Group ProcessesGroup Processes

Social PsychologySocial PsychologyChapter 8Chapter 8

October 15, 2004October 15, 2004Class #7Class #7

Social FacilitationSocial Facilitation

If performance can be individually evaluated, If performance can be individually evaluated, the presence of others will be arousingthe presence of others will be arousing This will improve performance on simple tasks This will improve performance on simple tasks

but interfere with performance on complex tasksbut interfere with performance on complex tasks

Triplett (1897)Triplett (1897)

Was one of the first scientists to ask the Was one of the first scientists to ask the question "What happens when individuals question "What happens when individuals join together with other individuals?"join together with other individuals?"

Triplett, who was a bicycling enthusiast, Triplett, who was a bicycling enthusiast, noticed that cyclists performed better in noticed that cyclists performed better in races than they did when they were paced races than they did when they were paced by motor-driven cycles or when they were by motor-driven cycles or when they were timed riding the course alonetimed riding the course alone

Mere Presence of Others and Mere Presence of Others and Social FacilitationSocial Facilitation

Same result when he asked children to Same result when he asked children to wind fishing reelswind fishing reels as quickly as possible as quickly as possible

He thought that the He thought that the mere presence of mere presence of othersothers would improve our performance would improve our performance

Triplett (1897): FTriplett (1897): Fishing ishing reels studyreels study

Participants:Participants: 40 children ages 8 to 1740 children ages 8 to 17

Procedures:Procedures: A trial consisted in turning the reel at the highest rate A trial consisted in turning the reel at the highest rate

of speed until a small flag sewed to the silk band of speed until a small flag sewed to the silk band had made four circuits of the four-meter coursehad made four circuits of the four-meter course

The time of the trial was taken by means of a stop-The time of the trial was taken by means of a stop-watchwatch

Results:Results: All children performed faster when in competition All children performed faster when in competition

compared to when alone compared to when alone

A universal principle…NOT!A universal principle…NOT!

For a long time, the social facilitation For a long time, the social facilitation phenomenon was viewed as a universal phenomenon was viewed as a universal principle…principle…

Some may have even called it a “proven fact”Some may have even called it a “proven fact”

So, no one did much research on it for So, no one did much research on it for decadesdecades

Zajonc extended Triplett’s theory…Zajonc extended Triplett’s theory…

Zajonc went back and analyzed the researchZajonc went back and analyzed the research He noticed that nearly all of the many studies He noticed that nearly all of the many studies

that documented social facilitation studied well-that documented social facilitation studied well-learned responseslearned responses BicyclingBicycling Lifting weightsLifting weights Eating rapidlyEating rapidly

But he found that there were some But he found that there were some exceptions…exceptions…

People had some trouble when being People had some trouble when being watched if the tasks were novel…watched if the tasks were novel… Difficult math problemsDifficult math problems Writing poetryWriting poetry Learning nonsense syllablesLearning nonsense syllables

It seems as if Triplett was only partially It seems as if Triplett was only partially right…right…

Zajonc (1965)Zajonc (1965) The type of task was an important The type of task was an important

determinant to success as welldeterminant to success as well Was it a well-learned task or was it Was it a well-learned task or was it

relatively new?relatively new?

Zajonc (1969)Zajonc (1969)

Cockroach studyCockroach study Cockroach placed in a tube with a bright light at Cockroach placed in a tube with a bright light at

one end of the tube…one end of the tube… To escape the light, the cockroach had to run To escape the light, the cockroach had to run

down the tube and into a darkened box at the down the tube and into a darkened box at the other end of the tube…other end of the tube… IV: Presence or absence of other cockroachesIV: Presence or absence of other cockroaches DV: Speed of escapeDV: Speed of escape

Results: Cockroaches were faster to escape when Results: Cockroaches were faster to escape when other cockroaches were presentother cockroaches were present

Zajonc (1969)Zajonc (1969)

Audience increased cockroaches’ Audience increased cockroaches’ performance on the easy straight-ahead performance on the easy straight-ahead task but not on the more complex turning task but not on the more complex turning task task See next slide See next slide

