Guidelines I: Conducting and citing background research€¦ · Web viewGuidelines for Experimental...

Guidelines for Experimental Research8/11

Table of ContentsIntegrated Science 3-4

Laboratory Report Format ……………………………… page 2

Research and Citations Guidelines …………………… pages 3-5

Experimental Organizer Guidelines……………….…... page 6

Data Table and Laboratory Notebook Guidelines…... pages 7-9

Data Analysis Guidelines……………………………….. pages 9-12

Graphing Guidelines……………………………………. pages 13-14

Discussion/Conclusion Guidelines…………………… page 15

Laboratory Report Grading Rubric …………………... pages 16-17

Reading Log Format……………………………..….…… page 18

Laboratory Report Format*Refer to the Experimental Organizer/Design Outline to support completion of the Laboratory Report.A. Title: Use the “The effect of IV on the DV” format. B. Introduction/Purpose: Use the following questions to write the introduction (one paragraph per bullet):• WHAT background information does the reader needs to understand and appreciate the experiment (consider IV and DV)? Cite references in the body of the text [i.e (Author, Date)] and include each source in the Bibliography.• WHY is this experiment being done (purpose)? Why is the experiment important; who might be interested in the results?• HOW do you predict the experiment will turn out? Explain the rationale behind the Hypothesis statement. Cite references in the body of the text [i.e (Author, Date)] and include each source in the Bibliography. C. Hypothesis: Use “If IV then DV” format. Be specific: the hypothesis should be able to be clearly supported or refuted by your experiment. D. Materials and Procedures: 1. List all materials used.2. In sequential order, list the experimental set-up procedures.3. In sequential order, list the data-collection procedures.4. Identify the independent variable (IV), levels/treatments of the IV, number of trials for each level, quantitative and qualitative dependent variables (DV), control and constants of the experiment. E. Data/Results:Data Tables: Include quantitative and qualitative data tables with all variables, trials, and statistics.Graphs: Use appropriate graphs with titles and labeled axes.Laboratory Notebook: Include if appropriate. F. Discussion: Use the following questions to write the Discussion (one paragraph per bullet):• WHAT happened? Describe the data collected for each IV level/treatment. Make references to actual data values and graphs. Discuss data reliability (refer to standard deviation, when available). Identify patterns/trends and unexpected results (anomalies) in the data.• WHY did you get the results you did? Compare your findings to other research (in class or literature) and propose explanations for discrepancies. Cite references in the body of the text [i.e (Author, Date)] and include each source in the Bibliography. • HOW could you improve and further the experiment? Make suggestions for design and/or procedural improvements and make recommendations for further study.

G. Conclusion: Briefly state major findings of the experiment in reference to the experimental purpose. Was the Hypothesis supported or refuted? H. Bibliography/References Cited: Follow the standard format.

I. Laboratory Notebook: As you collect data for your experiment maintain a laboratory notebook. This includes observations, photos, drawings and diagrams related to the experiment. You should have a dated entry for each time you work on your experiment. Descriptive/narrative observations do not need to be in sentence form. They should,

however, be detailed and well-organized. Drawings and diagrams must be carefully and accurately completed. They should be scaled, and labeled.

Research and Citations GuidelinesBecoming familiar with background information related to your interests is an important part of the process of creating an experimental focus. Research is essential in writing an Introduction, developing an appropriate Hypothesis, and later, writing your Discussion.

Choosing sourcesTry a varied approach, realizing that any one source may not be reliable--especially on the internet. Places to begin include school-recommended web pages, world wide web search pages, and school and public libraries. Ask questions of teachers, librarians, professionals in your field and other experts--interviews are a great and quick source of information.

Taking notesWhether taking research notes off the computer, from a book, or during an interview, it is important you record all the citation information you will need later. Before you begin taking notes, record the following about your source:

Title (article and volume when appropriate), Author, Date of publication/ interview, Publishing

information (company, city, etc.), Page numbers

Once you have the above citation information you may begin writing down the research information you are seeking. Don't forget to "quote" anything cited word for word.

Annotated BibliographyAn annotated bibliography is a list of references you will use in your lab report, including a description of the source and a summary of the information it provided. You must use standard reference format for all sources (see page 4).

Citing sources in body of lab reportAny information used in your laboratory report that is not common knowledge should be cited--whether it is a direct quotation or not. The format for scientific citations within the text of a paper is as follows:

(Author's last name, Year of publishing)

If the author's name is not available, use the first words of the Title or Publisher (full citation information will appear in the References Cited section). See the “In-text citations” on reverse and the following examples below:

Quotation: "Newton's universal law of gravitation shows that the force of gravity between any two objects is directly related to the masses of the two objects but inversely related to the square of the distance between the centers of the two objects" (Spaulding and Namowitz, 1994, p. 406).Non-quotation: Salinity dropped from 17 ppt in 1999 to 15 ppt in 2002 (sfbay.org, 2002).

