Groundnut Production Guide for Uganda

Groundnut ProductionGuide for Uganda:RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR FARMERS

Kalule Okello DavidMonyo EmmanuelDeom Carl Michael

Ininda JaneOloka Herbert Kefa

RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR FARMERS

GROUNDNUTS PRODUCTIONGUIDE FOR UGANDA

GROUNDNUT PRODUCTIONGUIDE FOR UGANDA:

Recommended practices for farmers

Kalule Okello DavidMonyo EmmanuelDeom Carl Michael

Ininda JaneOloka Herbert Kefa

National Agricultural Research Organisationnte e, Uganda.



NA IONA A RI U URA R S AR OR ANISA ION

D.K. OkelloNational roundnut Improvement Programme NARO/National Semi-Arid Resources Research Institute NaSARRI P. O. Private Bag Soroti, Ugandamail: od14 gmail.com, od14 nasarri.go.ug

E. Monyo Principal Scientist, International rop Research Institute or Semi Arid ropicsUnited Nations Avenue, igiri, Nairo i P.O. Bo 906 , Nairo i, en a: mail: e.mon o cgiar.org

C.M. DeomPeanut olla orative Research Support Program, epartment o Plant Patholog , Plant Science uilding

he Universit o eorgia, Athens, A 0602, mail: deom uga.edu

J. Ininda Alliance or a reen Revolution in A rica A RA , est nd owers, an ata Road. P.O. Bo 6677 , estlands 00800, Nairo i: mail: Ininda agra-alliance.org

H.K. Olokac/o International ood Polic Research Institute1 ast Naguru Road, ampala, P. O. Bo 28 6 ampala Uganda

mail: h.olo a cgiar.org

itation: O ello, . ., on o, ., eom . ., Ininda, ., Olo a, . . 201 . roundnuts production guide or Uganda: Recommended practices or armers. National Agricultural Research Organisation, nte e.

ISBN: 978-9970-401-06-2

esign and la out: Brenda Nantongo mail: ntongo renda gmail.com

Photo redits: alule O ello avid, unless otherwise mentioned

his pu lication is an output rom a research pro ect unded International rops Research Institute or Semi Arid ropics, ropical egume Phase II U - I A , Alliance or a reen Revolution in A rica and the Peanut

olla orative Research Support Programme o USAI .

his wor ma e transmitted or non-commercial use and educational use within Uganda with ac nowledgement o NARO and the authors. or additional rights, write to od14 gmail.com od14 nasarri.go.ug

Recommendations or the use o agricultural chemicals included in this pu lication is intended or the purpose o clarit and in ormation to the reader. he use o rand names and an mention or listing o commercial products or services in this pu lication does not impl endorsement National Agricultural Research Organi ation nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Persons using such products assume responsi ilit or their use in accordance with current la el directions o the manu acturer.



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Table of Contents

ist o ta les.....................................................................................................................................................i

ist o gures....................................................................................................................................................i

Acron ms...................................................................................................................................................ii

oreword.................................................................................................................................................iii

Ac nowledgements.........................................................................................................................iv

Introduction......................................................................................................................................1

roundnut agronomic practices........ .............................................................................................................1

arvest management practices..... .................................................................................................................8

a or Pests and diseases o roundnuts and their control measures........................................................1

arvest management practices o roundnuts and their control measures...........................................2

Re erences .. .................................................. 0

Appendi A: roundnut varieties releases 1966 - 2011 ....................................... ..

Appendi B: roundnut growth stages and their managements....................... .. 4

Tablesa le 1: roundnut growth stages and response to moisture stress.......................... ..6

a le 2: ect o oisture Stress on ield o groundnuts.................................... ..7

a le : Impact o Irrigation on roundnut Production and Pest anagement Strategies ..8

a le 4: he comparisons o earl and late lea spot o groundnut.......................... ..1

a le : a imum level o total a ato in in oodstu s........................................ ..17



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Forewordroundnut is one o the staple crops in the Uganda rich in protein, oil and essential minerals. he crop is

increasingl ecoming a cash crop and oth production area and productivit are increasing. his is evident the signi cant e pansion o the industr in Uganda and with spillovers in the neigh ouring countries. he

end-users pre erences o groundnuts var and are d namic. he crop also su ers rom numerous pests and diseases and erratic weather that a ect production. he National roundnuts Improvement Programme responded to these challenges developing groundnuts varieties to meets these challenges.

he manual contains valua le scienti c in ormation a out crop management topics such as land preparation, varietal selection, seed management, crop protection and postharvest management under Ugandan conditions. he appendices contain a catalogue o groundnut varieties released since 1966 with their ields and otanical classi cations. his is in addition to the summari ed poster o recommended practices at ma or growth stages covering pre- and post harvest operations

he manual is care ull written in comprehensi le language while ma ing no scienti c compromises. I elieve that this production manual will ecome an essential source o ideas and in ormation or an armer,

e tension sta , and researchers interested in cultivating groundnuts in Uganda.