Zajonc (1969): Zajonc (1969): Experimental set-upExperimental set-up

Zajonc (1969): ResultsZajonc (1969): Results

Simple Maze:Simple Maze: Alone: 41 secondsAlone: 41 seconds Audience: 33 secondsAudience: 33 seconds

Complex Maze:Complex Maze: Alone: 110 secondsAlone: 110 seconds Audience: 130 secondsAudience: 130 seconds

Michaels et al. (1982)Michaels et al. (1982)

Secretly rated pool players in a hall as Secretly rated pool players in a hall as above average or below average ability…above average or below average ability… Then a group of confederates came and stood Then a group of confederates came and stood

by their table as they playedby their table as they played The above average players' shot accuracy The above average players' shot accuracy

improved from 71 to 80% accurate, while the improved from 71 to 80% accurate, while the below average players slipped from 36 to 25% below average players slipped from 36 to 25% accurate accurate

Why Does Social Facilitation Why Does Social Facilitation Occur?Occur?

Distraction Conflict Theory (Sanders, 1981)Distraction Conflict Theory (Sanders, 1981) Attentional conflict between focusing on task and Attentional conflict between focusing on task and

inspecting the distracting stimulus creates arousalinspecting the distracting stimulus creates arousal Can hurt performance sometimes and help Can hurt performance sometimes and help

sometimessometimes Presence of others can create a distractions Presence of others can create a distractions

leading to poorer performanceleading to poorer performance But sometimes will stimulate greater effort to But sometimes will stimulate greater effort to

overcome the attentional conflictovercome the attentional conflict ““Tunnel vision” can help on some tasksTunnel vision” can help on some tasks

Social LoafingSocial Loafing

A group-produced reduction in individual A group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks in which contributions output on easy tasks in which contributions are pooledare pooled

Individuals in a group who are working Individuals in a group who are working below their potentialbelow their potential

Ringelman’s (1880’s) Ringelman’s (1880’s) experimentsexperiments

Individual output declines on pooled tasks in all Individual output declines on pooled tasks in all his experimentshis experiments

For example in a rope-tugging taskFor example in a rope-tugging task Units pulled in rope-tugging task:Units pulled in rope-tugging task:

1 person 100 1 person 100 2 people 1862 people 186 3 people 2553 people 255 8 people 3928 people 392

Social LoafingSocial Loafing

Ingham et al (1974)Ingham et al (1974) Blind folded rope pullingBlind folded rope pulling

DV: EffortDV: Effort IV: Thought people were behind them or IV: Thought people were behind them or

notnot Subjects pulled 18% harder when they Subjects pulled 18% harder when they

thought they were alonethought they were alone

Latane, Williams, and Harkins Latane, Williams, and Harkins (1979)(1979)

Sat participant in a group Sat participant in a group of 6 people…of 6 people… Blindfolded participant and Blindfolded participant and

had them put on had them put on headphonesheadphones

Played clapping or Played clapping or shouting over headphones shouting over headphones

I.V. thought they were I.V. thought they were making noise alone or making noise alone or with 5 otherswith 5 others

Results: 1/3 less noise Results: 1/3 less noise when they thought others when they thought others were also making noisewere also making noise

Why does loafing Why does loafing happen ?happen ?

Diffusion of responsibility:Diffusion of responsibility: In a group we feel able to share responsibility and this In a group we feel able to share responsibility and this

may lead to a reduction of effortmay lead to a reduction of effort Free-rider effectFree-rider effect: :

If we feel like our contribution is not essential…still benefit If we feel like our contribution is not essential…still benefit from the group and from the group and give little in returngive little in return (low input, high (low input, high output)output)

Sucker effect: Sucker effect: Willing to do your share but Willing to do your share but not morenot more than that (esp. if than that (esp. if

others are free-riding)others are free-riding) Since everyone is benefiting and getting credit, you don’t Since everyone is benefiting and getting credit, you don’t

want to be the sucker who does all the work (and no want to be the sucker who does all the work (and no recognition), therefore do the recognition), therefore do the minimumminimum requirement requirement

