1

Guideline 2: Methodological guidelines for monitoring of temperature effects

Monitoring impacts of urban and peri-urban agriculture and forestry on climate change mitigation and adaptation

Francisco Escobedo and Marielle Dubbeling With inputs from: Alejandra Coronel, Susana Feldman and Rubén Piacentini

2

CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION 3

2. THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND 5

3. TEMPERATURE MONITORING 5 Mapping/ description of UPAF types in the city 5 Selecting UPAF sites based using remote sensing 6 Identifying & mapping UPAF types and sites based on land use & GIS maps 7 Selection/establishment of monitoring plots 8 Field measurements of temperature and humidity 10 Solar radiation shields 10 Characterising UHIs using satellite images 11 Calculating the indicator values 12 Temperatureeffectsonhumancomfort 13 Effectsonenergyuse,costsandemissions 14 Scenarios for project climate change 15

REFERENCES 17

Appendix 1. Field temperature-humidity data monitoring form 18

Appendix2.Solarradiationshieldspecificationsforthedigitalthermo-hygrometers 19

Appendix3.Plotdatainformationsheet 24

3

1. INTRODUCTION The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change-IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (University ofCambridgeandICLEI,2014)presentsamongstitskeyfindingsthat:1. Manyemergingclimatechangerisksareconcentratedinurbanareas,2. Rapid urbanisation will increase the number of highly vulnerable urban communities,3. Keyclimate risks facedbycities includestormsurges,sea level rise,droughtsand

waterscarcity,excessiverainfall,floodsand landslides,heatwavesandurbanfoodinsecurity amongst others.

The same report forecasts that if emissions continue to rise at the current rate, impacts bytheendofthiscenturyprojectanincreaseinglobalaveragetemperatureof2.6–4.8degreesCelsius (°C). Such temperature effectswill directly affect urban areas, humancomfort, related energy use (for cooling and refrigeration purposes) and heat-relateddiseases.

In general and with increased urbanisation and climate change impacts, built up areas are experiencing greater localised air and surface temperatures than surrounding open spaces (theso-calledUrbanHeatIslandeffectsorUHI).TheUHIeffectisdirectlyrelatedtothemodificationoflandsurfaces,withdecreasinggreenandopenareasandincreasingareasofbuilt-upsurfaces.Especiallydarkcolouredbuildingsandimpermeablesurfaces(roads,parking lots,building roofsandwalls, industrialandcommercialareas)are responsiblefor absorption of solar radiation (Oke, 1987). In conjunctionwith the heat producedbytransport, cooling systems and industrial activities, this contributes to a rise in ambient temperatureincities(AmericanMeteorologicalSociety,2000).

Conversely urban and peri-urban vegetation and vegetated surfaces modify surface andatmospherictemperaturesduetoevapo-transpiration,shadingandalbedoeffects.Increasing or conserving green infrastructure in urban areas has been proposed as a strategytoregulateurbantemperatures(Cavanetal.2014).Vegetatedsurface,suchasgreenwallsandroofs,gardens,greenspaces, lawnsanddifferent formsofUrbanandPeri-urbanAgricultureandForestry (UPAF)cancontribute to reducing theUHI (http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/mitigation/trees.htm).

For example,Amiri et al. (2009) andShashua-Bar et al., (2009) analysed theeffects ofvegetated landscapes on urban temperatures in Iran and Israel, respectively. Both studies found that urban vegetation can lower temperatures in cities in hot arid climates. Oliveira etal. (2011)andLinandLin (2010) inPortugalandsubtropicalChina, respectively,alsolookedthatthecoolingeffectsofvegetated,urbanspaces. Cavanetal. (2014)studiedtheroleofdifferenturbanmorphologiesinregulatinglandsurfacetemperaturesinAddisAbaba, Ethiopia and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. They found that residential land use types with large proportion of green space in both these cities had lower surface temperatures

Thismethodologicalguidelinewillprovidemeasurement,quantificationandmonitoringmethods to assess the hypothesis that current and increased UPAF area in urban and peri-urban area will reduce the UHI and contribute to energy savings. To do so, temperatures in currentUPAFandgreenareas(specificallyurbangardens,publicparksandstreettrees)are compared to non-UPAF and built- up areas, preferably covering the period of one year to account for seasonal differences.Temperaturedata are used todetermine airtemperatureindifferentUPAFandnon-UPAFareas.Ambienttemperaturesarethenrelatedto thermal comfort. Thermal comfort is used as an international standard for evaluating the satisfaction with the thermal environment for occupants of buildings. Thermal comfort on its turn can be directly related to energy use. Air condition or cooling fans are used to reduce inside building temperatures and thereby increase thermal comfort. Alternatively, sources of heating are used to increase inside building temperatures and thus thermal comfort. Based on climate change and temperature projections, calculations can also be madeforfuturesituations.Takingcurrentorprojectedenergyprices,energyusecanbe

4

translated into economic expenditures.

It is important to note that for these calculations, it is assumed that there is a direct relation between ambient air temperatures and thermal comfort inside buildings. In reality, this relationhoweverisalsoinfluencedbyamongstothersthetypeofbuildingmaterialsusedand their heat conductivity. Temperature monitoring inside buildings should be done to betterassessthisrelationforspecifictypesofbuildings.In an ideal situation, temperature monitoring data should also be done in various distances awayfromUPAFareastoassessthegradualextenttowhichairtemperaturesareaffectedin areas neighbouring UPAF towards areas that are located at larger distances from the UPAF areas. Based on these data, optimal “densities and distribution of UPAF areas” in thecitycouldbebetterdefined.Thiswillallowtoestimatewhatthemuchlargerbenefitswouldbeifdecision-makersup-scaledUPAFinitiatives.

Specifically,thismanualwillprovidethemethodsto:• Identify and map representative UPAF and non-UPAF areas/types in the study city • Measure urban temperatures and humidity for these representative areas• Calculate degree days, thermal comfort and related energy use• Develop future temperature and land use scenarios in order to guide urban

development policies and planning.

Beforesuchactualmethodsaredescribed,firstashortexplanation isgivenofwhat isunderstood by the Urban Heat Island phenomenon.

5

2. THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND Theurbanheatisland(UHI)effectcaneitherbemanifestedinacity’satmosphericlayer(i.e.atmosphericUHI)orintheimmediatesurfacesofbuildingsandimpervioussurfaces(i.e.SurfaceUHI).Thetemperaturedifferencesbetweenwarmerurbanisedareasrelativetoadjacentcooler,ruralareasdefinetheatmosphericUHI(http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/index.html ). SurfaceUHIs are thedifferencebetweendry, exposed roofs, pavements,and other urban surfaces and shaded, moist, vegetated ones (http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/pdf/BasicsCompendium.pdf).

