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Neurología. 2014;xxx(xx):xxx—xxx

NEUROLOGÍAwww.elsevier.es/neurologia

REVIEW ARTICLE

Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures�

F.J. Carod-Artal

Servicio de Neurología, Hospital Virgen de la Luz, Cuenca, Spain

Received 30 March 2011; accepted 5 July 2011

KEYWORDSHallucinogens;Hallucinogenic fungi;Peyote;Pre-Columbianculture;Psilocybe spp.;Turbina corymbosa

AbstractObjectives: The archaeological, ethno-historical and ethnographic evidence of the use of hal-lucinogenic substances in Mesoamerica is reviewed.Results: Hallucinogenic cactus, plants and mushrooms were used to induce altered states ofconsciousness in healing rituals and religious ceremonies. The Maya drank balché (a mixture ofhoney and extracts of Lonchocarpus) in group ceremonies to achieve intoxication. Ritual enemasand other psychoactive substances were also used to induce states of trance. Olmec, Zapotec,Maya and Aztec used peyote, hallucinogenic mushrooms (teonanacatl: Psilocybe spp.) and theseeds of ololiuhqui (Turbina corymbosa), that contain mescaline, psilocybin and lysergic acidamide, respectively. The skin of the toad Bufo spp. contains bufotoxins with hallucinogenicproperties, and was used during the Olmec period. Jimson weed (Datura stramonium), wildtobacco (Nicotiana rustica), water lily (Nymphaea ampla) and Salvia divinorum were used fortheir psychoactive effects. Mushroom stones dating from 3000 BC have been found in ritualcontexts in Mesoamerica. Archaeological evidence of peyote use dates back to over 5000 years.Several chroniclers, mainly Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, described their effects in the sixteenthcentury.Conclusions: The use of psychoactive substances was common in pre-Columbian Mesoamericansocieties. Today, local shamans and healers still use them in ritual ceremonies in Mesoamerica.© 2011 Sociedad Espanola de Neurología. Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rightsreserved.

PALABRAS CLAVEAlucinógenos;

Hallucinogenic drugs in the Americas

Culturasprecolombinas;

ResumenIntroducción: El continente americano es rico en hongos y plantas psicoactivas, y numero-

mesoamericanas las emplearon con fines mágicos, terapéuticos y

sas culturas precolombinas Hongos;Peyote;Psilocybe spp.;Turbina corymbosa

religiosos.Objetivos: Se revisan las evidencias arqueológicas, etnohistóricas y etnográficas del uso desustancias alucinógenas en Mesoamérica.

� Please cite this article as: Carod-Artal F. Alucinógenos en las culturas precolombinas mesoamericanas. Neurología. 2014.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nrl.2011.07.003

E-mail address: fjcarod-artal@hotmail.com

2173-5808/$ – see front matter © 2011 Sociedad Espanola de Neurología. Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.

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Resultados: Cactus, plantas y hongos alucinógenos se utilizaron para provocar estados altera-dos del nivel de conciencia en ceremonias rituales y curativas. Los mayas ingerían el balché(hidromiel y extracto de Lonchocarpus) en ceremonias grupales para lograr la embriaguez.También emplearon enemas rituales con sustancias psicoactivas para inducir estados de trance.Olmecas, zapotecas, mayas y aztecas usaron el peyote, los hongos alucinógenos (teonanacatl:Psilocybe spp.) y las semillas de ololiuhqui (Turbina corymbosa), que contienen mescalina,psilocibina y amida del ácido lisérgico, respectivamente. La piel del sapo Bufo spp. contienebufotoxinas, con propiedades alucinógenas y fue usado desde el periodo olmeca. El toloache(Datura estramonio), el tabaco silvestre (Nicotiana rustica), el lirio de agua (Nymphaea ampla)y la hoja de la pastora (Salvia divinorum) se utilizaron por sus efectos psicotropos. Piedra fún-gicas de 3.000 anos de antigüedad se han encontrado en contextos rituales en Mesoamérica.Las evidencias arqueológicas del uso del peyote se remontan a más de 5.000 anos. Diversoscronistas, entre ellos Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, relataron sus efectos en el siglo xvi.Conclusiones: El empleo de sustancias psicotrópicas fue muy común en las sociedades preco-lombinas mesoamericanas. En la actualidad chamanes y curanderos locales las siguen usandoen ceremonias rituales.© 2011 Sociedad Espanola de Neurología. Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U. Todos los dere-chos reservados.

