Groups and Teamwork - NE-JUST

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Groups and TeamworkGroups and Teamwork

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OutlineOutline

•• Teams vs. Groups: WhatTeams vs. Groups: What’’s the Difference?s the Difference?

•• Why Have Teams Become So Popular?Why Have Teams Become So Popular?

•• Types of TeamsTypes of Teams

•• From Individual to Team MemberFrom Individual to Team Member

•• Stages of Group and Team DevelopmentStages of Group and Team Development

•• Creating Effective TeamsCreating Effective Teams

•• Teams and Workforce DiversityTeams and Workforce Diversity

•• Beware! Teams ArenBeware! Teams Aren’’t Always the Answert Always the Answer

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•• What are the stages of group development?What are the stages of group development?

•• What makes groups and teams work (or not work)?What makes groups and teams work (or not work)?

•• How do we build better groups and teams?How do we build better groups and teams?

Questions for Consideration

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GoalsGoals

•• ASAP, you/we want your groupsASAP, you/we want your groups

–– Functioning as a teamFunctioning as a team

–– Communicating wellCommunicating well

–– Making good decisionsMaking good decisions

–– Resolving conflicts that ariseResolving conflicts that arise

–– Most importantly, getting the job done!Most importantly, getting the job done!

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Teams vs. Groups: WhatTeams vs. Groups: What’’s the s the

Difference? Difference? •• GroupsGroups

–– Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent,

who have who have a stable relationship, a common goal, and perceive a stable relationship, a common goal, and perceive

themselves to be a groupthemselves to be a group

•• TeamsTeams

–– Groups that work closely together toward a common Groups that work closely together toward a common

objective, and are accountable to one anotherobjective, and are accountable to one another

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Four Types of TeamsFour Types of Teams

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Problem-solving Self-managed Cross-functional Virtual

Technology

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Types of TeamsTypes of Teams

•• ProblemProblem--Solving (ProcessSolving (Process--Improvement)Improvement)–– Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who

meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environmentquality, efficiency, and the work environment

•• Quality Circles: A work group of employees who meet regularly toQuality Circles: A work group of employees who meet regularly todiscuss their quality problems, investigate causes, recommend discuss their quality problems, investigate causes, recommend solutions and take corrective actions.solutions and take corrective actions.

•• SelfSelf--Managed (SelfManaged (Self--Directed)Directed)–– Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of

their former supervisorstheir former supervisors

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How a Typical Quality Circle How a Typical Quality Circle

OperatesOperates

Problemselection

Problemreview

Solutionsrecommended

Solutionsreviewed

Decision

Management

Circle team members

Management andcircle team members

Problemidentification

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Types of TeamsTypes of Teams

•• CrossCross--Functional TeamsFunctional Teams

–– Employees from about the same hierarchical level, Employees from about the same hierarchical level,

but from different work areas, who come together to but from different work areas, who come together to

accomplish a taskaccomplish a task

•• Virtual TeamsVirtual Teams

–– Use computer technology to tie together physically Use computer technology to tie together physically

dispersed members in order to achieve a common dispersed members in order to achieve a common

goalgoal

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RolesRoles

•• A role is a set of expected behavior patterns A role is a set of expected behavior patterns

associated with someone occupying a given associated with someone occupying a given

position in a social unit.position in a social unit.

–– Role Identity: Certain attitudes and behaviors Role Identity: Certain attitudes and behaviors

consistent with a roleconsistent with a role

–– Role Perception: An individualRole Perception: An individual’’s view of how he or s view of how he or

she is supposed to act in a given situationshe is supposed to act in a given situation

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RolesRoles

–– Role Expectations: How others believe a person Role Expectations: How others believe a person

should act in a given situationshould act in a given situation

•• Psychological Contract: Unwritten agreement that sets out Psychological Contract: Unwritten agreement that sets out

what management expects from the employee, and vice what management expects from the employee, and vice

versa.versa.

–– Role Conflict: A situation in which an individual is Role Conflict: A situation in which an individual is

confronted by divergent role expectationsconfronted by divergent role expectations

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NormsNorms

•• Acceptable standards of behavior within a group Acceptable standards of behavior within a group

that are shared by the groupthat are shared by the group’’s memberss members

These are the unspoken rulesThese are the unspoken rules

–– Is everyone always on time?Is everyone always on time?

–– Do people treat each other respectfully?Do people treat each other respectfully?

–– Are there some members of your group who are Are there some members of your group who are not adhering to these norms?not adhering to these norms?

–– If so, make expectations clear! If so, make expectations clear!

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What Norms CoverWhat Norms Cover

•• Performance Performance

–– How hard to work, what kind of quality, levels of tardinessHow hard to work, what kind of quality, levels of tardiness

•• AppearanceAppearance–– Personal dress, when to look busy, when to "goof off," how Personal dress, when to look busy, when to "goof off," how

to show loyaltyto show loyalty

•• Social arrangement Social arrangement

–– How team members interactHow team members interact

•• Allocation of resources Allocation of resources

–– Pay, assignments, allocation of tools and equipmentPay, assignments, allocation of tools and equipment

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How Norms DevelopHow Norms Develop

•• Explicit statements Explicit statements ((made by a group membermade by a group member——often the groupoften the group’’s supervisor or a s supervisor or a

powerful member. The group leader might, for instance, specificapowerful member. The group leader might, for instance, specifically say that no personal phone calls are lly say that no personal phone calls are

allowed during working hours or that coffee breaks must be no loallowed during working hours or that coffee breaks must be no longer than 10 minutes)nger than 10 minutes)

•• Critical events Critical events (A bystander is injured while standing too close to a machine an(A bystander is injured while standing too close to a machine and, from that d, from that

point on, members of the work group regularly monitor each otherpoint on, members of the work group regularly monitor each other to ensure that no one other than the to ensure that no one other than the

operator gets within two meters of any machine)operator gets within two meters of any machine)

•• Initial patterns of behavior Initial patterns of behavior (The first behavior pattern that emerges in a (The first behavior pattern that emerges in a

group frequently sets group expectations. Groups of students whogroup frequently sets group expectations. Groups of students who are friends often stake out seats near each are friends often stake out seats near each

other on the first day of class and become upset if an outsider other on the first day of class and become upset if an outsider takes takes ““theirtheir”” seats in a later class)seats in a later class)

•• CarryCarry--over behavior over behavior (Group members bring expectations with them from other (Group members bring expectations with them from other

groups of which they have been members. This can explain why worgroups of which they have been members. This can explain why work groups typically prefer to add new k groups typically prefer to add new

members who are similar to current ones in background and experimembers who are similar to current ones in background and experience. This is likely to increase the ence. This is likely to increase the

probability that the expectations they bring are consistent withprobability that the expectations they bring are consistent with those already held by the group)those already held by the group)

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Why Norms Are EnforcedWhy Norms Are Enforced

•• Facilitate group survivalFacilitate group survival

•• Make behavior predictableMake behavior predictable

•• Minimize embarrassmentMinimize embarrassment

•• Express central valuesExpress central values

•• Clarify the groupClarify the group’’s identitys identity

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ConformityConformity

•• Adjusting your behavior to align with the norms Adjusting your behavior to align with the norms

of the groupof the group

•• People conform to reference groupsPeople conform to reference groups

–– Important groups to which individuals belong or Important groups to which individuals belong or

hope to belonghope to belong

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Deviant Workplace BehaviorDeviant Workplace Behavior

•• Antisocial actions by organizational members Antisocial actions by organizational members

that intentionally violate established norms and that intentionally violate established norms and

that result in negative consequences for the that result in negative consequences for the

organization, its members, or both.organization, its members, or both.

