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Towards‘languagesforall’inEngland:thestateofthedebate

LesleyHagger-Vaughan

Publishedonline:19Jul2016

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2016.1199047

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Towards‘languages forall’inEngland:thestateofthedebate

LesleyHagger-Vaughan*SchoolofEducation,UniversityofNottingham,Nottingham,UK

WhetherthestudyoflanguagesshouldbeacoreelementofabalancedandbroadlybasedcurriculumforallpupilsinEngland’s11–16state-fundedsecondaryschoolsisalsopartofawiderdebateconcerninghowtoharnessEngland’srichlinguisticandculturaldiversityandimprovethequalityandrangeoflanguageskillsofthecountry.While learninga second language throughout compulsory schooling is increasinglythenormacross theworld,fewer than50%of14–16yearoldsinstate-fundedschoolsinEnglandgainedamodernlanguagequalification(GeneralCertificationofSecondaryEducationorGCSE)in2015.From2015,recentgovernmenteducationpolicyhasrequiredthemajorityofpupilscommencingsecondaryschooltostudyalanguagetoGCSE level,suggestingthatschoolswhodonot complywillbeunabletogainthetopinspectiongrade.Thispaperreviewsthestateofthedebateexaminingdivergentandcontradictoryperspectiveswithineducationpolicyandintheliterature.Itconcludesbysettingoutsixconditionsforachievingthispolicygoalforenablingsecondaryschoolstosuccessfullyimplementacoherentandrelevantlanguagescurriculum forallyoungpeople,suchthattheycandevelopthelinguisticandinterculturalcompetenciesneededtocontributetoandthrivein increasinglydiverselocalandglobalcommunities.

Keywords:modernforeignlanguages;diversity;multilingualism;interculturalcompetence;educationpolicy;curriculum

IntroductionEverythinghasbeensaidbefore,butsincenobody listenswehavetokeepgoingbackandbeginningalloveragain(AndréGide1891:5).

TheEducationActof2002requiresallEnglishschoolstoprovideabroadandbalancedcurriculumthatpreparespupilsfortheopportunities,responsibilitiesandexperiencesoflaterlife.Theplaceof(modern)languages1withinthatcurriculum,however,isnotsecure.Thiscomesamidstthewiderdebateconcerninglanguageskillsandlanguageeducationinourincreasinglymultilingualworld,wherespeakingmorethanonelanguageiscommonplace(All-PartyParliamentaryGroup2014;BritishCouncil2013;CBI2014;Nuffield2000).Attheheartofthisdebateisaquestionofwhetherlearningalanguageshouldbeacorecomponentoftheeducationofallyoungpeoplethroughouttheircompulsoryschooling(Crystal2012;DfE2011a;DfES2002a;Macaro2008;Mitchell2014;Morgan2015;Pachler2007).AccordingtoSchleicheroftheOrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD),‘diversityisnotaproblemofaknowledgeeconomybutactuallyitsgreatestpotential’(Schleicher2013).TheOECDisconsideringtheinclusionofforeignlanguageskillsinfuturetestsintheProgrammeforInternationalStudentAssessment

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(PISA).Schleicheremphasisestheimportanceoflanguageandinter-culturalskillsaskeycompetenciesthatwillenableyoungpeopletoworkgloballyandliveinincreasinglyheterogeneouscommunities.ThisreflectsthepositionarticulatedbyUNESCO(2015:21)withculturaldiversityconsideredtobe‘humanity’sgreatestsourceofcreativityandwealth’andmultilingualismanessentialrequirementforinterculturaldialogueandcommunicationinaglobalisedworld(UNESCO2013).Whilelearningasecondlanguagethroughoutcompulsoryeducationisfrequentlythenorminhigh-performingedu-cationsystemsinEuropeandacrosstheworld,fewerthan50%of16-year-oldschoolleaversinstate-fundedschoolsinEnglandgainedalanguageGeneralCertificationofSecondaryEducation(GCSE)2in2015(DfE2016a).Researchindicatesthatthosewhodostudylanguagespost-14tendtobeeducatedintheindependentschoolsectororarehighattainersfrommoreaffluentbackgroundsinstate-fundedschoolswhilemanyyoungpeople’saccesstolanguagelearningisoftenconstrainedbycurriculumdecisionstakenatregionalandlocallevels(RoyalSocietyofArts[RSA]2015;SuttonTrust2015).

AdearthofrecentresearchexploringlanguageeducationpolicyanditsimplementationinEnglishsecondaryschoolsmeansthattheremaybeanoverreliancebypractitionersandpolicy-makersonsmall-scalesnapshotsurveys.Furthermore,relevantresearchmaynotreachthosetaskedwithmakingcurriculumdecisionsinthecurrentperiodofintensereform.Followingrecentgovernmentreviews,schoolswillbegrapplingwithmore‘rigorous’languageGCSEs,theProgress83performancemeasureandanewinspectionframe-workfromOfsted(OfficeforStandardsinEducation,Children’sServicesandSkills).Schoolswillbejudgedontheirprovisionofabroadandbalancedcurriculum,includinganexpectationthat‘themajority’ofpupilswilltakeaGCSElanguagequalificationfrom2020aspartoftheEnglishBaccalaureate(orEBacc)4suiteofsubjects(DfE2015b;Morgan2015).ItisthereforeimportantandtimelytoreinvigoratethedebateabouttheplaceoflanguagesintheUK’sKeyStage4(KS4-ages14–16)-5curriculum.

Whileperhaps‘everythinghasbeensaidbefore’byacademicsandcommentators,thevoicesofteachersandschoolleaderstaskedwithenactinglanguageeducationpolicyarelessfrequentlyheard.Myperspectiveisthatofaneducationprofessionalinvolvedinsomeofthestudies,policiesandreportsdiscussedbelow,inadditiontomanyyears’experienceinschoollanguageteachingandleadership(Hagger-Vaughan,Souplet,andDearn2004).Mypurposeinwritingthispaperistoprovokedebateinordertoworktowardsamorecoherentandproductivelanguageeducationforallyoungpeople.Thewidersocio-politicalcontextofthisdiscussionincludesthecurrentreconsiderationoftheUK’spositionintheEuropeanUnion,whichitselfissetagainstthebackdropofadominantmonolingualdiscourseintheUKandprevailingnegativeattitudestowardsimmigration,inwhichmulti-lingualismanddiversityareoftenportrayedasproblematic(Martin-Jones,BlackledgeandCreese2012;Pachler2007).