Overall,theUHIisaffectedbythetimeofday,theseason,andgeomorphicandtopographiclocation; for example surface UHIs tend to be strongest during the day when the sun is shining, but become more pronounced in the atmospheric layer after sunset due to slow heatemissionsfromheatedurbansurfaces.TheUHIandanurbanarea’smorphologywillinconjunctionaffecttheoveralltemperatureandrelativehumiditycharacteristicsofacity.TheUHI’sinfluenceontemperatureandrelativehumidityareparticularlyimportantinthattheydirectlyaffecthumanwell-being.Thiswell-beingcanbemeasuredindegreedaysandintermsofaperson’sthermalcomfort,whichisaffectedbytemperature,windspeed,relativehumidityaswellasaperson’smetabolicrateandclothingtype. The growth of a city in particular changes its biophysical environment and results in local-scaleclimatemodifications,thuscreatingasite-specificurbanclimate.Amongthefactorsthat lead to the development of UHIs are the reduction of green spaces due to urbanisation, the prevalence of impermeable surfaces in cities, the thermal and radiative properties of materials used in construction (concrete and steel retain and radiate more heat than do vegetationandsoils),urbanmorphology(thelayoutofthecitywillaffectwindflowandspeed),theanthropogenicheatemissionsources(carsandindustrialsitesgenerateheat),regional climate, weather patterns, and geomorphic and topographic location (UHI will be differentbetweeninlandaridcitiesandcoastaltropicalcitiesforexample).

The impact of increasing green as well as Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture and Forestry (UPAF)areasonreducingtheUHIcanbemeasuredcollectingonsitefielddata(localisedtemperaturemonitoringusingthermo-hygrometersanddataloggers)orusingremotelysensed land surface temperatures using satellite images to characterise thermal behaviour ofdifferentareasinthecity.Thesedatacanbeusedtocalculate“degreedays”thatarecompared to thermal comfort in order to arrive at the number of “cooling days” and “heating days” that impact energy consumption. In this way, scenarios can also be developed to show how increased UPAF area over time can contribute to percentage improvement in temperature and subsequent changes in seasonal thermal comfort (cooler day and nighttimesummertemperatures),comparedtoareferencesituation(forexample,whereUPAFandgreenareasarelostorthereisnonetincreaseinsuchareas).

3. TEMPERATURE MONITORING

Mapping/ description of UPAF types in the cityFormonitoringpurposes, itwillbenecessaryto identifyandselectarangeofdifferentand representative UPAF types and areas in the study city. Each city will need to use and adapt a UPAF typology that accounts for its socioeconomic and biophysical conditions. TheseUPAFtypescanbeselectedbasedoneitherspecificpolicyobjectives(promotingproductive greenways, gardens or reforestation projects) ormore quantitative criteriasuchasthetotalareaorproportionofspecificUPAFtypesinthecity,relativetootherlanduse and cover types. Some basic UPAF types are presented below in Table 1 and can be usedasastartingpoint,butneedtobeadjustedtoreflectspecificUPAFsfoundinthearea of interest.

6

Table 1. Proposed Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture and Forest (UPAF) typology based on land use/cover types in Rosario, Argentina and Kesbewa, Sri Lanka.

City Zone (A = Inner city; B= Sub urban - less densely built up; C= Peri-urban -mainlyopenspaces)

UPAF type

A-B-C1. Non-UPAF; Urban Core, densely built up: Impervious, high density residential, industrial, commercial, transportation, buildings

A 2.Backyardandcommunitygardens

A-B-C 3. Green productive rooftops

A-B

4.Floodzonesandotherurbanopenspacesforconservationorfoodandbiomass production:Innercityparks,wetlands,ricefields,perviousvacantareas,publicgreenspaces,urban“greenways”

B-C5. Urban, peri-urban and agro-forests: parks, low densityresidential areas with high tree cover, forest reserves, wooded hills and mountain slopes

B-C 6. Agriculture areas in city fringes/peri-urban areas, including wetlands

A-B-C 7. Street trees, street-side gardens

Selecting UPAF sites based using remote sensingDifferent and specific UPAF types and sites for each city will need to be mapped,documented and used to locate temperature measurement and monitoring areas and plots.Suchmappingcanbedonewithuseof landusemapsandGIS,coupledtofieldobservations (see furtherbelow).Alternatively,satellite imagerycanbeused.Althoughother satellites such as ASTER can also be used, the following methods will assume the use of LANDSAT satellite imagery. The LANDSAT Program is a series of Earth-observing satellites that have continuously acquired space-based land remote sensingdata since the early 1970s. Each of thesesatellites has different specifications and specific spatial resolutions, or measures ofimageclarity,thatarekeyinselectingtheminimumsizeofaUPAFarea.OlderLANDSAT(MultispectralScanner)resolutionwas79x57metersand120metersfortheThematicMapper (TM), but recent data is provided at a 60-meter pixels. Available LANDSATEnhanced Thematic Mapper Plus data processed after 2010 is now resampled to 30-meter pixels. Finally LANDSAT 8 Thermal Infrared Sensor measures land surface temperature at a 100-meter resolution, but the product provided is resampled and delivered with a resolution of 30-meters (http://landsat.usgs.gov/band_designations_landsat_satellites.php).

GiventhesedifferencesinLANDSATspecifications,theminimumsizeofaselectedUPAFarea will depend on the spatial resolution of the satellite image. If recent LANDSAT ETM+ or 8 images will be used, UPAF sites should be no less than 30 x 30 m in size to be visible ontheimages.But,toprovidebetterflexibilityintheuseofdifferentLANDSATimages,on average selected UPAF monitoring sites should have a minimum size of 60 x 60 m (bycomparison1hectareis100x100m).TheyshouldatthesametimehaveamaximumsizeanddistributioninthecitythatmakesthespecificUPAFtyperepresentativeofotherUPAFs in the city. Additionally, the selected UPAF sites should be adjacent, minimum locatedat120to240m(2-4LANDSATpixels)indistancetohighlyurbanisedareas(highimperviousandbuildingcover)tocomparetemperatureandUHIeffectsbetweenUPAF

7

andnon-UPAFareas.Otherconsiderationstobetakenintoaccount,arethatduringtheanalysis period the selected UPAF sites will be:

1. Accessible for monitoring purposes 2. Stable in terms of vegetation and ground cover types (consider seasonality of

production)3.Differentfromsurroundinglanduse/covertypesintermsofimpervioussurfaceand building cover 4.Relativelysafefromvandalismanddisturbance/rapidlandusechanges.

Identifying and mapping UPAF types and sites based on land use and GIS mapsUPAF areas can also be mapped using land use and topographic maps, spatial data and GISsoftware(ARCGISorMapWindows).SatelliteimageryclassificationcanalsobeverifiedinthefieldbyforexampledeterminingthesurfaceareaofeachsiteusingGISanditsGPScoordinatesidentifiedonamap.

Examples of spatial and GIS data include, but are not limited to soil, topographic, hydrologic, landuseandDigitalelevationmodels(DEM).AnotherpossiblemethodusingGoogleEarthandGIS(ARCGIS-ArcMap10)isoutlinedbyTaylorandLovell(2012)inFigure1.Topographicmaps, aerial images and planimeters or dot grids can be also used to identify, delineate, map and determine UPAF areas and relevant distances to other areas (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnuRQE0_cIU; http://web1.cnre.vt.edu/forestcourses/Module4/dot_grid.pdf)

Figure 1. Taylor and Lovell’s (2012) method for mapping urban and peri-urban agriculture and forestry sites using Google Earth and ARCGIS (ArcMap10). TIGER/Line refers to spatial data from the United States Census and KML and KMZ refer to Google Earth format files.