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allucinogens are substances that when ingested in non-oxic doses can provoke altered states of consciousnessnd induce unreal perceptions or distortions of the sur-oundings. Throughout history, numerous societies havesolated substances with hallucinogenic properties from fun-us, plant, and animal sources. From an ethnobotanist’s andnthropologist’s viewpoint, the American continents providexcellent opportunities for studying a wide array of naturalallucinogens.1

The diverse civilisations that flourished in Mesoamer-ca displayed great knowledge and skill in their use ofumerous hallucinogens. Archaeological, ethnohistorical,nd ethnographic evidence show that throughout history,re-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures used hallucinogenicubstances in magical, therapeutic, and religious rituals.2,3

hese substances are considered entheogens since theyere used to promote mysticism and communication withivine powers. The purpose of using these substances waso enter a trance and achieve greater enlightenment andpen-mindedness. The altered state of consciousness theser aimed to reach was characterised by temporal and spa-ial disorientation, a sensation of ecstasy and inner peace,allucinations of vivid colours, tendency towards introspec-ion, and an impression of being one with nature and withhe gods.4

Mesoamerican myths and religions emphasise the role ofhe priest or shaman as a mediator between the physicalnd the spiritual worlds, and this situation promoted these of entheogens in religious ceremonies and prophecy.5

hamans, intermediaries between the natural and super-atural realms, would consume numerous psychoactiveubstances to undertake their shamanic journeys. This wouldegin when the shaman’s spirit left the natural world and

ontinued to wander the supernatural world, making contactith the spirits in order to acquire knowledge about plants,iagnose diseases, or ensure a good harvest or rainy season,efore finally returning to his body in the physical world.6

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oth Mesoamerican and Andean iconography offer numerousepictions of the shamanic journey and trance state inducedy hallucinogens.7 Furthermore, psychoactive plants wereelieved to be associated with certain gods, and they hadoices that the shaman was expected to convey or adoptfter partaking.

nebriation: balché and the Mayan ritual enemas

rugs, drinks, and ritual enemas were used in the sacrederemonies practised all across Mesoamerica. Using or com-ining different psychoactive plants with intoxicating elixirsas also common. Consumption of many of these substancesates back to the Olmec era (1200-400 BCE). However,esearchers are better informed about Mayan and Aztec soci-ties based on Mayan religious texts (the Popol Vuh) and therst outside accounts of Aztec culture from the 16th century.

The Maya (250 BCE-900 AD)8 consumed an intoxicatingeverage called balché, which is an infusion of the bark ofonchocarpus longistylus mixed with honey from bees fed on

type of morning glory with a high ergine content. Inebria-ion was connected with the practice of divination, a ritualntended to enable direct communication with the spirits inrder to predict the future or understand events that wouldtherwise be incomprehensible, including illnesses, shiftsn fortune, adverse meteorological events, poor harvests,nd the outcomes of combats or wars. Since the alcoholicontent of balché seemed to have been quite low, it had toe ingested in large quantities in order to provoke an intox-cating effect. During ceremonies, participants’ vomit wasollected in bags that were then hung around their necks.alché has survived the test of time, and the Maya in theexican state of Yucatán still consume it.

Pulque, or ‘chi’ to the Maya, was another alcoholic drinkade by fermenting the sap of the maguey plant. Differ-

nt ceramic works from the Mayan classic period producedessels marked with the glyph ‘chi’. References to these of hallucinogenic drinks also appear in the Dresden,orgia, Florentine, and Borbonicus codices. The Codex

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Figure 1 Temple of the Cross, Palenque. Ceremonial tobaccouse.