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Constructive/Destructive BehaviorConstructive/Destructive Behavior

•• CooperatingCooperating

•• ClarifyingClarifying

•• InspiringInspiring

•• HarmonizingHarmonizing

•• Risk TakingRisk Taking

•• Process CheckingProcess Checking

•• DominatingDominating

•• RushingRushing

•• WithdrawingWithdrawing

•• DiscountingDiscounting

•• DigressingDigressing

•• BlockingBlocking

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Deviant Workplace BehaviorDeviant Workplace Behavior

CategoryCategory ExamplesExamples

ProductionProduction Leaving earlyLeaving early

Intentionally working slowlyIntentionally working slowly

Wasting resourcesWasting resources

PropertyProperty SabotageSabotage

Lying about hours workedLying about hours worked

Stealing from the organizationStealing from the organization

PoliticalPolitical Showing favoritismShowing favoritism

Gossiping and spreading rumorsGossiping and spreading rumors

Blaming coBlaming co--workersworkers

Personal Personal

aggressionaggressionSexual harassmentSexual harassment

Verbal abuseVerbal abuse

Stealing from coStealing from co--workersworkers

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StatusStatus

•• A socially defined position or rank given to A socially defined position or rank given to

groups or group members by othersgroups or group members by others

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Stages of Group DevelopmentStages of Group Development

Stage IForming

Prestage I Stage IIStorming

Stage IIINorming

Stage IVPerforming

Stage VAdjourning

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•• Stage I: FormingStage I: Forming

–– The first stage in group development, The first stage in group development, characterized by much uncertaintycharacterized by much uncertainty

•• Stage II: StormingStage II: Storming

–– The second stage in group development, The second stage in group development, characterized by characterized by intragroupintragroup conflictconflict

•• Stage III: NormingStage III: Norming

–– The third stage in group development, The third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and characterized by close relationships and cohesivenesscohesiveness

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•• Stage IV: PerformingStage IV: Performing

–– The fourth stage in group development, when the The fourth stage in group development, when the

group is fully functionalgroup is fully functional

•• Stage V: AdjourningStage V: Adjourning

–– The final stage in group development for temporary The final stage in group development for temporary

groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up

activities rather than task performanceactivities rather than task performance

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Putting the FivePutting the Five--Stage Model Stage Model

Into PerspectiveInto Perspective•• Groups do not necessarily progress clearly Groups do not necessarily progress clearly

through the stages one at a timethrough the stages one at a time

•• Groups can sometimes go back to an earlier Groups can sometimes go back to an earlier stagestage

•• Conflict can sometimes be helpful to the groupConflict can sometimes be helpful to the group

•• Context can matter: airline pilots can Context can matter: airline pilots can immediately reach performing stageimmediately reach performing stage

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The PunctuatedThe Punctuated--Equilibrium Equilibrium

ModelModel•• First phaseFirst phase

–– The first meeting sets the groupThe first meeting sets the group’’s direction.s direction.

–– The first phase of group activity is one of inertia.The first phase of group activity is one of inertia.

•• TransitionTransition

–– A transition takes place at the end of the first phase, which ocA transition takes place at the end of the first phase, which occurs curs exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time.exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time.

–– The transition initiates major changes.The transition initiates major changes.

•• Second phaseSecond phase

–– A second phase of inertia follows the transition.A second phase of inertia follows the transition.

•• Last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activityLast meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity

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ModelModel

Completion

Transition

FirstMeeting

Phase 1

Phase 2

(High)

(Low)

A (A+B)/2

Time

B

Perf

orm

an

ce

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Time

Group makes

plans

Group makes

changes

Final changes

madeTask completed

Period of Equilibrium Period of Change

Beginning of

Group discussionsHalfway to

deadline

Group

deadline

CRISIS point?


ModelModel

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A Model of Team EffectivenessA Model of Team Effectiveness

Team

effectiveness

Work design

• Autonomy• Skill variety• Task identity• Task significance

Process

• Common purpose• Specific goals• Team efficacy• Conflict• Social loafing

Composition

• Ability• Personality• Roles and diversity• Size• Flexibility• Preference for teamwork

Context

• Adequate resources• Leadership• Performance

evaluationand rewards

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AbilitiesAbilities

•• Teams need the following skills to perform Teams need the following skills to perform

effectivelyeffectively

–– Technical expertiseTechnical expertise

–– Interpersonal skillsInterpersonal skills

–– ProblemProblem--solving and decisionsolving and decision--making skillsmaking skills

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What about communication?What about communication?

•• Is your team communicating well?Is your team communicating well?

•• Do all members contribute equally in Do all members contribute equally in

discussions?discussions?

•• Are you aware of differences in communication Are you aware of differences in communication

based on based on personal stylepersonal style, , gendergender or or nationalitynationality??

CommunicationCommunication

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OutlineOutline

•• The Communication ProcessThe Communication Process

•• Barriers to Effective CommunicationBarriers to Effective Communication

•• Communication Flows in OrganizationsCommunication Flows in Organizations

•• Creating Effective Mechanisms for CommunicationCreating Effective Mechanisms for Communication

•• Current Issues in CommunicationCurrent Issues in Communication


•• How can we improve communication?How can we improve communication?

•• How does communication flow in organizations?How does communication flow in organizations?

•• Do men and women communicate differently?Do men and women communicate differently?


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•• People spend nearly 70 percent of their waking hours People spend nearly 70 percent of their waking hours communicatingcommunicating——writing, reading, speaking, listeningwriting, reading, speaking, listening

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Communication TermsCommunication Terms

•• CommunicationCommunication

–– The transfer of meaning among peopleThe transfer of meaning among people

•• Sender Sender

–– Establishes a message, encodes the message, and Establishes a message, encodes the message, and chooses the channel to send itchooses the channel to send it

•• Receiver Receiver

–– Decodes the message and provides feedback to the Decodes the message and provides feedback to the sender sender

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The Communication Process The Communication Process

ModelModel

Providesfeedback

Receiver

Chooses thechannel

Source

Decodes themessage

Chooses amessage

Encodes themessage

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Communication TermsCommunication Terms

•• MessageMessage

–– What is communicated.What is communicated.

•• EncodingEncoding

–– Converting a message to symbolic form.Converting a message to symbolic form.

•• ChannelChannel

–– The medium through which a message travels The medium through which a message travels

•• DecodingDecoding

–– Retranslating a senderRetranslating a sender’’s message.s message.

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Choosing ChannelsChoosing Channels

•• Channels differ in their capacity to convey Channels differ in their capacity to convey

information. information.

•• Rich channels have the ability to Rich channels have the ability to

–– Handle multiple cues simultaneouslyHandle multiple cues simultaneously

–– Facilitate rapid feedbackFacilitate rapid feedback

–– Be very personalBe very personal

Channelrichness

Type ofmessage

Informationmedium

Leanest

Richest Nonroutine,ambiguous

Routine,

clear

Face to facetalk

Telephone

Computer

Memos,letters

Flyers, bulletins

general reports

Hierarchy of Channel RichnessHierarchy of Channel Richness

Barriers to Effective Barriers to Effective


•• FilteringFiltering–– Refers to a sender manipulating information so Refers to a sender manipulating information so

that it will be seen more favorably by the that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver.receiver.

•• Selective PerceptionSelective Perception–– Receivers in the communication process Receivers in the communication process

selectively see and hear based on their needs, selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics.personal characteristics.

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Barriers to Effective Barriers to Effective


•• DefensivenessDefensiveness

–– When individuals interpret anotherWhen individuals interpret another’’s message as s message as

threatening, they often respond in ways that retard threatening, they often respond in ways that retard

effective communication.effective communication.

•• LanguageLanguage

–– Words mean different things to different people.Words mean different things to different people.

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Communication Flows in Communication Flows in

OrganizationsOrganizations•• DownwardDownward

–– Communication that flows from one level of a group to a Communication that flows from one level of a group to a lower levellower level

•• Managers to employeesManagers to employees

•• UpwardUpward

–– Communication that flows to a higher level of a groupCommunication that flows to a higher level of a group•• Employees to managerEmployees to manager

•• LateralLateral–– Communication among members of the same work group, or Communication among members of the same work group, or

individuals at the same levelindividuals at the same level

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NetworksNetworks

•• Connections by which information flowConnections by which information flow

–– FormalFormal

•• TaskTask--related communications that follow the authority related communications that follow the authority

chainchain

–– InformalInformal

•• Communications that flow along social and relational linesCommunications that flow along social and relational lines

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Networks and Their Networks and Their

EffectivenessEffectiveness

All-ChannelWheelChain

ModerateHighModerateModerate

SpeedAccuracy

Emergence of a leaderMember satisfaction

FastHighHighLow

FastModerateNoneHigh

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The GrapevineThe Grapevine

•• 75 percent of employees hear about matters first 75 percent of employees hear about matters first through rumors on the grapevinethrough rumors on the grapevine

•• Grapevine: the organizationGrapevine: the organization’’s informal networks informal network

•• Grapevine has three main characteristics Grapevine has three main characteristics

–– Not controlled by managementNot controlled by management

–– Most employees perceive it as being more believable and Most employees perceive it as being more believable and reliable than formal communiqureliable than formal communiquéés issued by top managements issued by top management

–– Largely used to serve the selfLargely used to serve the self--interests of those people within interests of those people within it it

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Purpose of RumorsPurpose of Rumors

•• To structure and reduce anxietyTo structure and reduce anxiety

•• To make sense of limited or fragmented To make sense of limited or fragmented

informationinformation

•• To serve as a vehicle to organize group To serve as a vehicle to organize group

members, and possibly outsiders, into coalitionsmembers, and possibly outsiders, into coalitions

•• To signal a senderTo signal a sender’’s status or powers status or power

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Reducing the Negative Reducing the Negative

Consequences of RumorsConsequences of Rumors

1. Announce timetables for making important decisions.1. Announce timetables for making important decisions.

2. Explain decisions and 2. Explain decisions and behavioursbehaviours that may appear that may appear inconsistent or secretive.inconsistent or secretive.