Thispaperreviewsthestateofthedebateamongsteducationalprofessionals,policy-makers,practitioners,researchers,employersandthemediaandexaminesthedivergentandattimescontradictorypositionsadoptedineducationpolicyandtheliteratures.Itcon-siderstheinterrelationshipbetweenlanguageeducationpolicyandpracticeanditsimpactonthelanguagelearningopportunitiesaffordedtoyoungpeopleinstatesecondaryschools.ItconcludesbydiscussingtheimplicationsforfuturepolicyandpracticesettingoutsixkeyconditionsrequirediftheplaceoflanguagelearningwithinthecurriculumforallpupilsatKS4istobesecured.Thepaperdrawsonabroadrangeofsourceswhichillustratethevariedpointsandanglesofviewamongstdiverseaudiences.Blommaert

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(2010)arguesthatglobalisationand‘superdiversity’haveledtoafluidityintermsofthe‘places’inwhichlanguagesarespokenandencountered.Theterm‘foreign’languageisthereforeproblematicinacontextinwhich‘globalisationisunderstoodasblurringdistinctionsbetweentheinternationalandthedomestic,theglobalandthelocal’(OzgaandLingard2007:65).The‘F’needstoberemovedfrom‘modernforeignlanguages(MFL)’,theacronymmostlycommonlyusedintheUK.Thisbetterreflectsaninterconnectedglobalworldwheremanydifferentlanguagesandculturesareencounteredbothlocallyandvirtually,inadditiontowhentravellingto‘foreign’countries,leading,inLoBianco’s(2014)words,tothe‘domesticatingoftheforeign’.

SettingthesceneThehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageeducationpolicysincetheintroductionoftheNationalCurriculumin 1988 will be explored in the next sectionbut, first, I considerfivekeyaspectswhichunderpinthedebateontheplaceoflanguagesintheKS4curriculum.

TheEnglishcontextThepastdecadehasseenasignificantdeclineintheproportionofyoungpeoplelearninglanguagespost-14intheUKandconcernsaboutlowlevelsoflanguageproficiency(EuropeanCommission2012).Fewerthan50%of14–16yearoldsinstate-fundedschoolsinEnglandgainedamodernlanguagequalification(GCSE)in2015althoughithasbeenmandatoryformostEuropeanchildrentolearnatleastoneforeignlanguageduringtheircompulsoryeducation(Eurostat2014).Furthermore,accordingtoEurostat(2014)whileoverhalfofuppersecondarystudentsacrosstheEU-28memberstatesstudiedtwoormoreforeignlanguages(FL),only5%ofpupilsintheUKstudiedtwoormoreFLinthisphase.TheEuropeanSurveyofLanguageCompetencefoundthatyoungpeopleinEnglandhadtheweakestforeignlanguageskillsamongsttheparticipatingcountries,unsurprisinggiventhelimitedamountedoftimeallocatedtolanguagestudyinEngland(OECD2014).Thepooroutcomesofthesurvey‘jarwiththelinguisticallydiversedemographicsoftheUK,where17.5%ofprimaryand12.9%ofsecondaryschoolpupilsspeaklanguagesotherthanEnglish’(LanversandColeman2013:2).ThisparadoxofmultilingualismandmonolingualismwithintheUK(Lanvers2011)isfrequentlyraisedinrelationtotheUK’slanguagecapabilityandafailuretocapitaliseonEngland’slinguisticandculturaldiversityandtovaluethe‘fundsofknowledge’(Molletal.1992)ofbi-lingualpupils.

AccordingtothecurrentNationalCurriculum,learningaforeignlanguage‘isaliberationfrominsularityandprovidesanopeningtoothercultures’andshouldenablepupils‘tocommunicateinthetargetlanguageandequipthemtolearnotherlanguages’(DfE2013:1).Theteachingoflanguagesiscurrentlymandatoryin‘maintained’6schoolsinEnglandatKS2andKS3andan‘entitlement’7atKS4withFrench,SpanishandGermanthemostcommonlytaughtlanguages.AlthoughacademiesandfreeschoolsarenotrequiredtofollowtheNationalCurriculum,theyarerequiredtoofferacurriculumwhichis‘balancedandbroadlybased’,that‘promotesthespiritual,moral,cultural,mentalandphysicaldevelopmentofpupils’and‘preparespupilsattheschoolfortheopportunities,responsibilitiesandexperiencesoflaterlife’(EducationAct2002:Section78).Itisforschoolstodefineabalancedandbroadlybasedcurriculumintheirlocalcontextandtodeterminetheplaceoflanguagesinthatcurriculum.BoththeOfstedinspectionframeworkandaccountabilitymeasuresplayasignificantroleinframingexpectationsanddecisions

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(Ball,MaguireandBraun2012).ApolicyannouncementinJune2015that‘allpupils’shouldstudythe‘coreacademicsubjects’atGCSE(includingalanguage)aspartoftheEBacchasbroughtrenewedfocustothedebateabouttheplaceoflanguagesintheKS4curriculum.

TheEuropeancontextInthecontextofrecurrentdebatesabouttheUK’smembershipoftheEuropeanUnion(EU),andtherecentreferendumdecisiontowithdrawfromtheEU,itisperhapsunsurpris-ingthatlanguageeducationpolicyinEnglandfallsshortoftherecommendationsofEuropeanpolicy,whichhasaparticularfocusonworkingwithmembergovernmentstosupportlinguisticandculturaldiversityinEuropeandpromotepluralingualism.Furthermore,EnglishLanguageEducationprofessionalsarealsomissingoutonthebenefitsofcollaborationandtheprofessionaldevelopmentopportunitiesofferedbytheEuropeanCentreforModernLanguages(ECML),sinceEnglishfundingwaswithdrawnin2012.TheCouncilofEuropeencouragesthelearninganduseoflanguages‘asameanstosupportinterculturaldialogue,socialcohesionanddemocraticcitizenship,andasanimportanteconomicassetinamodernknowledge-basedsociety’(CouncilofEurope2005:1).AkeyEuropeanCommission(2008)document,‘Multilingualism–anassetforEuropeandasharedcommitment’,outlinesastrategicframeworkwhichplacesparticularemphasisonimprovingthelanguageskillsofschoolleaversandpromotesthelearningoftwolanguagesinadditiontothemothertongue.