8

Selection/establishment of monitoring plotsOncerepresentativeUPAFandnon-UPAFsiteshavebeen identified, temperature (andhumidity) monitoring and measurements can be done by either field monitoring oranalysis of satellite images. Monitoring should preferably be done for an entire year inorder tocaptureseasonal (summerandwinter) temperaturedifferences. If localisedfieldmonitoring is applied,monitoringplots shouldbe located in suchaway so as toassess the hypothesis that urban surface summer, day and night time temperatures will belowerinUPAF–relativetonon-UPAFareas(urbancore,pavedareas,)andthattheirmitigatingeffectwilldecreaseasdistancefromUPAFandothergreenspacestobuilt-upspaces increases. The location and number of monitoring plots will need to account for the variation in main UPAF types, their size, location (inner city versus peri-urban, inland versuscoastal,east-westandnorth-southorientation)andvegetation-soilcoveraswellas building density surrounding it. In general, the distance from a UPAF areas at which air temperatures begin to measurably change, can be considered as a starting point at which non-UPAF measurements and monitoring data can be collected. This distance can either be measured using temperature maps or based on satellite imagery thermal analysis. Typically, the monitoring plots should be located in the centre of each UPAF (or non-UPAF)siteandatdifferentdistancesawayfromthecentreoftheUPAFsitetowardsadjacent built-up areas.

Temperature measurements will be influenced by solar radiation being reflected.As indicated earlier, infrared radiation emitted from impervious ground (pavement, concrete,rock)andwall(concrete,block,concrete)surfacesandwilllikelyresultinhighertemperatures.Conversely,shadefromtreesandbuildingswilleffectandsubsequentlyreduce measured temperatures. Temperature monitoring can already be done comparing aminimumof2representativemonitoringareasandplots(1UPAFand1non-UPAF)inagiven area in the city. But ideally and for statistical purposes, it is recommended to monitor atleast3plotswithineachUPAFandnon-UPAFareaandtocompareatleast10differentUPAF/non-UPAF types per city.

ThefollowingaretwoexamplesofhowrepresentativeUPAFtypesandfieldmonitoringlocationsinRosario,Argentina(temperateclimate,locatedintheSouthernhemisphere)andKesbewa,SriLanka(tropicalhumidclimate)couldbeselected.

• Streettrees:Specificstreetsegmentswith,andwithout,streettreescanbeselectedalong streets aligned along east-west directions to maximise the hours of sunlight and minimise shading from taller buildings. Monitoring plots are either randomly located orsubjectively located insites that representandcapturespecificUPAFtypesandused to collect temperature data using thermometers and data loggers. For example, streetsegmentswithdifferenttypesandsizeoftrees,streetswithdifferentbuildingheightsandcharacteristics,orstreetswithdifferentamountsofover-storytreecovercanbeselected. Monitoringplotsareassignedaunique identificationnumberandused for measurement and monitoring purpose. Periods with and without tree leave cover(leavesheddingtrees)shouldbedifferentiated.

• Parksandgardens:SpecificmonitoringplotscanbelocatedwithintheseUPAFareasin sites that best characterise the vegetation of this UPAF type (for example under atreeand/orinthemiddleofagarden)andatsuchadistancewheretemperatureeffects formadjacenturbanareasareminimised (thisdistancecanbedeterminedusingsatelliteimages).ThemeasurementsshouldbecollectedatthecentreoftheselectedUPAFareaandinlocationswherepeopleoranimaltrafficcanbekeptawayfromtheequipment.Wiremeshornettingcanbeusedaslongasitdoesnotaffectwindflow into thesolarshield. (See:http://gaw.empa.ch/gawsis/images/sites/172.jpg or http://www.did.sabah.gov.my/index.php?q=hidrologiukur).OnUPAFswithtrees;the equipment and its solar shield should be located directly under the tree crown at thehalfwaypointbetweentheedgeofatree’scrownedgeordriplineanditsstem.

• Residentialareas:SpecificresidentialareaswithandwithoutUPAFandshadeproducing

9

treecovercanbeusedtocharacterisethetemperatureeffectsofUPAFonhomes/buildings and energy use. Data can be collected both outside and inside of each home/building.Indoorthermometers/dataloggers, ‘units’hereafter,shouldnotbelocateddirectly on the walls that receive the most sunlight for prolonged periods of time due to the sunheating thewall and affecting theunit.TheSunCalc application (http://suncalc.net/)canbeusedtodeterminethesun’spositionforspecifiedhoursduringagivendayfordifferentlocations.Thetemperatureunitsshouldnotbedirectlyaffectedbyopenwindows,airconditioning,ovens,kitchensorothercookingareas,etc.Homes and outdoor sampling locations should be selected based on the following criteria:

- Find homes with at least 1 or more trees and another without trees, ideally with trees greater than 6m tall and within 18 m of the home that are shading the wall of the home that receives the most sun during the day. Larger, taller trees are better. Since the objective ofthissamplingistoassesstheeffectoftreeshadeonbuildingtemperatureandhomeenergy use, so presence of tree shade on the house from 1 or more trees during the hottestdaysoftheyear ismore importantthanthespecificnumber, type,speciesandsizeof trees.This treedatawillberecorded in thefieldform inAppendix1butshouldnotbeusedforselectingthemonitoringsite.Thecontrolhomeshouldnotbeaffectedorinfluencedbytreeshadeduringthemeasurementperiod. - Selecting the type of homes/buildings: homes/buildings should be categorised according to the building and roofingmaterials used, colour, aswell as their numberof floors and locations to other buildings. All these factors influence heat flux andtransfer from outside to inside areas. For monitoring inside temperature effects,thinner roof and wall types are better as well as homes/buildings that are less than two floors high. Ideally all mentioned characteristics such as colour, roof type,building material types, number of floors, location to other buildings, etc. should berecorded toaccount for specific influencesonoutside to inside temperature relations.

• Forests,plantations,treedareasandparks,wetlands:Thelocationofmonitoringplotswhere the units will be placed should be limited to those areas where the units will not be vandalised, stolen or damaged. Religious sites, government buildings or private, fenced areas are examples. The plots should be located well within the UPAF area and its centre and the unit should be located at least 1.5 m above the surface and in a place that best represents over-story conditions. Other monitoring plots can be located at specificdistancesawayfromsuchareastomonitorrelatedtemperatureeffects.

• Non-UPAF sites: Monitoring plots will be located in highly urbanised sites such as urban cores that have little to no vegetation thereby best characterising non-UPAF conditions. These sites will be used as control areas to compare the temperature effectsofUPAFsitestothesenon-UPAFsites.

InselectingandcomparingmonitoringplotsanddifferentUPAF-nonUPAFareasotheraspectsaffecting temperatureshouldalsobe taken intoaccountand recorded.Theseincludethebuildingdensityofthedifferentareasandsurroundinglanduses.Thesedataare needed to assess for example if temperatures in study locations in the peri-urban are lower than in the sites close to the city centre because of the surrounding land uses, rather than the presence of UPAF on the property/ in the area itself.