3. Emphasize the downside, as well as the upside, of 3. Emphasize the downside, as well as the upside, of current decisions and future plans.current decisions and future plans.

4. Openly discuss worst case possibilities; it is almost 4. Openly discuss worst case possibilities; it is almost never as anxiety provoking as the unspoken fantasy.never as anxiety provoking as the unspoken fantasy.

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Creating Effective Mechanisms Creating Effective Mechanisms

for Communicationfor Communication

•• MechanismsMechanisms

–– The practices that bring what you stand for to life The practices that bring what you stand for to life

and stimulate changeand stimulate change

•• They are intended to demonstrate how the They are intended to demonstrate how the

communication should be accomplishedcommunication should be accomplished

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Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal Communication

•• Messages conveyed through body movements, facial Messages conveyed through body movements, facial

expressions, and the physical distance between the expressions, and the physical distance between the

sender and the receiversender and the receiver

–– KinesicsKinesics

•• The study of body motions, such as gestures, facial configuratioThe study of body motions, such as gestures, facial configurations, ns,

and other movements of the bodyand other movements of the body

–– ProxemicsProxemics

•• The study of physical space in interpersonal relationshipsThe study of physical space in interpersonal relationships

Communication Barriers Between Communication Barriers Between

Men and WomenMen and Women

•• Men use talk to emphasize status, women use it Men use talk to emphasize status, women use it

to create connectionto create connection

•• Women and men tend to approach points of Women and men tend to approach points of

conflict differentlyconflict differently

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Communication Barriers Between Communication Barriers Between

Men and WomenMen and Women•• Men and women view directness and Men and women view directness and

indirectness differentlyindirectness differently

–– Women interpret male directness as an assertion of Women interpret male directness as an assertion of status and onestatus and one--upmanshipupmanship

–– Men interpret female indirectness as covert, sneaky, Men interpret female indirectness as covert, sneaky, and weakand weak

•• Men criticize women for apologizing, but Men criticize women for apologizing, but women say women say ““II’’m sorrym sorry”” to express empathyto express empathy

CrossCross--Cultural Communication Cultural Communication

DifficultiesDifficulties

•• Sources of barriersSources of barriers

–– Semantics Semantics

–– Word connotationsWord connotations

–– Tonal differencesTonal differences

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Culture ContextsCulture Contexts

•• Cultures differ in how much the context makes Cultures differ in how much the context makes

a difference in communicationa difference in communication

–– HighHigh--context cultures context cultures

•• Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle

situational cues in communication.situational cues in communication.

–– LowLow--context culturescontext cultures

•• Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in

communication communication

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HighHigh-- vs. Lowvs. Low--Context CulturesContext Cultures

High

context

Low

context

Chinese

Korean

Japanese

Vietnamese

Arab

Greek

Spanish

Italian

English

North American

Scandinavian

Swiss

German

CrossCross--Cultural Communications: Cultural Communications:

Helpful RulesHelpful Rules

•• Assume differences until similarity is proven.Assume differences until similarity is proven.

•• Emphasize description rather than interpretation Emphasize description rather than interpretation

or evaluation.or evaluation.

•• Practice empathy.Practice empathy.

•• Treat your interpretations as a working Treat your interpretations as a working

hypothesis.hypothesis.

Summary and Implications: Summary and Implications:


•• A common theme regarding the relationship between A common theme regarding the relationship between communication and employee satisfactioncommunication and employee satisfaction–– The less uncertainty, the greater the satisfactionThe less uncertainty, the greater the satisfaction

–– Distortions, ambiguities, and incongruities all increase uncertaDistortions, ambiguities, and incongruities all increase uncertaintyinty

•• Less distortion in communication equalsLess distortion in communication equals–– More goal attainment, and better feedbackMore goal attainment, and better feedback

–– Reduction in ambiguity and distortionReduction in ambiguity and distortion

•• Ambiguity between verbal and nonverbal communication Ambiguity between verbal and nonverbal communication increase uncertainty and reduce satisfactionincrease uncertainty and reduce satisfaction

•• The goal of perfect communication is unattainableThe goal of perfect communication is unattainable

•• The issue of communication is critical to motivationThe issue of communication is critical to motivation

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For Critical ThinkingFor Critical Thinking

1. 1. ““Ineffective communication is the fault of the Ineffective communication is the fault of the sender.sender.”” Do you agree or disagree? Discuss.Do you agree or disagree? Discuss.

2. What can you do to improve the likelihood 2. What can you do to improve the likelihood that your message will be received and that your message will be received and understood as you intended?understood as you intended?

3. 3. 4. Why do you think so many people are 4. Why do you think so many people are poor listeners? poor listeners?

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Communication QuestionsCommunication Questions

•• What types of difficulties have you experienced when What types of difficulties have you experienced when

communicating with someone from a different culture communicating with someone from a different culture

than yours?than yours?

•• How do you let the other person know you have heard How do you let the other person know you have heard

what they are saying? How often do you do this? what they are saying? How often do you do this?

•• Describe an example of communication breakdown. Describe an example of communication breakdown.

What led to the breakdown?What led to the breakdown?

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Personal Communication StylePersonal Communication Style

•• The NobleThe Noble

–– Direct, says whatDirect, says what’’s on his/her minds on his/her mind

•• The SocraticThe Socratic–– Discuss everything carefully; sometimes longDiscuss everything carefully; sometimes long--winded; detail winded; detail

orientedoriented

•• The ReflectiveThe Reflective

–– Great listener! Avoids conflictsGreat listener! Avoids conflicts

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•• The MagistrateThe Magistrate–– A mix of Noble & Socratic A mix of Noble & Socratic –– says whatsays what’’s on his/her mind but also argues s on his/her mind but also argues

forcefully (and in detail)forcefully (and in detail)

•• The CandidateThe Candidate–– A mix of Socratic & Reflective. Analytical and chatty, listens A mix of Socratic & Reflective. Analytical and chatty, listens wellwell

•• The SenatorThe Senator–– Moves back and forth between the Noble style and the Reflective Moves back and forth between the Noble style and the Reflective style but doesnstyle but doesn’’t t

mix the twomix the two

•• We all have the potential to use any of these styles but generalWe all have the potential to use any of these styles but generally one is most ly one is most comfortablecomfortable

•• Recognizing and responding to different styles can enhance commuRecognizing and responding to different styles can enhance communication!nication!

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•• Which are you?Which are you?

Assessing your personal communication styleAssessing your personal communication style

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Communication SuggestionsCommunication Suggestions

•• Use simple, clear languageUse simple, clear language

•• Avoid overload of information Avoid overload of information

•• Become an active, attentive listenerBecome an active, attentive listener

Remembering: being able to recall

the message being sent

Interpreting: Not reading anything into the message being sent

Understanding: Comprehending the message being sent

Evaluating: Not immediately passing

judgment on the message

Hearing: Paying careful attention

to what is being said

Responding: Replying to the sender,showing attentiveness

Effective Listening

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Effective ListeningEffective Listening

•• If you want to improve your listening skills, look to these If you want to improve your listening skills, look to these behaviors as guidesbehaviors as guides–– Make eye contact.Make eye contact.

–– Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressionsExhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions..

–– Avoid distracting actions or gestures.Avoid distracting actions or gestures.

–– Ask questions.Ask questions.

–– Paraphrase.Paraphrase.

–– Avoid interrupting the speaker.Avoid interrupting the speaker.

–– DonDon’’t over talk.t over talk.

–– Make smooth transitions between the roles of speaker and listeneMake smooth transitions between the roles of speaker and listener.r.

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What about decisions?What about decisions?

•• How does your team make decisions?How does your team make decisions?

•• Do you and your teammates typically agree on Do you and your teammates typically agree on

the best solution?the best solution?

•• Does one person always win out?Does one person always win out?

•• Does your team make better decisions than the Does your team make better decisions than the

individuals in it, or worse?individuals in it, or worse?