‘English isnotenough’AnimportantaspectofthedebatewhichbringsparticularchallengesandopportunitiesistheplaceofEnglishasagloballanguageofinternationalcommunication(Crystal2012;Guilherme2007).RizviandLingard(2010)notethatwhiletherestoftheworldisbecomingmultilingual,therehasbeenadeclineinsecondlanguagelearninginEnglish-speakingcountries.LoBiancoandSlaughter(2009:8)referto‘ananglophonicreluctancetobecomingbilingual’whileLanvers(2011:63)pointstoa‘tacitassumptionthatEnglishisenough’suggestingthatthishashadamajorinfluenceonlanguageeducationpoliciesandpracticesintheUK.Mitchell(2014)highlightsthedisadvantagesofbeingamonolingualEnglishspeakerinafluctuating,hierarchical‘globallanguagesystem’whichisseeingtheriseofother‘supercentrallanguages’(deSwaan2001)alongsideEnglish.Graddol(2007)warnsthatasincreasingly,millionsofstudentsgloballyareabletospeakEnglishandatleastoneotherlanguage,thecareerprospectsofmonolingualyoungpeopleinEnglandarepotentiallydiminished.Whilethereisstrongsupportforthepropositionthat‘Englishisnotenough’amongstlanguageeducationprofessionals(All-PartyParliamentaryGroup2014;Nuffield2000),thisisnotuniversallyacceptedasthefollowingdebatesillustrate.

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Languages –caught intheacademic/vocationaldebateRose(2004)suggeststhatoneofthemostinfluentialdichotomiesinthelivesofyoungpeopleisthedistinctionbetween‘academic’and‘vocational’andhowthisinfluencestheschoolcurriculum,qualificationsandpathwaysthattheyfollow.

ThecontradictionsandconsequencesofthisdistinctionaffectstheplaceoflanguagesatKS4,withlanguagestypicallyframedasan‘academic’subject.Thisisfurthercomplicatedbyalackofcleardefinitionsineducationpolicyof‘vocational’and‘academic’learning.

TheWolfReview(2011)suggeststhatvocationallearningissuitedto‘thosewhoseaptitudesandtalentsarepractical’andvocationalqualifications,knownastechnicalawardsaredescribedasqualifications‘whichequipstudentswithappliedknowledgeandassociatedpracticalskills’whileacademicGCSEsincludeMathematics,English,Science,History,GeographyandaModernLanguage(DfE2016b:4).Thisnotionoflanguagesasan‘academic’activitywasimplicitintheremovaloflanguagesfromthecompulsorysubjectstobestudiedatKS4in2002(Sewell2004),asexploredlaterinthepaperandisexplicitwithincurrenteducationalpolicy(DfE2010;Gibb2015).King(2004)questionstheassumptionthatlanguagelearningisan‘academicpursuit’,whenmillionsofpeopleacrosstheworldofallbackgrounds,agesandabilitieslearnasecondlanguageandtheuseofmorethanonelanguageiscommonpracticeindailylife.Thisframingoflanguagesasan‘academic’subjectratherthanonewhichalsoequipsstudentswithappliedknowledgeandassociatedskillshighlightsthecontradictionsofavocational/academicdivideandalsoperhapsshapestheperceptionsanddecisionsofcurriculumleadersasregardsthecontributionoflanguagestoabalancedandbroadlybasedcurriculum,effectivemodernlanguagepedagogyandappropriateresourcingandstaffing.

Afundamentalaimofmodernlanguageteachingistoenableyoungpeopletocommunicateinthetargetlanguage(Pachleretal.2014).DrawingonByram’snotionof‘interculturalcommunicativecompetence’(Byram,HolmesandSavvides2013:251)Iwouldsuggestthatameaningfullanguagescurriculumcombinesthedevelopmentofbothlinguisticandinterculturalcompetence.Itintegratestheabilitytounderstandandmanipulatelinguisticstructuresandapplytheminmeaningfulcontexts(LightbownandSpada2013)inordertocommunicateeffectively,withthedevelopmentof‘agreatercriticalawarenessofourselvesandothers’and‘therebybecomingmoreadequatelyeducatedforaninter-nationalworld’(Byram2008:18).

Languages perceivedasa ‘difficult’and ‘challenging’subjectAnotherperceptionfeaturingprominentlyinthedebatesurroundingtheplaceoflanguagesintheKS4curriculumisthatlearningalanguageis‘difficult’.SeveralstudieshaveresearchedEnglishyoungpeople’sattitudestowardslearninglanguages(EvansandFisher2009;Filmer-SankeyandMarshall2010;Graham2004).Anongoingconcernisthatgaininga‘good’GCSEinalanguageisagreaterchallengethaninsomeothersubjectsduetoperceived‘severegrading’oflanguages(ASCL2014;Myers2006;QCA2008).

AccordingtotheRSA’sOpenPublicServicesNetwork,thepressureonschoolstoperformwellinleaguetablesofexaminationresultsishavingadirectimpactontheopportunitiesaffordedtoyoungpeopletolearnlanguagesatKS4.Theirreportfoundthat‘thecurriculumapupilwillbetaughtvariesaccordingtowhethertheyliveinawealthyorpoorneighbourhood’(RSA2015:8).PupilsinwealthyKensington,forexample,werefourtimes

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morelikelytobeenrolledforalanguageGCSEthanpupilsinpoorerMiddlesbroughwhere,onaverage,onlyonechildineveryfourtakesalanguageGCSE(RSA2015:8).However,thereareanumberoflocaleducationauthoritiesinthelowestdeprivationquintilewheremorepupilsaretakinglanguages.Thereportsuggeststhatthismaybeduetothelinguisticdiversityoftheseareas(RSA2015:26).TheRSADirectorofPublicServicescriticisedschoolleadersfor‘dumbingdown’thecurriculum,arguingthattheyshouldbeaimingtoimprovethestandardoftheirteachingratherthannarrowingthecurriculuminordertoachievebettergrades.FindingsfromtheSuttonTrust(2015)alsosuggestthathighlyablepupilseligiblefor‘pupilpremium’grantfundingaimedatraisingtheattainmentofdisadvantagedpupils,donotperformwellinlanguages.

