the video game crash of 1983. The

sheer popularity of the Commodore 64 also saw the rise in prominence of software piracy.

Commodore 64C system with 1541-II floppy drive

and 1084S RGB monitor


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Macintosh

First introduced by Apple in 1984, the Macintosh was the first computer touse a mouse and graphical user interface (GUI) rather than a command line

interface. Until the dominance of the IBM PC, the Macintosh saw use

primarily as a desktop publishing tool. However due to the immense cost of

porting command line interface programs to the GUI, software development

was initially slow. In this computer maintained as the basis level of the

computer.

IBM PC

The granddaddy of all current personal computers, the IBM PC was introduced in

1981. It was capable of running 3 different operating systems at launch, the mostpopular being PC DOS. The IBM PC introduced the concept of the BIOS (Basic Input

Output System), which was proprietary at the time, although it now has been

reverse-engineered and is considered the de facto standard in firmware interfacing.

Because of its success, many manufacturers were encouraged to create clones with

the same feature set as the PC, which we use today as our computers.


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Types Of Computer

Supercomputer

Supercomputers are fast because they are really many computers working

together.Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960's as the world's most advanced

computer. These computers were used for complex calculations such as

forecasting weather and quantum physics. Today, supercomputers are one of a

kind; they are fast and very advanced. The term supercomputer is always

evolving as tomorrow's normal computers are today's supercomputer. As of

November 2008, the fastest supercomputer is the IBM Roadrunner. It has atheoretical processing peak of 1.71 petaflops and has currently peaked at 1.456

petaflops.


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Mainframe

Mainframes are computers where all the processing is done centrally, and the user

terminals are called "dumb terminals" since they only input and output (and do not

process).

Mainframes are computers used mainly by large organizations for critical

applications, typically bulk data processing such as census. Examples: banks, airlines,

insurance companies, and colleges.


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Workstation

Workstations are high-end, expensive computers that are made for more complexprocedures and are intended for one user at a time. Some of the complex

procedures consist of science, math and engineering calculations and are useful for

computer design and manufacturing. Workstations are sometimes improperly

named for marketing reasons. Real workstations are not usually sold in retail.

The movie Toy Story was made on a set of Sun (Sparc) workstations.

Perhaps the first computer that might qualify as a "workstation" was the IBM 1620

Sun SPARCstation


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The PersonalComputeror PC

PC is an abbreviation for a Personal Computer, it is also known as a Microcomputer. Itsphysical characteristics and low cost are appealing and useful for its users. The capabilities

of a personal computer have changed greatly since the introduction of electronic

computers. By the early 1970s, people in academic or research institutions had the

opportunity for single-person use of a computer system in interactive mode for extended

durations, although these systems would still have been too expensive to be owned by a

single individual. The introduction of the microprocessor, a single chip with all the circuitrythat formerly occupied large cabinets, led to the proliferation of personal computers after

about 1975. Early personal computers generally called microcomputers, sold often in kit

form and in limited volumes and were of interest mostly to hobbyists and technicians. By

the late 1970s, mass-market pre-assembled computers allowed a wider range of people to

use computers, focusing more on software applications and less on development of the

processor hardware. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, home computers were developedfor household use, offering some personal productivity, programming and games, while

somewhat larger and more expensive systems (although still low-cost compared with

minicomputers and mainframes) were aimed for office and small business use.

Today a personal computer is an all rounded device that can be used as a productivity tool,

a media server and a gaming machine. The modular construction of the personal computer

allows components to be easily swapped out when broken or upgraded.


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Microcontroller

Microcontrollers are mini computers that enable the user to store data, do simple

commands and tasks, with little or no user interaction with the processor. These singlecircuit devices have minimal memory and program length but can be integrated with

other processors for more complex functionality. Many such systems are known as

Embedded Systems. Examples of embedded systems include Smartphones or car safety

systems.

Microcontrollers are important, they are used everyday in devices such as appliances and

automobiles.


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Server

Similar to mainframes in that they serve many uses with the main difference that the

users (called clients) do their own processing usually. The server processes are devoted

to sharing files and managing log on rights.

A server is a central computer that contains collections of data and programs.Also called

a network server, this system allows all connected users to share and store electronic

data and applications. Two important types of servers are file servers and application

servers.


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COMPUTER ORGANISATION

Data comes through Input and the CPU processes the data based on a program

which is in Memory. The result is returned to Memory or is presented to the user.

CPU itself consists ofArithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU), Control Unit(CU) andRegisters.


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A Computer-based systemA

Computer-based system is a system in which a computer is involved and consists ofthree major elements: Hardware, Software, and User.

