[Guest Editor, Chandana Jayawardena.] Tourism and (BookFi.org)

134 Access this journal online

135 Abstracts & keywords

138 Editorial

140 Developing indigenous tourism:challenges for the GuianasDonald Sinclair

147 Towards an alternative tourismfor BelizeIan Boxill

151 Cuba: hero of the Caribbean?A profile of its tourism educationstrategyPat Wood and Chandana Jayawardena

156 The future of hospitality educationin GrenadaMichelle L. McDonald andRoyston O. Hopkin

161 Internal marketing of attitudes inCaribbean tourismAnne P. Crick

167 The all-inclusive concept in theCaribbeanJohn J. Issa and Chandana Jayawardena

172Research in briefThe feasibility of Sabbath-keeping inthe Caribbean hospitality industryEritha Huntley and Carol Barnes-Reid

176Research in briefPerformance of tourism analysis:a Caribbean perspectiveChandana Jayawardena andDiaram Ramajeesingh

180Research in briefThe state and tourism:a Caribbean perspectiveHilton McDavid andDiaram Ramajeesingh

184ViewpointTourism, linkages, and economicdevelopment in JamaicaNikolaos Karagiannis

188ViewpointPolicy coherence and sustainabletourism in the CaribbeanAnthony Clayton

192ViewpointTerrorism and tourism:Bahamas and Jamaica fight backGodfrey Pratt

195ViewpointInternational hotel managers andkey Caribbean challengesChandana Jayawardena andK. Michael Haywood

199 Book reviews

International Journal of ContemporaryHospitality Management

Volume 15, Number 3, 2003

Tourism and hospitality management in the CaribbeanGuest Editor: Chandana Jayawardena

ISSN 0959-6119

Contents

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Developing indigenous tourism:challenges for the GuianasDonald Sinclair

Keywords Tourism, Comparative costs,Cultural synergy, Innovation, Guyana,Suriname

As emergent tourism destinations, the

Guianas are new players in a game in which

rules have been agreed, strategies defined

and competition has been intense. New

players succeed by demonstrating creativity

and innovation and by seizing comparative

advantage. The possession of unique natural

attractions, the presence of indigenous

communities or rare cultural forms are all

precious resources commanding

comparative advantage for the Guianas.

However, because of the special character of

indigenous tourism, development of that

form of tourism is not possible without the

articulation and implementation of

appropriate policy measures. In the absence

of that policy infrastructure the possibilities

for error and conflict are immense. This

paper explores the key challenges in the path

of the development of indigenous tourism

and suggests clear policy guidelines that

should inform the development of indigenous

tourism in the pursuit of comparative

advantage.

Towards an alternative tourism forBelizeIan Boxill

Keywords Development, Tourism, Culture,Location, Education, Belize

This paper argues that tourism development

in Belize should avoid going the traditional

mass tourism route of most Caribbean

destinations. Instead, it suggests that Belize

is at the appropriate stage in its development

to forge an alternative model, which draws

and builds on its geographical location,

history, culture and ecology. In making this

case, the paper identifies a number of

limiting and facilitating factors to tourism

development. These facilitating factors

recommend the alternative model.

Specifically, the alternative model includes

nature, education and community tourism;

and a type of cruise tourism that is linked to

education and culture. For this effort to

succeed, the paper recommends that

government and civil society work together

to develop the countrys human resources

and to structure a strategy to achieve

the goals.

Cuba: hero of the Caribbean? A profileof its tourism education strategyPat Wood and Chandana Jayawardena

Keywords Cuba, Hospitality industry, Tourism,Workforce, Education, Vocational training

Features a realistic perspective of the current

hospitality and tourism paradigm in Cuba.

Previews the newly released hospitality and

tourism education strategy to be rolled out in

2003. Provides an evaluation of the tourism

and hospitality industry environment,

education environment, workforce and

change in policy. The authors made three

research trips to Cuba in 1997, 2001 and 2002.

A series of elite interviews were conducted in

Cuba, Jamaica and the UK with senior Cuban

policy makers. Current data and views from

Cuban partners and practitioners are used to

inform the discussion. Cuba continues to be

one of the most mystical tourist destinations

in the world with a phenomenal growth rate

during recent years. The new tourism

education strategy is a key for Cuba to once

again become the number one destination in

the Caribbean.

The future of hospitality education inGrenadaMichelle L. McDonald and Royston O. Hopkin

Keywords Grenada, Hospitality management,Human resource development, Tourism,Stakeholders, Curriculum

The quality of hospitality education is a

topical issue. It is being increasingly realised

that the education level of tourism employees

impacts on the quality of a countrys tourism

industry. As the most tourism-oriented

region globally, the Caribbean is slowly

awakening to the realisation that, unless its

tourism employees are highly educated and

skilled, the region will continue to account

for an insignificant percentage of world

tourism arrivals. In Grenada, hospitality

education courses are limited, given the

small tourism plant and comparatively low

visitor arrivals. Research was undertaken by

one of the authors, to explore the opinions of

the accommodation sector about current

education provisions and the future direction

that courses should take. Integration of all

stakeholders in the implementation of the

broad education policy outlined by the

government is crucial to improving

hospitality education in Grenada to ensure a

competitive tourism industry.

[ 135 ]

International Journal ofContemporary HospitalityManagement15/3 [2003]Abstracts & keywords

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Abstracts&keywords

Internal marketing of attitudes inCaribbean tourismAnne P. Crick

Keywords Tourism, Attitudes, Caribbean,Internal marketing, Market share

Tourism is the mainstay of the Caribbean

and the attitude of the people in the region

may have a significant impact on the success

of the industry. This paper analyzes the way

in which tourism authorities of three

Caribbean destinations have internally

marketed tourism to their host populations

in order to encourage the desired attitudinal

expressions. A matrix of five possible

responses to tourism was developed and each

of the three countries was found to occupy

different positions in the matrix. An analysis

of the internal marketing strategies

determined that the countries adopted

different approaches based on their

particular challenges but none of the

approaches had achieved lasting success. The

study concludes with recommendations for

future research.

The all-inclusive concept in theCaribbeanJohn J. Issa and Chandana Jayawardena

Keywords Holiday industry, Tourism, Quality,Caribbean, Hotels, Hospitality industry

Seeks to review the all-inclusive concept in

the context of the Caribbean. The origin of

all-inclusives in the world and the Caribbean

is analysed. The concept was first introduced

in holiday camps in Britain during the 1930s.

Club Med is credited for popularizing the

concept globally in the 1950s. However, the

credit of introducing a luxury version of the

all-inclusive concept goes to a Jamaican

hotelier and co-author of this article. In

defining the concept of all-inclusives, one

cannot ignore the significant role Jamaica

has played. Currently, Jamaica has 17 of the

best 100 all-inclusive resorts in the world.

Even though all-inclusives are occasionally

criticized, they are seen as a necessary evil.

Concludes by predicting that all-inclusives

are here to stay in the Caribbean and will

play a major role in tourism for the

foreseeable future.

The feasibility of Sabbath-keeping inthe Caribbean hospitality industryEritha Huntley and Carol Barnes-Reid

Keywords Tourism, Hospitality, Religion,Hospitality industry, Hotels, Holiday industry

This article addresses religious tolerance for

Sabbath-keepers in the hospitality industry.

The authors approach this issue by assessing

the perception of managers in the Jamaican

tourism industry on this topic. A major

finding was that managers are reluctant to

employ persons who have a strong desire to

observe the Sabbath. The researchers also

discovered that the law does not provide

specific provisions to protect the rights of

Sabbath-keepers. Managers are, however,

willing to make arrangements to facilitate

these individuals whenever possible. This

augurs well for students of hospitality

management who desire to observe the

Sabbath. More research on this topic is

needed since this study is by no means

exhaustive.