Havingsetoutthesefivekeyissuesthatframethedebate,thefollowingsectiontakesahistoricallookatlanguageeducationpolicyinEnglandfromtheintroductionoftheNationalCurriculumtothepresentwithaparticularfocusontheplaceoflanguagesintheKS4curriculum.

LanguageeducationpolicyatKS4:languagesforall,forsome,forthemajority?Ananalysisofthehistoryoflanguagesinthesecondarycurriculumoverthepast25yearsrevealsnumerouspolicytwistsandturns(Pachleretal.2014).Contradictionsandshort-termisminlanguageeducationpolicyhaveresultedinconfusionsurroundingnationalrequirementsandexpectations.Successiveadministrationshavecommissionedreviewsandappointed‘experts’toprovidelanguageeducationpolicyadvice(DearingandKing2007;DES1985;DfE2010;DfES2002a;Nuffield2000)butparticipationinlanguagesatKS4in2015remainssimilartopre-NationalCurriculumfigures.

Languages forallintheNational CurriculumPriortotheintroductionofaNationalCurriculumin1988,gainingalanguagequalificationat16waslargelythepreserveofpupilsintheindependentsectororthe‘moreable’instateschools(Hawkins1981).HerMajesty’sInspectorsintheirCurriculumMattersseriessuggestedthatthestudyoflanguagesshouldbelocatedwithina‘linguisticandliteraryareaofexperience’combiningallaspectsoflanguagelearning(DES1985:7)toprovidean‘apprenticeship’intheskillsofforeignlanguagelearning,enablingpupilstodevelopthetransferableskillsnecessarytolearnotherlanguages(DES1987:4).ThisthinkinginformedtheintroductionoflanguagesaspartofaNationalCurriculumforallpupilsbetweentheagesof11–16atKS3(1992)andKS4(1995)withthemajorityofpupilsenteredforthe‘new’languageGCSEoranequivalentbetween1996and2002(Nuffield2000).TheNationalCurriculumemphasisednotonlytheeconomicandemploymentbenefitsoflanguagelearninginaglobalsocietybutalsohighlightedtheintellectualandcognitivebenefitsofdevelopingmeta-linguisticskills,broadercommunicationskillsandthecontributionoflearninglanguagestointerculturalcompetenceandglobalunderstanding(DES1990).

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Languages forsomeatKeyStage4Ashiftineducationpolicy,outlinedinthegovernment’sGreenPaper14–19:ExtendingOpportunities,RaisingStandards(2002)andpredicatedonthenotionof‘increasedchoiceandflexibility’inthe14–19curriculum,sawtheintroductionofarangeof‘highquality’vocationalqualifications(DfES2003:7)andledtotheremovaloflanguagesfromthecompulsorycorecurriculumatKS4in2004.TheGreenPaperarguedthatthereshouldbeacoreofcompulsorysubjects‘essentialforprogressionorforpersonaldevelopment’(DfES2002a:22).Languageswerenotdeemedtobe‘essential’.ThethenMinisterforEducationexplainedthat‘15year-oldsstudyinglanguagesattheexpenseofsomethingelseissomethingIammorethanhappytoleavetoschools’(TheGuardian2006).Thischange,contestedbymany,ledtoarapiddeclineinthenumberofyoungpeoplestudyinglanguagesatKS4inEnglishstateschools.ThiswasnotonlystrategicallyincoherentbutwasalsoindirectcontradictiontotherecommendationsoftheNuffieldInquirywhichrec-ommendedthatallpupilsshouldlearnalanguagethroughoutcompulsoryschooling,toenablethem‘tofunctionrewardinglyandresponsiblyascitizensofamultilingualcommu-nitybothintheUKandthewiderworld’(Nuffield2000:30).

Thepolicychangewasalsoincontradictiontothenewlypublishednationallanguagesstrategy–LanguagesforAll:LanguagesforLife–whichclaimedthat,‘languagecompetenceandinterculturalunderstandingarenotoptionalextras,theyareanessentialpartofbeingacitizen’(DfES2002b:5).Pachler(2002:5)assertsthatboththeGreenPaperandtheLanguagesStrategywere‘problematicinrelationtoequalopportunities’andmarkedacompletebreakwithpolicywhichhithertohadsupportedthenotionoflanguagestudyforallfrom11to16.Pachleralsochallengesthenotionof‘choice’,foregroundedintheGreenPaper,suggestingthatthepoliticaldecisiontoremovelanguagesfromthecoreat14+wasareactiontotheshortageofqualifiedlanguageteachersandconcernssurroundingthelackofmotivationamongstpupilstostudylanguagesinthecontextof‘societalandpoliticalinsularity’and‘adisdainforlinguisticotherness’(Pachler2007:4).

Paradoxically,anewpolicyfocuswasplacedontheteachingoflanguagesinprimaryschools(Morris2002),withlittleconsiderationgiventotheworkforceimplicationsofremovinglanguagesfromthecoreatKS4.Evans(2007)reflectsthattheintroductionofprimarylanguageswasunlikelytoimprovecompetenceandtakeupoflanguagesatKS4withoutstructuralchangepost-14.Macaro,however,supportingthenotionof‘choice’,arguedthat‘wearenotgoingtobeabletoincreaseournationallanguagecompetencebyforcingreluctantlearnerstolearnalanguageattheageof14’(2008:106)favouringthedevelopmentofappropriateandengagingpedagogiesatKS3,whichwouldenableyoungpeopletosucceed,andimpactontheirdecisionsatKS4.

Languages for50%atKeyStage4Takingofficein2010,theCoalitiongovernmentmadenochangetothestatutorypositionoflanguagesintheKS4curriculuminspiteoftheviewsofrespondentstotheNationalCurriculumConsultationCallforEvidence(DfE2011b)andmembersoftheExpertPanelfortheNationalCurriculumReview.8ThemajorityofrespondentstotheCallstatedthata

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modernlanguageshouldbepartofabroadandbalancedNationalCurriculumatKS4butthatGCSEshouldnotbethesoleassessmentavailable,whiletheExpertPanelrecommendedthatlanguagesshouldbeacoresubjectforallthroughoutcompulsorysecondaryeducation(DfE2011a).Inspiteofthewealthofinternationalempiricalevidenceunderpinningthereport,ministerschosetodisregardtheviewsoftheExpertPanelandconsultationrespondents,arguingthatthenewlyintroducedEBacchadledtoasignificantincreaseinthetake-upoflanguagesatKeyStage4(DfE2012).WhiletherehasbeenanincreaseinparticipationatKS4,fewerthan50%ofyoungpeopleinstate-fundedschoolsgainedalanguageGCSEin2015.PanelmembersexpressedconcernovertheperceivedlegitimacyoftheNationalCurriculumReview,claimingthatstakeholderconsultationresponseshadbeentreatedlightly(TES2012).