  

We loaf less when…We loaf less when…

If personal efforts are identifiableIf personal efforts are identifiable If a task is challenging, appealing, or involvingIf a task is challenging, appealing, or involving If the task is meaningful and importantIf the task is meaningful and important If we think our contribution is essentialIf we think our contribution is essential If we are working with friends vs. strangersIf we are working with friends vs. strangers If the group expects to be punished for poor If the group expects to be punished for poor

performanceperformance If the group is smallIf the group is small If the group is cohesiveIf the group is cohesive

Collective Effort ModelCollective Effort Model

Individuals try hard on a collective task Individuals try hard on a collective task when they think their efforts will help when they think their efforts will help them achieve outcomes they personally them achieve outcomes they personally valuevalue

Deindividuation TheoryDeindividuation Theory

Deindividuation theory is a social Deindividuation theory is a social psychological account of the individual in psychological account of the individual in the crowdthe crowd

Deindividuation is a psychological state Deindividuation is a psychological state of decreased self-evaluation, causing of decreased self-evaluation, causing anti-normative and disinhibited behavioranti-normative and disinhibited behavior

Zimbardo, Haney, Banks, & Jaffe (1973)Zimbardo, Haney, Banks, & Jaffe (1973) One of the all-time great psychological experimentsOne of the all-time great psychological experiments Illustrates deindividuation Illustrates deindividuation

Stanford Prison ExperimentStanford Prison Experiment

Thirty years ago, a Thirty years ago, a group of young men group of young men were rounded up by were rounded up by Palo Alto police and Palo Alto police and dropped off at a new dropped off at a new jail -- in the Stanford jail -- in the Stanford Psychology Psychology DepartmentDepartment

These were just like real arrests…These were just like real arrests…

On a quiet Sunday On a quiet Sunday morning... each was morning... each was arrested for violation of arrested for violation of Penal Codes 211, Armed Penal Codes 211, Armed Robbery or Burglary, a 459 Robbery or Burglary, a 459 PCPC

Some arrested still vividly Some arrested still vividly remember the shock of remember the shock of having neighbors come out having neighbors come out to watch the commotion as to watch the commotion as TV cameras recorded the TV cameras recorded the hand-cuffing for the hand-cuffing for the “nightly news” “nightly news”

Treated poorly from the start…Treated poorly from the start…

Strip searched, Strip searched, sprayed for lice and sprayed for lice and locked up with chains locked up with chains around their ankles, around their ankles, the "prisoners" were the "prisoners" were part of an experiment part of an experiment to test people's to test people's reactions to power reactions to power dynamics in social dynamics in social situationssituations

Don’t mess with us…Don’t mess with us…

Other college Other college student volunteers student volunteers -- the "guards" -- -- the "guards" -- were given were given authority to dictate authority to dictate 24-hour-a-day 24-hour-a-day rulesrules

Soon, they were humiliating the Soon, they were humiliating the prisonersprisoners

And it got worse and And it got worse and worse…worse…

It didn’t take long…It didn’t take long…

Less than 36 hours Less than 36 hours into the experiment, into the experiment, Prisoner #8612 began Prisoner #8612 began suffering from acute suffering from acute emotional disturbance, emotional disturbance, disorganized thinking, disorganized thinking, uncontrollable crying, uncontrollable crying, and rage…he was and rage…he was released released

You want us to do what???You want us to do what???