Performance of tourism analysis:a Caribbean perspectiveChandana Jayawardena andDiaram Ramajeesingh

Keywords Analysis, Foreign exchange, Growth,Tourism, Financial performance, Revenue

Introduces a new concept, performance of

tourism (POT) analysis as a tool for

measuring the performance of tourist

destinations. Comments on the Caribbean

regions overdependence on tourism, and

examines the scope of foreign exchange

leakage. Tourism in the Caribbean generally

grows faster than the world average. Often

the success of tourism is measured from the

gross figures rather than the net figures.

Presents data from four Caribbean countries,

Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Jamaica and

St Lucia to explain the concept. Key findings

reflect surprising results. Based on the

analysis done, a relatively new tourism

destination in the Caribbean, Aruba, has

outperformed mature tourist destination,

Jamaica, by 16 to one.

The state and tourism: a CaribbeanperspectiveHilton McDavid and Diaram Ramajeesingh

Keywords Tourism, Developing countries,Economic conditions, Regional development,Government, Economic growth

Tourism, today, has not only emerged as the

engine of growth but also become the largest

and the fastest growing sector in the

Caribbean. For this reason the industry is

now viewed as one of the leading instruments

of development in the region. Given the

importance of the industry, it is incumbent

on governments to orient tourism growth

towards meeting the socioeconomic needs

and environmental requirements of the

region. To meet these objectives, however,

regional governments are required to play a

greater role in directing and shaping the

[ 136 ]

Abstracts & keywords

International Journal ofContemporary HospitalityManagement15/3 [2003] 135-137

future development of the industry. This

paper strongly argues in favour of a greater

role in the industry, both through direct and

indirect market intervention, by

governments of the region.

Tourism, linkages, and economicdevelopment in JamaicaNikolaos Karagiannis

Keywords Development, Strategic planning,Jamaica, Tourism, Industrial performance,Economic indicators

This article offers, briefly, a

production-oriented development framework

for Jamaica, based on growth-promoting

linkages between tourism, commodity

production sectors, and complementary and

related service industries. These linkages

can boost the Jamaican endogenous

competency and industrial competitiveness,

while improving the countrys

macroeconomic performance. Alternative

development policy considerations are also

within the scope of this article.

Policy coherence and sustainabletourism in the CaribbeanAnthony Clayton

Keywords Sustainable development, Tourism,Policy management, Growth,Economic conditions,Environmental risk assessment

The common failure to give due weight to

environmental and social factors creates a

risk that that short-term economic growth

objectives may be traded off against

long-term objectives, such as environmental

quality. This potential policy conflict may be

exacerbated in the developing countries that

are undergoing structural adjustment, as the

associated trimming of non-core public

expenditure will typically include measures

designed to manage the environment. Thus

the long-term future of the vital tourist

industry might be compromised in the

process of meeting short-term public

expenditure reduction targets. The solution

lies partly in improved policy coherence;

micro-level prescriptions are more likely to

be sustainable per se and also help to

underpin a wider process of sustainable

development if the appropriate policy

framework is analysed and evolved

integrally, as part of a coherent national

plan. The need, therefore, is for an

appropriate, flexible structure that could

capture the business, environmental and

developmental aspects of tourism.

Terrorism and tourism:Bahamas and Jamaica fight backGodfrey Pratt

Keywords Tourism, Competitive advantage,Terrorism, Economic growth, Bahamas,Jamaica

This study highlights the fragility of the

tourism industry in developing countries.

The overdependence of the Bahamas on the

tourism industry, for economic development,

is brought into focus here. The adroit efforts

of the directors of tourism for both the

Bahamas and Jamaica are highlighted. Both

governments saw the need to immediately

fund a revised marketing and advertising

campaign, in the aftermath of 9/11. An

important factor in the recovery of both

destinations is the extent to which a coalition

of public and private sector tourism

stakeholders in both countries committed

themselves to resolving the crisis quickly at

hand. The commitment of the public and

private sector in these countries, to

safeguarding and promoting this industry

probably positively correlated to the

importance of the industry to the economy of

the countries, as evidenced by tourisms

contribution to their GDP.

International hotel managers and keyCaribbean challengesChandana Jayawardena andK. Michael Haywood

Keywords Hotels, Management styles,Tourism, Managers, Ethnic groups,International trade

Broadly categorises hotel managers. Uses

lessons learnt by managing hotels in the

Caribbean. Presents two recent models in the

context of the Caribbean. States that clear

awareness of the ABC related to the host

community is a key step in public relations.

Presents the ideal attributes and

prerequisites for success in international

hotel management in a nutshell. Categorises

Caribbean countries based on the ethnic mix

and historic reasons for negative attitude

towards tourism. Expresses views on key

challenges that expatriate hotel managers

face in the Caribbean. In conclusion, makes

brief recommendations to international hotel

managers planning to work in the Caribbean.

[ 137 ]

Abstracts & keywords


Editorial

I am delighted to welcome Associate Editor

Dr Chandana Jayawardena as Guest Editor

of this unique collection of articles on

Tourism and Hospitality Management in the

Caribbean. In keeping with our goals,

Chandi has assembled an outstanding team

of practitioners and academics and together

they provide a rich array of insights on the

challenges facing tourism in the region. I

should like to thank Chandi for the many

months of planning that he devoted to this

issue and the team of contributors who have

made it possible.

Richard Teare

Editor

This issue is dedicated to the Caribbean,

arguably the most tourism dependent region

in the world. The Caribbean is a fascinating

and unique region. An archipelago of tropical

islands naturally decorated with exotic flora

and fauna, surrounded by blue sea water and

gentle breezes, and blessed with 365 days of

sunshine is the general impression of the

region in the minds of many. This image

made the Caribbean the most sought after

region for romantic holidays and

honeymoons in the world. But the Caribbean

has much more to offer to the millions of

tourists and cruise passengers it attracts

(Jayawardena, 2002). For convenience, the

term Caribbean is used in this special issue

to identify 33 destinations that are members

of the umbrella organization of the regions

tourism industry, the Caribbean Tourism

Organization (CTO). In this definition, the

Caribbean region includes a few

countries/regions on the mainland in South

America and Central America. The area

between the south of Florida in the USA,

Cancun in Mexico, Belize in Central

America, Venezuela, and Suriname in South

America, is now referred to as the Caribbean.

although in the Atlantic Ocean, the Islands of

Bahamas and Bermuda too are treated as

Caribbean countries by the CTO.

Tourist arrivals to the 33 CTO member

states increased by approximately 59 per cent

from 1990 to 2000, or at an average of 4.7 per

cent. This compares favorably to 4.3 per cent

growth rate of world tourist arrivals over the

same period. Tourism receipts in the

Caribbean during the year 2000 were just

under US$20 billion, and the latest CTO

forecast predicts that this should rise to some

US$35 billion by the year 2112. The past,

present and future of Caribbean tourism in a

nutshell looks like that shown in Table I.

To external observers, the Caribbean is

always full of surprises. As an example,

many will be surprised to note that the four

Hispanic Caribbean states: Cuba, Dominican

Republic, Cancun and Puerto Rico record the

highest growth rates in the Caribbean, and

currently control around half of total arrivals

to the region. In 2000, only six Caribbean

countries attracted over one million tourists

and the arrival figures (in millions) in these

countries for 2000 were:

1 Cancun 3.04;

2 Dominican Republic 2.97;

3 Cuba 1.77;

4 Bahamas 1.60;

5 Jamaica 1.32; and

6 Puerto Rico 1.17 (CTO, 2002).

These six countries attracted 58 per cent of

the arrivals, reflecting something of an

imbalance in the distribution of tourism

wealth across the Caribbean.