Using Research to Write a Laboratory Report Use your research to gather the following information about the Introduction and Discussion and other sections of your laboratory report.

Introduction: Background information: science behind variables, how variables are related, what is known about topic.Rationale, justification, and motivation information: previous/ related experiments, real world applications.Making predictions

Experimental Design:

Procedural protocol and techniques.

DiscussionExplanation of experimental results. Related experimental results and ideas for further studies and improvements.“Real world” applications and connections.

References cited sectionUse your notes to create the References Cited section (also known as a Bibliography). Entries should be listed in alphabetical order. See the format examples on the reverse.

Redwood Science Department Rules For Reference Citations And Bibliographies American Psychological Association Guidelines

BIBLIOGRAPHIC FORM: A bibliography is a list of sources used in producing a work, usually a paper or research study. For a paper, the bibliography appears at the end of the paper on a separate page, alphabetically by main entry (e.g., author or other first component).

Book: no named author:Title. (date). Place: Publisher.

Book: one author:Last name, Initial. (date). Title. Place: Publisher.

Book: same name after first entry: ___. (date). Title. Place: Publisher.

Book: with editor:Last name, Initial. (Ed.) (date).Title. Place:

Publisher.

Book: with translator:OriginatorLast name, Initial. (date). Title. (Initial

Last name, Trans.) Place: Publisher.

Book: corporate author:CorporateAuthor. (date). Title. Place: Publisher.

Book: two (through six) authors:1stLast name, Initial, NextLast name, Initial, &

EndLast name, Initial. (date). Title. Place: Publisher.

Book: more than six authors:Last name, Initial, et al. (date). Title. Place:

Publisher.

Work in an anthology:Last name, Initial. (date). Selection. In Initial Last

name (Ed.) Title. (pp. x-xx) Place: Publisher.

Article in a reference work:Last name, Initial. {if known} (date). Selection. In

Initial Last name (Ed.), Title (Vol. x, pp. x-xx). Place: Publisher.

Periodical article:Last name, Initial (year, Month day). Article.

JournalTitle, pp.x-xx.or

Last name, Initial (year, Month day). Article. JournalTitle xx (issue#), x-xx {pages}.

Government publication:GovernmentAgency. (date). Title. Place:

Publisher.

Map or chart:Title, [Medium]. (date). Place: Publisher.

Speech:

Last name, Initial. (year, Month day). Speechtitle. In Meetingtitle. Place: SponsoringOrganization.Interview:

Last name, Initial, Personal interview, Month day year.

Mass media:Last name, Initial (Producer), {if known} & Last

name (Director). {if known} Title. [Medium]. Place: Distributor.

Recording:Last name, Initial (Function). (date). Record title.

[Medium} Available: Vendor, Place.

Database source:Last name, Initial. {if known} (date). Publication

Info. Database Title. [Medium]. Available: Vendor, Place.

CD-ROM source:Article. (date). Product Title. [Medium]. Place:

Publisher.

Internet source:1. parenthetic citation: within the body of your text

cite your source by listing the name of the web-site followed by the month and year your accessed the reference. Ex: (Access Excellence, 4/03)

2. References Cited (bibliography): alphabetically list the web-site names used followed by each entire URL used from that siteEx: Access Excellence

http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/index.html#sciencehttp://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/disease.html

CITATIONS:Sources are acknowledged in the body of the text as follows: ... text (Last name, date).

Two authors (non-quote):(1stLast name and 2dLast name, date)

More than two authors (non-quote): [note: the first time, cite all names](1stLast name, NextLast name, and EndLast name, date) then (1stLast name, et al, date)

One or two authors (direct quote):(lstLast name and 2dLast name, date, p. x)

More than two authors (direct quote): [note: the first time, cite all names](1stLast name, NextLast name, and EndLast name, date, p. x) then (1stLast name, et al, date, p. x)

Reference Citations And Bibliographies: Examples and Tips

Citations in Text: (example)

The ability of resource agencies to manage fish, wildlife and freshwater supplies of San Francisco Bay

estuary requires an integrated knowledge of the relations between biotic and abiotic factors. A key factor in these

relations is the role of salinity in determining both the physical and the biological state of the estuary. The

saltiness of the water, and particularly its seasonal and inter-annual patterns of variability, affects which aquatic

species live where within the estuary. “Salinity also determines where water can and cannot be diverted for

human consumption and irrigated agriculture, and plays a role in determining the capacity of the estuary to

cleanse itself of wastes” (USGS, 2004).