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Personal DecisionPersonal Decision--Making StylesMaking Styles

What is your decision making style?What is your decision making style?

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Analytical Model of DecisionAnalytical Model of Decision--MakingMaking

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DecisionDecision--Making SuggestionsMaking Suggestions

•• Promote open inquiryPromote open inquiry

–– DonDon’’t worry about t worry about ““rocking the boat.rocking the boat.”” Complete Complete

and open discussions lead to better solutionsand open discussions lead to better solutions

•• Use smaller groupsUse smaller groups

–– If two small groups come to the same answer as one If two small groups come to the same answer as one

large group, the decision is probably a good onelarge group, the decision is probably a good one

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DecisionDecision--Making SuggestionsMaking Suggestions

•• Admit shortcomingsAdmit shortcomings

–– No decision is perfect. Be honest about the pros No decision is perfect. Be honest about the pros

and cons of your solutionand cons of your solution

•• Hold secondHold second--chance meetingschance meetings

–– Give team members opportunities to express their Give team members opportunities to express their

doubtsdoubts

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Conflict and NegotiationConflict and Negotiation

OutlineOutline

•• Conflict DefinedConflict Defined

•• Sources of ConflictSources of Conflict

•• From Potential to Actual ConflictFrom Potential to Actual Conflict

•• Conflict Management and TeamsConflict Management and Teams

•• NegotiationNegotiation

•• Issues in NegotiationIssues in Negotiation

Conflict and NegotiationConflict and Negotiation

•• How do we manage conflict?How do we manage conflict?

•• When is conflict functional?When is conflict functional?

•• How do we negotiate?How do we negotiate?


ConflictConflict

•• A process that begins when one party perceives that A process that begins when one party perceives that

another party has negatively affected, or is about to another party has negatively affected, or is about to

negatively affect, something that the first party cares negatively affect, something that the first party cares

about.about.

–– FunctionalFunctional

•• Supports the goals of the group and improves its performanceSupports the goals of the group and improves its performance

–– DysfunctionalDysfunctional

•• Hinders group performanceHinders group performance

How Structure Can Lead to How Structure Can Lead to

ConflictConflict•• Stimulating conflictStimulating conflict

–– Size, specialization, and composition of the groupSize, specialization, and composition of the group

–– Too much reliance on participationToo much reliance on participation

–– Diversity of goals among groupsDiversity of goals among groups

–– Ambiguity in precisely defining where responsibility Ambiguity in precisely defining where responsibility for actions liesfor actions lies

–– Reward systems where one memberReward systems where one member’’s gain is at s gain is at anotheranother’’s expenses expense

∵∽

WorkingWith Others

WorkingAgainst Others

Pro-socialbehavior Competition

Anti-socialbehavior

Cooperation Conflict

∵∝

How Conflict BuildsHow Conflict Builds

• Functional:

increased

performance

• Dysfunctional:

decreased group

performance

Behavior

Outcomes

• Competing

• Collaborating

• Compromising

• Avoiding

• Accommodating

Conflict-handling Intentions

∵∵

Choosing a Conflict Management Choosing a Conflict Management

StyleStyle

In every situation we are responsible for our actions. In every situation we are responsible for our actions. Conflict situations offer each of us an opportunity to Conflict situations offer each of us an opportunity to choose a style for responding to the conflict. The key to choose a style for responding to the conflict. The key to effective conflict prevention and management is to effective conflict prevention and management is to choose the conflict management style appropriate for choose the conflict management style appropriate for the conflict. Most of us have a favorite style that we use the conflict. Most of us have a favorite style that we use in conflict situations, but we are all capable of choosing in conflict situations, but we are all capable of choosing a different style when it is appropriate.a different style when it is appropriate.

∵∫

Choosing a Conflict Management StyleChoosing a Conflict Management Style

Five main types of conflict management styles are Five main types of conflict management styles are

described below: Cooperative problemdescribed below: Cooperative problem--solving, solving,

competing, avoiding, accommodating and competing, avoiding, accommodating and

compromising. Animals are associated with each style compromising. Animals are associated with each style

to help you remember the differences among the styles. to help you remember the differences among the styles.

Remember that animals, like people, may have a Remember that animals, like people, may have a

favorite style, but they may also choose to adopt a new favorite style, but they may also choose to adopt a new

style in special situations.style in special situations.

∵∬

Cooperative Problem SolvingCooperative Problem Solving

Choosing a cooperative problemChoosing a cooperative problem--solving style solving style

enables people to work together so everyone can enables people to work together so everyone can

win. Using this style, people try to find a win. Using this style, people try to find a

solution that will help everyone meet their solution that will help everyone meet their

interests and help everyone maintain a good interests and help everyone maintain a good

relationship relationship

∫≡


•• It is highly assertive and highly cooperativeIt is highly assertive and highly cooperative

•• The goal is to find a The goal is to find a ““win/winwin/win”” solution.solution.

•• Appropriate uses for the collaborating style include integratingAppropriate uses for the collaborating style include integratingsolutions, learning, merging perspectives, gaining commitment, solutions, learning, merging perspectives, gaining commitment, and improving relationships. Using this style can support open and improving relationships. Using this style can support open discussion of issues, task proficiency, equal distribution of wodiscussion of issues, task proficiency, equal distribution of work rk amongst the team members, better brainstorming, and amongst the team members, better brainstorming, and development of creative problem solving. This style is development of creative problem solving. This style is appropriate to use frequently in a team environment. appropriate to use frequently in a team environment. Collaborating skills include the ability to use active or effectCollaborating skills include the ability to use active or effective ive listening, confront situations in a nonlistening, confront situations in a non--threatening way, analyze threatening way, analyze input, and identify underlying concerns. input, and identify underlying concerns.

∫≒


•• Overuse of the collaborating style can lead to spending Overuse of the collaborating style can lead to spending

too much time on trivial matters, diffusion of too much time on trivial matters, diffusion of

responsibility, being taken advantage of, and being responsibility, being taken advantage of, and being

overloaded with work.overloaded with work.

•• Under use can result in using quick fix solutions, lack of Under use can result in using quick fix solutions, lack of

commitment by other team members, commitment by other team members,

disempowerment, and loss of innovation. disempowerment, and loss of innovation.

∫≪


A dolphin usually chooses a cooperative A dolphin usually chooses a cooperative

problemproblem--solving style. Dolphins use whistles solving style. Dolphins use whistles

and clicks to communicate with each other to and clicks to communicate with each other to

catch food cooperatively and to ask for help. catch food cooperatively and to ask for help.

For example, when a dolphin is sick or For example, when a dolphin is sick or

injured, other dolphins will help it to the injured, other dolphins will help it to the

surface so it can breathe surface so it can breathe

∫≫


Although the dolphin usually chooses to be a Although the dolphin usually chooses to be a

cooperative problem solver, it can also choose other cooperative problem solver, it can also choose other

styles depending on the situation. For example, if a styles depending on the situation. For example, if a

dolphin has a baby and a shark is in the area, the dolphin has a baby and a shark is in the area, the

dolphin will choose to use a competitive style to deal dolphin will choose to use a competitive style to deal

with the shark. Continuing to use its favorite style of with the shark. Continuing to use its favorite style of

cooperation would greatly endanger the life of the cooperation would greatly endanger the life of the

baby dolphin baby dolphin

∫√

CompetingCompeting

Choosing a competitive style means that a Choosing a competitive style means that a

person is putting his/her interest before anyone person is putting his/her interest before anyone

else's interests. In fact, sometimes people who else's interests. In fact, sometimes people who

use the competitive style try so hard to get what use the competitive style try so hard to get what

they want that they ruin friendships they want that they ruin friendships

∫∽

CompetingCompeting

•• This style is highly assertive with minimal cooperativenessThis style is highly assertive with minimal cooperativeness

•• the goal is to winthe goal is to win

•• The competing style is used when a person has to take quick The competing style is used when a person has to take quick action, make unpopular decisions, handle vital issues, or when action, make unpopular decisions, handle vital issues, or when one needs protection in a situation where noncompetitive one needs protection in a situation where noncompetitive behavior can be exploited. To develop this style you must behavior can be exploited. To develop this style you must develop your ability to argue and debate, use your rank or develop your ability to argue and debate, use your rank or position, assert your opinions and feelings, and learn to state position, assert your opinions and feelings, and learn to state your position and stand your ground. your position and stand your ground.