10

Field measurements of temperature and humidityField data can be used to determineUHI effects on temperatures bymeasuring andmonitoringtemperatureandhumidityatdifferentUPAFandnon-UPAFsites(anddifferentdistancesaway fromUPAFsites) in thecity’surbanandperi-urbanareas,as indicatedabove. Since temperature and humidity vary during the day and season, this temporal variability should be measured as well as the spatial variability of temperature and humidity acrossthecityinrepresentativeUPAFandnon-UPAFsites).

Air temperature and humidity measurements should preferably be made for at least one monthperiodsindifferentseasons(summerandwinterforexample)andfor24hours/day to at least capture solar noon time of the day and midnight to assess night time UHI impacts.

It is recommended that outdoor (or respective indoor) thermo-hygrometerswith dataloggers be used to measure ambient temperatures and humidity. Thermo-hygrometers withdataloggercantakecontinuousmeasurements(forexampleevery15,30minutesorhour)and recorddata forvariousmonths.Dataarecapturedbycomputeranddataloggerinformationwillbecollectedordownloadedbiweeklyormonthlyduringtheyear.Examples are the HOBO data logger and sensors (http://www.onsetcomp.com/\).SomeHOBO sensor data loggers also measure global solar radiation.

Thermo-hygrometer measurements collected every 15 minutes beginning at the top of the hour,willresultin4hourlyand96dailyreadings,accordingly.Ifpossibleatrialrunforfewdayscanbemadetoassesifthese15minutesaresufficienttocharacterisemeasurementtrendsforaspecificsite(hightemperature/humidityvariability). Measurementreadingsadjustments can then be made accordingly. Data monitoring logs should be protected from direct rain and sunlight and calibrated as indicated in Appendix 2. A solar protection shield can be used for protection. Leaf litter, dust, and other detritus should be cleaned from the solar radiation shield periodically.

Solar radiation shieldsAsimplesolarradiationshieldwasdesigned(seeAppendix2)accordingtothethermo-hygrometerdataloggermanufacturer’sspecificationsandbasedonthefollowingcriteria:simplicity of construction (with materials made from mostly wood, a commonly available, renewableresource),useforoutdoorconditionsandprotectionfromheavyrains,strongwinds, ability to protect the sensor from nesting birds, ability to protect the unit from direct solar radiation even during sunset and sunrise, easy access for periodic maintenance, cleaning,datacollection/download,etc.(Figure2). 

Figure 2.The solar radiation shield.

11

Characterising UHIs using satellite imagesInfrared satellite imagery is a second method that can be used to map urban/non-UPAFandUPAFsurfacetemperatures.Thermalbandsinthe10.40-12.50μm range from LANDSAT7, and 8 ETM+ can be used to measure urban and vegetation cover surface temperatures. These bands can easily be converted to temperature using LANDSAT 7 and ETM+methods.Thermalanalysescanthentransformpixel-levelradianceandreflectancecharacteristics to radiant surface temperatures. Other satellite data such as Advanced SpaceborneThermalEmissionandReflectionRadiometer(ASTER)canalsobeusedtocreatedetailedmapsoflandsurfacetemperature,reflectance,andelevationatnocost(http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/).

Satelliteimagesshouldbeobtainedforspecificrainandcloudfreedaysthatideallymeetthe following criteria:• The day and time that correspond to the periods where the average highest and lowest

temperature have been measured (http://www.weatherbase.com/)• ThecapturingofdataofdifferentUPAFandnon-UPAFsitesofsufficientsurfacearea

(seeindicationsprovidedearlier)• One winter and one summer day that corresponds to the same temperature

characteristics as mentioned above, that represent land uses and covers or periods in the city with UPAF compared to none or few UPAFs (UPAF cover may vary over time indifferentyears).

InthecaseofRosario,Argentina,“withUPAF”landuseswereurbangardens,urbanparks,andstreetswithstreettreesforexample.“WithoutUPAF”landusesweredifferentareasinthe urban core characterised by commercial areas with tall buildings, impervious surfaces and no vegetation. As the city started to promote UPAF since the economic crisis in 2001, images from before this period can be compared with current images over time.

Images can be processed using software such as ENVI (http://www.exelisvis.com/ProductsServices/ENVI/ENVI.aspx), ERDAS Imagine (http://geospatial.intergraph.com/products/ERDASIMAGINE/ERDASIMAGINE/Details.aspx) or ILWIS (http://www.ilwis.org/).

Other statistical software such “SAS” (http://www.sas.com/software/sas9/)or“R”(http://www.r-project.org/) and commercially available tools such as FLAASH and QUAC (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4fiPRWixykU&noredirect=1; http://exelis.http.internapcdn.net/exelis/pdfs/Slick_ENVI_ACM_Module.pdf) can be used to develop and adjustalgorithms that correct for atmospheric conditions and error. Processed imagery depicting surfacetemperaturescanbeusedtodevelopisothermmapsforthespecificperiodsofinterest and scenarios (http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/about/measuring.htm).

TheeffectsofUPAFandnon-UPAF,orpreandpost-UPAFs,onUHIwillbedeterminedbyanalysing statistical relationships between UPAF temperature and other remotely sensed orfieldmeasuredvariablesfromthemonitoringsuchasUPAFarea,tree/shrub/soilcover,number of trees on plot, etc using statistical tests such a multiple regression analyses and analphaof0.05.Forexampleasufficient,numberofrandomgeo-referencedpoints inthe satellite image will need to be established and along with ancillary GIS/spatial data beusedtoestimatepixellevel(60mresolution)relationshipsbetweentemperatureand:vegetationandsoilcover(NDVI),distancestowaterbodies,buildingdensity,populationdensity, distance where temperature effects are well way from a UPAF’s influence,etcetera.

12

Box 1. Using remote sensing to determine effects of UPAF on UHI in Bobo Dioulasso.A study implemented in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso (tropical-savannah climate)in2013-2014analysed the roleofurbanisationandgreen infrastructureon increasedsurface temperatures in the city, using available satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques to spatially and temporally quantify urbanisation and land surface temperatures (LST) effects over 20years.The effect of specific green infrastructureareas in the city on LSTswere also quantified. Results show that increased rates ofurbanisation have resulted in increases in temperature trends across time and space. TemporaldifferencesinLSTbetweenurbanandperi-urbanareasincreasedovertheanalyses period by approximately 6% per year. The study also found that mean LST over a10yearperiodwereconsistentlycooler (0.3ºC) in thesegreen infrastructureareasthan in adjacent built-up areas.

Although this was not specifically quantified in the present study, these greeninfrastructure areas are also providing other services (carbon sequestration, reduced storm-water runoff, (food and fuel and income fromurban agriculture recreation) tourban citizens. Studies such as these can support evidence-based policy formulation on preservation, increase and management of green and UPAF spaces in a city, as in contrast many cities regularly encourage infill developments and higher housingdensities that lead to the reduction or loss of green spaces and gardens (Di Leo et al, forthcoming).