Salinity throughout the San Francisco Bay varies seasonally, geographically, and yearly. North of the

Sacramento River, the mean annual salinity is less than 2 ppt. Downstream, in Suisun Bay, the yearly average is 7

ppt, while at the Presidio adjacent the Golden Gate the figure is about 30 ppt (Monroe and Kelly, 1992). Salinity

in the South Bay normally ranges between 20 and 30 ppt (Pearson, 1989).

In the South San Francisco Bay, treated wastewater is the greatest source of freshwater for most of the

year (Sutter, 1992). A single wastewater treatment facility in Redwood City discharges 13 million gallons of

wastewater into the South Bay each day (Sutter, 1992). The lack of freshwater flowing into the South San

Francisco Bay is the likely cause of the higher salinity in this portion of the estuary. “Freshwater inflow is a

major determinant of environmental conditions in the estuary” (Monroe and Kelly, 1992, p. 149). This has

obvious ecological implications for the biotic components in the ecosystem.

References Cited / Bibliography (example) Monroe, M.W., & Kelly, J. (1992). San Francisco Estuary Project State of the Estuary; A Report on Conditions

and Problems in the San Francisco Bay/Sacramento - San Joaquin Delta Estuary. San Francisco: Association of Bay Area Governments and the U.S. EPA.

Pearson, D (1989). Survey of Fishes and Water Properties of South San Francisco Bay, California, 1973-82. NOAA Technical Report NMFS, pp.1-24.

Sutter, K. Personal interview, Feb. 3, 1992.

USGS (2004). http://sfbay.wr.usgs.gov/hydroclimate/sal_variations/index.html

Additional Rules to Follow• Footnotes are not used in scientific writing. • Cite only the sources you have actually read.• Titles of all references are written in italics. This includes names of books, journals, encyclopedias, etc. • Latin names, including species names are written in italics or underlined if handwritten (Homo sapiens,

Australopithecus afarensis, Tyrannosaurus rex).• Include your reference citations! Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary defines the word plagiarize as

follows: “to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own: to use (a created production) without crediting the source.” Avoid plagiarism by using quotation marks for direct quotes and citing information and ideas.

Experimental Organizer Guidelines

All experiments have certain components in common. Throughout the year we will be using what is called a “Experimental Organizer” to organize and identify the parts of any scientific experiment. This handout will provide you with useful definitions and a completed example of a Experimental Organizer, to guide you in using this type of outline. Note: This is different than the Experimental Design (Procedures), section D, of the Laboratory Report Format. The Experimental Organizer is a tool for organizing an experiment and writing the Experimental Design (Procedures).

Experimental Organizer DefinitionsTitle (Purpose): a statement that reflects the variables being tested in the experiment. Often written as The Effects of …(IV)… on the …(DV)Hypothesis: a prediction about the relationship between the variables that can be tested. Often written as “if”, “then” statement.Independent Variable (IV): the variable that is tested (i.e. the one that is purposefully changed; “cause”). Category of Independent Variable: there are two categories of independent variables.

continuous – levels of the independent variable that are measurements based on a continuous scale (generally graphed using a line graph).

discontinuous – levels of the independent variable that are discrete categories (generally graphed using a bar graph).

Control: the standard for comparing experimental effects.Levels of the Independent Variable (Treatments): the modifications of the independent variable for comparing the experimental effects to the control.Repeated Trials: the number of experimental repetitions, objects, or organisms tested at each level of the independent variable.Dependent Variable (DV): the variable that is measured (i.e. the data collected; “effect”).Category of Dependent Variable: there are two major categories of data (use both when possible).

quantitative - measurements based on a continuous scale (numerical) qualitative - counts of discrete or discontinuous categories

Constants (C): all factors that remain the same throughout the experiment.

Experimental Organizer ExampleConsider the following scenario:After studying about recycling, members of John’s biology class investigated the effect of various recycled products on plant height. Because decomposition is necessary for release of nutrients, the group hypothesized that the type of compost, grass or food, would affect the height of bean plants. Three flats of bean plants (25 plants/flat) were grown for 5 days. Then the plants were fertilized as follows: (a) Flat A: 450 g of grass compost, (b) Flat B: 450 g of food compost, and (c) Flat C: no compost. The plants received the same amount of sunlight and water each day. At the end of 30 days the group recorded the height of the plants (cm).Title/Purpose (Describe the experiment by using the format, “The effect of ___ on ___”) The Effect of Different Types of Compost on Bean Plant Height.