Overdependence on one major market is

another problem in Caribbean tourism. With

the exception of a few countries, such as

Cuba, tourism in the Caribbean is

overdependent on the US feeder market. The

tourist arrival figures in the year 2000

indicate the six main feeder markets to the

Caribbean as:

1 USA 50 per cent;

2 France 8 per cent;

3 The Caribbean 7 per cent;

4 Canada 6 per cent;

5 UK 6 per cent; and

6 Germany 4 per cent.

The 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the

USA and the reactions by US travellers posed

the biggest challenge to Caribbean tourism

since the Second World War. At a regional

summit of the heads of government of the

Caribbean Community (CARICOM) held in

December 2001, the future of tourism was a

major item in the agenda. A vision for

Caribbean tourism to the year 2012 was

evolved at this summit. This vision speaks to:The further development of a Caribbean

tourism industry that is fully understood and

embraced by the peoples of the region and

which, through co-operative action among

governments and with the private sector,

makes a significant and sustainable

contribution to development in both mature

and emerging destinations (CARICOM/CTO,

2002).

[ 138 ]

About the Guest EditorChandana Jayawardena isAcademic Director MSc inTourism and HospitalityManagement, Senior Lecturerin Tourism Management andResearch Fellow of theUniversity of the West Indies,Jamaica. He has also heldVisiting Professorships inCanada, the USA, Guyana, theUK, Switzerland and SriLanka. Among Chandispublications and workaccepted for publication arenine books, ten book chaptersand 30 articles. In aninternational career spanning31 years, Chandi has held avariety of seniormanagement/senioracademic positions in Asia,Europe, the Middle East,South America, the Caribbeanand North America.


# MCB UP Limited[ISSN 0959-6119]

The vision is predicated on the development

of a set of core strategies related to

sustainable development, investment,

marketing and access transport

arrangements which in turn will be

complemented by a set of support strategies

regarding human resource development,

organization and funding.

In the 13 articles selected for this special

issue, 16 authors address some of the current

issues that are relevant and significant to the

future development of tourism and

hospitality industry in the Caribbean.

Donald Sinclair examines the challenges

facing indigenous tourism in the emerging

destination of the Guianas. He argues that

great care is needed to preserve its cultural

heritage one of the reasons for its

attractiveness to tourists. Ian Boxill develops

a similar theme as he reviews the tourism

potential for Belize. He argues for an

alternative to the mass tourism route,

founded on nature, education and

community tourism and an approach that

will help to sustain the history, culture and

ecology of Belize.

In order to research their article on Cubas

tourism education strategy, Patricia Wood

and Chandana Jayawardena undertook three

field visits and among others, they

interviewed senior Cuban policymakers. The

outcomes reveal some surprising insights on

Cubas strategy for tourism education,

notably its determination to

professionalize its industry, given the

rapidly growing number of tourism arrivals.

In the second of two articles dealing with

educational issues, Michelle McDonald and

Royston O. Hopkin consider the challenges

facing Grenada and the need to modernize

and expand the training and educational

support for tourism development.

In a study of three Caribbean destinations,

Anne P. Crick analyzes the provisions made

for the internal marketing of tourism to host

populations. The Caribbean is generally

known for the warmth and friendliness of its

people and yet attitudes to tourists vary

between locations and more could and should

be done to promote the benefits of tourism to

local Caribbean communities. John J. Issa,

chairman of Super Clubs and pioneer of the

all-inclusive Caribbean resort concept,

writing with Chandana Jayawardena,

reviews its past, present and future

significance. They conclude that all-inclusive

resort holidays will continue to play a

significant role in tourism development.

In the first of three Research in brief

articles, Eritha Huntley and Carol

Barnes-Reid examine the growing tension

between religion and work scheduling, with

reference to Jamaicas hospitality industry.

Chandana Jayawardena and Diaram

Ramajeesingh review the performance of

Caribbean tourism from an economic

perspective and among other findings, reveal

that Aruba strongly outperforms the more

mature tourism destination of Jamaica. To

conclude this section, Hilton McDavid and

Diaram Ramajeesingh consider the balance

between government and industry leadership

of tourism policy and present the case for

stronger industry representation.

This issue contains four Viewpoints and

the first, from Nikolaos Karagiannis,

considers ways in which the linkages with

tourism might be strengthened with the aim

of assisting Jamaicas economic

development. Anthony Clayton focuses on

sustainable tourism in the Caribbean and the

improvements needed in tourism policy

planning and implementation to maintain

this focus. Godfrey A. Pratt considers the

impact of terrorism on two Caribbean

destinations and the on-going work needed to

persuade tourists to travel and, finally,

Chandana Jayawardena and K. Michael

Haywood profile the skills needed to

successfully manage international hotels in

the Caribbean.

I sincerely hope that you will enjoy this

thought-provoking collection of articles from

the Caribbean.

Chandana JayawardenaGuest Editor

ReferencesCARICOM/CTO (2002), Report on Caribbean

Tourism Strategic Plan, Caribbean Tourism

Organisation, Barbados, pp. 4, 34.

CTO (2002), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report

2000-2001, Caribbean Tourism Organisation,

Barbados, pp. iv, v.

Jayawardena, C. (2002), Future challenges for

tourism in the Caribbean, Social and

Economic Studies, Vol. 51 No. l, pp. 1-23.

Table I

Year 1990 2000 2112

Tourist arrivals (in millions) 12.8 20.3 33Cruise passenger arrivals (in millions) 7.8 14.5 27Total arrivals (in millions) 20.6 34.8 60Room stock 152,000 252,000 342,000

[ 139 ]

Editorial


Developing indigenous tourism: challenges for theGuianas

Donald SinclairDivision of Caribbean and Tourism Studies, University of Guyana, Queenstown,Georgetown, Guyana

Introduction

The Guianas comprise three territories

Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana

on the north-eastern shoulder of the South

American continent. Although much

similarity in demographics, topography and

economic condition exists among these three

territories, the paper will focus primarily on

the development of indigenous tourism in

two of the Guianas, which are part of the

Caricom (Caribbean Community and

Common Market) grouping Guyana and

Suriname. French Guiana is still an overseas

department of France and does not, at the

moment, envision a Caribbean destiny.

In view of the political reality of the

Caricom status of Guyana and Suriname,

there are distinct merits in the discussion of

tourism development methodologies for

Guyana and Suriname within a Caricom

framework, especially with technical

assistance from the Caribbean Tourism

Organisation (CTO). The other imperative

which justifies (or certainly makes urgent) a

bi-lateral initiative on tourism development

for Guyana and Suriname is the growing

need to define fruitful and constructive areas

of cooperation to counterbalance and defuse

tensions issuing from unresolved territorial

questions between the two countries.

Cooperation in areas such as tourism

development and sustainable uses of the

environment will do much to strengthen

goodwill and enhance the sense of shared

destiny between both populations.

The appropriate tourism

Guyana and Suriname are both former

European colonies on the continent of South

America. Both countries possess vast,

sparsely inhabited interiors that are rich in

natural resources, and both are seeking

alternatives to the, now declining, extractive

industries that dominated their economies

for many decades. Both regard tourism as

bearing the potential to introduce handsome

economic rewards and both Guyana and

Suriname recognize the resources of their

interiors the diversity of flora, fauna and

ancient indigenous cultures as the base of

that development.

Although the form of tourism commonly

known as eco-tourism features as a priority

in tourism development in both Guyana and

Suriname, the main focus of this paper will

be on what may be regarded as a sub-set of

eco-tourism indigenous tourism. The flora

and fauna, rapids, waterfalls, which both

countries possess, are promoted as the

context for a unique experience of nature.

Regardless of the intense debates in tourism

circles in both countries regarding the

suitability or appropriateness of the eco

label, there is consensus on what should

comprise the essence of that unique

experience of nature that is the sought-after

prize of much modern travel.