Vindobonensis shows richly dressed figures drinking pulque.The mural known as ‘The Drinkers’ in Cholula, Puebla (Mex-ico), shows male and female figures drinking pulque in agroup ceremony.5

Those who drank balché would also take other psy-choactive substances, smoke wild Mesoamerican tobacco(Nicotiana rustica), and perform ritual enemas. Tobaccowas consumed smoked, inhaled, or chewed; it was alsomixed with the leaves of datura (tolohuaxihuitl; Daturastramonium) or Brugmansia spp. The high psychoactive alka-loid content of these plants intensified the entheogeniceffect.9 Wild tobacco, which the Maya called piziet, alsoplayed a part in many sacred ceremonies. The Temple ofthe Cross in Palenque, Chiapas, houses a stela depicting GodG smoking tobacco (Fig. 1). In his historical treatise Histo-ria de Guatemala o Recordación florida, Francisco Fuentesy Guzmán mentions different uses of tobacco amongst theMaya in the 16th century.10

‘‘They also adored and attributed divine power to theherb they call piziet, which is tobacco; their custom is to

imbibe the smoke, and thus inebriated, they will invoke thedevil to learn about the future and pass on the pleas andwishes commended to them by others. We understand that

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his practice of augury was reserved for the priests of theiremonic and accursed idols.’’

Some substances were used to provide visions and toecrease pain inflicted by self-sacrifice, a typical practicen Mayan culture. For example, Naab, a white lotus or waterily found in the lakes and rivers of Guatemala (Nymphaeampla), was smoked or eaten raw for the psychoactiveroperties of its bulbs and roots. Naab makes frequentppearances in Maya iconography, and it is usually associatedith death, the underworld gods, and the afterlife.11 Mayanriests (chilam) practised divining and entered ecstatictates to communicate with the gods and forces of nature, oro transform themselves into personifications of corn or rain.he flower of N. ampla became a symbol of high lineage and

t frequently appears on the headdresses of the Maya elite.his plant was regarded as a link to fertility because it pro-ided food for fish, while water in which it grew made thearth fertile for growing corn.

The Maya used enemas to administer certain substancesn order to attain more intense trance states more quickly.esearchers have discovered Mayan classic-period sculp-ure and ceramics depicting scenes in which hallucinogenicnemas were used in rituals; some figures are shownomiting while others receive enemas.12 There are alsonthropomorphic terracotta figures demonstrating the self-dministration of psychoactive enemas. The iconographyn many ceramic vessels from the Mayan late classiceriod shows some figures chatting as they received enemasFig. 2), and pots overflowing with foam from a fermentedrink.

Various descriptions from the colonial period (such ashe Florentine Codex) describe how enemas were used toombat illness and discomfort of the digestive tract. Enemase was also associated with rites or ceremonies in whicharticipants tried to reach a state of ecstasy through ine-riation. Enemas containing alcohol, sometimes mixed withther psychoactive substances, were applied using syringesade of gourd and clay. The god Akan, whom Spanish writers

eferred to as the Mayan Bacchus, watched over the ritualnemas and bacchanalia.

Many ceremonies were held underground, in dark caves,hich were considered points of access to the underworld.his was thought to intensify the inner vision providedy ingesting psychostimulants and hallucinogens. Further-ore, prolonged fasting, rhythmic music, and dancing, alongith use of hallucinogens, provided a favourable setting for

Mayan consumption of alcohol and psychoactive drugsuring their religious ceremonies was condemned by therst Spanish priests. Diego de Landa13 provided the following

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escription of balché use: ‘‘The Indians consumed alcoholnd drugs in immense quantities, which gave rise to manyvils, including murders. They made wine from honey, water,nd the root of a certain tree which they grew just for thaturpose. The wine had a very strong flavour and a putriddour’’.

acred mushrooms

he main entheogenic mushrooms belong to the generasilocybe, Panaeolus, and Stropharia. The Psilocybe genusncludes some 230 mushroom species; at least 54 are foundn Mexico and they were used for their hallucinogenicroperties by pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures. Note-orthy examples include P. semilanceata, P. mexicana, P.ztecorum, P. cubensis, and P. caerulescens. These are smallushrooms with a height range of 2.5-10 cm; the stalks are

ong, thin, and fibrous, and the caps measure between 1 and cm across.