∫∝

CompetingCompeting

•• Overuse of this style can lead to lack of feedback, reduced Overuse of this style can lead to lack of feedback, reduced learning, and low empowerment. This can result in being learning, and low empowerment. This can result in being surrounded by surrounded by ““YesYes--MenMen””. People who overuse the competing . People who overuse the competing style often use inflammatory statements due to a lack of style often use inflammatory statements due to a lack of interpersonal skills training. When overuse is taken to an extreinterpersonal skills training. When overuse is taken to an extreme me the person will create errors in the implementation of the task the person will create errors in the implementation of the task by by withholding needed information, talking behind another personwithholding needed information, talking behind another person’’s s back (or back (or ““backback--stabbingstabbing””), using eye motions and gestures ), using eye motions and gestures designed to express disapproval, and creating distractions by designed to express disapproval, and creating distractions by fiddling or interrupting. Overuse of this style can be exhibitedfiddling or interrupting. Overuse of this style can be exhibitedthrough constant tension or anger and occasional outbursts of through constant tension or anger and occasional outbursts of violent temper violent temper

∫∵

CompetingCompeting

•• Under use of the competing style leads to a lowered Under use of the competing style leads to a lowered

level of influence, indecisiveness, slow action, and level of influence, indecisiveness, slow action, and

pending contributions. When the competing style is pending contributions. When the competing style is

underused some emergent behaviors people exhibit underused some emergent behaviors people exhibit

include justifying the behaviors, demanding concessions include justifying the behaviors, demanding concessions

as a condition of working on the problem, threatening as a condition of working on the problem, threatening

separation as a way of making others give in, and separation as a way of making others give in, and

launching personal attacks launching personal attacks

∫∫

CompetingCompeting

A lion can be a symbol of a competitive style. The lion's A lion can be a symbol of a competitive style. The lion's

roar helps the lion to satisfy its interests. For example, roar helps the lion to satisfy its interests. For example,

if the lion's family is hungry and needs food, the lion if the lion's family is hungry and needs food, the lion

may use its strength and loud roar to get the food may use its strength and loud roar to get the food

because it is important for the family.because it is important for the family.

However, the lion can also choose to use a However, the lion can also choose to use a

compromising or accommodating style when playing or compromising or accommodating style when playing or

resting with a lion cub resting with a lion cub

∫∬

CompromisingCompromising

People choose a compromising style when it People choose a compromising style when it

is important for them to satisfy some of their is important for them to satisfy some of their

interests, but not all of them. People who interests, but not all of them. People who

compromise are likely to say "let's split the compromise are likely to say "let's split the

difference" or "something is better than difference" or "something is better than

nothing."nothing."

∬≡


•• This style is moderately assertive and moderately cooperativeThis style is moderately assertive and moderately cooperative

•• The goal is to find middle ground.The goal is to find middle ground.

•• The compromising style is used with issues of moderate The compromising style is used with issues of moderate importance, when both parties are equally powerful and importance, when both parties are equally powerful and equally committed to opposing views. This style produces equally committed to opposing views. This style produces temporary solutions and is appropriate when time is a temporary solutions and is appropriate when time is a concern, and as a back up for the competing and concern, and as a back up for the competing and collaborating styles when they are unsuccessful in resolving collaborating styles when they are unsuccessful in resolving the situation. Compromising skills include the ability to the situation. Compromising skills include the ability to communicate and keep the dialogue open, the ability to find communicate and keep the dialogue open, the ability to find an answer that is fair to both parties, the ability to give up an answer that is fair to both parties, the ability to give up part of what you want, and the ability to assign value to all part of what you want, and the ability to assign value to all aspects of the issue. aspects of the issue.

∬≒


•• Overuse of the compromising style leads to loss of Overuse of the compromising style leads to loss of

longlong--term goals, a lack of trust, creation of a cynical term goals, a lack of trust, creation of a cynical

environment, and being viewed as having no firm environment, and being viewed as having no firm

values. Overuse of compromise can result in making values. Overuse of compromise can result in making

concessions to keep people happy without resolving the concessions to keep people happy without resolving the

original conflict.original conflict.

•• Under use leads to unnecessary confrontations, Under use leads to unnecessary confrontations,

frequent power struggles, and ineffective negotiating frequent power struggles, and ineffective negotiating

∬≪


A zebra can be a symbol for the compromising style. A A zebra can be a symbol for the compromising style. A

zebra's unique look seems to indicate that it didn't care zebra's unique look seems to indicate that it didn't care

if it was a black horse or a white horse, so it "split the if it was a black horse or a white horse, so it "split the

difference" and chose black and white stripes.difference" and chose black and white stripes.

However, a zebra may not choose a compromising style However, a zebra may not choose a compromising style

for all things. A zebra may choose a cooperative or for all things. A zebra may choose a cooperative or

competitive style like the dolphin or lion depending on competitive style like the dolphin or lion depending on

the situationthe situation

∬≫

AvoidingAvoiding

People who chose the avoiding style do not get People who chose the avoiding style do not get

involved in a conflict. A person choosing the involved in a conflict. A person choosing the

avoiding style might say "you decide and leave avoiding style might say "you decide and leave

me out of it."me out of it."

A turtle is a symbol for the avoiding style A turtle is a symbol for the avoiding style

because it can avoid everything by pulling its because it can avoid everything by pulling its

head and legs into its shell to get away from head and legs into its shell to get away from

everyone. everyone.

∬√

AvoidingAvoiding

•• This style is low assertiveness and low cooperativenessThis style is low assertiveness and low cooperativeness

•• The goal is to delayThe goal is to delay

•• It is appropriate to use this style when there are issues of lowIt is appropriate to use this style when there are issues of lowimportance, to reduce tensions, or to buy time. Avoidance is alsimportance, to reduce tensions, or to buy time. Avoidance is also o appropriate when you are in a low power position and have littleappropriate when you are in a low power position and have littlecontrol over the situation, when you need to allow others to deacontrol over the situation, when you need to allow others to deal l with the conflict, or when the problem is symptomatic of a much with the conflict, or when the problem is symptomatic of a much larger issue and you need to work on the core issue. To develop larger issue and you need to work on the core issue. To develop skills in this style use foresight in knowing when to withdraw, skills in this style use foresight in knowing when to withdraw, learn to avoid loaded questions or sensitive areas by using learn to avoid loaded questions or sensitive areas by using diplomacy, become skillful at creating a sense of timing, and diplomacy, become skillful at creating a sense of timing, and practice leaving things unresolved practice leaving things unresolved

∬∽

AvoidingAvoiding•• Overuse of the avoidance style can result in a low level of Overuse of the avoidance style can result in a low level of

input, decisioninput, decision--making by default, and allowing issues to making by default, and allowing issues to fester, which can produce a breakdown in communication fester, which can produce a breakdown in communication between team members. This can inhibit brainstorming between team members. This can inhibit brainstorming sessions from being productive and can prevent the team sessions from being productive and can prevent the team from functioning. People who overuse avoidance feel they from functioning. People who overuse avoidance feel they cannot speak frankly without fear of repercussions. The cannot speak frankly without fear of repercussions. The overuse of conflict avoidance can often be a result of overuse of conflict avoidance can often be a result of childhood experiences, past workchildhood experiences, past work--related incidents, and related incidents, and negative experiences with conflict resolution. Behaviors negative experiences with conflict resolution. Behaviors associated with the overuse of avoidance include being silent, associated with the overuse of avoidance include being silent, sullen, and untruthful when asked if something is wrong sullen, and untruthful when asked if something is wrong being. A milder form of avoidance behavior is when the team being. A milder form of avoidance behavior is when the team member procrastinates about getting work done and member procrastinates about getting work done and deliberately takes an opposing point of view inappropriately deliberately takes an opposing point of view inappropriately during a decisionduring a decision--making situation, or is timid, withdrawn, or making situation, or is timid, withdrawn, or shy. shy.

∬∝

AvoidingAvoiding

Extreme behaviors can occur when avoidance is overused. A Extreme behaviors can occur when avoidance is overused. A person begins to be negative, critical and sarcastic. Other person begins to be negative, critical and sarcastic. Other extreme avoidance behaviors include becoming passive extreme avoidance behaviors include becoming passive aggressive by being late and not paying attention at meetingsaggressive by being late and not paying attention at meetings

Under use of the avoidance style results in hostility and hurt Under use of the avoidance style results in hostility and hurt feelings. In addition, work can become overwhelming because feelings. In addition, work can become overwhelming because too many issues are taken on at once, resulting in an inability too many issues are taken on at once, resulting in an inability to to prioritize and delegate. When avoidance is underused a team prioritize and delegate. When avoidance is underused a team member may deny that there is a problem and allow their hurt member may deny that there is a problem and allow their hurt feelings to prevent communication feelings to prevent communication

∬∵

AvoidingAvoiding

A turtle also chooses other styles at times. It A turtle also chooses other styles at times. It

does not always choose to stay in its shell, does not always choose to stay in its shell,

because it would miss out on everything from because it would miss out on everything from

eating to swimming.eating to swimming.