Indigenous tourism forms part of that now

copiously referenced cluster of tourism

alternatives (Smith and Eadington, 1992).

Hinch and Butler (1996) define indigenous

tourism as:. . . tourism activity in which indigenous

people are directly involved either through

control and/or by having their culture serve

as the essence of the attraction.

Smith (1996) perceives indigenous tourism

as:. . . that segment of the visitor industry which

directly involves native peoples whose

ethnicity is a tourist attraction.

The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

[ 140 ]


# MCB UP Limited[ISSN 0959-6119][DOI 10.1108/09596110310470158]

KeywordsTourism, Comparative costs,

Cultural synergy, Innovation,

Guyana, Suriname

AbstractAs emergent tourism destinations,

the Guianas are new players in a

game in which rules have been

agreed, strategies defined and

competition has been intense.

New players succeed by

demonstrating creativity and

innovation and by seizing

comparative advantage. The

possession of unique natural

attractions, the presence of

indigenous communities or rare

cultural forms are all precious

resources commanding

comparative advantage for the

Guianas. However, because of the

special character of indigenous

tourism, development of that form

of tourism is not possible without

the articulation and

implementation of appropriate

policy measures. In the absence of

that policy infrastructure the

possibilities for error and conflict

are immense. This paper explores

the key challenges in the path of

the development of indigenous

tourism and suggests clear policy

guidelines that should inform the

development of indigenous

tourism in the pursuit of

comparative advantage.

Smiths definition immediately introduces a

complexity, one that has to be squarely and

comprehensively addressed by those

emergent tourism destinations anxious to

maximize earnings from the development of

indigenous tourism. Essentially, that

complexity revolves around the

operationalisation of ethnicity as a tourist

attraction without inducing behaviours and

postures that are demeaning on the part of

tourists.

Forte (1993) is very sensitive to this

possibility in her assertion that Amerindian

peoples in Guyana should not be the tourism

attraction per se, but that visits should offer

tourists an understanding and appreciation

of the lifestyles of the Amerindians. The

attraction in that sense would not be

Amerindians but Amerindian-ness.

Therein lies one of the key challenges for

indigenous tourism in the Guianas to

structure the indigenous tourism experience

in such a manner as to guarantee the greatest

integrity to the indigenous people and their

lifestyles, even as the demands of the tourists

are being satisfied.

The last two decades of the twentieth

century have witnessed a very sharp focus on

the interests and rights of indigenous

peoples. 1982 saw the constitution of the

Working Group on Indigenous Peoples. In

1992, 500 years after Columbus was

discovered by indigenous peoples, a chorus of

voices gave expression to the modern plight

of indigenous peoples. In 1993, designated as

the United Nations International Year of

Indigenous Peoples, the Declaration of

Indigenous Peoples Rights was drafted.

This ferment of deliberation and even

protest, centring on indigenous peoples, now

constitutes a formidable moral and

ideological backdrop against which any

national enterprise that is based on

indigenous peoples, their lands, cultures,

traditions and lifestyles will be judged. In

this first decade of the twenty-first century

there now exist not only indigenous

populations and advocates that are more

informed and militant, but also more

protocols, checks and safeguards governing

activity that impinges on the lives of

indigenous peoples.

It is in this supra-national context that the

development of indigenous tourism in

Guyana and Suriname will be occurring.

There are almost generic complexities and

challenges that attend this development. In

that circumstance, policies and protocols

that enjoy the commitment of all

stakeholders will be vital instruments in

guaranteeing development of a form of

tourism that will enhance the welfare of

indigenous peoples in Guyana and Suriname.

Comparative advantage

For emergent tourism destinations,

especially in the Caribbean, sun, sand and

sea tourism would hardly be a major source

of comparative advantage. The more mature

destinations in the Caribbean the Bahamas,

Jamaica, Antigua and Barbados have long

since refined that form of tourism and are

even now challenged to retain market share

(Holder, 1996). The reality of this market

challenge has impelled traditional

sun-sand-sea destinations in the Caribbean to

consider and propose alternative resources

and experiences to drive product

differentiation.

The growth of the now copiously

referenced alternative tourism market has

been characterised by a desire on the part of

travellers to enjoy experiences that are more

rounded than has been the traditional reward

of mass tourism. A growing segment of the

tourism market has shown an interest in

going beyond (sometimes well beyond) the

beach; in pursuing attractions and

experiences that are available only in the

deep interior recesses of distant lands. Those

countries that possess rare and abundant

biodiversity and can point to remote or

indigenous communities practising cultural

forms that are different from the dominant,

Westernised traditions are in a position to

exploit comparative advantage in the

tourism market.

Strong economic stimulus exists in

Guyana and Suriname for the exploitation of

comparative advantage in tourism. Both

countries have been experiencing declines in

foreign exchange earnings deriving from

traditional export commodities. In Guyana,

reduced earnings from sugar, rice and

bauxite have contributed to a precarious

balance of payments situation. In Suriname,

a similar scenario exists where declines in

earnings have led to an unfavourable balance

of payment equation, which has in turn led to

the precipitous depreciation in the value of

the local currency the Suriname guilder

against most major currencies.

The fact that both Guyana and Suriname

postponed the embrace of tourism for a

number of decades can possibly be explained

in two ways. First, both countries possessed a

significant stock of natural resources that

could be exploited for economic development.

Guyana embarked on export-led development

with sugar, rice, bauxite, timber and

minerals as the leading lights. For Suriname,

[ 141 ]

Donald SinclairDeveloping indigenoustourism: challenges for theGuianas


bauxite, gold and timber were the flagship

industries. Second, during more than four

decades of the dominance of traditional blue

waters Caribbean tourism both Guyana and

Suriname found themselves, for reasons

geographic, outside (or farther south of) this

blue waters sorority. The days of black

waters tourism would come later, when

tourism itself would move beyond the beach.

The product Suriname

What do Guyana and Suriname possess that

would be a key attraction to a growing

segment of the tourism market and would

serve as the basis of comparative advantage?

The focus of this paper will be on those

communities and cultural resources that are

being described as indigenous and that will

be cited as the resource for the development

of indigenous tourism.

Bush Negroes (or Maroons as referred to

by some sources) comprise 10 per cent of the

population of Suriname; Amerindians 3 per

cent. The lifestyles and cultural forms of both

peoples reflect, in varying degrees, their

strong ancestral base and corresponding

distance from and resistance to European

cultural influences. Although many

Surinamese of either Bush Negro or

Amerindian origin speak fluent Dutch the

official language as well as Sranantong the

most widely used vernacular the majority

speak their traditional ancestral language

and live in traditional communities. These

communities are usually in remote districts

and boast a complex form of social

organisation. The relative remoteness of

these communities reflects the historical

imperative to be independent of the reaches

of the plantation system.

Apart from language, the cultural

distinctness of these communities is

manifested in a number of other visible ways.

Dwelling in the communities is along

communal lines. In the Bush Negro

community of Santigron, for example,

thatched roof huts belonging to several

families are clustered together. Endogamy is

practised and is the traditional expectation.

Deviations from that norm do occur but are

frowned on, and considerable communal

pressure is visited on the deviants.

Religion is central to life in both

Amerindian and Bush Negro villages.

Visitors are often shown a public space,

regarded by the community with great

reverence because of its association with

ritual activity. Not all Bush Negro rituals are

accessible to tourists. Some are exclusive to

the practitioners themselves and often entail

communion with ancestors of the villagers.

Burial spaces, for example, are off-limits to

visitors to the Bush Negro village. The role of

the village chief, as chief officiant in these

rituals, is pivotal. The Chief (or Deputy Chief

if the latter is absent) is the resident

authority who settles disputes in the village,

advises on matters pertaining to the welfare

of the village, and sanctions or refuses visits

and tours to the community.