Hypothesis (Make specific predictions about the experimental outcome using the format, “If…, then…”) If grass compost is applied to the bean plants, then the plants will grow taller than plants grown with food compost or no compost.

Independent Variable I.V. (What you will be testing): Type of Compost

Category of I.V.: (Identify if the I.V. is continuous or discontinuous.): Discontinuous

Levels of I.V. (Treatments) Grass Food No compost(2 or more plus the control, which must be identified) compost compost (Control)

Number of Trials (# of times each level of I.V. is tested) 25 plants 25 plants 25 plants

Dependent Variable (What you are measuring. Include all appropriate units): Height of plants (cm)

Category of Data (Identify if the data is qualitative and/or quantitative): Quantitative

Constants (List all conditions which are the same for each trial): Amount of light, amount of water, amount of compost

Data Table and Laboratory Notebook Guidelines

Types of Data Information collected during an experiment is called data. Careful, thorough, consistent

and accurate data collection is the single most important aspect of scientific experimentation. Conversely, sloppy, inconsistent, incomplete and inaccurate data is the most common cause of poor experimental results.

Dependent variables can be categorized as quantitative or qualitative data. These categories, in turn, have sub-categories that further determine the type of data analysis that applies to your problem. Quantitative data are based on measurements made using a scale with equal intervals. Examples of quantitative data are the mass of a person in kilograms, the temperature of a liquid in degrees Celsius and the length of insect wings in millimeters. Qualitative data are collected using non-standard scales with unequal intervals or discrete categories that are either ranked or not-ranked. Examples of ranked categories include the overall plant health measured as (4) = green color, firm, with no curled edges; (3) = yellow-green color, firm, with no curled edges; (2) = yellow color, limp, with curled edges; and (1) = brown color, limp, with curled leaf. Examples of not-ranked categories include the gender of an organism and the eye color of fruit flies.

Scientists generally describe a data set by computing values for both the ‘average’ and the ‘spread’ of the data. The ‘average’ of the data is called the central tendency, while the ‘spread’ is called the variation. There are many different statistical calculations that can be used analyze a given data set. The statistical calculations described below are commonly used to determine ‘average’ and ‘spread’. There are instances when other statistical calculations are more appropriate to analyze a data set.

The central tendency (“average”) of a data set can be described using the mean, mode or median. The variation (“spread”) of a data set can be described using standard deviation or frequency distribution. The method of data analysis you choose depends on the type of data with which you are working. These types may be quantitative or qualitative (described above), skewed or not skewed (skewed data has a wide and unpredictable range), ranked or not ranked (ranked data is qualitative data that has been assigned numbers, for example: 1 = best, 10 = worst).

The table below presents the different measures of data analysis: central tendency and variation.

Type of Information Quantitative Data Qualitative Data

Ranked* Not-Ranked*Central Tendency (‘average’) Mean Median Mode

Variation (‘spread’) Standard Deviation Frequency

DistributionFrequency

Distribution

*Ranked data uses numbered categories*Not-Ranked data does not use numbered categories

Data Table Guidelines1. Make a table containing vertical columns for (1) the independent variable, (2) dependent

variable and (3) statistical calculations (i.e. mean). Use a ruler. Title the columns and include units.

2. Subdivide the column for the dependent variable to reflect the number of trials. 3. Under the IV column, list the levels (treatments, including control) of the independent variable

in rows – preferably from the smallest to the largest.4. Record measurements/counts of the dependent variable for each trial of each level of the

independent variable.5. Perform any necessary calculations and record the values in the appropriate column(s).6. Title the data table: “The Effect of [I.V.] on [D.V.].”

Sample Quantitative Data Table – The Effect of Compost Age on Bean Plant Height

Age of Compost(I.V.)

Height of Plants (D.V) at 30 Days (cm)

Trials

Mean Plant Height (cm)

Standard Deviation

Plant Height (cm)

1 2 3 4 etc.No Compost

Grass CompostFood Compost

Sample Qualitative Data Table – The Effect of Compost Age on Bean Plant Health

Age of Compost(I.V.)

Health of Plants (D.V) at 30 Days

H: Healthy; UN: Unhealthy

Trials

Mode Plant

Health

Frequency Distributio

n

1 2 3 4 etc. H UNNo Compost

Grass CompostFood Compost

Computer Generated Data Tables Microsoft Word and Excel can be used to construct data tables. Follow class notes and/or

help menus to accurately complete computer generated data tables.