The main active ingredient present in Psilocybepp. is an indolealkylamine, 0-phosphoryl-4 hydroxy-,N-dimethyltryptamine or psilocybin. Once psilocybinas been ingested, it undergoes dephosphorylation.his process transforms it into psilocin (4-hydroxy-N-imethyltripatmine), which has stronger hallucinogenicroperties. Psilocybin can be absorbed in the form of fresh,on-boiled mushroom, or as dried powdered mushroom.

Psilocybin levels vary between different mushroompecies, although doses of more than 5 mg provoke hal-ucinogenic effects. Thirty minutes after ingesting theushroom, the subject experiences sensations of euphoria,etachment, distortion of the visual field, and introspec-ion with a tendency towards isolation from surroundings.he duration of these trance-like symptoms is 4-6 h. Sub-ects also exhibit cutaneous and facial flushing, sweating,achycardia, and increased arterial pressure. High doses20-30 mg) may provoke cholinergic symptoms including dryouth, urinary retention, and increase in hallucinations. By

hours after consumption, the subject’s state will be nor-al. On some occasions, headache, fatigue, and a feeling ofell-being may persist for several days.

The consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms in ritualeremonies was widespread among Mesoamerican cultures.eligious practices with sacred mushrooms extended fromhe Valley of Mexico to the rest of Central America, andhey are thought to be at least 3500 years old. The Mayaonsumed k’aizalaj Okox (Psilocybe cubensis), known tohe Aztecs as teonanácatl. These mushrooms were alsoonsumed by the Huastec, Totonac, Mazatec, and Mixteceoples. Since prehistoric times, the people of Teotenangoave had the custom of grinding mushrooms with watern models of temples that were to be constructed, orn stones marked with petroglyphs. Furthermore, archae-logical evidence points to mushroom use in Mexico,uatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, where the ‘mush-

oom stones’ carved to represent hallucinogenic mushrooms

ave been found. In Kaminaljuyú, Guatemala, researchersound 9 mushroom stones whose stalks are decorated withnthropomorphic figures demonstrating the pre-Hispanicustom of grinding sacred mushrooms into powder.

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igure 3 Tepantitla mural. Priests bearing psilocybin mush-ooms around the god Tlaloc.

The Mixtec god Seven Flowers was depicted with twoushrooms in his hands. A sculpture of Xochipilli, the Aztec

od of flowers, was found in the 16th century on the slopesf Popocatepetl. It features a variety of medicinal and hallu-inogenic plants and fungi, including Psilocybe aztecorum,hose habitat is limited to this region. Other psychoac-

ive plants carved into this sculpture include Nicotianaabacum, Heimia salicifolia (sinicuichi), Turbina corymbosaololiuhqui) and Psilocybe spp.

The Tepantitla mural in Teotihuacán, dating to 500 CE, islso very illustrative; it shows the Toltec rain god Tlaloc,ith priest-like figures bearing hallucinogenic mushrooms

pringing up where his raindrops fall (Fig. 3). The Dres-en and Madrid codices show mushrooms in Mayan scenesf human sacrifice. Psychoactive mushrooms were also usedn the coronation ceremonies of numerous Aztec emperors,ncluding Tizoc, Ahuízotl, and Moctezuma II.

Several 16th-century historians (Durán, Sahagún, andotolinía) described Aztecs using sacred mushrooms during

heir religious ceremonies. In Historia de las cosas de Nuevaspana, Fray Bernardino de Sahagún (Fig. 4) described theses and properties of these hallucinogenic mushrooms asollows14:

‘‘The little mushrooms that grow in this land are namedeonanácatl. They grow beneath the hay in the fields andlains. They are round, and their stems are tall and roundnd slender. Their taste is unpleasant; they cause sore throatnd drunkenness. They are used as medicine for fever andout. No more than two or three should be eaten. Those whoat them see visions and feel fluttering of the heart; theisions they see are sometimes frightening and sometimesumorous. Those few who eat them in excess are driven toust. Silly and naughty boys are told that they have eatenanácatl’’.