Indigenous tourism in Suriname therefore

involves visits and tours to the Bush Negro

and Amerindian communities. Bush Negro

communities tend to receive more visits than

Amerindian villages. That fact is by no

means a judgement upon the appeal or

authenticity of Amerindian cultural

practices; it is simply a statement of the more

advanced development and organised nature

of Bush Negro tourism in Suriname. Arinze

tours, Kumalu Island Adventure and Mena

Reizen are the foremost Bush Negro-managed

tour operations in Suriname.

The product Guyana

Guyana has no Bush Negro population, but

its indigenous or Amerindian population

comprises 7 per cent of the population and is

the third largest racial grouping. Writers

often draw attention to the difficult history of

Amerindians in Guyana. Fox and Danns

(1993) assert:Amerindians in Guyana have historically

existed under conditions of continuous

threat.

Amerindians have also been described as

being:. . . the poorest and most neglected stratum of

Guyanese society (Forte, 1995).

Rendall (1995) comments on their having:. . . suffered a long history of marginalisation,

both before and since independence.

The majority of Amerindians live a

traditional lifestyle in coastal or remote

interior districts, but (as in the case of the

Bush Negroes of Suriname) numbers of

Amerindian residents live and work in

coastal and urban areas, practising lifestyles

that are no different from those of the

urbanised Guyanese of any other race.

Traditional life for Amerindians in the

interior:. . . is a very laborious one, due to their

subsistence on the slash and burn (shifting)

cultivation of traditional crops, most

importantly, bitter cassava (manioc), corn,

yams, peanuts and sweet cassava,

supplemented by wild fruits when in season.

[ 142 ]



Hunting and fishing are still practised to

varying degrees with bows, firearms, fish

poisons and nets (Rendall, 1995).

Today, a more complex economy has placed

at the disposal of the Amerindian a wider

variety of pursuits and means of earning a

livelihood. Timber, balata and gold

production have lured many (especially

male) Amerindians into those economic

activities, thereby creating a more complex

picture of the Amerindian condition than the

traditional perspective suggests.

In summary, there exists in both Guyana

and Suriname communities of indigenous

peoples who practise lifestyles that are

strongly traditional and in many cases

bearing strong allegiance to ancestral

traditions. The lifestyles, cultural forms and

practices of these peoples have stimulated the

curiosity of visitors and tourism now

integral to the lives and economic well-being

of these communities.

In an article appearing in Time magazine

Foroohar (2002), discussing this new vogue in

travel, writes:A new kind of travel is in vogue now. Savvier

tourists are abandoning the mock-European

high-rises for more authentic experiences,

like horseback riding through the bush

(Foroohar, 2002).

The author continues:In many ways, this off-the-beaten path

vacation represents the future of global

tourism an industry on the verge of

tremendous growth and change (Foroohar,

2002).

The operation of tourism in these

communities presents a number of very

urgent challenges that require responses at

the level of policy intervention and regulation

if tourism is to succeed in a sustainable way,

safeguarding and enhancing the interests and

welfare of the visited, indigenous

communities. These challenges need first to

be understood, then faced and addressed

squarely, with the appropriate principles and

guidelines informing policy formulation and

implementation.

Challenges

The discussion of the challenges facing

indigenous tourism in some ways revisits an

earlier proposition advanced by Smith (1996).

Consciously departing from the four S

(sun/sand/sea/sex) structure of mass

tourism that is pervasive in tourism

literature, Smith offers a four H structure.

Smith (1996) asserts:

The tourism literature has adopted the four S

acronym to describe beach resort tourism, a

lifestyle often associated with charter mass

tourism, tropical cruises, and drifter

tourism. The four Hs habitat, heritage,

history and handicrafts similarly describe

the indigenous tourism phenomenon, as a

culture-bounded visitor experience which,

quite literally, is a micro-study of man-land

relationships.

Smiths (1996) perception of the indigenous

tourism phenomenon as culture-bounded is

accurate, and her identification of heritage,

history, habitat and handicraft lends support

(albeit with some overlap) to that perception.

However, Smiths perspective on history as

referring specifically to post-contact

relations between Aboriginal peoples and

Westerners who later occupied the lands and

established the present governments

(Smith, 1996) abbreviates the sweep of

indigenous history and limits its expression

in tourism. Conceiving of, and presenting,

indigenous history as post-contact history

locates indigenous tourism within the

time-frame of post-contact acculturation.

The first challenge for indigenous tourism

is therefore conceptual defining its

temporal parameters. That definition will

determine not only the concept of indigenous

history and tourism, but also the

construction of the indigenous tourist stage

what is selected for consumption and

what remains hidden and unacknowledged.

This challenge has strong implications for

cultural, particularly museum, policy. The

Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology in

Guyana, with artefacts dating way before

contact history, is inspired by (and

presents to the visitor) a much more

inclusive view of indigenous history.

Refining the product

If Foroohar (2002) is right in asserting that

off-the-beaten-track tourism represents a new

trend in travel, then indigenous tourism in

the two Guianas is being developed at an

auspicious time. If growing numbers of

travellers are in fact seeking more authentic

experiences, then the marketing of this brand

of tourism always a key challenge will

have been favoured. The next imperative will

be to refine the product (understood simply

as the integration of accommodations,

attractions and services) and commence

effective marketing.

Visiting communities that reside in remote

or deep-interior regions requires a

commitment on the part of a tour

[ 143 ]



establishment to compliance with the most

scrupulous and professional operational

standards. These apply across the spectrum

and include the following:. Safe, reliable, efficient and appropriate

modes of transportation the jet-boat may

roar its passengers swiftly through

narrow streams en route to the remote

community, but are there negative human

and environmental consequences created

by the huge swells of the jet-boat?. The quality of tour-guiding services at the

disposal of the visitor.. Standards in accommodation facilities

available for visitors.. Professional interpretation and

presentation of indigenous cultural forms

and traditions through the judicious

employment of knowledge-bearing

materials and artefacts.

Product integrity

Great care needs to be exercised in the

refinement and presentation of the

indigenous tourism product. Product

refinement and presentation that introduce

styles and modernisations that are

inappropriate to and incongruous with an

authentic indigenous tourism experience run

the risk of inducing suspicion in the minds of

the visitors that they may have been duped.

Worse, such presentations may be an affront

to the dignity of the community itself. A

debate has begun, for example, about the

eco-tourism casinos of the Philippines.

Also, the not uncommon practice in

Suriname where tour operators take into

indigenous communities boxed lunches

purchased in the city certainly limits

opportunity for the visitor to appreciate

indigenous cuisine.

On the other hand, product integrity is

maintained, for example, in the Bush Negro

community of Santigron in Northern

Suriname when visitors are put to sleep

communally in hammocks under one

thatched-roof hut, villager style. Satisfaction

of the quest for the authentic must be the

paramount imperative in the provision of an

experience of indigenous tourism. That

objective is sometimes more challenging

than it appears, and the process of adaptation

to tourism on the part of remote communities

is often a very complex undertaking that

sometimes results in the falsification of its

own cultural identity (Nunez, 1989) or the

dilution of local culture (Greenwood, 1989).

Alarms have also been sounded regarding

threats from a tourist monoculture around

the world (Pera and McLaren, 2002) as well

as from biopiracy that occurs under the cloak

of ecotourism where numerous:. . . scientists, students, tourists and

researchers enter into forests to collect

information about local plants and eco-

systems, stealing bio-diversity and, in some

cases attempting to patent life and the

stealing of knowledge developed over

centuries (Pera and McLaren, 2002).