Laboratory Notebook GuidelinesA thorough scientific experiment includes both a record of the data collected in the data table

and observations of the experimental process in a laboratory notebook. In a long term experiment, like the Science Fair Project, conditions are likely to change each time data is collected. The laboratory notebook provides a format to record those conditions and other observations that may affect your data.

The laboratory notebook can be a spiral bound notebook or loose leaf paper that contains a separate entry for each time you work on the experiment. Each entry must include a record of the date, time, environmental conditions, and task(s) completed. Additional information may include unexpected observations, new ideas for investigation, improvements to the experimental design and/or procedures, diagrams/photographs of the experimental set-up, tentative conclusions and personal reflections.

Sample Laboratory Notebook Entries – Compost and Bean Plants ExperimentThe Effect of Compost Type on Bean PlantsDate: August 28, 2001Time: 4:30 pmEnvironmental Conditions: Sunny, warm (30ºC), no windTask(s): turn compost, watered bean plantsObservations:Compost is steaming and smelly when turned, bean plants are starting to wilt, the hot temperatures may be having some influence on the observations above. Consider changing procedures to include more frequent watering, or more water each time.

Data Analysis Guidelines

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Mean

Generally, the mean is the best measure of central tendency for quantitative data and should be used unless there are outliers that would distort the mean value. To calculate mean:

1. Add all data values in the set2. Divide the sum of the data values by the number of data in the set, this value is the mean.3. Record this value in the appropriate column of the data table.

Mean = Sum of the dataNumber of data in the set

Summary: Mean is the average of the data set.

Median

Median is an appropriate measure of central tendency for quantitative data that is “skewed” and for qualitative data with ranked categories. The median is the data value that falls in the exact middle of a data set that is ordered from smallest to largest. To determine the median:

1. List all data values in numerical order from least to greatest.2. If the number of data in the set is odd, find the value that falls in the exact middle of the

data set, this value is the median.3. If the number of data in the set is even, calculate the mean of the two middle data values,

this value is the median.4. Record this value in the appropriate column of the data table.

1, 4, 4, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 42 Median = 8

1, 7, 8, 8, 10, 10, 42 , 52 Median = 8+10 = 92

Summary: Median is the middle number in an ordered data set.

Mode

Mode is an appropriate measure of central tendency for qualitative non-ranked data. The mode of a data set is the data value that occurs most frequently. If no data value in a data set occurs more than once, then we say that the data set has no mode. If two or more data value appear the most, then both values are considered the mode.To determine mode:

1. Look over the data set and count how many times each data value occurs. 2. Identify which data value occurs the most, this value is the mode.3. Record this value in the appropriate column of the data table.

white, white, red, brown, brown, red, white, white Mode = white

Summary: Mode is the most common data value in a data set.

MEASURES OF VARIATION

Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is a calculated value that describes the variation (or spread) of values in a data set. It is calculated using a formula that compares each piece of data to the mean. It is useful to think of this number as a “plus or minus” value, where a larger standard deviation indicates that the data are spread further from the mean and thus the mean is less reliable. In general, a large value of standard deviation indicates less confidence in the data set and its mean, while a small value of standard deviations suggests greater confidence in the data and its mean. To calculate standard deviation:

1. Calculate the mean.2. Calculate the difference between the mean and each data value.3. Square each difference.4. Add the squared values together.5. Divide the sum by the total number of data in the set.6. The square root of the value calculated in the previous step is the standard deviation. 7. Record standard deviation as a value in the appropriate column of the data table.

Plant Biomass (g)Difference

between Biomass and Mean (g)

Squared Value of Difference

3 1 1

5 1 16 2 4

4 0 0

6 2 4

2 2 4

2 2 4

Mean: 4 Sum: 18

Sum/Total # of Data: 18/7

Square Root of Quotient: √2.5

Standard Deviation: 1.6

Summary: Standard deviation describes how far the majority of the data is from the mean.

To calculate mean and standard deviation using a graphing calculator Any scientific calculator can calculate mean and standard deviation. Refer to the

instructional manual for your scientific calculator for specific instructions.

To calculate standard deviation using Microsoft Excel

Follow your class notes and/or help menus to calculate standard deviation using Microsoft Exel

Frequency Distribution

When using qualitative data, frequency distribution is a good expression of variation. Frequency distribution is a decimal that represents the number of times a particular data value occurs for each experimental group. It is calculated by dividing the number of times a particular data value occurs by the total number of data in the set. To calculate frequency distribution:

1. Identify and the number of times a particular data value occurs in a data set.2. Divide this number by the total number of data in the set.3. Report this value as a decimal.4. Calculate and record frequency distribution for all data categories in the appropriate column of the data table.