Calculating the indicator valuesWhenlocalfieldmonitoringis implementedwithuseofthermo-hygrometers,foreveryhouroftheday,thedifferenceintemperatureandhumiditybetweenUPAFandnon-UPAFareas(oratdifferentdistanceswayfromUPAFareas)canbecalculated(24datapointspermonitoringsiteperday)andthedailymeansforthemonthscanbeaveraged.Again,datashouldpreferablybecollectedforaoneyearperiodtoaccountforallthedifferentseasons.ThiswillresultinΔTforeachmonthoftheyear(n=24datapointspermonth).

∆Thour, month, UPAF type = (Twithout UPAF – Twith UPAF)hour,month,UPAFtypeΔ∆HR hour, month, UPAF type = (HRwithout UPAF – HRwith UPAF)hour,month,UPAFtype

ForeachUPAF type, thehourly temperature rangeatwhich the influenceofUPAFontemperatureandhumidityduringspecifichoursofthedayisgreatestcanbedeterminedusingmeasurementdata.Sincedailyvariationisdeterminedfordifferentmonthsduringthe year, hourly variability, or stability, in temperature and humidity trends during the year can also be assessed.

Hourly and monthly differences in ΔT between the measured UPAF types and the representative non-UPAF type need to be assessed as to their overall impact on mitigating temperatures. These can be determined quantitatively using spreadsheets such as MicrosoftExcelandastatisticalstudentT-testwithasignificancelevelof5%(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D_j-0gNh6Kw) or other statistical software. The effect of otherUPAF site characteristics can also be determined by using data collected from the site and applying other more advanced statistical tests such as regression or multivariate statistical analyses.

Usersofthismanualneedtodeterminewhatisandisnotlocally“significant”asthiscanbeastatisticalvalueorpolicygoal.Thedefinitionofsignificance in turnwilldeterminewhat statistical test or performance standard (UPAF surface area or vegetation cover goal, formulationofaUPAFordinance,leveloffinancialinvestmentinUPAF)willbeused.Forexample a target of 10% green area land use cover can be set or the WHO target of 10-15 m2ofgreenarea/inhabitantused.Alternatively,specifichumancomfort levelsoracceptablerangescanbedefinedforaspecificsituation.

13

Temperature effects on human comfortThermal comfort represents the temperature at which a building (residential, commercial, industrial,etc.)doesnot requireenergy-basedcoolingorheating toachievea levelofhumanoccupantcomfort (seeFigure3.). Thermalcomfortdoesnotsolelydependontemperature,butalsohumidity,onheatflux/transferintoabuildingandonotherfactorsthat are directly or indirectly related to temperature as discussed earlier. The presence ofUPAFcanalsoinfluencehumiditylevels.Specificairtemperaturescoupledtohigherhumidity will have a larger impact on thermal comfort as compared to the same air temperatures with lower levels of humidity. It should be noted that humidity levels are nottakenintoaccountinthecalculationsbelow,asitisassumedinthisstudythatUPAFimpactsonhumiditylevelswillbetoosmalltohavesignificantimpactsonthermalcomfort.This assumption however needs to be assessed in future studies.

Figure 3. Psychrometric Chart (Source: http://www.kuulpads.com/charts.html).

“Degreedays” is amethod that canbeused todetermine thedifferencebetween airtemperature and thermal comfort temperature; which depends on specific locationssuchastropicalversusaridregions,andindividuallivingandworkingenvironments(officeversusruralagricultureworker).Thisresultsintwoconditions:1. Heatingdegreedays(HDD)inwhichthermalcomforttemperature(Tb)isgreaterthan

actualairtemperature(Ta)with(HDD=Tb–Ta),whichrepresentthedegreesneededto obtain thermal comfort using energy-based heating

2. Cooling degree days (CDD) inwhich thermal comfort temperature is less than airtemperature (CDD=Ta –Tb) or thedegrees that need to be loweredor cooled toachieve comfort using refrigerated based cooling.

CoolingandheatingdegreedaysforeachmonthandfordifferentUPAFandnon-UPAFtemperatures can be determined using:

CDDmonth without UPAF type = ∑ (Thour, day, month– Tcomfort)Thour, day, month– Tcomfort = Dh

Dh: degree hour∑:Thesumofthefirsttolastdayofthemonthor,

CDD= 0 if Thour, day, month ≤ TcomfortCDD≠ 0 if Thour, day, month ≥ Tcomfort

14

Or

HDDmonth, UPAF type = ∑ (Tcomfort – T hour, day, month)

Dh: degree hour∑:Thesumofthefirsttolastdayofthemonthor,

Thesumofthefirsttolastdayofthemonthor,

HDD = 0 ifT hour, day, month ≥ Tcomfort HDD≠ 0 if T hour, day, month ≤ Tcomfort

DegreedayrangescanthenbeusedtodeterminearangeofdifferentthermalcomfortsfordifferentUPAFandnon-UPAFareas.Aspreviouslymentioned,humancomfort(Tcomfort)isaffectedbytemperatureandhumidityandiscontextspecific.Forexampleinthetropicsitissetat26.2C,inDenmarkat25.7C,andintheUnitedStatesat25.6Caccordingto:http://aldebaran.feld.cvut.cz/vyuka/environmental_engineering/lectures/L10%20Thermal%20Comfort.pdf. Emmanuel&Johansson(2006)reportthatthermalcomfort issetat26.1–26.7CinColombo,SriLankaand27.2CinSingapore,26CinCalcutta,Indiaand31.11CinRoorkee,India.

ThedegreedaysneedtobecalculatedtodeterminetheeffectsofUPAFandnon-UPAFareas on cooling and heating needs, and related impacts on energy use.

Theseeffectscanbecalculatedusingthefollowingindicator:

ΔCDDmonth, UPAF type = (CDDwithoutUPAF – CDDwithUPAF)month ΔHDD month, UPAF type = (HDDwithUPAF – HDDwithoutUPAF)month

AlternativelytheRelativeStrainIndex(RSI):(t-21)/(58-e);t=temp;evapourpressure(partialpressureof thewater in thegasphasewhenatequilibrium)according toEmmanuel&Johansson(2006)canalsobeusedtoestimatethermalcomfortaswellastheInternationalStandardsOrganization 7730-193 calculator (see alsohttp://www.healthyheating.com/solutions.htm, or http://www.cbe.berkeley.edu/comforttool/).

As indicated before, a direct relation between air temperature and inside building temperature is assumed, while in reality this relation is influenced by building types,materials,densitiesetc.Calculationsthushavetobeadjustedfordifferentbuildingtypes.Inside temperature monitoring can be sued to do so. Inside and outside temperature monitoringdoneinKesbewa,SriLankaforexampleshowedthatdifferencesinoutsidetemperaturearehigherthandifferencesininsidetemperature,showingthatheattransferis indeed dependent on building materials and structures used.

Effects on energy use, costs and emissionsOnce heating and cooling demand are calculated, energy demand can be used to determine monetary expenditures or savings as well as emissions related to increased or avoided energy use.