Languagesforthe‘majority’atKeyStage4?Followingthe2015generalelection,theimplicationsoftheConservativegovernment’seducationreformsontheplaceoflanguagesinthe14–16curriculumarebeginningtomanifestthemselves.TheEBaccremainsthegovernment’skeystrategytoimproveparticipationinlanguages.Arecentpolicyannouncement(BBC2015;DfE2015a;Morgan2015)requiresallpupilstotakeGCSEsinallEBaccsubjects,includingalanguagefrom2020withOfstedunabletoawarditshighestratingstoschoolsthatdonotcomply(ConservativePartyManifesto2015:34).WhilethisproposalappearstopromotelanguagesforallwithinabroadandbalancedKS4curriculum,itdisregardsakeyrecommendationfromtheExpertPanel,namelythatnotallpupilsshouldfollowGCSEcoursesinallsubjectsandthatarangeofappropriatequalificationsshouldbeavailable(DfE2011a:27).ThenarrowingoftherangeofapprovedlanguagequalificationsinthewakeoftheWolfReport(2011)isseenascontributingtothelowertake-upoflanguagesatKS4andhasledtoareductionofthenumberof‘lesser-taught’languagequalificationsavailable.Forexample,theAssetLanguage9qualification,accreditingawiderangeoflanguages,hasbeenwithdrawnandawardingorganisationshavealsoannouncedthewithdrawalofanumberofqualificationsfor‘lesser-taught’languages.Thishighlightsthelackofacoherentstrategytoencourageandmaintaintheteachingofarangeofworldlanguageswithinstateschoolsandtoacknowledgeandaccredittheskillsofmanybilingualpupils.Meanwhile,thereformoflanguageGCSEs,withanemphasisongreater‘rigour’hasthepotentialtolimitthenumberofyoungpeoplewithaccesstoanappropriatelanguagequalification.

TheconsultationonimplementingtheEBaccincludesamodifiedgoalofthe‘vastmajority’takingEBaccsubjects(DfE2015b),perhapsinresponsetothebacklashfromsomeheadteachersfollowingtheinitialpolicyannouncement.Perhapsalsoduetothefactthatofthefivesubject‘pillars’whichmakeuptheEbacc(English,maths,science,languages,humanities)datashowsthatthelanguage‘pillar’istheprincipalbarriertoentryandachievementoftheEBacc.Forexample,in2015,27%ofpupilsenteredforfourEBaccpillars,whichmeantthattheywereonlyonepillarawayfromenteringthefullEBacc.Formanyofthesepupilsthemissing‘pillar’wasalanguage.Sixtysevenpercentofpupilswhowereenteredforfour‘pillars’didnotenterthefullEBaccbecausetheydidnottakealanguageGCSE(DfE2015b:18).

Thishighlightsthatchangesincurriculumstructure,pedagogy,assessmentandresourcingareneededifyoungpeoplearetobeofferedacoherent,relevantandsuccessfullanguage

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learningjourneytoage16andbeyond.ResearchalsoindicatesashortfallinthenumberoflanguageteacherswiththenecessarysubjectknowledgeneededtoteachpupilstoGCSElevel(EducationDatalab2015).Thisforegroundstheneedforacoherent,long-termlanguageeducationpolicywithafocusontherecruitment,retentionandprofessionaldevelopmentoflanguageteachers.

Lackofacoherent, long-termlanguageseducationpolicyThisoverviewillustratestheshort-termismofUKlanguageeducationpolicywhenministers’‘personaltasteorinstincts’(Smith2013:2)resultinpolicywhichisfragmentedandincoherent.ThisinturncreateschallengesforschoolsinenactingameaningfulandappropriatelanguagelearningexperienceforallyoungpeopleatKS4.Evans(2007)criticisesthelackofananalysisofthefundamentalissuesunderlyingforeignlanguageprovisioninEnglandandsuggeststhatthelackofclearpolicyisholdingbackthedevelopmentofacoherentapproachtolanguageprovisioninEnglishschools.Mitchell(2010)alsotakestheviewthatlanguageeducationpolicyinEnglandisinsufficientlyinformedbyeducationalresearchresultinginasituationwheretheplaceoflanguageswithinthecurriculumisvulnerabletopoliticalagendas.Shecontendsthatthestressonachievingpre-determinedlearningoutcomesandthepressureofaccountabilitymeasureshasmadeithard‘todeviseaviableforeignlanguagecurriculumforananglophoneenvironment’(Mitchell2011:1).

Stakeholders’viewsandperspectivesThissectionconsiderssomeoftheperceptionsarticulatedbyeducationpractitionersandstakeholderstaskedwithenactinglanguageeducationpolicyascapturedinthevariouslit-eraturesandempiricalresearch,andtheviewoflanguagesasportrayedinthemedia.

Languagepractitioners’ viewsLanguagepractitioners’viewsoftheplaceoflanguageswithinthesecondarycurriculumarefrequentlycapturedthroughdiscussionsatnetworklevel,inschool-basedactionresearchinquiriesorthroughgovernmentconsultations(DfE2011b).Perhapsthemostrigorousrecentstudy,providingevidenceofpractitioners’views,isanempiricallongitudinalstudycommissionedbytheDepartmentforChildren,SchoolsandFamilies.Thestudyfoundthatfromthepractitioners’perspectiveakeyfocusatKS3wasonmakinglanguagelearningsuccessfulinordertoencouragetake-upatKS4.Theparticipantsarticulatedatensionbetweensupporting‘languagesforall’andthenotionofchoiceat14+,inparticularinasocietalcontextinwhichtheyfindthemselves‘battlingagainstyearsofanattitudethatlanguagesis[sic]totallyirrelevant’(EvansandFisher2009:90).ANationalFoundationforEducationalResearchevaluationfoundthatheadsoflanguagesperceived‘structural’issuestobethemainbarriertoparticipationatKS4.Theseincludedthecompulsoryoroptionalstatusoflanguagesintheschoolandthestructureoftheoptionssystem.Otherbarriersidentifiedwerelackofsupportfromseniorleaders,aperceptionthatlanguageswereahardoptionandinsufficienttime-allocation(Filmer-SankeyandMarshall2010:34).The2015LanguageTrendsSurvey(TinsleyandBoard2015),providingasnapshotofpractitioners’perspectives,foundthattheimpactofperformancemeasuresandqualificationreformsweremajorconcernsforthelanguageteachersparticipatinginthesurvey.