In 1959, Albert Hofman isolated psilocin from Psilocybeexicana, and the field of ethnomycology was born. Mean-hile, Gordon Wasson described sacramental use of theushroom Psilocybe spp. among the Mazatec people and

nterviewed María Sabina, a well-known shaman. Today,azatec rituals associated with hallucinogenic mushroom

se have been blended syncretically with various Catholicites. Mushrooms are harvested at dawn and during theew moon, after which worshippers recite Christian prayersnd bless the mushrooms in church. The consumption ritual

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during which Psilocybe specimens are ingested a pair at atime must comply with a series of precepts, including fas-ting and abstinence from sex and alcohol. The ritual takesone night to perform and mushrooms must be placed on analtar and purified with tobacco and incense. This will let theshaman diagnose and treat participants’ illnesses.

Peyote

Peyote (Lophophora williansii) is a rounded spineless cac-tus containing more than 60 hallucinogenic alkaloids of thephenylethylamine family, and especially mescaline. The liq-uid extract of the peyote cactus is used to treat cutaneouslesions, snakebite, and scorpion stings, since it contains pey-ocactin, an alkaloid that has bacteriostatic properties. Theterm mescal is derived from the Nahuatl mexcalli (maguey).The term is a misnomer introduced in colonial times becausethe Spaniards believed that the ‘inebriation’ produced bypeyote was similar to that resulting from drinking pulque.

Mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxypheneylethylamine) isresponsible for the hallucinogenic effect of peyote. Mesca-line is found within mescal buttons at concentrationsranging from 1% to 6% and the minimum hallucinogenic doseis between 0.3 and 0.5 g, equivalent to 5 g of dried peyote.Dried mescal buttons from the cactus may be chewed ordrunk in an infusion. The typical dose is 4-12 buttons that

are extracted from the main stem and cut into slices. Driedpeyote has a characteristic bitter taste. Thirty minutesafter it has been ingested, it may cause nausea, vomiting,and sympathomimetic effects (mydriasis, diaphoresis,

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ypertension, tachycardia, and trembling). The sensoryhase lasts at least 6 hours and subjects report colourfulisual hallucinations (kaleidoscopic visions), sensation ofeightlessness, and altered perception of time and space.epeated consumption may lead to a degree of tolerance.

Ritual use of peyote in the Americas dates back more than000 years, to prehistoric times. Traces of peyote in a rit-al context have been found in Cuatro Ciénagas, Coahuila,exico and in the Shumla Cave in Texas, together withther shamanic artefacts: ritual deer scapula rattles, boneods and scrapers, and tubes containing incense.15 Numerousesoamerican cultures, including the Maya and the Aztecs,onsumed peyote. Sophora secundiflora or mescal bean andhe San Pedro cactus also contain mescaline and they weresed in prehistoric times in Mesoamerica and the Andes,espectively.7

Fray Bernardino de Sahagún described the use of therug14: ‘‘There is another herb like mountain prickly pear,amed peiotl, which is white and can be found in the north.hose who eat or drink of it see terrifying or absurd visions;his inebriation lasts two or three days and then subsides.t is a delicacy often enjoyed by the Chichimeca, for it isustaining and spurs them to fight with no thought of fear,hirst, or hunger, and they say that it protects them from allanger.’’

Users were persecuted by the Inquisition, and theractice was completely prohibited by 1720. At present,he Tarahumara, Tepehúan, and Huichol peoples of north-rn Mexico, as well as the Navajo and Comanche in theouthern United States, use peyote in ritual and curativeeremonies and to promote communication with the spiritorld. Peyote rituals are still very much a part of life

or the Huichol, who make a yearly pilgrimage from theestern Sierra Madre to Wirikuta, the sacred site of pey-te in Potosí. This journey requires spiritual purification,bstinence rites, and numerous ritual ceremonies, includ-ng shooting arrows into the first cactus to be harvestednd honouring it with an offering of corn. The peyote ishunted’ in this way because the Huichol consider it to be theupernatural guardian of the deer. Modern ceremonies takelace at night and peyote consumption is associated withhe use of tobacco and other psychoactive plants. Huicholhamanism includes many elements in addition to mesca-ine consumption: ritual singing, magical flights, and use ofrums, all within a religious and ceremonial circle of deathnd resurrection, a concept shared with Euro-Americanhamanism.

loliuhqui

he convolvulaceae are a family of herbaceous ornamen-al plants with infundibular (bell-shaped) flowers. Differentpecies have seeds containing different alkaloids of the LSDamily, such as d-lysergic acid amide (ergine) and isoergine,hich act as partial serotonergic agonists.