Based on degree days and particularly degree hours, the cooling or heating energy needs ofabuildingcanbedetermined.AccordingtoSzokolay(2004)thisenergyneedcanbeestimatedbymultiplyingthedegreehoursbythebuilding’sconductance(Specificheatlossrate)

Ch= Dh × q

15

where: Ch=Heating/coolingrequirement(Wh)Dh=Degreehours(°Ch)(Thour,day,month–Tcomfort=Dh)q=Buildingconductance(W/K)

Ifweassumethatdegreehours(Dh)areequaltodegreedays(DD)x24,thenthebuilding’sconductancevalue(W/K)isequalto0.024kWhforeverydegreeday.ThuseveryΔDDmonth,

UPAF type givetheadditionalkWhthatwillbeusedinthecaseUPAFswouldnotpresenttoreduce temperatures.

Depending on the energy source used and the respective emissions factors for each kWhused(suchemissionsfactorscanbefoundininternationalliterature),theamountofemissionsrelatedtoadditionalkWHneededcanbecalculatedandcomparedforareawith and without UPAF. Similarly related energy costs can be calculated.

It should be noted that emissions and energy demand and costs for cooling and heating days will vary according to the energy source used. Often electricity is used for cooling, while natural gas or fuel-wood may be used for heating. The calculations thus have to beadjustedforspecificenergysourcesused(likefuel,hydro-poweredelectricity,gasorfuel-woodforexample)andtheirspecificemissionsfactorsandpricesforeverycity.

Scenarios for project climate change With project climate change and increase in ambient air temperature, the number of cooling and heating days for such future situations might be also calculated, as well as related energy use, emissions and energy costs.

16

Box 2. Temperature monitoring for UPAF and non-UPAF areas with use of thermometers in Rosario, Argentina. InRosario,airtemperaturewasmonitoredindifferentUPAFandnon-UPAFareasduringtheperiodaugust2013-august2014.InRosario,withitstemperateclimate,presenceofUPAF statically lowered the UHI in summer with corresponding projected decreases in cooling days and energy demand for cooling. At the same time, vegetative tree cover in winter hampers soil radiation to reach the surface and building walls, and resulted in increase in heating days and thus energy demand for heating. Comparing air temperatures with thermal comfort, the total average cooling degrees neededfortheoneyearmonitoringperiod(august2013-august2014)forallnon-UPAFareasaddedup482ascomparedto338foralltheUPAFareasinthecity.Theaveragetotalheatingdegreesfornon-UPAFareasaddedupto434fortheone-yearperiod,ascompared to 711 for all UPAF areas. However, and especially with projected temperature increaseinthecoming25years,futuredifferencesincoolingdemandwillbecomelargerthandifferencesinheatingdemand.AlsoconsideringthatcoolingenergyinRosario is principally based on electricity, while heating energy comes from a variety of sources(includingnaturalgas,woodandelectricity),emissionsrelatedtoeachKwhofcoolingenergyareexpectedtobehigherthanforeachkWhofheatingenergyused,althoughthishastobeconfirmedbyfurtherstudies.Withrecent(December2013,Rosariosummerperiod)electricitycutsduetoextremecoolingenergyuserelatedtohightemperatures,findingsofthestudyarerelevantformunicipaldecision-makers. Findingsalsointerestinglyillustratethattemperatureeffectsofasmallurbanagriculturalgarden(1620m2)wheresimilartothatoflargergardenandpublicparkof2and3ha.respectively. This would imply that including small UPAF areas in new or upgraded housingandneighboursettlementswouldalreadybringdesiredeffectsonhumancomfort levels. Larger UPAF areas may however have temperature impacts on building areas located at farther distances away from the UPAF areas, as compared to smaller UPAFareas.Again,furtherstudyisneededtoconfirmsuchhypothesis(Coronel,FeldmanandPiacentini,2014).

17

REFERENCES

American Meteorological Society, 2000. Heat islands. Glossary of Meteorology 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Boston, USA

AmiriR.,Wen,Q.H.,AlimohammadiA.,AlavipanahS.K.,2009.Spatial-temporaldynamicsof land surface temperature in relation to fractional vegetation cover and land use/coverintheTabrizurbanarea.Iran.RemoteSensingofEnvironment.113(12).2606-2617.doi:10.1016/j.rse.2009.07.021

Cavan G., Lindley S., Jalayer F., Yeshitela K., Pauleit S., Renner F., Gill S., Capuano P., Nebebe A.,WoldegerimaT.,KibassaD.,ShemdoeR.,2014.Urbanmorphologicaldeterminantsoftemperature regulating ecosystem services in two African cities. Ecological Indicators. 42:43-57.

Coronel,A.,FeldmanS.,andPiacentiniR.,2014.Efectodeagriculturayforestaciónurbanayperi-urbana sobre lamitigacióny adaptaciónal cambioclimático: impactos sobre latemperatura. Report prepared for RUAF Foundation and CDKN.

Di Leo, N., Escobedo, F., Dubbeling, M., forthcoming. The role of urban green infrastructure inmitigating landsurface temperatures inBobo-Dioulasso,BurkinaFaso.Submitted toSpringer publications.

Emmanuel and Johansson, 2006. Microclimate in hot-humid Colombo, Climate Research 30:189–200.

Lin.B.S.andLin.Y.J.,2010.CoolingEffectofShadeTreeswithDifferentCharacteristicsinaSubtropicalUrbanPark.Hortscience.45(1).83-86.

Oke.T.R.,1987.Boundarylayerclimates(2nded.).Methuen,London,GreatBritain

Oliveira.S.,Andrade.H.andVaz.T.,2011.Thecoolingeffectofgreenspacesasacontributiontothemitigationofurbanheat:AcasestudyinLisbon.BuildingandEnvironment.46(11).2186-2194.doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.04.034

Shashua-Bar L., Pearlmutter D., and Erell E., 2009. The cooling efficiency of urbanlandscapestrategiesinahotdryclimate.LandscapeandUrbanPlanning.92(3-4).179-186.doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2009.04.005

Szokolay,S.,2004.IntroductiontoArchitecturalScience:TheBasisofSustainableDesignElsevier-Architectural Press. Great Britain

University of Cambridge and ICLEI, 2014. Climate change: implications for cities. KeyFindings from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report. Available from: http://www.iclei.org/fileadmin/PUBLICATIONS/Brochures/IPCC_AR5_Cities_Summary_FINAL_Web.pdf

18

Appendix 1. Field temperature-humidity data monitoring form

Enumerators

GPS Coordinates

Location

Plot ID

UPAF Type Year Month Day Hour Minute Temperature Humidity

Notes (% clouds, rain,sun,specifictreecharacteristics)

19

Appendix 2. Solar radiation shield specifications for the digital thermo-hygrometersA radiation shield should be constructed to protect the thermo-hygrometer from direct solar radiation and rainfall. The following shield is proposed which is easy to construct, resistanttooutdoorconditions(heavyrainandstrongwinds,hail,intensesolarUVradiation,dustdepositionontheinstrument,etc.).Itsmaterials(mainlywood)canbeeasilyobtainedindifferentpartsoftheworld.Theconstructionmethodalsoallowsforeasyaccesstotheinstrumentforperiodicsurveillance,cleaning,dataextraction,etc. 

Figure 1.The solar radiation shield.