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Schoolleaders’perspectivesThelimitedresearchonschoolleaders’viewssuggeststhattheyarelessconvincedofthevalueoflanguagesforallpupilsfrom11to16andinparticularat14+.However,alackofqualitativedatamakesitdifficulttounderstandtheunderlyingreasonsforthis.Understandingtheperceptionsandassumptionsofschoolleadersisimportantinaneducationalland-scapecharacterisedbyarelentlessfocuson‘raisingstandards’(Ball,MaguireandBraun2012).IntheEvansandFisherstudymentionedabove,headteachersofferedadifferentperspectivetolanguagepractitioners,claimingthatfactorswhichledthemtomakelanguagesoptionalatKS4weretheimportanceofchoiceandthebeliefthatlearnersshouldenjoywhattheywerestudying.ThemajorityofheadteacherswereresistanttotheideathatGCSEresultsinfluencedtheirdecision-making(EvansandFisher2009:93).ThisissurprisinggiventheaforementionedandlongstandingconcernsaboutthegradingandperceiveddifficultyofGCSElanguagesandthefactthatevenpriortolanguagesbecominganentitlementatKS4,schoolswereremovinglanguagesfromthecorecurriculumamidconcernsthatpoorGCSEoutcomescouldimpactnegativelyontheirleaguetableperformance(Lanvers2011).TherecentpolicyannouncementthatallpupilswillbeexpectedtotakeGCSEsinEBaccsubjectsincludingalanguagehaspromptedsomeemotiveresponsesfromschoolleaders:

Wecannotgetgoodlanguageteachersinourarea.Theydon’texist.SowhatwillIdo?Ifwe’reforcedtoteacheverypupilalanguage,ourresultswillbesoterribleourOfstedratingwillbebad,andifIchoosetoignorethepolicy,thegovernmentwillensureourOfstedratingisbad.(TheGuardian2015)

OurschoolhistoricallymadeitarequirementforallpupilstotakeanMFLoptionatKS4andwebreathedahugesighofreliefwhenitwasremovedfromthecompulsoryGCSEoptionblockingsystem.Parentsweredelighted,pupilsfeltempowered,andstaffrelieved.(Watkin2015:6)

Suchcommentshighlighttheneedforfurtherempiricalresearchandabroaderprofessionaldialogueinordertounderstandtheconcernsofschoolleadersandalsomisconceptionsrelatingto‘languagesforall’atKS4.

Lackoflanguage skillsisbadforUKPLCThereappearstobeaseriousmismatchbetweenlanguageeducationpolicyandtheneedsofbusinessandindustry.Concernsarerepeatedlyexpressedaboutthedeclineinlanguagelearningwhichisseenasimpactingontheemployabilityandmobilityofyoungpeopleandholdingback‘UKPLC’(CBI2013,2014;Foreman-Peck2014;Mann,BrassellandBevan2011).Inthe2014CBI/PearsonEducationandSkillsSurvey,65%ofemployersindicatedaneedforemployeeswithlanguageskillsandfoundthatalthoughEnglishisseenastheinternationallanguageofbusiness,abilitytospeakinanotherlanguageisregardedasbeneficialparticularlyastheUKmarketbecomesmoreexport-orientated(CBI2014:53).Employeesareneededwhocancommunicatecompetentlyinanincreasinglydiverserangeoflanguagesandoperateeffectivelyacrosscultures,inFrench50%;German49%;Spanish44%;Mandarin31%;Arabic23%;Polish19%;Russian18%;Cantonese16%;Japanese15%;Portuguese11%(CBI2014).Thisstrengthensthecaseforalong-termlanguagespolicythatwouldresultincompetenceinamorediverserangeoflanguagesamongstthepopulation.Furthermore,speakingskillsandcommunicativecompetencearerepeatedlycitedasgenericareasofweaknessamongstschoolleavers(CBI2014;Mourshed,PatelandSuder2014;UKESS2014).Languagelearning–withitsexplicitfocusonactivelisteningand

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speakingskills–hasanimportantanduniquecontributiontomaketothedevelopmentofyoungpeople’scommunicationskills.

Languages inthemediaIntheiranalysisofthemediacoverageofthe‘UKlanguagelearningcrisis’,LanversandColeman(2013)arguethatthemediaalsoperpetuatethe‘Englishisenough’fallacy.Colemanarguesthatwhilethereasonsforthedecliningtake-upoflanguagesarelinkedtopolicyandpedagogy,thenegativityofpublicopinion,itselfechoedandshapedbythemediaandbyGovernment,isstrongerthanthepositivityofthosewithinGovernmentandeducationwhoseektopromoteinternationalopennessandthepracticalandpersonalbenefitsofcompetenceinlanguagesotherthanEnglish.(Coleman2009:112)

Multilingualismisoftenlinkedtoimmigrationandisfrequentlyconstructedasaproblemorathreattonationalunityinpublicdiscourse(Martin-Jones,BlackledgeandCreese2012).Forexample:‘SomanysettlershavearrivedinBoston,Lincolnshire,that65languagesarespokeninamarkettownofonly70,000inhabitants’(DailyMail23/4/08citedinColeman2009:120).Colemansuggeststhatlanguageprofessionalshavefailedtogetacrosstogovernment,topublicopinionortothemediathatbilingualismisaresourcenotaproblem,anassetnotadeficit,andthatbilingualismraisesbothcognitivestandardsandliteracy(Coleman2009:122).

Rethinkinglanguageseducation–implicationsforfuturepolicyandpracticeThispaperhasmappedoutthecurrentstateofthedebateonlanguagesforallatKS4inEnglandandthehistoricaloriginsofthispositionoverthelastquarterofacentury,aperiodcharacterisedbyshort-termismandstrategicincoherence.Inadditiontothepolicyperspective,someofthechallengesfacinglanguagepractitionersandschoolleaderswhenimplementinglanguagepolicyhavebeendiscussed.Thisconcludingsectionconsiderstheimplicationsforfuturelanguagepolicyandpracticeandinparticulartheimplementationoflanguagesfor‘themajority’of14–16-year-oldsandsetsoutsixconditionsforsecuringthispolicytrajectory.