Marketing

Appropriate and effective marketing is a vital

ingredient in the enterprise of indigenous

tourism in Guyana and Suriname, if it is to be

economically viable and produce rewards for

local communities. This is one area for direct

policy intervention. The tendency has been

noted in both countries for remote,

indigenous communities to be visited as the

add-on experience, while visitors are

already in the country. This practice may

derive from a number of factors, key among

those being the inadequacy of a marketing

policy that does not stress the tourism value

of that order of experience.

The marketing of indigenous tourism is a

matter of some delicacy and sensitivity. Over

a decade ago in Guyana, a prominent resort,

located in an Amerindian area, caused

considerable offence through the publication

of an advertisement inviting visitors to see

the exotic Amerindians. The furore

generated prompted the company to

withdraw the offending newspaper

advertisement. An important challenge in

marketing indigenous tourism as well as in

the definition of the product is to avoid the

suspicion that people are being commodified,

or presented as inanimate curios. The

marketing of indigenous tourism in

Guyana is sometimes made more thorny

by the hypersensitivities of some

indigenous advocates who sense and

scream exploitation at the mere sighting of

any icon or representation of anything even

remotely associated with the Amerindian

way of life.

Policy intervention is therefore

appropriate and necessary. Policy confers

legitimacy on the development and

marketing of indigenous tourism, defines the

parameters within which such activity

should occur, sanctions the use of

Amerindian icons and motifs in promotion

and pronounces on the behaviours and

practices that would be appropriate for both

the entrepreneur and the visitor. Policy

intervention must be understood as the

responsibility not only of the public sector

[ 144 ]



directorate (ministry or other agency

responsible for tourism administration), but

also of those private sector agencies and

corporate bodies that have direct

responsibility for the management of the

tourism operation.

Community involvement

The management of indigenous tourism on

the ground must be driven by the principle of

indigenous sovereignty over natural and

cultural resources that are the basis of the

tourism experience, and that principle

should under-gird all aspects of the tourism

operation. The community should be

involved in decisions concerning the

number, duration, frequency and schedules

of visits, locations to be visited, the payment

of visitor fees, the location of visitor

accommodations. Meaningful indigenous

involvement in every stage of the tourism

enterprise ensures the greater possibility

that the tourism enterprise would be on the

communitys terms and developed at a pace

and character endorsed by the villagers.

The seminal importance of this

prescription was made painfully clear to

some tourism consultants in Guyana, in 2001,

when they played a conciliatory role in what

was shaping up to be an ugly encounter

between residents of the Amerindian village

of Whyaka and the management of a nearby

resort. A complete breakdown in the

community/resort relationship had

occurred, leading to a considerable degree of

mutual antagonism and distrust.

Tourism enterprises not based on this

model of indigenous sovereignty can lay the

foundation for visitor behaviours that are

unacceptable and inappropriate, or for

tourism enterprises that may be perceived as

exploitative, even imperialistic (Nash,

1989).

Conclusion

Indigenous tourism, once recognised as a

basis for comparative advantage in Guyana

and Suriname, will require development that

is sensitive and enlightened if unfortunate

experiences are to be avoided. Piore (2002)

reports that the rush to develop alternative

forms of indigenous tourism sometimes

results in dislocation of indigenous peoples.

Unless there are clear policy prescriptions

that recognise, respect and safeguard

indigenous sovereignty over the resource

that is the basis of indigenous tourism, an

important infrastructure will be missing.

Indigenous sovereignty must take

precedence over any other imperative that

drives indigenous tourism operations.

If indigenous tourism development is

propelled by the logic of the market to the

exclusion of other holistic considerations,

conflict scenarios will result, similar to the

one that threatened to disturb the peace in

the village of Whyaka in Guyana.

Indigenous sovereignty must take

precedence over any other imperative that

drives the development of indigenous

tourism. In the absence of policy

prescriptions that ensure at least the

greatest possibility for such sovereignty, an

important infrastructure will be missing.

Ultimately, tourism will have contributed,

unwittingly and inadvertently, to the

perpetuation of the historical theme of

indigenous exploitation. A simple road map

for Guyana and Suriname to move forward

could be the following:. Joint Declaration by Guyana and

Suriname of the importance assigned to

the development of indigenous tourism

and of their commitment to cooperation

especially in the area of marketing.. Convening of a stakeholder consultation

in order to generate consensus on

precepts, operational guidelines and

protocols.. Design of or amendment to appropriate

policy document or drafting of

appropriate regulations to govern the

management of indigenous tourism

enterprises.. Strict enforcement of protocols

(through licensing and sanction

arrangements) governing forms of

indigenous tourism.

ReferencesForoohar, R. (2002), Getting off the beaten track,

Time, 22-29 July, pp. 34-8.

Forte, J. (1993), Amerindians and Tourism in

Guyana, ARU, University of Guyana,

Georgetown.

Forte, J. (1995), Amerindians and Poverty in

Guyana, background paper, ARU, University

of Guyana, Georgetown.

Fox, D. and Danns, G. (1993), The Indigenous

Condition in Guyana: A Field Report on the

Amerindians of Mabura, ARU, University of

Guyana, Georgetown.

Greenwood, D. (1989), Culture by the pound: an

anthropological perspective on tourism as

cultural commoditisation, in Smith, V. (Ed.),

Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of

Tourism, 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania,

Philadelphia, PA.

[ 145 ]



Hinch, T. and Butler, R. (1996), Indigenous

tourism: a common ground for discussion, in

Hinch, T. and Butler, R. (Eds), Tourism and

Indigenous Peoples, International Thomson

Business Press, London.

Holder, J. (1996), Maintaining competitiveness in

a new world order: regional solutions to

Caribbean tourism sustainability problems,

in Harrison, L. and Husbands, W. (Eds),

Practicing Responsible Tourism, Wiley, New

York, NY.

Nash, D. (1989), Tourism as a form of

imperialism in Smith, V. (Ed.), Hosts and

Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2nd ed.,

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,

PA.

Nunez, T. (1989), Touristic studies in

anthropological perspective, in Smith, V.

(Ed.), Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of

Tourism, 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania,

Philadelphia, PA.

Pera, L. and McLaren, D. (2002), Globalization,

Tourism and Indigenous Peoples: What You

Should Know about the Worlds Largest

Industry, available at: www.planeta.com/

ecotravel/resources/rtp/globalization.html

Piore, A. (2002), Trouble in Paradise, Time, 22-29

July, pp. 42-4.

Rendall, C. (1995), Tourism and indigenous

participation in Guyana, unpublished MA

dissertation, Roehampton Institute, London.

Smith, V. (Ed.) (1996), Hosts and Guests: The

Anthropology of Tourism, 2nd ed., University

of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.

Smith, V. and Eadington W.R. (1992), Tourism

Alternatives, Wiley, Chichester.

[ 146 ]



Towards an alternative tourism for Belize

Ian BoxillDepartment of Sociology, The University of the West Indies, Mona,Kingston, Jamaica

Tourism in the Caribbean andBelize

There is enough evidence to indicate that

tourism is the worlds largest industry and

that it makes a significant contribution to the

GDP of Caribbean countries (Jayawardena,

2002). Tourism is growing in its importance

to the Caribbean and Central American

nation of Belize. For the Caribbean, tourisms

contribution ranges between 5 per cent and

80 per cent. Estimates for Belize are about 20

per cent of GDP (Belize Travel and Tourism

Statistics, 2001).

While stay-over arrivals to Belize are not

as high as destinations such as Cancun, the

Dominican Republic, Barbados, Puerto Rico,

The Bahamas and Jamaica, Belize compares

favourably with countries such as Antigua

and the Cayman islands. However, Belize has

one of the lowest cruise ship arrivals in the

entire region (Belize Travel and Tourism

Statistics, 2001); although this years (2002)

arrivals have increased dramatically. Belize

is still a moderate to low density destination,

even though revenues earned from the

industry are relatively high (see Table I).