1.Registration in a University

Hardware = Micro computers, Network

platform, and a Server Computer

Software = Student Registration Application,Database, and Operating System

User = Operators, Administrators

3.Playing a game with a Computer

Hardware = Game Console such as Xbox, Play station

Software = The Game itself

User = The little kid2.Controlling a section of an Assembly Line

Hardware = A specially embedded system which is developed for

this purpose

Software = The machine code Loaded on the Embedded system

Memory

User = Other Machine, Supervisor


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Hardwareand softwareHardwareHardware refers to the physical elements of a computer. Also referred to as the

machinery or the equipment of the computer. Examples of hardware in a computer are

the keyboard, the monitor, the mouse and the processing unit However, most of a

computer's hardware cannot be seen; in other words, it is not an external element ofthe computer, but rather an internal one, surrounded by the computer's casing. A

computer's hardware is comprised of many different parts, but perhaps the most

important of these is the motherboard. The motherboard is made up of even more

parts that power and control the computer.

In contrast to software, hardware is a physical entity, while software is a non-physical

entity. Hardware and software are interconnected, without software, the hardware of acomputer would have no function. However, without the creation of hardware to

perform tasks directed by software via the central processing unit (box), software

would be useless.

techno medley 2007


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SoftwareSoftware, commonly known as programs, consists of all the electronic instructions that tell

the hardware how to perform a task. These instructions come from a software developer inthe form that will be accepted by the operating system that they are based on. For example,

a program that is designed for the Windows operating system will only work for that

operating system. Compatibility of software will vary as the design of the software and the

operating system differ. A software that is designed for Windows XP may experience

compatibility issue when running under Windows 2000 or NT.

Software can also be described as a collection of routines, rules and symbolic languages thatdirect the functioning of the hardware.[1]

Software is capable of performing specific tasks, as opposed to hardware which only

perform mechanical tasks that they are mechanically designed for. Practical computer

systems divide software systems into three major classes:

System software: Helps run computer hardware and computer system. Computer software

includes operating systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools and more.

Programming software: Software that assists a programmer in writing computer programs.

Application software: Allows users to accomplish one or more tasks.

The term "software" is sometimes used in a broader context to describe any electronic

media content which embodies expressions of ideas such as film, tapes, records, etc.

Software is the electronic instruction that tells the computer to do a task.


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Firmware

F

irmware is both hardware and software.It is a computer chip that performs only one function.

Examples are a video card and sound card.

Can be explained as programming instructions that are stored in a read-only memory

and can only be used by connecting them with software.

Used so that processing happens quicker as in video and sound cards.


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MotherboardAmotherboard is an electronic circuit board in a computer which interconnects

hardware devices attached to it. At a minimum it includes one or more Central

processing units, and the main processing activity of the computer takes place on it.

However, other connected printed circuit boards may contain their own pre-processing

or post-processing CPUs, to take some of the load off of the motherboard; these,

together with other plug-in boards without CPUs, may be called "daughter boards." Itwas called a "mother" board in relation to these. A PC motherboard may have a series

of sockets, allowing daughter boards to be plugged in directly. Other connectors on the

motherboard allow communication through cables with various peripheral devices,

both inside and outside the computer case.

PortsPorts are used by a motherboard to interface with electronics both inside and outside

of the computer

SlotsSlots are an opening in a computer where a circuit board can be inserted to add new

capabilities


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Input

Whatever goes into the computer. Input can take a variety of forms, from commands

you enter from the keyboard to data from another computer or device. A device that

feeds data into a computer, such as a keyboard or mouse, is called an input device.

Output

Anything that comes out of a computer. Output can be display screens,

loudspeakers, and printers.

Processing

Processor is the brain of a computer. It's also called the "CPU"(Central

processing unit) and it is a microchip

Basicoperations


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Storage

Computer data storage is referred to as storage or memory, which can save digitaldata. Examples are RAM, hard disks or removable memory sticks.


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Names fordifferent sizes of dataBitA bit is simply a 1 or a 0. A true or a false. It is the most basic unit of data in a computer.

It's like the dots and dashes in Morse code for a computer. It's also called machine

language.

ByteIn computer science a byte is a unit of measurement of information storage, that

equals '8 bits', can be used to represent letters and numbers. For example, the number

01000001 is 8 bits long, and represents the letter A in ASCII.

kB

A kB is a unit of data that equals 1024 bytes. This is because 8 bytes cannot contributeinto 1000.

MBMegabyte is 1024kB; the kilobyte squared, 10242 bytes.