NARO as a leader o ualit agricultural research and development in the countr and the region urnishes the users with practical technologies and the accompan ing pac ages. Pu lication o this production manual is thus timel , and will help the wide spectrum o industr sta eholders agricultural researchers, e tension people, smallholder producers, agricultural consultants and commercial producers providing in ormation on est management practices that will improve groundnut productivit and ualit .

I sincerel than the development partners or their contri ution towards the production o this manual. he management o NARO applauds this e ort the authors and hope that the messages in the manual

reach the intended users as we strive towards a sustaina le ualit groundnut production and productivit , and improvement o livelihoods.

Dr Ambrose AgonaDeputy Director General (Research)National Agricultural Research Organization



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Acronyms

AP a s a er planting

U-I A uropean Union International unds or Agricultural evelopment

R a imum Residual imit

NARO National Agricultural Research Organisation

NaSARRI National Semi-Arid Resources Research Institute

P RSP Peanut olla orative Research Support Program

S Sound ature ernel

SSA Su Saharan A rica

2 ropical egume Phase 2 pro ect

USA United States o America



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Acknowledgementshe National Agricultural Research Organisation and the authors greatl ac nowledge support rom 2,

A RA, U-I A pro ect, Peanut RSP and the overnment o Uganda, through the inistr o Agriculture, Animal Industr , and isheries that supported the pu lication o this wor . redit also goes to Pro . O ori Patric , r. S. Silim, Pro . Boris Bravo Ureta, r Naveen Puppala, r. ohn Adri o and r. Simon Peter O o together with all the sta o the National roundnut Improvement Programme or valua le inputs in this manual. he Authors particularl than the management o National Semi-Arid Resources Research Institute, Serere or support and encouragement during preparation o this document.



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Introductionroundnut Arachis hypogaea . also nown as peanut, is cultivated in the semi-arid tropical and su -

tropical regions o nearl 100 countries in si continents etween 40 N and S o the e uator. It is an important legume grown and consumed glo all and in particular in su -Saharan A rican countries O ello et al., 2010a . or people in man developing countries, groundnuts are the principal source o digesti le protein 2 - 4 , coo ing oil 44 - 6 , and vitamins. hese ualities ma e groundnut an important nutritional supplement to mainl cereal diets o mai e, millet and sorghum o man Ugandans. In man countries, groundnut ca e and haulms oliage, straw/stems are used as livestoc eed. roundnut is also a signi cant source o cash income in developing countries that contri utes signi cantl to livelihoods and ood securit .

As a legume, groundnuts improve soil ertilit ing nitrogen and there increase productivit o other crops in the semi-arid cereal cropping s stems. roundnut re uires little input, ma ing it appropriate or cultivation in low input agriculture smallholding armers. roundnuts are grown in most o SSA

smallholder armers as a su sistence crop under rain- ed conditions. ields per hectare are generall low compared to those rom developed countries li e the USA, ecause o a com ination o actors such as unrelia le rains, mostl non-irrigated cultures, traditional small-scale arming with little mechani ation, out rea s o pest in estations and diseases, the use o low- ielding seed varieties, increased and/or continued cultivation on marginal land, poor adoption o agronomic practices and limited e tension services. Insecurit insta ilit and the re uentl unsupportive oilseed policies have also pla ed their role in low groundnut productivit . here ore, there is e cellent potential or ield improvement.

his production guide see s to address salient issues in groundnut production in order to ma imi e groundnut productivit .

Groundnut Agronomic PracticesLand Selection: roundnut is not suited to growing in ver dr areas or at altitudes higher than 1 00 metres a ove sea level around 000 . enerall higher altitudes with cooler climates are not suita le or groundnut production.

Climatic conditions: Optimum temperatures are 27 - 0 or vegetative growth and 24 - 27 or reproductive growth. Between 4 0 mm and 12 0 mm o evenl distri uted rain all is re uired annuall or good growth and ield. arl maturing small seeded varieties re uire 00 - 00 mm while medium to late maturing large seeded varieties need 1000 - 1200 mm rain all.

Soils: All soils, other than ver heav ones are suita le or growing groundnut, ut the est are deep, well drained sand , sand loam or loam sand soils. he latter acilitate the orcing o the developing ruit into the soil pegging . roundnut will not grow well or nitrogen in acidic or in ertile soils. roundnuts grow

est on soils limed to a p o .8 to 6.2, provided other essential elements are in alance and availa le to the plant

Fertilizer requirements: roundnuts respond etter to residual ertilit than to direct ertili ation. I a well- ertili ed crop precedes groundnuts, direct ertili ation ma not increase the ield or ualit o the groundnuts. I ertili er is needed, roadcast and incorporate it with the soil during the land preparation.

A soil test is the est wa to determine whether ertili er or lime is re uired in groundnut growing. iming is necessar onl when the soil p is elow .8. owever i soil test results are not availa le, the general ertili er recommendation is: NPK kg /ha: 25 kg of N - 50 kg of P2O5 - 100 kg of K2O

o not appl potassium ertili ers a er the groundnuts have emerged. oliar spra s o nutrients are generall ine ective or not economicall easi le, e cept to prevent or correct some micronutrient de ciencies.