Upon hearing of a rumored break-out Upon hearing of a rumored break-out Zimbardo panicked…Zimbardo panicked… Instead of sitting back and observing what was to Instead of sitting back and observing what was to

occur next, like the good experimental psychologist occur next, like the good experimental psychologist that he was…that he was… He went back to the Palo Alto Police Department He went back to the Palo Alto Police Department

and asked the sergeant if “we could have our and asked the sergeant if “we could have our prisoners transferred to your jail for at least one prisoners transferred to your jail for at least one night”night”

Zimbardo had also fallen totally into his roleZimbardo had also fallen totally into his role

Parole Board Parole Board During the parole hearings they also witnessed an During the parole hearings they also witnessed an

unexpected metamorphosis of the prison unexpected metamorphosis of the prison consultant as he adopted the role of head of the consultant as he adopted the role of head of the Parole BoardParole Board

He literally became the most hated authoritarian He literally became the most hated authoritarian official imaginable, so much so that when the official imaginable, so much so that when the experiment was over he felt sick at who he had experiment was over he felt sick at who he had become…become… He acted no different than his own tormentor He acted no different than his own tormentor

who had previously rejected his annual parole who had previously rejected his annual parole requests for 16 years when he was a prisoner requests for 16 years when he was a prisoner

““I think it is terrible what I think it is terrible what you are doing to those you are doing to those boys” boys”

Christina Maslach was a recent PhD Christina Maslach was a recent PhD graduate at Stanford and in a romantic graduate at Stanford and in a romantic relationship with Zimbardorelationship with Zimbardo

She almost got physically ill when seeing She almost got physically ill when seeing the crueltythe cruelty

Her reactions convinced Her reactions convinced Zimbardo it was time to call Zimbardo it was time to call it off…it off…

Maslach realized that the experiment was Maslach realized that the experiment was becoming very ugly…she couldn’t believe becoming very ugly…she couldn’t believe some of the transformations…some of the transformations… Upon her arrival, she had a pleasant Upon her arrival, she had a pleasant

conversation with a "charming, funny, smart" conversation with a "charming, funny, smart" young man waiting to start his guard shiftyoung man waiting to start his guard shift

Other researchers had told her there was a Other researchers had told her there was a particularly sadistic guard, whom both particularly sadistic guard, whom both prisoners and other guards had nicknamed prisoners and other guards had nicknamed John WayneJohn Wayne

Which one is “John Which one is “John Wayne”?Wayne”?

Later, when she Later, when she looked at the monitor looked at the monitor of the prison yard of the prison yard again, she asked again, she asked someone to point out someone to point out John Wayne and John Wayne and was shocked to was shocked to discover it was the discover it was the young man she had young man she had talked with earlier…talked with earlier…

Jekyll and Hyde experienceJekyll and Hyde experience

He was talking in a different accent He was talking in a different accent a Southern accent, which she hadn't a Southern accent, which she hadn't recalled at allrecalled at all He moved differently, and the way he He moved differently, and the way he

talked was different, not just in the talked was different, not just in the accent, but in the way he was accent, but in the way he was interacting with the prisonersinteracting with the prisoners

““It was like seeing Jekyll and Hyde”It was like seeing Jekyll and Hyde”

Interesting note…Interesting note…

Christina Maslach was one of about 50 Christina Maslach was one of about 50 visitors who had arrived after the visitors who had arrived after the experiment had began…experiment had began… She was the only one who complained about She was the only one who complained about

itit The only one who suggested that it be The only one who suggested that it be

stoppedstopped

Full debriefing…Full debriefing…

Zimbardo: On the last day, Zimbardo: On the last day, we held a series of we held a series of encounter sessions, first encounter sessions, first with all the guards, then with all the guards, then with all the prisoners with all the prisoners (including those who had (including those who had been released earlier), and been released earlier), and finally with the guards, finally with the guards, prisoners, and staff prisoners, and staff together. We did this in together. We did this in order to get everyone's order to get everyone's feelings out in the open… feelings out in the open…

A final question…A final question…

No guards left the experiment – most No guards left the experiment – most seemed to enjoy itseemed to enjoy it

The prisoners were abused – some The prisoners were abused – some sobbed their way outsobbed their way out

What would you have done differently What would you have done differently had you been a guard? A prisoner?had you been a guard? A prisoner?

How about in the real How about in the real world?world?

