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GUIDELINES FOR THE SAFE USE OF
WASTEWATER, EXCRETA AND GREYWATER
Volume 2Wastewater use in agriculture
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WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater / World HealthOrganization.
v. 1. Policy and regulatory aspects — v. 2. Wastewater use in agriculture — v. 3. Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture — v. 4. Excreta and greywater use inagriculture.
1. Water supply. 2. Water supply - legislation. 3. Agriculture. 4. Aquaculture. 5. Sewage.6. Wastewater treatment plants. 7. Guidelines. I. World Health Organization. II. Title:Safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater. III. Title: Policy and regulatory aspects. IV.Title: Wastewater use in agriculture. V. Title: Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture. VI. Title: Excreta and greywater use inagriculture.
ISBN 92 4 154686 7 (set) (NLM classification: WA 675)ISBN 92 4 154682 4 (v. 1)ISBN 92 4 154683 2 (v. 2)ISBN 92 4 154684 0 (v. 3)ISBN 92 4 154685 9 (v. 4)
© World Health Organization 2006
All rights reserved. Publications of the World Health Organization can be obtained from WHO Press, World HealthOrganization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland (tel: +41 22 791 2476; fax: +41 22 791 4857; email:[email protected]). Requests for permission to reproduce or translate WHO publications – whether for sale orfor noncommercial distribution – should be addressed to WHO Press, at the above address (fax: +41 22 791 4806;email: [email protected]).
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All reasonable precautions have been taken by WHO to verify the information contained in this publication.However, the published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either express or implied. Theresponsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall the World HealthOrganization be liable for damages arising from its use.
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List of acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viPreface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viiAcknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11.1 Objectives and general considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11.2 Target audience, definitions and scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21.3 Driving forces behind increasing wastewater use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.1 Increasing water scarcity and stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31.3.2 Increasing population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31.3.3 Wastewater as a resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41.3.4 The Millennium Development Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.4 Organization of this Guidelines document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
2. The Stockholm Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92.1 A harmonized approach to risk assessment/management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92.2 Assessment of environmental exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122.3 Assessment of health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142.4 Tolerable health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152.5 Health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152.6 Risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162.7 Public health status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
2.7.1 Excreta-related diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192.7.2 Schistosomiasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212 7.3 Vector-borne diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212.7.4 Measuring public health status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3. Assessment of health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233.1 Microbial analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
3.1.1 Survival of pathogens in soil and on crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263.2 Epidemiological evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
3.2.1 Risks to consumers of crops eaten uncooked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333.2.2 Risks to agricultural workers and their families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353.2.3 Risks to local communities from sprinkler irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453.2.4 Overall results for farming families and local communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
3.3 Quantitative microbial risk analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473.4 Emerging issues: infectious diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533.5 Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
3.5.1 Health impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543.5.2 Assessing the risks from chemical contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553.5.3 Emerging issues: chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
4. Health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594.1 Tolerable burden of disease and health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
4.1.1 Step 1: Tolerable risk of infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594.1.2 Step 2: QMRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .614.1.3 Step 3: Required pathogen reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .614.1.4 Step 4: Health-based protection measures to achieve required pathogen reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
CONTENTS
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Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater
4.1.5 Step 5: Verification monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .614.1.6 Example derivation of microbial performance targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.2 Microbial reduction targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634.2.1 Unrestricted irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634.2.2 Restricted irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674.2.3 Localized irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.3 Verification monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694.3.1 Wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694.3.2 Other health protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.4 Food exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704.5 National standards: variations from ≤10–6 DALY per person per year . . . . . . . . . . . . .714.6 Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.6.1 Health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .724.6.2 Physicochemical quality of treated wastewaters for plant growth requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
5. Health protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755.1 Crop restriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .765.2 Wastewater application techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
5.2.1 Flood and furrow irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .765.2.2 Spray and sprinkler irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775.2.3 Localized irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775.2.4 Cessation of irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
5.3 Pathogen die-off before consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785.4 Food preparation measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785.5 Human exposure control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
5.5.1 Fieldworkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .795.5.2 Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .795.5.3 Chemotherapy and immunization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
5.6 Wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805.6.1 Low-rate biological systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .845.6.2 High-rate processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
5.7 Raw wastewater use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
6. Monitoring and system assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .936.1 Monitoring functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .936.2 System assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .936.3 Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946.4 Operational monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .966.5 Verification monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .976.6 Small systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1006.7 Other types of monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
6.7.1 Food inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1006.7.2 Public health surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
7. Sociocultural aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1017.1 Cultural and religious beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1017.2 Public perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
7.2.1 Public acceptance of wastewater use schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
8. Environmental aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1078.1 Components of wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
8.1.1 Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1088.1.2 Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
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8.1.3 Heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1098.1.4 Toxic organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1108.1.5 Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1128.1.6 Organic matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1138.1.7 Suspended solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1148.1.8 Acids and bases (pH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
8.2 Environmental effects through the agricultural chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1148.2.1 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1148.2.2 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1218.2.3 Surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
8.3 Management strategies for reducing environmental impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
9. Economic and financial considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1299.1 Economic feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
9.1.1 Cost–benefit analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1299.1.2 Costs and benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1329.1.3 Multiple objective decision-making processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
9.2 Financial feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1359.3 Market feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
10. Policy aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13910.1 Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
10.1.1 International policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14010.1.2 National wastewater use policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14010.1.3 Wastewater in integrated water resources management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
10.2 Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14210.2.1 Institutional roles and responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14310.2.2 Rights of access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14510.2.3 Land tenure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14510.2.4 Public health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
10.3 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14610.4 Developing a national policy framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
10.4.1 Defining objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14610.4.2 Assessment of policy environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14710.4.3 Developing national approaches based on the WHO Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . .14810.4.4 Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
11. Planning and implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15111.1 Reporting and communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15311.2 Interaction with community and consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15311.3 Use of data and information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15511.4 Project planning criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
11.4.1 Support services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15711.4.2 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Annex 1: Good irrigation practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177Annex 2: Summary of impacts of heavy metals and trace elements associated with wastewater irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185Annex 3: Health impact assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189Annex 4: Glossary of terms used in the Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
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LIST OF ACRONYMS ANDABBREVIATIONS
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PREFACE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
T = Treatment
DI = Drip irrigation (H = High crops; L = Low crops)
DO = Die-off W = Washing of produce
SSI = Subsurface irrigation
Restricted irrigationUnrestricted irrigation
A B C D E F G H
Root Leaf
W
WDO
DO
TT
T
T
T
TT
T
DIH
DIL
SSI
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urin
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ive
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Log10
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