To present frequency distribution in a data table:The Effect of the Amount of Compost on the Leaf Quality of Bean Plants

Leaf Quality - 30 DaysTrials Median Frequency Distribution

Amount of Compost 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1

0.0 g 4 4 4 4 4 4 1.0 0 0 010.0 g 4 3 4 4 4 4 0.8 0.2 0 020.0 g 3 3 2 4 2 3 0.2 0.4 0.4 030.0 g 2 2 3 2 4 2 .2 0.2 0.6 040.0 g 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0.2 0.850.0 g 2 3 3 3 2 3 0 0.6 0.4 0

Overall Plant Health4 = green color, firm, no curled edges3 = yellow-green color, firm, no curled edges2 = yellow color, limp, with curled edges1 = brown color, limp, with curled leaf

Graphing Guidelines

Types of GraphsThe type of graph used to display data depends largely on the independent variable.

Category of Data for IV Graph Type

continuous line graph

discontinuous bar graph

General rules for all graphs. Always use graph paper when graphing by hand. Use a ruler for all lines. Graph in pencil first,

then trace over it in ink. All graphs should be titled by stating the relationship between the independent and dependent

variables. Label each axis, with appropriate unit in parentheses. The x-axis represents the independent

variable, while the y-axis represents the dependent variable. If multiple data sets are included on a graph, it must include a key.

The Line/Scatter-Plot Graph Constructing a line graph or scatter-plot.

• Draw and label the x and y axes of the graph. Indicate the appropriate units for each variable.

• Determine an appropriate scale for each axis. Do this by finding the range of the values to be graphed (maximum - minimum), divide this range by the number of grids on the graph paper. To display the data most clearly, increments should increase using even values (i.e. 2, 4, 6, 8, not 1, 3, 5, 7).

• Carefully plot the data.• Line Graph: Connect the points (straight line) starting with the first data point and ending

with the last data point. Do not start at the origin unless you have that data (0,0).• Scatter-Plot: If interested in a linear relationship between the IV and DV, then draw a line

of best-fit.

The Bar GraphConstructing a bar graph.

• Draw and label the x and y axes of the graph. Indicate the appropriate units for each variable.

• Evenly space the x-axis with the levels (treatments) of the independent variable. Evenly distribute the values along the axis, leaving a space between each value.

• Determine the appropriate scale for the y-axis, using the method described for line/scatter-plot graphs above. Subdivide the y-axis accordingly.

• Draw a vertical bar from the value of the independent variable on the x-axis to the corresponding value of the dependent variable on the y-axis. Leave space between each bar.

Graphing VariationPlotting Standard Deviation (SD) Add the SD to each mean or median and draw a thin horizontal line above the point/bar on the

graph. Subtract the SD from each mean or median and draw a thin horizontal line below the

point/bar on the graph. Draw a thin vertical line to connect the two thin horizontal lines. See the diagram below.

Plotting Frequency Distribution (FD) A separate bar graph or pie chart can be used to show FD.

No Compost Grass Compost Food Compost

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

The Effect of Compost on Plant Health

UnhealthyHealthy

Type of Compost

Freq

uenc

y D

istr

ibut

ion

No Compost Grass Compost Food Compost

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

The Effect of Compost on Plant Height

Mean Plant Height

Type of Compost

Plan

t H

eigh

t (c

m)

Computer GraphingUse class notes and/or help menus to construct graphs in Microsoft Excel.

Discussion/Conclusion Guidelines Above we learned how to analyze and graph data. In this page, we will look at some basic strategies for communicating those results in writing.

Discussion Section The Discussion section of a good laboratory report is where the most important thinking

occurs. It is necessary to carefully consider and refer to specific aspects of the data in light of the variables, the constants, the techniques, the expected results and the results/expectations of other researchers. Many times the results don’t match the expectations, and it is here that the issue must be addressed. While this section of the paper is a place for original thought, it should still follow some standard formatting.

Discussion Example: The purpose of this experiment was to find out what sound insulating material (no insulation,

soundboard, eggshell foam, or carpet padding) absorbed the most sound produced from a guitar amplifier. The experiment measured the decibels detected from one amplified guitar note at 10, 25 and 50 feet.