This naturalistic observation type of experiment This naturalistic observation type of experiment seems to illustrate this effect…seems to illustrate this effect…

In 1969, the Chief of Police of the California In 1969, the Chief of Police of the California community of Menlo Park, in the interest of community of Menlo Park, in the interest of improving community relations, embarked on a improving community relations, embarked on a program whose most apparent feature was a program whose most apparent feature was a change in the style of police attirechange in the style of police attire

The police of Menlo Park shifted from the The police of Menlo Park shifted from the typical blue, military style uniform to a civilian typical blue, military style uniform to a civilian green blazergreen blazer

It’s all in the uniform?It’s all in the uniform?

Does the traditional police uniform bring Does the traditional police uniform bring about a sense of deindividuation?about a sense of deindividuation? If so, what effect do you think the “green If so, what effect do you think the “green

blazer” had?blazer” had?

Had to wear jeans Had to wear jeans today…today…

Lang (1986)Lang (1986) Casually dressed teachers achieve higher Casually dressed teachers achieve higher

academic performance and receive fewer academic performance and receive fewer disciplinary problems from studentsdisciplinary problems from students

Social Identity Model of Social Identity Model of DeindividuationDeindividuation

Johnson and Johnson and Downing (1979)Downing (1979)

Crowds and Deindividuation: Crowds and Deindividuation: The Halloween StudiesThe Halloween Studies

Dierner et al. (1976)Dierner et al. (1976) Trick-or-treaters in groups more likely to steal extra Trick-or-treaters in groups more likely to steal extra

candy than individual kids, unless they were candy than individual kids, unless they were individuated by being asked their namesindividuated by being asked their names

Beaman et al. (1979)Beaman et al. (1979) Anonymous children in Anonymous children in Halloween costumesHalloween costumes stole stole

more from a candy jar than kids asked their first more from a candy jar than kids asked their first names names

Even less likely to steal if a mirror was put behind Even less likely to steal if a mirror was put behind the candy bowlthe candy bowl

Back to the real world…Back to the real world…

Mullen (1986)Mullen (1986) Bigger the mob, Bigger the mob,

the greater the the greater the atrocitiesatrocities

Zimbardo (1970):Zimbardo (1970):The abandoned car studyThe abandoned car study

Palo Alto, California vs. NYCPalo Alto, California vs. NYC

Real GroupsReal Groups

Real groups (e.g., sororities) are Real groups (e.g., sororities) are distinguished from aggregations (e.g., distinguished from aggregations (e.g., crowds of strangers on the street) by:crowds of strangers on the street) by:

Interdependence:Interdependence: Group members need Group members need each other to reach shared goals.each other to reach shared goals.

Group identity:Group identity: Individuals perceive Individuals perceive themselves as belonging together. themselves as belonging together.

Group structure: Everyone has a roleGroup structure: Everyone has a role

Group StructureGroup Structure

RolesRoles Expectations held by group members for how Expectations held by group members for how

members in particular positions ought to members in particular positions ought to behave.behave. Example:Example:

A sorority president is expected to make A sorority president is expected to make decisions and guide discussion at weekly decisions and guide discussion at weekly meetingsmeetings

Group StructureGroup Structure

Status Hierarchy Status Hierarchy A ranking of group members by their power A ranking of group members by their power

and influence over other membersand influence over other members Example:Example:

A sorority pledge is below a regular A sorority pledge is below a regular member, who is below the presidentmember, who is below the president

Group RolesGroup Roles

People’s roles in a group can be formal or People’s roles in a group can be formal or informalinformal

Two fundamental types of roles:Two fundamental types of roles: An instrumental role to help the group achieve An instrumental role to help the group achieve

its tasksits tasks An expressive role to provide emotional An expressive role to provide emotional

support and maintain moralesupport and maintain morale

Group NormsGroup Norms

Groups establish norms or rules of conduct Groups establish norms or rules of conduct for membersfor members

Norms may be either formal or informalNorms may be either formal or informal

Group Group CohesivenessCohesiveness

The strength of the bonds among The strength of the bonds among group membersgroup members