The seeds of Turbina corymbosa (ololiuhqui) and Ipomeaiolacea (tlilitzin) were consumed by the Maya and Aztec

or their psychotropic effects on perception and emotionsnd to induce trance states. They were commonly used byixtec and Zapotec peoples in the state of Oaxaca, and

hey are used to this day by the local healers who conduct

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urative and divination ceremonies. Ololiuhqui is very com-on in Mexico, and it is a type of morning glory so namedecause its flowers close during the night to reopen inhe morning. In Spanish, it is also known as quiebracajetelanco, or flor de la virgen, since it had religious connota-ions in the 16th century.

T. corymbosa has round coffee-coloured seeds, whereashose of Ipomea violacea are black and called badoh negro.hese seeds are ground into powder and taken in water,nd they induce sensory/perception alterations that includeisual illusions, synaesthesia, euphoria, memory changes,nd discrete somnolence. In its cultural context, in contrastith the practices associated with peyote or hallucinogenicushroom use, ololiuhqui is most often taken alone with the

ealer. The first phase is marked by a psychic void, which ist times accompanied by vasovagal response and vertigo;ome hours later, this is followed by a period of intenseerenity and sedation.

Ethnohistorical accounts of use of this plant date tohe 16th century. During his journey through Oaxaca, courthysician Francisco Hernández described how these seedsere used. He reported that a fully hallucinogenic dose con-

ained 100-150 ground seeds dissolved in cold water.16 In thehapter titled ‘Some herbs with intoxicating effects’, Frayernardino de Sahagún presented the following account ofhe psychoactive effects of ololiuhqui:14

‘‘There is an herb named coatl xoxouhquij (green ser-ent), and it grows a seed they call ololiuquj. This seedroduces inebriation and madness. People mix it in potionso give to those they wish to harm; those who eat it appearo see visions and terrifying things. Sorcerers mix it withood and drink, and so do those who hate others and wisho do them ill. This herb is medicinal and its seed is usedo treat gout; ground seeds are applied to the gout-strickenrea.’’

The conquistadors soon associated these trance statesnd the hallucinogenic effect of the seeds with witchcraftnd charlatanism, and they refused to recognise the reli-ious and mystical significance of these ceremonies. In 1591,uan de Cárdenas described the following in his chroniclesf the Indies17:

‘‘In sooth they tell us that peyote, and ololiuhque, whenaken by mouth, will cause the wretch who takes them toose his wits so severely that he sees the devil among othererrible and fearsome apparitions; and he will be warnedso they say) of things to come, and all this must be tricksnd lies of Satanas, whose nature is to deceive, with divineermission, the wretch who on such occasions seeks him’’.

alvia divinorum

alvia divinorum, also known as pipiltzintli and ska Maríaastora, was historically used by Mazatec shamans in Oax-ca. The plant contains salvinorin A, an agonist of theappa-opioid receptor agonist, and smoking it can producen altered state of consciousness.18 The effective dose is00 �g. The psychoactive effects of S. divinorum are very

ntense and promote a pleasant state of introspection, lackf attention to surroundings, and increased sensitivity touminous and auditory stimuli. The state of lethargy itnduces was used in practising divination. The physiological

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ffects associated with consuming this plant are lower bloodressure and lessened headache. Use of this plant is prohib-ted in the United States, and it is regarded today as anbused substance among adolescents.

oloache

. stramonium is known as toloache or ‘devil’s herb’ inesoamerica (Fig. 5). Numerous native peoples of north-rn Mexico and the southern United States used the plants medicine, a means of diagnosing disease, to experienceheir novice visions during puberty rites, and as a huntingid.