Construction1. Thetopmosttriangular-pyramidalroof:ismadefrom3woodentriangles thatare

each36cmx 15cm in sizeandapproximately8-12mmor½ inch thick.At thehighest point on the roof, a screw or nail must be placed upwards in order to detract birds from nesting on the shield. The following 2 patterns can be used to obtain the necessary triangular-pyramidal roof sections:

PatternVersion1:Apieceofwoodof1912mmx150mm(totalareaof2868cm2).

PatternVersion2:Apieceofwoodof852mmx360mm(totalsurfaceof3067cm2).

20

2. Thesecondtriangular-pyramidalroof-ismadefrom3woodentriangles thatare36cmx15cminsizeand8-12mmthick.Aholeneedstobedrilledineachtriangle,inorder to place the corresponding support pole. As the roof is in an inclined position, the hole also has to be at an angle that is dependent on the angular position of the roof with respect to the horizon. This second roof needs to be located at, and a distanceof,4cmfromthetopmostroof.Note:thisparticularroofistoreducethesensor’sheatgainduetosolarradiation. 

3. Thebasetriangular-pyramidalroof- isalsomadewith3woodentriangles thatare36cmx15cminsizeand8-12mmthick.However,differentfromthetopmostandsecond triangular-pyramids roofs, this base roof has a triangular, horizontal wood surface placed at the top at 5 cm below the extreme point of the base triangular-pyramidalroof(Figure2).Thishorizontalplatformismadetoavoidpotentialcontactbetween the sensor-data logger that will be placed above this base.

Figure 2. Horizontal wood surface at the top at 4 cm from the radiation shield’s base triangular-pyramidal roof.

Thermo-hygrometer sensor-data logger (unit)

The unit should be placed between- not touching either - the second and third pyramidal roofs at a height of 1.5 meters above ground surface. Note again that the second pyramidal roofis4cmbelowthetopmostshieldandbottombasepyramidalroofis5cmbelowinthe second pyramidal roof.

Theunit’saccesstothetemperaturesensorisasmallholelocatedthetopoftheunitthatneeds to be exposed to air. This hole is made since it needs to interact with the sensor so it mustbeplacedina“reversed”position(pointingdownwards).Bydoingso,dustandwatercondensationwillnotbedepositedonthesensor.Theunitisthenfixedtothe3verticalsupports using very resistant strings or white colour wires that are resistant to outdoor conditions(Figure3).TheUSBwire(usedtodownloaddataonthecomputer)shouldbeconnected to the instrument toavoidoxidationof theunit’scontacts.Alternatively, theport can be sealed to avoid water and condensation from damaging the unit.

21

Figure 3.Location of the unit inside the radiation shield.

Shield supportsThe shield supports consist of 3 vertical supportsmade ofwooden broomsticks; onebroomstick issufficient for these3supports (Figure3).Theverticalsupportsshouldbeabout2metersinlengthassumingitisplacedinthesoiltoadepthofabout40cm.Theupper part of each support needs to be cut at the same angle as that at which the topmost roof is placed. The bottom part must be cut horizontally.

In addition, one horizontal, 1meter long (ormore)wooden support pole is needed toseparatetheunitfromthebuildingwalls(Figure4)asthesewallsifheatedbysolarradiationcanaffect temperature. Asmallpartof thishorizontal supportneeds tobe located inaperpendicularpositioninordertoplaceoneofthebroomsticksupports.Alternativelya vertical support of this same material can be used if the unit is placed away from a building,forexampleinthemiddleofagarden,belowatree,etc.).

Figure 4.Location of the shield away from building walls.

Accessories and required building materialsPaint: The solar radiation shield need to be painted with several layers of bright, white paintsinceUltra-Violetradiationcaneasilydamagetheunitandtheshield’swood.Carpenters’glue:Needstobeusedwithcaretogluethe3trianglestogethertoformapyramidaswellastofixthe3pyramidstothe3supports.Ifnecessary,thegluecanbemixedwithsawdust inorder toseal theslotsbetweentriangle-pyramidsandtofix thevertical supports to the 2 roofs and the 1 base. This applies also to the slots between the verticals and horizontal supports. Screws or nails: In order to secure the supports and triangles, screws or nails can also be used but care is needed since these can become oxidised. Rust proof material or several

22

layers of paint could also be used.

Unit maintenanceSeveral HOBO units are designed for use in indoor or outdoor conditions. Units with rapid responsetime,regularmonitoring(every15min.),temperaturerangesandresolutionscanbe found. When temperature changes are within 1°C/hour, the less expensive HOBOS 23-001 and HOBOS 23-003 can well be used. Excessive moisture and mould/mildew can causeerrorsinmeasurements.Therefore,theunitsshouldbecheckedandmaintainedso as to not allow dust and water to settle on the instrument. If the monitoring site is susceptible to excessive insect activity, mosquito netting can be used to enclose the solar shield.Thenettingmightaffectwindflowandmeasurementsmightbeslightlyaffected.

CalibrationCalibration and validation of temperature equipment should be used to correct for measurement error. For example in Rosario, Argentina, a temperature calibration procedure detected problems in the HOBO U23-001 used for the temperature and humiditymeasurementsandconventionalMaximum-minimum(max-min)thermometers.Thevariabilityanddifferencesbetweenoutdoorequipmentandacalibratedthermometerin a highly urbanised setting is shown in Figure 5. As seen, all HOBO equipment followed the same trends and presented mean and maximum temperature differences in therange of 0.5 °C while the reference thermometer presented lower values. In this case, this indicates that all units have a systematic error that needs to be corrected using a calibration technique.

Figure 5. Time variation of the ambient temperatures measured in Rosario, Argentina on the 19th of July 2013 with: a) Five HOBO U23-001 thermometers (see details in the Figure), b) Davis station sensor (green thick line), c) mercury thermometer (black star) and d) National Weather Station (NWS) thermometer (red circle). The National Weather Station is located in Fisherton International Airport (near Rosario), the Davis station sensor in the Urquiza Park near the Paraná River, while the HOBO equipment and mercury thermometers were located about 1.9 km away from Urquiza Park.

One commonly used calibration method for temperature measurement using both conventionalstemthermometersandthermistorbasedequipment(HOBOdataloggers)istousefreezing(0ºC)andboilingwater(100ºC)bathsatsealevel,adjustedforatmosphericpressure (See http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/Kinetic/vappre.html#c5 foradjustingboilingpointstoatmosphericpressures).First,placemineralisedwaterandice in a Styrofoam container with enough water to cover the ice, but not so much that the icefloats. Insert thebulbof the thermometer so that it isbelowwater level,up tothe immersionmark.Mix the icewater regularly at least everyminute taking care notto damage the thermometer. Temperatures need to be measured every minute until a

23

constant temperature is reached. Second, place boiling water in a separate Styrofoam container. Insert the thermometer, carefully mix the boiling water every minute and follow the same steps as for the ice-water mixture measurements. Use a magnifying glass for more precise temperature thermometer measurements, if possible up to 0.1°C or even insmallerunits. Makeat least3constant freezingand temperaturemeasurements todevelop a calibration or correction curve using the following equation:

Tactual,corrected = a + bTmeasured.