Interpersonal cohesiveness:Interpersonal cohesiveness: Enjoyment of one another’s companyEnjoyment of one another’s company

Task cohesiveness:Task cohesiveness: Commitment to Commitment to the group’s taskthe group’s task

Discussion and Decision MakingDiscussion and Decision Making

Group polarizationGroup polarization The exaggeration through group discussion The exaggeration through group discussion

on initial tendencies in the thinking of group on initial tendencies in the thinking of group membersmembers

Originally, this effect was labeled the “Originally, this effect was labeled the “risky-risky-shiftshift” phenomenon ” phenomenon

Group PolarizationGroup Polarization

Imagine you were considering the pros and cons of Imagine you were considering the pros and cons of going to grad school, and you talked it over with two going to grad school, and you talked it over with two groups:groups: Your family: Your family:

Who was initially Who was initially slightly opposedslightly opposed to the idea to the idea Your fellow students: Your fellow students:

Who were initially Who were initially slightly favorableslightly favorable After discussion within each group (see next slide) After discussion within each group (see next slide)

Att

itud

e T

owar

ds G

rad

Sch

ool

Unsure

Definite GO

Before Group

Discussion

After discussion, the group that initially favored grad school would be even more strongly in favor

Definite NO(Get A Job!)

Conversely, the group that initially disfavored grad school would be even more opposed

After Group

Discussion

Moscovici and Zavalloni (1969)Moscovici and Zavalloni (1969)

Here group discussion enhanced the Here group discussion enhanced the average inclination of group members…average inclination of group members… French students liked their premier more, French students liked their premier more,

but Americans less, after discussing these but Americans less, after discussing these topics in a grouptopics in a group

Myers and Bishop (1970)Myers and Bishop (1970)

Used high and low prejudiced high Used high and low prejudiced high school students as participants…school students as participants… Had them talk about racial attitudes with like-Had them talk about racial attitudes with like-

minded studentsminded students Results?Results?

Why do groups polarize after discussion?Why do groups polarize after discussion?

Persuasive argumentsPersuasive arguments With even a slight bias in one direction, With even a slight bias in one direction,

you’ll hear more favorable arguments on you’ll hear more favorable arguments on that sidethat side

Social comparisonSocial comparison When members realize the group is leaning When members realize the group is leaning

in one direction, they may seek acceptance in one direction, they may seek acceptance by moving further in that directionby moving further in that direction

GroupthinkGroupthink

Group decision-making that is not optimal, Group decision-making that is not optimal, sometimes disastrous, because the group’s primary sometimes disastrous, because the group’s primary goal is consensus instead of accuracygoal is consensus instead of accuracy

They seem to have a greater desire to get along and They seem to have a greater desire to get along and agree with one another than to generate and critically agree with one another than to generate and critically evaluate alternative viewpoints and positionsevaluate alternative viewpoints and positions

The deterioration of group judgment produced by The deterioration of group judgment produced by striving for consensusstriving for consensus Examples:Examples:

NASA tragedies, Bay of Pigs, etc.NASA tragedies, Bay of Pigs, etc.

SymptomsSymptoms

The group overestimating their might and The group overestimating their might and right…right… Illusions of invulnerability- over-optimism, Illusions of invulnerability- over-optimism,

blind to warningsblind to warnings Unquestioned belief in the group’s moralityUnquestioned belief in the group’s morality

SymptomsSymptoms

Members become close-mindedMembers become close-minded Rationalization discounts challenges by Rationalization discounts challenges by

justifying their decisionsjustifying their decisions Holding a stereotyped view of the opponent Holding a stereotyped view of the opponent

(weak, dumb) (weak, dumb)

SymptomsSymptoms

Pressures toward uniformityPressures toward uniformity Conformity pressure- those who raise doubts are Conformity pressure- those who raise doubts are

rebuffed. (ridiculed)rebuffed. (ridiculed) Self censorship- disagreements are uncomfortableSelf censorship- disagreements are uncomfortable Illusions of unanimity-everyone keeps quite, seems Illusions of unanimity-everyone keeps quite, seems

like everyone is unanimous (like pluralistic like everyone is unanimous (like pluralistic ignorance)ignorance)