Theviewsofpolicy-makers,practitionersandresearchersregardingtheplaceoflanguageswithinabalancedandbroadlybasedsecondarycurriculumaredivergentandcontradictory.Moreover,discussionsoftentakeplacewithin‘silos’whichcanresultinpolarisationanddisconnectionfrombroadereducationalandsocietalconcerns.WhereviewsdivergemoststronglyisinrelationtotheuppersecondarycurriculumaroundthisfundamentalquestionofwhetherlearningalanguageshouldbeacoreelementoftheKS4curriculumforallpupils.SincetheButlerEducationActof1944thestudyofMLthroughoutsecondaryeducationhaslargelyremainedthepreserveofthemoreaffluentormostable,apartfromashort10-yearperiodbetween1995and2004whenlanguageswasacoresubjectforall.ResearchsuggeststhattheexclusionoflanguagesfromthecorecurriculumatKS4inmanyschoolsisperpetuatingeducationalinequality(SuttonTrust2015).Reducedaccesstoabroadandbalancedcurriculum(DfE2011b:31)placespupilsinEnglishstatesecondaryschoolsatadisadvantagecomparedtootheryoungpeoplegloballywhodevelopthelinguisticskills,andinterculturalcompetencesneededinanincreasinglydiverseandinterconnectedworld,characterisedbyeverincreasinghumanmobility(UNESCO2015).Furthermore,theliteraturepointstoafailuretoacknowledgeand

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capitaliseontherichlinguisticskillsthatmanyyoungpeoplealreadypossess(Lanvers2011;LanversandColeman2013).

Recenteducationpolicyannouncements,nevertheless,indicatea‘return’oflanguagesforall(orthe‘vastmajority’)atKS4andanexpectationthatthemajorityofpupilswilltakealanguageGCSEby2020.However,ananalysisofthedebateindicatesthat‘restoringlanguagestofullhealthatKeyStage4’(Swarbrick2011)requiresmorethanstructuralpolicychangethroughaccountabilityimperativesifschoolsaretohavethecapacitytoenactthispolicyappropriately.Thedebateneedstomoveonfromhowto‘increaseuptake’tohowtosecurethenecessaryconditionsforenactingaqualitylanguageeducationpolicy,leadingtoanappropriateandsuccessfullanguagelearningexperienceforall.Iproposebelowsixkeyconditionsrequiredtosupportschoolsandcurriculumleaderstomovetowardsestablishingameaningful,viableandrelevantlanguagescurriculumforallpupilsatKS4byrethinkinglanguageeducationtorespondandadapttotheevolvingcontextoftheglobalisedtwenty-firstcentury(UNESCO2015)

Burst the‘languages bubble’Thereisaneedforlanguageeducatorstobreakoutofthe‘languagesbubble’andtoengagemoreeffectivelywithpolicy-makersandschool/curriculumleaderstoarticulatepersuasivelythecontributionthatlearningalanguageshouldmaketoabroadandbalancedcurriculum.Inparticular,thereisaneedtocommunicatelanguageeducationresearchclearlytomultipleaudiences,includingthosenotcurrentlyadvocatinglanguagesforallto16.Thisincludesthecompellingevidenceonhowsecondlanguagelearningcanencourageopen-mindednessandinterculturalcompetence(Byram2008)andcontributestothedevelopmentofbroaderliteracyandcommunication,cognitiveskillsandmetalinguisticawareness(BialystokandFeng2011;Cummins2007)therebyequippingyoungpeoplewiththetransfer-ablelanguagelearningskillsforlifeintheglobaltwenty-firstcentury.

Developstrategic,long-termpolicyThereisaneedtodevelopalong-termnationallanguagespolicywithacoherentstrategyforlanguageseducationfromages0to19andbeyond,whichdrawsonlanguageeducationresearch.Thiswillbeframedbyastrategic,inclusiveandcoherentlong-termvisionforthedevelopmentofthenation’slanguageskillsthatcapitalisesontheinterculturalandlinguisticskillsofallyoungpeople.MoreimaginativeapproachestoteacherrecruitmentneedtobeconsideredincludingthetrainingandrecruitmentoflanguageteachersfromcontinentalEuropeandbeyondtoensurethatwehavesuitablyqualifiedteacherstosupporttheteachingoflanguagesthroughoutcompulsoryschooling.Accesstoeffectiveandresearchinformedprofessionaldevelopment,includingopportunitiestomaintainanddeveloplanguageskills,willnotonlyequipteacherstosupporttheneedsofthebroaderrangeofpupilsstudyinglanguagesbutwillalsosupporttheretentionoflanguageteachers.

Promoteawiderrange oflanguage learningThe‘foreign’needstoberemovedfromtheterm‘MFL’toreflectthechangingnatureoflanguageuseinglobalcommunities.Furthermore,awiderrangeofworldlanguagesshouldbetaughtandaccreditedinschoolssoastobuildthecapacityandcapabilityofthecountryinaneraofsuperdiversityinwhichmanylanguagesareregularlyencounteredlocally,

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virtuallyandoverseas.Thiswouldencourageanapproachwhichis‘groundedintherealitiesofhowpeopleincommunitiesuselanguages,ratherthanallowinglanguagestobepoliticalfootballs’(Broady2006:5).

Developacoherent languagescurriculuminschoolsInordertosecuremeaningful,relevantandsuccessfullanguagelearningexperiencesatKS4schoolleaderswillneedtoprovideanintegratedfive-yearlanguagescurriculum,whichfollowsseamlesslyfromKS2toensureacoherentpathwaytoGCSEorotherappropriatequalifications.Thiscurriculum,underpinnedbyeffectivelanguagepedagogy,willenablelearnerstoaccessthereformedGCSEqualifications.Furthermore,acoherentlanguagescurriculumwouldbringtogetherallteachersoflanguages(English,languagesandEnglishasanadditionallanguage)whoareoften‘barricadedbehindwallsofprofessionalidentity’(LoBianco2014:312)toevolveacoherentandintegratedlanguagescurriculum.