Still there has been growth in the industry.

Tourism has grown in its importance to the

Belize economy over the last ten years.

Between 1987 and 1999 stay-over tourist

arrivals to Belize grew by more than 200 per

cent, from 99,300 to 326,600 (Caribbean

Tourism Statistical Report 1999-2000).

During the past five years, arrivals by

cruise ships have grown significantly. Three

years of remarkable growth ended with a 17.2

per cent decrease in 2001 (Belize Travel and

Tourism Statistics, 2001). However, it should

be noted that this year (2002) has seen a

significant recovery from previous years

over 300 per cent increase over last year.

Even though the arrival numbers are

relatively small compared with the more

established destinations, the dramatic

increase in tourist arrivals for a country that

has recently started to market itself as a low

density/nature-based tourism destination

has resulted in some important social

impacts. These impacts are visible in larger

resort areas, such as San Pedro, and to a

lesser extent, in the smaller communities

such as Hopkins and Dangriga (Boxill and

Castillo, 2002).

There is much that can be learned about

how not to develop tourism from the

examples of countries throughout the

Caribbean. From Cancun to Jamaica to

Barbados, there are studies that show the

social and environmental impacts of

unmonitored mass tourism on the ecology

and the lives of the people (Patullo, 1996;

Maerk and Boxill, 2000; Periera et al., 2002).

Therefore, Belize should be careful about

the way in which it develops its tourism

industry. It should eschew the sudden

embrace of the traditional sea, sand and mass

cruise ship model that most countries of the

Caribbean are pursuing. Belize should place

greater emphasis on the quality of the visitor

rather than the quantity. It should also bring

more stakeholders into the process,

including the communities and educational

institutions. In other words, Belize should

adopt an alternative path to that pursued by

the majority of the major Caribbean

destinations.

Alternatives for Belize

Now, obviously, there are both limiting and

facilitating factors to any type of

development. These variables are not

necessarily inherent, but are contingent on a

broad philosophical orientation of

development.

The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

[ 147 ]


# MCB UP Limited[ISSN 0959-6119][DOI 10.1108/09596110310470167]

KeywordsDevelopment, Tourism, Culture,

Location, Education, Belize

AbstractThis paper argues that tourism

development in Belize should

avoid going the traditional mass

tourism route of most Caribbean

destinations. Instead, it suggests

that Belize is at the appropriate

stage in its development to forge

an alternative model, which draws

and builds on its geographical

location, history, culture and

ecology. In making this case, the

paper identifies a number of

limiting and facilitating factors to

tourism development. These

facilitating factors recommend the

alternative model. Specifically,

the alternative model includes

nature, education and community

tourism; and a type of cruise

tourism that is linked to education

and culture. For this effort to

succeed, the paper recommends

that government and civil society

work together to develop the

countrys human resources and to

structure a strategy to achieve the

goals.

This paper was originally akeynote address deliveredat a national symposium ontourism by the University ofBelize (UB) and the Ministryof Tourism in Belize City, 15November 2002.

Tourism development is simply one

dimension of a set of development policies

that may be pursued by a country. Belize

would be better off with a development

process, or a tourism development policy,

which respects peoples ways of life, engages

them in a way that is psychologically,

intellectually and economically beneficial;

and sustains ecological systems without

which we cannot hope to survive for very

long. Of course, this type of tourism should

ideally help to bring about economic

transformation and must be sustainable.

Given its stage of development and its assets,

Belize is the one country in the Caribbean

region that is best suited to undertake this

type of tourism development. What are the

reasons for this? In other words, what are the

facilitating factors? They are as follows:. Belize is a low density tourism

destination. Both the land to visitor

density and the tourism penetration ratios

are relatively low.. Belize is a country with an abundance of

natural beauty, and has an ecological

system that is the envy of most of the

Caribbean.. Belize is located strategically in Central

America but is also washed by the

Caribbean Sea and therefore enjoys the

best of both worlds. Proximity to the USA

may also be seen as an advantage.. Belize has a diverse culture which

incorporates the major cultures of the

Americas: indigenous (Maya, Garifuna),

African/Creole, European (Spanish and

English), Hispanic and Asian.

Nonetheless, one must be mindful of some

limiting factors. These include:. Competition from other destinations in

the region in the mass market; especially

now from the rise of Cuban tourism,

which is the fastest growing in the region.. Social and cultural conflicts, which are

likely to arise from significant growths in

arrivals particularly as it relates to mass

tourism.

. The relative softening of traditional

destinations of the USA and Europe, due

to rising local crime and the threat of

global terrorism.. Potential environmental problems

associated with all types of tourism,

especially mass and cruise tourism. Many

of these impacts have been detailed in the

studies of the Anglophone Caribbean and

Cancun.. The present and potential problem of

airlift due to the financial difficulties

associated with airline industry.

Belize should continue on a path of low to

moderate density tourism, with some minor

elements of sea and sand/mass variety where

possible. The country should adopt a well

planned, highly regulated tourism with a

strong focus on developing the cultural and

ecological gifts of the country. Belize should

try to differentiate itself from the pack by

focusing on high end tourism and by being

more adventurous and courageous. Thinking

out of the box is what we need at this

moment. But, what are some of the elements

of this alternative?

Elements of the alternative

Education and cultural tourismWith the imminence of the Free Trade Area

of the Americas (FTAA), there is a great deal

of potential for training in languages and

cultures across the region. As a member of

the Caribbean Community (CARICOM),

Belize should develop institutions to train

English speakers in Spanish and, Spanish

speakers in English. The University of Belize

(UB), along with the University of the West

Indies (UWI) could spearhead an initiative

aimed at the development of institutions to

train people in languages, both short-term

and long-term. These should be well run, well

marketed and well organized bodies which

will attract some of the brightest and the best

minds in the country.

Table IKey socio-cultural and socio-economic indicators for Barbados, The Bahamas and Jamaica andBelize (1999)

Indicator Barbados The Bahamas Jamaica Belize

Tourist arrivals per thousand of the population 1,936 5,205 484 1,344Rooms per thousand population 21 49 (1998) 9 16Visitor expenditure per capita (US dollars) 2,490 5,224 496 459Tourism penetration ratio 54 77 14 25a

Visitor expenditure as a percentage of GDP 32.20 32.87 (1998) 21.40 16.19

Note: aestimatedSource: Caribbean Tourism Organization Statistical Report 1999-2000 (2000)

[ 148 ]

Ian BoxillTowards an alternativetourism for Belize


The Cubans have been developing an

education tourism sector, with little

competition from other Caribbean

destinations (see Jayawardena, 2003,

forthcoming). In the case of Belize it should

be possible to link the established

educational institutions to those aimed at the

study of Creole languages in the Caribbean.

The target market should be Latin

Americans, Caribbean people and US and

European colleges and education

institutions. There are millions of Caribbean

people inside and outside of the Caribbean

who look for places to go on vacation, to

study and to explore every year. There is a

critical mass of Caribbean people with a

substantial amount of disposable income.

Relatedly, there is the possibility for the

development of a festival type tourism, which

draws on the culture of the country. The

Belize annual Garifuna festival on

19 November is an example of festival

tourism, but there are many others that can

draw on the history of all peoples in the

country. These festivals should be carefully

managed or they can backfire, leading to the

commercialization of sensitive aspects of

peoples cultures. There is the possibility to

link these festivals to the educational

institutions, thereby consolidating their

presence and preserving their authenticity.

The Mundo Maya project of Central

America is in this tradition, but it needs to

incorporate more aspects of the educational

type tourism, thus bringing in a different

segment of the tourism market.