Mindguards-some members keep information (that Mindguards-some members keep information (that would lead to question) from the groupwould lead to question) from the group

THE CHALLENGER: A MODEL OF THE CHALLENGER: A MODEL OF

DEFECTIVE DECISION-MAKINGDEFECTIVE DECISION-MAKING Jesse Moore has the ultimate authority to Jesse Moore has the ultimate authority to

approve or scrub the shuttle missionapprove or scrub the shuttle mission An engineer later testified that the o-ring seals An engineer later testified that the o-ring seals

have never been tested below 53 degrees Fhave never been tested below 53 degrees F Problems started when the temperature in Problems started when the temperature in

Florida dropped in the low 20’sFlorida dropped in the low 20’s The O-rings had long been classified as a The O-rings had long been classified as a

critical component of rocket motor failure that critical component of rocket motor failure that without back up could cause loss of life or the without back up could cause loss of life or the rocketrocket

How can we prevent groupthink?How can we prevent groupthink?

Be impartial; don’t endorse any positionBe impartial; don’t endorse any position Encourage critical evaluation; devil’s Encourage critical evaluation; devil’s

advocate advocate Subdivide the group Subdivide the group Encourage and welcome criticisms from Encourage and welcome criticisms from

outsiders outsiders Before implementing, call a second-Before implementing, call a second-

chance meetingchance meeting

Brainstorming…

People brainstorming as a group come up with a greater number of better ideas than the same

number of people working individually.

Brainstorming…

A technique that attempts to increase the A technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or freely without criticizing their own or others’ contributionsothers’ contributions

Factors That Reduce the Factors That Reduce the Effectiveness of Group Effectiveness of Group BrainstormingBrainstorming

Escalation EffectsEscalation Effects

Occurs when commitment to a failing Occurs when commitment to a failing course of action is increased to justify course of action is increased to justify previous investmentsprevious investments

Groups more likely to escalate Groups more likely to escalate commitmentcommitment Also likely to do it in more extreme waysAlso likely to do it in more extreme ways

Social DilemmasSocial Dilemmas

Situations in which a self-interested Situations in which a self-interested choice by everyone creates the worst choice by everyone creates the worst outcome for everyoneoutcome for everyone What is good for one is bad for allWhat is good for one is bad for all

The Prisoner’s DilemmaThe Prisoner’s Dilemma

Strategies Used When Facing Strategies Used When Facing Mixed-Motive SituationsMixed-Motive Situations

Tit-for-TatTit-for-Tat Win-Stay, Lose-ShiftWin-Stay, Lose-Shift

Resource DilemmasResource Dilemmas

Social dilemmas concerning how two or Social dilemmas concerning how two or more people share a limited resource.more people share a limited resource.

Two types of resource dilemmas:Two types of resource dilemmas: Commons dilemma (“take-some dilemma”)Commons dilemma (“take-some dilemma”) Public goods dilemmaPublic goods dilemma

Reducing Conflict: GRITReducing Conflict: GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction (GRIT)Tension-Reduction (GRIT) A strategy for unilateral, persistent efforts to A strategy for unilateral, persistent efforts to

establish trust and cooperation between establish trust and cooperation between opposing partiesopposing parties

GRIT is a reciprocal, tit-for-tat strategyGRIT is a reciprocal, tit-for-tat strategy

Reducing Conflict: NegotiatingReducing Conflict: Negotiating

Integrative agreement is a negotiated Integrative agreement is a negotiated resolution where all parties obtain resolution where all parties obtain outcomes that are superior to a 50-50 splitoutcomes that are superior to a 50-50 split

Key elements in successful negotiating Key elements in successful negotiating include:include: Flexibility and strengthFlexibility and strength Communicating and trying to understand the Communicating and trying to understand the

point of view of the other personpoint of view of the other person