∬∫

AccommodatingAccommodating

People who choose an accommodating style put People who choose an accommodating style put

their interests last and let others have what they their interests last and let others have what they

want. Many times these people believe that want. Many times these people believe that

keeping a good friendship is more important keeping a good friendship is more important

than anything elsethan anything else

∬∬


This style is low assertiveness and high cooperativeness; This style is low assertiveness and high cooperativeness;

the goal is to yield. The accommodating style is the goal is to yield. The accommodating style is

appropriate to use in situations when you want to show appropriate to use in situations when you want to show

that you are reasonable, develop performance, create that you are reasonable, develop performance, create

good will, keep peace, retreat, or for issues of low good will, keep peace, retreat, or for issues of low

importance. Accommodating skills include the ability to importance. Accommodating skills include the ability to

sacrifice, the ability to be selfless, the ability to obey sacrifice, the ability to be selfless, the ability to obey

orders, and the ability to yield. orders, and the ability to yield.

≒≡≡


•• Overuse of the accommodating style results in ideas getting littOveruse of the accommodating style results in ideas getting little le attention, restricted influence, loss of contribution, and anarcattention, restricted influence, loss of contribution, and anarchy. hy. People who overuse the accommodating style exhibit a lack of People who overuse the accommodating style exhibit a lack of desire to change and usually demonstrate anxiety over future desire to change and usually demonstrate anxiety over future uncertainties. One of their main desires may be to keep uncertainties. One of their main desires may be to keep everything the same. When accommodating is overused certain everything the same. When accommodating is overused certain behaviors emerge. Some of these emergent behaviors include behaviors emerge. Some of these emergent behaviors include giving up personal space, making "me" or other victim giving up personal space, making "me" or other victim statements, being overly helpful and then holding a grudge, and statements, being overly helpful and then holding a grudge, and speaking in an extremely quiet almost unintelligible voice. Undespeaking in an extremely quiet almost unintelligible voice. Under r use of the accommodating style can result in lack of rapport, louse of the accommodating style can result in lack of rapport, low w morale, and an inability to yield morale, and an inability to yield

≒≡≒


•• When the accommodating style is underused a When the accommodating style is underused a

person may display apathy as a way of not person may display apathy as a way of not

addressing the anger or hurt, and make addressing the anger or hurt, and make

statements full of innuendo and double statements full of innuendo and double

meanings meanings

≒≡≪


A chameleon is a symbol of the accommodating style A chameleon is a symbol of the accommodating style

because it changes its color to match the color of its because it changes its color to match the color of its

environment. By changing its color to accommodate its environment. By changing its color to accommodate its

surroundings, the chameleon fits quietly into its surroundings, the chameleon fits quietly into its

environment Although the chameleon may always environment Although the chameleon may always

change its color to accommodate its surroundings, it change its color to accommodate its surroundings, it

may choose other styles when it is hunting for food, may choose other styles when it is hunting for food,

taking care of its young, or hiding from enemies taking care of its young, or hiding from enemies

≒≡≫


Although the chameleon may always change its Although the chameleon may always change its

color to accommodate its surroundings, it may color to accommodate its surroundings, it may

choose other styles when it is hunting for food, choose other styles when it is hunting for food,

taking care of its young, or hiding from enemies taking care of its young, or hiding from enemies

≒≡√

Specific IntentionsSpecific Intentions

•• CompetingCompeting•• A desire to satisfy oneA desire to satisfy one’’s interests, regardless of the impact on the other s interests, regardless of the impact on the other

parties.parties.

•• CollaboratingCollaborating•• A situation where the parties to a conflict each desire to satisA situation where the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the fy fully the

concerns of all partiesconcerns of all parties

•• AvoidingAvoiding•• The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict.The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict.

•• AccommodatingAccommodating•• The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponentThe willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponent’’s interests s interests

above his or her ownabove his or her own

•• CompromisingCompromising•• A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to giveA situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up somethingup something

ConflictConflict--Handling IntentionsHandling Intentions

•• Two DimensionsTwo Dimensions–– CooperativenessCooperativeness

•• The degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other partThe degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other partyy’’s s

concernsconcerns

–– AssertivenessAssertiveness

•• The degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her ownThe degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own

concernsconcerns

Dimensions of ConflictDimensions of Conflict--Handling Handling

IntentionsIntentions

Cooperativeness

Compromising

Uncooperative

Avoiding

Competing

Cooperative

Accommodating

Collaborating

As

se

rtiv

en

es

s

Un

as

se

rtiv

eA

ss

ert

ive

≒≡∵

Conflict Resolution StylesConflict Resolution Styles

Competition Collaboration

Avoidance Accommodation

Compromise

High concern with own outcomes

Low concern with own outcomes

High concern with others’ outcomesLow concern with others’ outcomes

Conflict Intensity ContinuumConflict Intensity Continuum

Annihilatory

conflict

No

conflict

Overt efforts to destroy

the other party

Aggressive physical attacks

Threats and ultimatums

Assertive verbal attacks

Overt questioning or

challenging of others

Minor disagreements or

misunderstandings

≒≡∬

Types of ConflictTypes of Conflict

•• CognitiveCognitive

–– Conflict related to differences in perspectives and judgmentsConflict related to differences in perspectives and judgments

•• TaskTask--orientedoriented

•• Results in identifying differencesResults in identifying differences

•• Usually functional conflictUsually functional conflict

•• AffectiveAffective

–– Emotional conflict aimed at a person rather than an issueEmotional conflict aimed at a person rather than an issue

•• Dysfunctional conflictDysfunctional conflict

Reducing Group ConflictReducing Group Conflict

•• Team members reduced conflict using the following Team members reduced conflict using the following tactics:tactics:

–– Worked with more, rather than less, information Worked with more, rather than less, information

–– Debated on the basis of factsDebated on the basis of facts

–– Developed multiple alternatives to enrich the level of debateDeveloped multiple alternatives to enrich the level of debate

–– Shared commonly agreedShared commonly agreed--upon goalsupon goals

–– Injected humor into the decision processInjected humor into the decision process

–– Maintained a balanced power structureMaintained a balanced power structure

–– Resolved issues without forcing consensusResolved issues without forcing consensus

NegotiationNegotiation

•• A process in which two or more parties exchange A process in which two or more parties exchange

goods or services and attempt to agree upon the goods or services and attempt to agree upon the

exchange rate for themexchange rate for them

–– Distributive bargainingDistributive bargaining

•• Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources;Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a a

winwin--lose situationlose situation

–– Integrative bargainingIntegrative bargaining

•• Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create aNegotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a winwin--

win solutionwin solution

Bargaining Distributive Integrative

Characteristic Bargaining Bargaining

Available resources

Primary motivations

Primary interests

Focus of relationships

Fixed amount of

resources to be divided

I win, you lose

Opposed to each other

Short term

Variable amount of resources to

be divided

I win, you win

Convergent or congruent with

each other

Long term

Distributive versus Distributive versus

Integrative BargainingIntegrative Bargaining

≒≒≫

How to NegotiateHow to Negotiate

•• Assess personal goals, consider otherAssess personal goals, consider other’’s goals, s goals,

develop strategydevelop strategy

•• Identify target and resistance pointsIdentify target and resistance points

–– Target: what one would like to achieveTarget: what one would like to achieve

–– Resistance: lowest outcome acceptableResistance: lowest outcome acceptable

•• Identify BATNAIdentify BATNA

–– BBest est AAlternative lternative TTo a o a NNegotiated egotiated AAgreementgreement

Staking Out the Bargaining ZoneStaking Out the Bargaining Zone

Party A’s aspiration rangeParty B’s aspiration range

Settlement

range

Party A’s

target

point

Party B’s

resistance

point

Party A’s

resistance

point

Party B’s

target

point

Issues in NegotiationIssues in Negotiation

•• Gender DifferencesGender Differences

•• CrossCross--Cultural DifferencesCultural Differences

•• ThirdThird--Party NegotiationsParty Negotiations

Gender DifferencesGender Differences

•• Women Women –– More inclined to be concerned with feelings and perceptions, More inclined to be concerned with feelings and perceptions,

and take a longerand take a longer--term viewterm view

–– View the bargaining session as part of an overall relationshipView the bargaining session as part of an overall relationship