Cruise tourismIn relation to cruise tourism, there are

questions about its long-term benefits to the

Caribbean as currently constituted. Cruise

tourism often results in a considerable

amount of environmental problems for the

income that is earned (Patullo, 1996; Periera

et al., 2002). Still it remains an option, that

may be pursued, but only if properly

managed. However, there is an alternative or

complement to the status quo of cruise

tourism.

This approach to tourism, which is based

on collaboration of regional countries rather

than competition among them, is well suited

for CARICOM, especially in light of the

FTAA. This new approach is based on a

paper presented by Ian Boxill to the

Caribbean Maritime Institute and the

University of the West Indies (UWI) in March

2002. The project, entitled the Caribbean

World (CW), is an attempt to build on the rich

cultural history of the region, using the sea

as a mode of transportation, to create a new

tourism industry in the region. More

specifically, the CW is an idea that draws on

the rich history and human resources of the

Caribbean region to integrate and further

enhance the development of the region by the

promotion of alternative education

opportunities, alternative tourism and

training. This can be accomplished by using

ships to sail around the region and calling at

ports according to the objectives of the

particular journey. The basic idea is to

develop a cruise ship experience that

involves people travelling throughout the

Caribbean and learning about the history

and culture of the Caribbean. These ships

should be owned and operated by

organizations in the region, in the interest of

the region. Four important aspects of our

history are critical here:

1 Amerindian settlement and history;

2 European colonization;

3 slavery; and

4 East Indian indentureship.

The specific objectives of this type of tourism

should include:. the development of a destination for

regional and international tourists

similar to the Mundo Maya project in

Central America;. to link the islands and landmasses of the

Caribbean through travel;. to generate revenue for the good of the

countries;. to provide an alternative educational

experience for regional and international

students; and. to foster closer regional cooperation and

integration.

Here is another way of picturing this

proposal. Imagine sailing to the Caribbean in

a ship with the comforts of a medium-size

cruise liner, manned by staff and students of

the Caribbean Maritime Institute, beginning

in Belize taking in Maya ruins then on to

Jamaica, stopping at Port Royal, then to Haiti

for two days to see the Citadel and then in

St Kitts to tour one of the regions greatest

military forts. On board are staff and

students of the hospitality programme of the

UWI and the UB, managing the cuisine and

provision of services that are second to none

offered in a five-star hotel. Or imagine being

on board a ship, with a group/class

comprising students from the UWI and other

institutions across the world. Students who

filter in and out of the large library on board;

students who would not only learn about the

Maroons of Jamaica or the Caribs of

Dominica, but also get a chance to interact

with them, and help in one of the many

excavations being run by the UWIs

archaeological department. On the way, they

[ 149 ]



will get a glimpse of the famous Bussa Statue

in Barbados and learn about his slave

rebellion.

Later they will stop at one of the famous

markets in St Vincent and take in a lecture

on the history of the steel pan in Trinidad

and Tobago, as part of an assignment in

cultural studies.

This is an option that could be spearheaded

by Belize. Belize could use its knowledge and

infrastructure from the Mundo Maya project

and lead this process. This type of tourism is

consistent with the low density, eco/heritage

tourism which the country is well known for.

Community tourismThen, of course, there is community tourism.

Here is where communities can gain greater

control and benefit from tourism by having

more cooperative ventures. The community

organizations need to play an integral role in

the development of properties and the

creation of regulations which protect the

communities from exploitation by foreign

investors. There is need for the training of

community members in management and

entrepreneurial skills. Government officials

need to provide incentives for locals to get

involved in the industry as owners of

properties rather than as suppliers of cheap

labour. Above all, there is the need for a

healthy respect for the way of life in

communities, in view of the changes that will

most certainly come with an expansion of

tourism. The only way this will happen is if

the community leaders take a proactive role

in the development of tourism in their

communities.

Conclusion

What is needed for this alternative to

succeed? To succeed, tourism planners in

Belize need vision, will and confidence.

Tourism is a serious business which requires

careful planning, evaluation and

administration. The model which I propose

means that governments would have to

invest seriously in education at all levels.

The UB and other educational institutions

should be at the centre of this type of tourism

development.

But, tourism should not be left up to

governments or investors; this is a mistake

that Caribbean societies are now realizing

(Hayle, 2000). Tourism cannot survive in an

environment of uncertainty, high crime, poor

management and local resentment. On the

other hand, people must be made to feel as

though they benefit from the industry (Hayle,

2000). Belize is at a stage of its development

where it can fashion a new tourism, and not

make the mistakes of the more mature

Caribbean destinations.

ReferencesBelize Travel and Tourism Statistics (2001), The

Belize Tourist Board, Belize City.

Boxill, I. (2000), Overcoming social problems in

the Jamaican tourism industry, in Maerk, J.

and Boxill, I. (Eds), Tourism in the Caribbean,

Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City.

Boxill, I. (2002), Caribbean world, paper

prepared for the University of the West Indies

and The Caribbean Maritime Institute.

Boxill, I. and Castillo, P. (2002), Socio-economic

impact of tourism in Dangriga and Hopkins,

Belize, in Periera, A., Boxill, I. and Maerk, J.

(Eds), Tourism, Development and Natural

Resources in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez,

Mexico City.

Caribbean Tourism Organization Statistical

Report 1999-2000 (2000), Caribbean Tourism

Organization, Barbados.

Hayle, C. (2000), Community tourism in

Jamaica, in Maerk, J. and Boxill, I. (Eds),

Tourism in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez,

Mexico City.

Jayawardena, C. (2002), Community

development and Caribbean tourism in

Periera, A., Boxill, I. and Maerk, J. (Eds),

Tourism, Development and Natural Resources

in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City.

Jayawardena, C. (2003), Cuba: crown princess of

Caribbean tourism, IDEAZ, Vol. 2 No. 1,

forthcoming.

Maerk, J. and Boxill, I. (Eds) (2000), Tourism in

the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City.

Patullo, P. (1996), Last Resorts, Cassell, London.

Periera, A., Boxill, I. and Maerk, J. (Eds) (2002),

Tourism, Development and Natural Resources

in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City.

[ 150 ]



Cuba: hero of the Caribbean? A profile of its tourismeducation strategy

Pat WoodInternational Hospitality Management, London Metropolitan University,London, UKChandana JayawardenaDepartment of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences,The University of the West Indies, Jamaica

Introduction

During the last decade, Cuba has recorded

phenomenal growth in tourism receipts. By

the mid-1990s Cuba ranked sixth in the

Caribbean tourism league. At the eve of the

last century, Cuba graduated to fourth

position, surpassing the Bahamas and

Jamaica. The new wave of success in Cuban

tourism has been the result of a well-planned,

optimistic development strategy. The current

tourism environment is summed up in the

words of Ibrahim Ferradaz Garcia (2002),

Minister of Tourism for Cuba:Cuba is an archipelago of great natural

attractions including more than 300 natural

beaches and a very pleasant climate

together with the peoples warm hospitality,

rich historic and cultural heritage.

The current situation of tourism in Cuba was

narrated at a recent conference in the USA

as:The people are warm, the sand is like silk, the

food is spicy and the drink is sweet. The sun

always shines and the music never stops. The

doors are opening and the walls are coming

down (Jayawardena et al., 2002a).

Cuba integrates a breadth and depth of

heritage, educational and cultural

experiences with its unique selling point

(USP) the element of mystique. Add to that

an extraordinary and rare eco environment,

a naturally hospitable well-educated people,

value for money, a safe destination and a

unique experience Cuba has it all. It is a

multifunctional destination with a strong

identity. The hotel stock is not always

sophisticated and the destination makes no

pretence at offering a perfect paradigm. The

strength of its offer now demands to be

underpinned by the development of the

hospitality and tourism education strategy in

[Guest Editor, Chandana Jayawardena.] Tourism and (BookFi.org)

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