Unlike the different substances that were used tochieve trance states and better perception of con-ciousness, toloache, with its anticholinergic effect, wassed to create states of delirium featuring agitation andntense hallucinations. Researchers in the Mexican state ofidalgo have discovered pre-Columbian representations ofeclining figures with toloache plants growing from their bel-ies. Toloache was probably used in rites associated withuman sacrifice. The Huichol regarded it as the oppositef peyote, which overcomes toloache according to theirythology.

eotlaqualli

eotlaqualli means ‘divine food’ and it refers to a dark-oloured unguent or paste with which Aztec priests anointedheir skin. It was made from extracts of Nicotiana rus-ica, ololiuhqui, and the ashes of ‘poisonous animals’

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including spiders, scorpions, and snakes.19 Even though itsfull contents are unknown, some authors speculate that inaddition to ‘divine tar’, the unguent could contain sub-stances that would be absorbed transdermally to provokealtered states of consciousness.19

The sooty appearance of the priests and healers whoused this unguent was thought to indicate witchcraft incolonial times. Fray Diego Durán, in his history book titledHistoria de las Indias de Nueva Espana e Islas de TierraFirme,20 wrote that ‘‘They mixed these things with soot andplaced it in vessels and cups before their god like divinefood. Daubed with this mixture, they could not help butturn into witches or demons, and see and speak to thedevil’’.

Teotlaqualli was offered to the gods as a divine food.Aztec priests covered themselves with this mixture to reachthe proper state of consciousness in which to serve thegods. In some occasions, Aztec emperors and even sol-diers were painted with teotlaqualli. Researchers believethat this substance provides the explanation for the darkcolouration of some Aztec gods as they are shown incodices.

Bufotoxins

Bufotoxins, found in the parotid glands of different toadspecies, are toxic substances with psychoactive proper-ties. In Central America, toads of the Bufo genus secretea milky toxic substance to dissuade predators. Animalsthat ingest the venom, or eat the toad, may experiencecardiovascular and gastrointestinal symptoms. The mostsevere forms of intoxication may provoke cardiac arrhyth-mia, diarrhoea, convulsions, or even death due to cardiacarrest.

The Sonoran Desert toad, Bufo alvarius, containsa variety of bufotoxins including 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine and bufotenin, both of which arehallucinogenic. Other toad species produce bufotenin only;while this substance is psychoactive if smoked or ingested,it is somewhat less potent than other compounds.

Dried skins of Bufo spp. have been used to inducetrance states since Olmec times. Proof of the above isthat remains of these toads have been found in cere-monial complexes alongside Olmec priests, and ceramicfigures of B. alvarius have also been found in ritualsettings.21 Ceremonial vessels featuring the sacred toadhave also been discovered. Historians of the 16th centurystated that the Maya added tobacco and the skins of thecommon toad Bufo marinus to their alcoholic drinks toincrease their potency. The K’iche’ group of the Maya stilluses the skin of this amphibian as an ingredient in theirbalché.

Conclusions

At present, numerous hallucinogenic substances derived

from mushrooms and plants are still used in the indige-nous societies of Mesoamerica, and these societies haveelaborated complex ceremonies to prevent the abuse ofthese substances. Peyote cactus and psilocybin mushrooms

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re consumed in religious and therapeutic ceremonies.he American Indian Religious Freedom Act specified thatacramental use of peyote was permitted for members ofhe Native American Church. Hallucinogens were linkedo the theocratic, political, and religious complex ofesoamerican pre-Columbian societies. In modern indige-ous cultures, however, hallucinogens are viewed as annstrument permitting the continuity of the shamanic com-lex, induction of altered states of consciousness, anderformance of curative ceremonies. The abuse of theseubstances for hedonistic purposes is a recent develop-ent in post-modern European-American societies. Use or

buse of these substances should be considered when youngeople are examined in hospital emergency departmentsith symptoms of delirium or altered level of conscious-ess.

onflicts of interest

he author has no conflicts of interest to declare.

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