–– Tend to want all parties in the negotiation to be empoweredTend to want all parties in the negotiation to be empowered

–– Use dialogue to achieve understandingUse dialogue to achieve understanding

•• Men Men

–– View the bargaining session as a separate eventView the bargaining session as a separate event

–– Use dialogue to persuadeUse dialogue to persuade

≒≒∵

CrossCross--Cultural NegotiationCultural Negotiation

•• Negotiating styles vary across national cultureNegotiating styles vary across national culture

–– French: like conflictFrench: like conflict

–– Chinese: draw out negotiations, believing they never Chinese: draw out negotiations, believing they never

endend

–– Chinese and Japanese: negotiate to develop Chinese and Japanese: negotiate to develop

relationships and commitmentrelationships and commitment

–– Americans: impatient, desire to be likedAmericans: impatient, desire to be liked

Third Party Roles in NegotiationsThird Party Roles in Negotiations

•• ConciliatorConciliator

•• MediatorMediator

•• ArbitratorArbitrator

ConciliatorConciliator

•• Trusted third party who provides an informal Trusted third party who provides an informal

communication link between the negotiator and communication link between the negotiator and

the opponent the opponent

–– Informal linkInformal link

–– Used extensively in international, labor, family and Used extensively in international, labor, family and

community disputescommunity disputes

–– FactFact--find, interpret messages, persuade disputants to find, interpret messages, persuade disputants to

develop agreementsdevelop agreements

MediatorMediator

•• A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives suggestions for alternatives

–– LaborLabor--management negotiations and civil court disputesmanagement negotiations and civil court disputes

–– Settlement rate is about 60%; satisfaction rate is about 75%Settlement rate is about 60%; satisfaction rate is about 75%

–– Participants must be motivated to bargain and settleParticipants must be motivated to bargain and settle

–– Best under moderate levels of conflictBest under moderate levels of conflict

–– Mediator must appear neutral and nonMediator must appear neutral and non--coercivecoercive

ArbitratorArbitrator

•• Has authority to dictate an agreementHas authority to dictate an agreement

–– Voluntary (requested) or compulsory (imposed by Voluntary (requested) or compulsory (imposed by

law or contract)law or contract)

–– Always results in a settlementAlways results in a settlement

–– May result in further conflictMay result in further conflict

Summary and ImplicationsSummary and Implications

•• Conflict can be either constructive or destructive to Conflict can be either constructive or destructive to

the functioning of a group.the functioning of a group.

•• An optimal level of conflict:An optimal level of conflict:–– Prevents stagnationPrevents stagnation

–– Stimulates creativityStimulates creativity

–– Releases tensionReleases tension

–– And initiates the seeds for changeAnd initiates the seeds for change

•• Inadequate or excessive levels of conflict can hinder Inadequate or excessive levels of conflict can hinder

group effectiveness.group effectiveness.

≒≪≫


•• DonDon’’t assume there's one conflictt assume there's one conflict--handling intention handling intention that is always best.that is always best.–– Use competition when quick, decisive action is vitalUse competition when quick, decisive action is vital

–– Use collaboration to find an integrative solutionUse collaboration to find an integrative solution

–– Use avoidance when an issue is trivialUse avoidance when an issue is trivial

–– Use accommodation when you find youUse accommodation when you find you’’re wrongre wrong

–– Use compromise when goals are importantUse compromise when goals are important

•• Negotiation is an ongoing activity in groupsNegotiation is an ongoing activity in groups

•• IntergroupIntergroup conflicts can also affect an organizationconflicts can also affect an organization’’s s performance.performance.

≒≪√


1. Do you think competition and conflict are different? 1. Do you think competition and conflict are different? Explain.Explain.

2. 2. ““Participation is an excellent method for identifying Participation is an excellent method for identifying differences and resolving conflicts.differences and resolving conflicts.”” Do you agree or Do you agree or disagree? Discuss.disagree? Discuss.

3. Assume one of your co3. Assume one of your co--workers had to negotiate a workers had to negotiate a contract with someone from China. What problems contract with someone from China. What problems might he or she face? If the comight he or she face? If the co--worker asked for advice, worker asked for advice, what suggestions would you give to help facilitate a what suggestions would you give to help facilitate a settlement?settlement?

≒≪∽


4. From your own experience, describe a situation 4. From your own experience, describe a situation you were involved in where the conflict was you were involved in where the conflict was dysfunctional. Describe another example, from dysfunctional. Describe another example, from your experience, where the conflict was your experience, where the conflict was functional. Now analyze how other parties in functional. Now analyze how other parties in both conflicts might have interpreted the both conflicts might have interpreted the situation in terms of whether the conflicts were situation in terms of whether the conflicts were functional or dysfunctional.functional or dysfunctional.

Point Counter PointPoint Counter Point

•• Conflict Is Good for Conflict Is Good for

the Organizationthe Organizationªª Conflict is a means by which to Conflict is a means by which to

bring about radical changebring about radical change

ªª Conflict facilitates group Conflict facilitates group

cohesiveness cohesiveness

ªª Conflict improves group and Conflict improves group and

organizational effectiveness organizational effectiveness

ªª Conflict brings about a slightly Conflict brings about a slightly

higher, more constructive level of higher, more constructive level of

tension tension

•• All Conflicts Are All Conflicts Are

Dysfunctional!Dysfunctional!ªª The negative consequences from The negative consequences from

conflict can be devastating conflict can be devastating

ªª Effective managers build Effective managers build

teamwork not conflictteamwork not conflict

ªª Competition is good for an Competition is good for an

organization, but not conflict organization, but not conflict

ªª Managers who accept and Managers who accept and

stimulate conflict donstimulate conflict don’’t survive in t survive in

organizations organizations

≒≪∵

Concepts to Skills: Improving Concepts to Skills: Improving

Your Bargaining PositionYour Bargaining Position

•• Begin with a positive proposalBegin with a positive proposal

•• Address problems, not personalitiesAddress problems, not personalities

•• Pay little attention to initial offersPay little attention to initial offers

•• Emphasize winEmphasize win--win solutionswin solutions

•• Create an open and trusting climateCreate an open and trusting climate

≒≪∫

Personal styles of conflict managementPersonal styles of conflict management

≒≪∬

Benefits of ConflictBenefits of Conflict

•• Brings problems into the openBrings problems into the open

•• Motivates better understanding of othersMotivates better understanding of others

•• Encourages new ideas, innovation, changeEncourages new ideas, innovation, change

•• May improve decisionMay improve decision--making by challenging making by challenging assumptionsassumptions

•• Enhances commitment to the teamEnhances commitment to the team

≒≫≡

Negative Effects of ConflictNegative Effects of Conflict

•• May cause stress, bad feelingMay cause stress, bad feeling

•• Reduces communicationReduces communication

•• Reduces participationReduces participation

•• Leads to Leads to ““taking sidestaking sides””

≒≫≒

Suggestions for Resolving ConflictSuggestions for Resolving Conflict

•• Listen effectively to othersListen effectively to others

•• Move toward compromiseMove toward compromise

–– Balance your own concerns with othersBalance your own concerns with others’’

•• Deal with the source of the conflictDeal with the source of the conflict

–– Challenge assumptionsChallenge assumptions

–– Innovate (find the Innovate (find the ““third waythird way””))

•• Seek an arbitrator or mediatorSeek an arbitrator or mediator

≒≫≪

DiscussionDiscussion

•• What are What are mymy goals for this assignment?goals for this assignment?

•• What can I learn from my teammates?What can I learn from my teammates?

•• What do I have to offer my teammates?What do I have to offer my teammates?

•• What are my personal work styles?What are my personal work styles?

–– How do I learn: doing or reading?How do I learn: doing or reading?

–– How do I communicate: directly or indirectly?How do I communicate: directly or indirectly?