Broaden therange ofrecognisedlanguage qualificationsPolicy-makersshouldconsiderthedevelopmentor‘revival’ofalternativelanguagequalificationslinkedtotheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReference(CouncilofEuropen.d.)tomeettheneedsofadiverserangeoflanguagelearnersandlanguagesandinsodoingbuildonandbroadenthecountry’scapabilityandcapacityinarangeoflanguages.Thiscouldforexampleincludeare-workoftheLanguagesLadder10(DCSF2007)toprovideanoverarchingcoherentprogressionframeworkthroughoutcompulsoryschoolingandbeyond.

Involveschool/curriculumleaders inthelanguages debateSuccessfulimplementationoflanguagelearningforallwillrequireschoolleaderstobecloselyinvolvedinaprofessionaldialogueaboutlanguageseducation.CookeandSimpson(2012:118)emphasisetheimportanceof‘encompassingthebeliefsofthosewhoarenotlanguagespecialistsindiscussionofdebatesaboutlinguisticdiversity’.AtatimewhenEnglishstatesecondaryschoolsfindthemselvesinanincreasinglyresults-drivenpolicycontext(Ball2013;Bush2013)itisimportanttounderstandtheviewsof,andchallengesfacedby,schoolleaderschargedwithenactinglanguageeducationpolicyandextendinglanguagesprovisionintheirownlocalcontexts.

ConclusionReinstatinglanguagelearningaspartofthe14–16curriculumforall(orthevastmajority)ofpupilsisanimportantsteptowardsmovingEnglandfrommonolingualismtowardsmultilingualism.Suchamoveneedstocapitaliseontheexistinglinguisticrichnessofthecountry’sdiverse,multilingualcommunitiesandbridgethegapbetweenformalandinformallearning.Itwouldensurethatallyoungpeopleareaffordedthesamebreadthoflanguageeducationasotheryoungpeoplearoundtheworldforwhommultilingualismisbecomingthenorm.Itwouldhelptoaddressconcernsofadeficitinlanguageskillsandpavethewayforotheranglophonecountriestoadoptsimilarpoliciesandrealisethebenefitsofdiversityonourdoorstepaswellfurtherafieldinaglobalworld(UNESCO2015).However,thereareconsiderableobstaclestobeovercomeifthelanguagesfor‘thevastmajority’objectivesfor2020aretoberealised.Theseincludeensuringthealignmentofeducationalaims,curricula,pedagogy,assessments,inspections,resourcesandteacher

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education(James2014).Thispapermapsouttheseissues,theirhistoricaloriginsandsixkeyconditionsthatneedtobeaddressedinordertosupportschoolsinaffordingallyoungpeoplearelevantandsuccessfullanguagelearningexperiencetoenablethemtothriveinincreasinglydiverselocalandglobalcommunities.

Finally,toreturntothewordsofGide,Ifeelitisindeedtimelytogobackandbeginalloveragain,tore-examineandre-framethedebateaboutlanguagesatKeyStage4.If‘languagesforall’atKeyStage4istobecomeameaningfulexperienceforallyoungpeoplethenitisessentialthatpolicy-makersandpractitionerstakeastepbackandlistentothedebatesandengagewiththeresearchinordertocountertheshort-termismandincoherencethathascharacterisedlanguageeducationpolicyanditsenactment.

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Notes1. Forthepurposesofthispapertheterm‘languages’isusedtorefertoalllanguages

withtheexceptionofEnglishandancientlanguages.Whenreferringtospecificpolicydocumentationandorliterature,thetermsML,MFLorFLmaybeused.

2. TheGeneralCertificateofSecondaryEducation(GCSE)isthemainqualificationtakenby14–16yearoldsinEnglandinarangeofsubjects.

3. Progress8/Attainment8–performancemeasuresintroducedintosecondaryschoolsin2016.AccordingtotheDfE,Progress8aimstocapturetheprogressapupilmakesfromtheendofKeyStage2totheendofKeyStage4.Attainment8willmeasuretheaverageachievementofpupilsacrosseightqualificationsincludingEnglish(double-weightedifthecombinedEnglishqualification,orbothlanguageandliteraturearetaken),maths(double-weighted),threefurtherqualificationsthatcountintheEBaccandthreefurtherqualificationsthatcanbeGCSEqualifications(includingEBaccsubjects)oranyothernon-GCSEqualificationsontheDfEapprovedlist.

4. TheEBaccisaperformancemeasureintroducedin2009/2010forsecondarystateschoolswhichincludesGCSEpassesincore‘academic’subjectsincludingEnglish,mathematics,ascience,amodernorancientforeignlanguageandahumanitiessubject.

5. EducationinEnglandisdividedintofiveKeyStages:KeyStage1(KS1)ages5–7,KeyStage2(KS2)ages7–11,KeyStage3(KS3)ages11–14,KeyStage4(KS4)ages14–16andKeyStage5(KS5)ages16–18.

6. Therearecurrentlytwomaingroupsofstate-fundedsecondaryschoolsinEngland–maintainedschoolsandacademies(includingFreeschools).Fundingandoversightofmaintainedschoolsisthroughthelocalauthority,whileforAcademiesandFreeschoolsfundingandoversightisfromcentralgovernment.Freeschoolsarenewstate-fundedbutprivatelyrunschoolsthataresetupbygroupsofparents,teachers,charities,business,voluntaryorbusinessgroups.

7. Allpupilshaveastatutoryentitlementtobeabletostudyalanguageaftertheageof14.Inpractice,thismeansthatschoolsarerequiredtooffertheopportunitytoallpupilstostudyalanguagewithintheircurriculumatKS4butthestudyofalanguageisnotcompulsory.

8. NationalCurriculumreviewexpertpanelmembers:ProfessorMaryJames,UniversityofCambridge,TimOates(Chair)CambridgeAssessment,ProfessorAndrewPollard,UniversityofBristolandInstituteofEducation,UniversityofLondonandProfessorDylanWilliam,InstituteofEducation,UniversityofLondon.

9. TheAssetLanguageSchemewasestablishedbytheAwardingorganisationOxfordCambridgeandRSAExaminationstoprovideaccreditationinawiderangeoflesser-taughtlanguages.

10. TheLanguagesLadderwasaprogressionframeworkintroducedin2007whichendorsedachievementinlanguageskillsatalllevelsofcompetenceforallagesinawiderangeoflanguages.http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130401151715/http://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/DCSF-00811–2007.pdf.ItwasmappedtotheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReference(CouncilofEuropen.d.)http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/cadre1_en.asp.

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