The results of this experiment are presented in the graph, The Effects of Insulating Material on the Decibels Detected from an Amplified Guitar Note. The trend of sound absorption for the various materials is as follows, from the least amount of sound absorbed to greatest amount of sound absorbed, no insulation, carpet padding, eggshell foam, soundboard. The control, no insulation, absorbed the least amount of sound at each of the three distances, mean decibel value at 10 feet was 99, mean decibel value at 25 feet was 92, mean decibel value at 50 feet was 90. The carpet’s mean decibel value at 10 feet was 89, mean decibel value at 25 feet was 83, and a mean decibel value at 50 feet was 73. The eggshell foam’s mean decibel value at 10 feet was 88.5, mean decibel value at 25 feet was 81.5, and a mean decibel value at 50 feet was 74.5. The soundboard’s mean decibel value at 10 feet was 85.5, mean decibel value at 25 feet was 79.5, and a mean decibel value at 50 feet was 70.5. The only anomaly in the data is the mean for the carpet and eggshell foam at 50 feet. The carpet absorbs more decibels at a greater distance than the eggshell foam. The data for the various sound absorption materials at each distance fell within a relatively close range of one another. However, the values for standard deviation, represented by the non-overlapping y-error bars on the graph, help me to conclude that the data for each type of insulation are significantly different from one another.

The construction of the various materials influenced the effectiveness of each product to insulate sound. As sound waves travel they come into contact with various materials. The sound waves are absorbed or pass through these materials depending on the physical properties of the material. The soundboard has a greater ability to absorb the sound waves, not allowing them to continue to travel very easily. The carpet also absorbs the sound, however, it does not slow down the sound waves as effectively, which results in more sound being detected. The care taken in the selection and implementation of the procedures for this experiment led to reliable results. The note chosen for this lab may have influenced the results for this experiment, therefore it may be in the experimenter’s best interest to carefully research the manner in which the different notes behave over distances. The experimenter may also want to be sure the decimeter is calibrated precisely.

The results of this experiment support the hypothesis that if various sound insulation materials are tested, then the soundboard will absorb more sound than no insulation, carpet padding or eggshell foam. These results also support the soundboard manufacturer’s claim that the soundboard is the more effective sound insulating material than the others tested (Johnson, 1997).

In recommendation for further study someone may want to make a machine or device that hits the guitar strings at a constant force. This way the data can even be more accurate. Someone may also want to test which product brand of soundboard, carpet or eggshell foam is the most effective for absorbing sound.

Conclusion SectionThe Conclusion section of a formal laboratory report is meant to be a concise re-statement

of the purpose, the important findings of the experiment, whether the hypothesis was supported or refuted by the data (include representative data) and the most probable explanation for those findings. Most good conclusions are one paragraph in length.

Conclusion Example:The purpose of this experiment was to test the effect of insulating material on the sound

detected from an amplified guitar note. The data supports the hypothesis that the soundboard would outperform the carpet and eggshell foam as a sound insulator. In fact, it was the most effective sound insulator at 10, 25 and 50 feet. The sound decreased by 15-20 decibels at all three distances. The material used to construct the soundboard absorbs sound waves more effectively than the other materials tested. Therefore, soundboard is the recommended material for absorbing sound produced by amplified music. Rock on!

Laboratory Report Grading Rubric

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1

INTRODUCTION

Experiment is supported by important, relevant and accurately cited background research on variables, purpose and predicted outcomes.

Information is explained clearly, accurately and thoroughly using student’s own words.

Experiment is supported by relevant and cited background research on variables, purpose and predicted outcomes.

Information is generally explained accurately using student’s own words.

Experiment is partially supported by relevant and/or cited background research on variables, purpose and/or predicted outcomes.

Information explained with partial accuracy.

Experiment is not supported by background information on variables, purpose and/or predicted outcomes.

Information is generally inaccurate and/or not clearly explained.

HYPOTHESIS

Predicted relationship between variables and expected outcomes is clear and based on research.

Predicted relationship between variables and expected outcomes is generally stated and based on research.

Predicted outcomes are stated and partially on research.

Predicted outcomes are unclear.

PROCEDURES

Materials are thoroughly identified.

Procedures for both set-up and data collection are exceptionally detailed, clear and easy to follow.

Experimental variables and constants are clearly identified.

Materials are generally identified.

Procedures for both set-up and data collection are generally detailed and clear.

Experimental variables and constants are generally identified.

Materials may be only partially identified.

Procedures for set-up and/or data collection may be partially complete.

Experimental variables and constants may be partially identified.

Materials are unclear or not identified.

Procedures for set-up and/or data collection are unclear/not provided.

Experimental variables and constants are incorrect or not identified.

RESULTS

Raw data, statistical data and graphs relevant to hypothesis are accurate.

Presentation is skilled and clear, with all necessary titles/labels.

Raw data, statistical data and graphs are generally relevant to hypothesis.

Presentation is generally clear, with necessary titles/labels.

Raw data, statistical data and graphs are partially relevant to hypothesis.