≒≫≫

Roles in GroupsRoles in Groups

•• TaskTask--oriented rolesoriented roles

–– Roles performed by group members to ensure that Roles performed by group members to ensure that the tasks of the group are accomplishedthe tasks of the group are accomplished

•• Maintenance rolesMaintenance roles

–– Roles performed by group members to maintain Roles performed by group members to maintain good relations within the groupgood relations within the group

•• Individual rolesIndividual roles

–– Roles performed by group members that are not Roles performed by group members that are not productive for keeping the group on taskproductive for keeping the group on task

≒≫√

Roles in GroupsRoles in Groups

≒≫∽

Roles That Build Task Roles That Build Task

AccomplishmentAccomplishment

Initiating Stating the goal or problem, making proposals about how to work on it, setting time limits

Seeking information and opinions

Asking group members for specific factual information related to the task or problem

Providing information and opinions

Sharing information or opinions related to the task or problems

Clarifying Helping one another understand ideas and suggestions that come up in the group

Elaborating Building on one another’s ideas and suggestions

Summarizing Reviewing the points covered by the group and the different ideas stated so that decisions can be based on full information

Consensus Testing Periodic testing about whether the group is nearing a decision or needs to continue discussion

≒≫∝

Roles That Build and Maintain a Roles That Build and Maintain a

TeamTeam

Harmonizing Mediating conflict among other members, reconciling disagreements, relieving tensions

Compromising Admitting error at times of group conflict

Gatekeeping Making sure all members have a chance to express their ideas and feelings and preventing members from being interrupted

Encouraging Helping a group member make his or her point. Establishing a climate of acceptance in the group

≒≫∵

Group SizeGroup Size

•• Research EvidenceResearch Evidence

–– Smaller groups faster at completing tasksSmaller groups faster at completing tasks

–– When problem solving, larger groups do betterWhen problem solving, larger groups do better

≒≫∫

CohesivenessCohesiveness

•• Degree to which group members are attracted to Degree to which group members are attracted to

each other and are motivated to stay in the each other and are motivated to stay in the

groupgroup

≒≫∬

Relationship Between Group Relationship Between Group

Cohesiveness, Performance Norms, and Cohesiveness, Performance Norms, and

ProductivityProductivity

Cohesiveness

Low

High

Perf

orm

an

ce N

orm

s

High

productivity

Moderate

productivity

Low

productivity

Moderate to

low productivity

Groups that adhere to norms are more cohesive and, often, more productive

≒√≡

Advantages and Disadvantages of Advantages and Disadvantages of

DiversityDiversity

AdvantagesAdvantages

•• Multiple perspectivesMultiple perspectives

•• Greater openness to new Greater openness to new ideasideas

•• Multiple interpretationsMultiple interpretations

•• Increased creativityIncreased creativity

•• Increased flexibilityIncreased flexibility

•• Increased problemIncreased problem--solving skillssolving skills

DisadvantagesDisadvantages

•• AmbiguityAmbiguity

•• ComplexityComplexity

•• ConfusionConfusion

•• MiscommunicationMiscommunication

•• Difficulty in reaching a Difficulty in reaching a single agreementsingle agreement

•• Difficulty in agreeing on Difficulty in agreeing on specific actionsspecific actions

≒√≒

Teams and Workforce DiversityTeams and Workforce Diversity

•• Impact of diverse groupsImpact of diverse groups–– Diversity in personality age, gender and experience promotes Diversity in personality age, gender and experience promotes

conflict, which stimulates creativity and idea generation, conflict, which stimulates creativity and idea generation, which leads to improved decision makingwhich leads to improved decision making

–– Cultural diversity in groups initially leads to more difficulty Cultural diversity in groups initially leads to more difficulty in in building cohesion, gaining satisfaction, being productivebuilding cohesion, gaining satisfaction, being productive

•• Problems pass with time (certainly by three months)Problems pass with time (certainly by three months)

•• Culturally diverse groups bring more viewpoints outCulturally diverse groups bring more viewpoints out

≒√≪

Beware! Teams ArenBeware! Teams Aren’’t Always the t Always the

AnswerAnswer

•• Questions to determine whether a team fits the Questions to determine whether a team fits the

situation:situation:

–– Can the work be done better by more than one Can the work be done better by more than one

person?person?

–– Does work create a common purpose or set of goals Does work create a common purpose or set of goals

for the people in the group that is more than the for the people in the group that is more than the

aggregate of individual goals?aggregate of individual goals?

–– Are members of the group interdependent?Are members of the group interdependent?

≒√≫


•• The introduction of teams into the workplace has The introduction of teams into the workplace has

greatly influenced employee jobsgreatly influenced employee jobs

•• FactorFactor’’s affecting group performances affecting group performance–– Norms control group member behavior by establishing standards ofNorms control group member behavior by establishing standards of right and right and

wrong.wrong.

–– Status inequities create frustration and can adversely influenceStatus inequities create frustration and can adversely influence productivity.productivity.

–– The impact of size on a groupThe impact of size on a group’’s performance depends upon the type of task in s performance depends upon the type of task in

which the group is engaged.which the group is engaged.

–– A groupA group’’s demographic composition is a key determinant of individual turs demographic composition is a key determinant of individual turnover.nover.

≒√√


•• HighHigh--performing teams have common performing teams have common characteristics:characteristics:–– They contain people with special skillsThey contain people with special skills

–– They commit to a common purpose, establish specific goalsThey commit to a common purpose, establish specific goals

–– They have the leadership and structure to provide focus and They have the leadership and structure to provide focus and directiondirection

–– They hold themselves accountable at both the individual and They hold themselves accountable at both the individual and team levelsteam levels

–– There is high mutual trust among membersThere is high mutual trust among members

≒√∽


•• It is difficult to create team players. To do so, It is difficult to create team players. To do so,

managers should:managers should:–– Select individuals with interpersonal skillsSelect individuals with interpersonal skills

–– Provide training to develop teamwork skillsProvide training to develop teamwork skills

–– Reward individuals for cooperative effortsReward individuals for cooperative efforts

≒√∝

Sports Teams as ModelsSports Teams as Models

•• Good ModelsGood Models–– Successful teams integrate Successful teams integrate

cooperation and competitioncooperation and competition

–– Successful teams score early winsSuccessful teams score early wins

–– Successful teams avoid losing Successful teams avoid losing streaksstreaks

–– Practice makes perfectPractice makes perfect

–– Successful teams use halftime Successful teams use halftime breaksbreaks

–– Winning teams have a stable Winning teams have a stable membershipmembership

–– Successful teams debrief after Successful teams debrief after failures and successesfailures and successes

•• Poor ModelsPoor Models

–– All sport teams arenAll sport teams aren’’t t

alikealike

–– Work teams are more Work teams are more

varied and complexvaried and complex

–– A lot of employees canA lot of employees can’’t t

relate to sports metaphorsrelate to sports metaphors

–– Work team outcomes Work team outcomes

arenaren’’t easily defined in t easily defined in

terms of wins and lossesterms of wins and losses

≒√∵

Turning Individuals into Turning Individuals into

Team PlayersTeam Players

≒√∫

Shaping Team PlayersShaping Team Players

•• SelectionSelection

–– Care should be taken to ensure that candidates can Care should be taken to ensure that candidates can

fulfill their team roles as well as technical fulfill their team roles as well as technical

requirements.requirements.

•• TrainingTraining

–– A large proportion of people raised on the A large proportion of people raised on the

importance of individual accomplishment can be importance of individual accomplishment can be

trained to become team players.trained to become team players.

≒√∬


•• Performance EvaluationPerformance Evaluation–– Performance as a team member has to be evaluated alongside Performance as a team member has to be evaluated alongside

““individualindividual”” performanceperformance

•• Tie the teamTie the team’’s results to the organizations results to the organization’’s goalss goals

•• Begin with the teamBegin with the team’’s customers and the work process that the team s customers and the work process that the team

followsfollows

•• Measure both team and individual performanceMeasure both team and individual performance

•• Train the team to create its own measuresTrain the team to create its own measures

≒∽≡


•• RewardsRewards

–– Reward systems needs to be reworked to encourage Reward systems needs to be reworked to encourage

cooperative efforts rather than competitive ones.cooperative efforts rather than competitive ones.

≒∽≒

Conducting a Team MeetingConducting a Team Meeting

•• 12 steps to more efficient and effective meetings:12 steps to more efficient and effective meetings:–– Prepare a meeting agendaPrepare a meeting agenda

–– Distribute the agenda in advanceDistribute the agenda in advance

–– Consult with participants before the meetingConsult with participants before the meeting

–– Get participants to go over the agendaGet participants to go over the agenda

–– Establish specific time parametersEstablish specific time parameters

–– Maintain focused discussionMaintain focused discussion

–– Encourage and support participation of all membersEncourage and support participation of all members

–– Maintain a balanced styleMaintain a balanced style

–– Encourage the clash of ideasEncourage the clash of ideas

–– Discourage the clash of personalitiesDiscourage the clash of personalities

–– Be an effective listenerBe an effective listener

–– Bring proper closureBring proper closureAre you a team player?Are you a team player?

Groups and Teamwork - NE-JUST

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