The resulting curve and its adjusted R2arespecifictothethermometerandshouldbeusedfortheircalibration.Forexample,thefollowingmeasurementsanddata(Table1)areanexampleregressioncurvedevelopedforaMercuryThermometer(DIN085).Usingthemeasurement data the calibration/correction curve has the following form:

Tcorrected=0.24791+0.98811*TDIN085 and an adjusted R2=0.99.(Forspecificstepsandprocedures see: http://infohost.nmt.edu/~chem/images/pdf/draltig/chem109_fall2011/ThermoCalibration.pdf)

Table 1. Measurements using a reference thermometer and the Mercury (decimal) thermometer DIN 085

Treference (°C) TDIN 085 (°C) Difference (°C)

10 9.9 0.1

20 20 0.0

30 30 0.0

40 40.3 -0.3

Weather stationmeasurements located less than 12 kilometres from the data loggerunits can also be used to validate temperature measurements and data using calibration curves as shown in the previous example.

Data on temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH)The units should be located so that temperature-humidity data are collected at 1.5 meters above the ground surface and that air is allowed to freely circulate around the unit. However, they need to be shielded from direct sunlight and high velocity winds. In cases where measurements cannot be collected at 1.5m above the surface, temperature will need to be corrected using a generalised thermal gradient correction of 0.65ºC/100m (Standardatmosphere: increasingheightdecreases temperature).Note: this correctioncan vary according to the time of day, season, climate, geographic location, but can be considered reasonable for these types of measurements.

Eachplotwillbemeasuredandsketchedforcharacteristicssuchaslocation,coordinates,datacollectors,vegetationcoversandtypes,buildings,etcsiteusingfielddatacollectionform in Appendix 3.

When collecting temperature and humidity measurements, time and site-specificobservationsshouldbenotedinthefieldformprovidedinAppendix1.Itisrecommendedtotakephotosforeachsite.

24

Appendix 3. Plot data information sheet The temperature monitoring measurements must be collected at plot centre. Get permissiontoaccessthepropertyifnecessary(fromresidentorpropertyowner).Locatethe plot centre and plot boundaries using aerial photographs and/or maps and by use of GPS. Use a separate sheet per plot. Each plot will be given a unique 3 digit ID number (the samenumberasusedinAppendix1):1. Plot ID number:2. Type of UPAF or non-UPAF:3. Date: date of data collection 4. Fieldstaff:nameoffieldstaffthatcollectedthedata5. Location of the plot/GPS coordinates of the centre of plot (in decimal degrees or

UniversalTransverseMercator):6. Plotsketch,landmarkandpictures:Makesketchofthemonitoringpoint/plot,measure

distancesandindicateorientation(usingacompass)tolandmarksandfixedobjects(suchasbuildingsandotherpermanentstructures).Takepicturesoftheplotfromtheplot/pointtonorth/south/west/east;GivedigitalphotofilesamenumberastheplotID

7. Plot contact information: Include name, address and –if available- telephone number ofthecontactpersontoaccesstheplot(ifsuchpermissionisrequired)).

8. Describe plot vegetation and other ground covers. Estimate: 1.Overstory tree, 2 understoryshruband3.groundcovers(blackareasonthescalerepresentthespecificcover type that you want to estimate; see categories below while the white areas representthesumofothercoversontheplot).Atreeisawoodyplantorpalmwithadiameteratbreastheight(dbh;stemdiameterat1.4mabovethegroundsurface)greater than 2.5 cm;8.1 Overstoryplottreecover(%):theamountoftreecrownscoveringtheplot.When

looking upward fromwithin the plot, onewill either see tree canopies or openskyareasbetween thecanopies.Thisdatum is theproportionof thesky that isobscured by tree crowns within the plot and will range from 0 to 100%. Tree cover can come from trees located outside the plot; so plots not containing trees could still have tree cover. Record to nearest 5% unless cover is minimal. If amount less than 5% are present; entering 1,2,3%, etc. is acceptable.

8.2 PlotShrubCover(%)*–Understoryshrubs(Woodyplantsorpalmslessthan2.5cmDBHandtallerthan30cminheight).Lookdownfromabove.Recordtonearest5%unless cover is minimal. If trace amount present; 1, 2, 3%, etc. is acceptable. Any woodyvegetation(Tree/palmorshrubspecies)withaDBH=2.5cmisconsideredto be a tree, for measurement purposes. If DBH does not equal 2.5cm, then the plant is considered a shrub. If woody plant does not reach 30 cm height, then that plantisconsideredherbaceouscover.Thetree/palm’scentreofthestemorpithmustbewithin11.3m(plotboundary)fromplotcentreforittobeconsideredinsidethe plot.

8.3 Ground cover: the % various ground surface cover types on the plot. Within the plot, various materials will cover the ground (trees and shrubs are considered separately;treestemsasagroundcoverareignored).Recordtonearest5%unlesscover is minimal. If trace amount present; 1,2,3%, etc. is acceptable. The sum of these proportions above must add to 100% per plot. Use the following cover classes as giveninFigure1andtheplotsketchtovisuallyestimatethecertainpercentageof:• Buildings, asphalt and cement: % of plot area covered by buildings and

pavementsofasphaltandcementaswellasotherpavementsmadeofbrick,flagstone,gravel,etc.

• Bare soil: % of plot area covered by soil that is heavily compacted due to human or animal activity (e.g. used for parking,markets,walking area, grazing areaetcetera).

• Leaf litter, mulch, compost: % surface litter and organic matter• Cultivated cropland: % of plot area in use for cultivation of crops other than wet

rice.Landplantedwithnon-woodytrees(banana,papaya,etcetera)isincluded

25

inthiscategoryshrubcover).• Grass/vegetation: % of plot used as pasture, meadow or lawn or other natural

vegetation.• Rockfragments:%brick,blocks,cobbles,etc.• Water: % of plot area: water bodies, including pools, ponds and wetlands with

surface water

Figure 1. Percent cover and density classes .

26

FIELD FORM

PLOT ID

D A T E A N D TIME CREW

G P S CORRD PHOTO#

X N S Y NE SW

Plot address =Notes:

Plot sketch:

UPAF Type Crop Types

Tree/Palm cover (%) Tree Species:Number of trees*:

Number of trees in the following DBH sizes:<2.5 cm2.6-10 cm11-20 cm21-30 cm31+ cm

Woody Shrub cover(%) Other

Ground cover(Sum to 100%)

%Building

%Cement and pavement

&Bare Soil %Leaf litter, mulch, compost

%Crops

%Grass/ Veg.

%rockfrag.

%water

*Numberoftrees(>=6m.tall)thatarelocatedwithin18metersoftheselectedresidentialbuildings.

27

November2014

This document is an output from a project funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) and the Netherlands Directorate-General for InternationalCooperation(DGIS)forthebenefitofdevelopingcountries.However,theviewsexpressedand information contained in it are not necessarily those of or endorsed by DFID, DGIS or theentitiesmanagingthedeliveryoftheClimateandDevelopmentKnowledgeNetwork,which can accept no responsibility or liability for such views, completeness or accuracy of the information or for any reliance placed on them. This research was funded by The ClimateandDevelopmentKnowledgeNetwork(www.cdkn.org).