Clarity and accuracy of presentation is variable.

Raw data, statistical data and graphs are incorrect, incomplete or not included.

Presentation is unclear and/or incomplete.

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1

DISCUSSION

Appropriate conclusions are supported by data and related to the hypothesis.

A clear, detailed explanation for why results occurred is supported by cited research.

Analysis of possible error, improvements and ideas for further study are insightful and creative.

Additional information reflecting what was learned from the experiment is clearly presented.

Conclusions are generally supported by data and related to the hypothesis.

An explanation for why results occurred is generally supported by cited research.

Analysis of possible error, improvements and ideas for further study are presented and are generally insightful.

Additional information reflecting what was learned from the experiment is generally presented

Conclusions are partially supported by data and may be related to the hypothesis.

An explanation for why results occurred is partially supported by research.

Analysis of possible error, improvements and ideas for further study may be present.

Additional information reflecting what was learned from the experiment may be partially presented.

Conclusions are unclear/incomplete and not supported by data.

An explanation for why results occurred is unclear/incomplete or not included.

Analysis of possible error, improvements and ideas for further study are unclear/not included.

Additional information reflecting what was learned from the experiment is unclear/not included.

CONCLUSION

A clear, concise summary of the experiment’s major outcomes is clearly related to the hypothesis.

A summary of the experiment’s major outcomes is generally related to the hypothesis.

A summary of the experiment’s major outcomes may be related to the hypothesis.

A summary of the experiment’s major outcomes is unclear/not included.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Research includes multiple, reputable sources and is properly cited.

Research includes multiple cited sources.

Research includes cited sources.

Research does not include cited sources.

WRITTEN EXPRESSION

Written expression is clear, cohesive and detailed.

Errors in grammar and spelling are extremely rare.

All aspects of the lab report are completed according to prescribed format.

Written expression is generally clear and cohesive.

Errors in grammar and spelling are rare.

All aspects of the lab report are generally completed according to prescribed format.

Written expression is partially clear and cohesive.

Errors in grammar and spelling are noticeable.

Aspects of the lab report may be partially completed or incorrectly formatted.

Written expression is disorganized/unclear.

Errors in grammar and spelling are frequent.

Aspects of the lab report are incomplete and/or lacking proper formatting.

Reading Log Format

Purpose:Throughout this course, you will be required to read from textbooks, articles and

other handouts. The requirement is to produce a thorough summary of an assigned reading. Summaries serve as an abbreviated version of the original. To a teacher, a summary should indicate that the student has successfully read and understood the piece, and was able to identify and organize the topics, examples, and conclusion. The content of these readings will be discussed and used in class. In order to prepare for these discussions and activities, you will record a summary of each reading as a Reading Log Entry.

Procedure:Follow the guidelines below as you read the assigned reading:

1. Read the article. Try to arrange enough time to complete the first reading in one session. It can be difficult to return to a

scientific article after having read only part of the article.

2. Highlight or underline important information. During your reading of the assigned piece, underline or highlight the following information:

a. key topics and the main idea of the article [usually found near the beginning of the article]b. important subtopics that support the main ideac. words and/or phrases that you do not fully understandd. the author’s conclusion [usually found near the end of the article]

3. Create margin notes in the margins of the article. During your reading of the assigned piece, create margin notes about the following information:

a. words or phrases that need defining or clarificationb. the order in which you will summarize the topics in the articlec. reminders to yourself regarding the use of information found in charts and/or graphics

Follow the guidelines below to write a Reading Log of the assigned reading. Clearly label each of the 3 main sections.

1. Create a Heading. Reading Log Entry Number: ____ Date: _____ Resource Citation: (choose one of the following formats, depending on the source of the reading)

Text: Author (Last Name, Initial). Selection. Title of Text. Page Numbers.Article: Author (Last Name, Initial). “Title”. Journal/Magazine. Issue. Page No.Handout: Title, [Source]. (Date).

2. Create a Vocabulary List. Record words you identified as unclear or unfamiliar as you read the article. Use a dictionary to define and record definitions for these words.

3. Write a Summary of the reading. Write 1 paragraph per bullet. Write an introductory paragraph that clearly summarizes the theme or main idea presented in the reading. State the major points made by the author to support the theme or main idea. Include actual information

taken directly from the reading. This is the main body of your summary. Summarize the author’s conclusion and reflect upon it. In response, write a statement reflecting your

opinion about the information presented in the reading.

** Reading Logs will be collected for credit. Keep these Reading Logs because they can be used to fulfill the Reading Approach component of your Core Literacy Portfolio, required for graduation.

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