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GB

A gigabyte is a unit of data storage worth a billion bytes meaning either exactly 1 billion

bytes (10243) or approximately 1.07 billion bytes. More often than not in advertising,

Gigabytes are presented as 1 billion bytes and not 10243 (read the fine print in your

adverts!). This explains why a freshly formatted 500GB hard drive shows up at a 450GB one

instead. Not too long ago many people were discussing storage in Megabytes. These days,

storage has become so cheap that having Gigabytes is considered the norm

TBA terabyte is 10244 and is defined a about one trillion bytes, or 1024 gigabytes. Data

centers such as those operated by Google handle thousands if not millions of terabytes of

data each day. As storage becomes cheaper and faster, terabytes are becoming a

commonly heard term.

PB

A petabyte is a unit of information or computer storage equal to one quadrillion

bytes (10245). Microsoft stores on 900 servers a total of approximately 14 petabytes


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ProcessorVacuum tube

A vacuum tube is a small glass tube the size of a light-bulb. It was invented in 1936. It was

meant to amplify and act like a switch. It facilitated the flow of electrons. The vacuum

tube was replaced in computers by the transistor in 1948.

Transistor

A transistor is an electrically operated logic gate or switch that alternates between "on"

and "off" millions of times per second. May be used in many different digital and analog

functions due to its fast response and accuracy

IntegratedcircuitAn integrated circuit is a mini electronic circuit which consists of multiple transistors.

More transistors close together increased capability and consumed little power


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Microprocessor

8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit microprocessor with a 40 pin dual in line package. The

address and data bus are multiplexed in this processor which helps in providing more

control signals. 8085 microprocessor has 1 Non-maskable interrupt and 3 maskable

interrupts. It provides serial interfacing with serial input data (SID) and serial output data

(SOD).


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MemoryPrimary storage, or memory, means the space on your hard drive that is briefly used for

working space. This usually occurs in a chip. Memory consists of four types of memory

chips RAM, ROM, CMOS and flash.

RAMRAM stands for Random Access Memory and is a type of chip used in primary storage

memory. It is also temporary storage, holding software instructions and short-term

working memory for the processor. RAM can be increased in most computers by using

the expandable memory slots

ROMROM refers to a read only memory chip that cannot be written on or erased by the

computer user without special equipment. While using ROM contents are not lost whenpower to the computer is no longer available.

CMOS

CMOS stands for Complementary metaloxidesemiconductor. This is a technology used

in chips and analog circuits


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DisksFloppydisksA "floppy disk" (or diskette) is a form of magnetic data storage; thin, flexible,soft, flat

piece of mylar plastic, packaged in a 3.5 inch plastic case.

Information could be transferred to a floppy disk, stored, disk removed, then inserted into

another system to then be accessed.

Although there was a variety of different sizes of floppy disks produced by various

manufacturers, the most widely used was the 3.5 X 5.25 inch. (As identified below) It is a

form of secondary "permanent" storage and can hold approximately 1.44 MB. The disk is

inserted into a floppy disk drive, a device that holds, spins, reads data from, and writes

data to a floppy disk.

ZipdisksA zip drive is a secondary storage device that uses zip disks. Zip disks are cartridges similar

to floppy disks but capable of storing 70-500 times more memory.

Zip disks are disks with a special high quality magnetic coating that have a capacity of 100,

250, or 750 MB


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Harddrives

A hard-disk drive is non-volatile device used for storage that is located inside the computer

case. Like the floppy drive, it holds its data on rotating platters with a magnetic upper

exterior which are changed or read by electromagnetic tipped arms that move over the disk

as it spins.

Hard disks come in various speeds. An IDE hard disk spins at 4200rpm and is significantly

slower than SATAA particular SATA hard disk has a spindle speed of 7200rpm. A SCSI hard

disk (used in servers and high end computers)have a spindle speed of up to 15000rpm

Currently, the fastest hard drive would be a SSD (solid state drive) which relies on non-

volatile silicon memory chips arranged in arrays to store data. SSDs have nearly no read and

write latency and is capable of speeds of 200-300mbps compared to the standard sata

which is capable of 40-90mbps. A SSD however can cost 10times the price of a mechanical

Hard Disk and store a fraction of the data a mechanical hard disk is capable of. Currently the

record is 256GB for SSDs and 1TB for HDDs

The most cost effective purchase would be for a 500GB internal HD in the SATA format

Tapedrives

A tape drive is a storage device that uses a streaming magnetic tape to store data. Instead

of allowing random-access to data, tape drives only allow sequential-access to data. It

must wind between reels to find any particular piece of data at any given time.

Tape drives are used for archival storage of data stored on hard drives


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