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Rotation: A well planned, crop rotation s stem can ensure good ields o high ualit . In order to reduce ris in the arming s stem, groundnuts should e grown in rotation with other crops, especiall grass t pe crops. roundnuts have een shown to improve the ield o su se uent mai e and other grain crops up to 20 . One o the est crop rotation s stems is one in which a grass allow is ollowed groundnuts. ewer diseases are also present in groundnuts ollowing a grass crop. Usuall groundnuts also produce a etter crop on elds that have een allowed. o avoid the uild-up o pests and diseases, groundnut should not e grown continuousl on the same land. A rotation o ears or longer can usuall reduce disease, pest and weed pro lems. Because o the incidence o pests and soil- orne diseases, groundnut should not

e grown a er cotton, although cotton can e used in rotation a er groundnut. rops such as so ean, to acco, tomatoes and certain other vegeta les ma cause a uild-up o nematodes and soil- orne diseases and, there ore, should e avoided in rotation with groundnuts. ereals, such as mai e, sorghum and millet are good rotational crops, and other clean-weeded crops such as cassava, sweetpotato and sun ower can also e used. ircumstances ma orce a armer to plant groundnuts in succession in which case disease pro lems can e e pected, especiall lea and pod diseases. his can e improved deep ploughing which ma reduce the disease pro lem.

Intercropping: Although a num er o crops are used as intercrops with groundnut, results rom intercropping research have een inconsistent, so an advantages or disadvantages are not nown.

Land Preparation: and should e prepared earl , e ore the rains start, so that sowing can ta e place earl in the rains ig. 1 . A uni orm seed ed with su cient planting depth and spacing, good germination, weed control and good moisture retention is imperative or good ields. All previous crop residues and weeds should e completel removed or well incorporated into the soil, and seed eds should e smooth to provide good soil-to-seed contact a er sowing. hile opening land using hand hoe or o plough, one should adhere to the a ove recommendations.

hose who can a ord tractors or land preparation, deep turn

the soil to ur residue and weeds, using a disc plough, - 4 wee s e ore planting. In wet, low l ing areas it ma e worth considering using ridges in which to plant groundnuts. he use o ridges can prevent waterlogging, and improve weed control and harvesting. Ridges should e made at, or ust e ore, sowing and the should e at-topped.

Seed selection: A uni orm stand o health , vigorous plants is essential i growers are to achieve the ields and ualit needed or pro ta le groundnut production. It is important or growers to plant high ualit seed o varieties adapted to their arm situations, management

Box 1: Summary of recommended practices Agronomy aspect Recommended practice

limate Rain all: 4 0-12 0 mm per earemp: 24- 00

Region in Uganda ow to mid-altitude

Soils Sand or sand loam, or loam sands

ertili er 60 g ha-1 NP

Rotation ith cereals or cassava, sweet potato, sun ower

and preparation Be ore on-set o rains

Planting hen moisture is ade uate and sta le in soilSow -6 cm deep

Seed dressing ith ungicide

Spacing Semi-erect types: 4 10-1 cm e.g Serenut 1R, Serenut 2, Serenuts 7 , Serenut 8RBunch types: 4 cm 7. -10 cm e.g Serenut 4 , R, 6

eeding 2- times

Irrigation here possi le and necessar



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st les, and intended mar et uses. ield and ualit are two ma or actors that in uence variet selection. rowers with signi cant disease histor ma need to choose a variet with disease tolerance or resistance.

Use high ualit seed o a recommended variet . Several actors must e considered when deciding on variet . irst, it is e tremel important to evaluate varieties ased on regional per ormance western, central and southern region pre er red t pes whereas northern and eastern regions pre er tan/white varieties .

ertainl , ield and grade attri utes Appendi I must e given top priorit , ut disease tolerance, growth ha it, maturit , and seed ualit and availa ilit should also e considered. he per ect variet possessing all the necessar traits or diverse environments does not e ist, so it ma es good sense to plant a couple o di erent varieties to reduce the production ris .

Pods should e shelled 1 - 2 wee s e ore sowing and onl good ualit seed should e selected or sowing. amaged, small or shrivelled seeds should e discarded ig. 2. It is good practice to purchase certi ed

groundnut seed at regular intervals, pre era l ever 2 - ears. he seeds must e ree rom contamination, irrespective o the sources o suppl .

It is alwa s recommended to test the germination capacit o seed prior to planting. Planting two or more varieties with di erent maturit dates permits e cient use o limited harvesting and curing e uipments. Additionall , planting varieties with di erent genetic pedigrees reduces the ris o crop ailure ecause o adverse weather or une pected disease epidemics.

Seed dressing: roundnut seed is suscepti le to lights and rot in the soil. A ungicidal seed treatment will limit this deca and increase the stand in the eld. It is there ore recommended that all seed e treated

e ore planting. wo seed coating agents are currentl registered or use on groundnuts, namel anco e and hiram. omprehensive directions or the use o these agents are indicated on the la el. omplete coating o the seed is essential and the use o a mechanical mi ing apparatus is strongl recommended. his will reduce seed orne in ections during seedlings germination and allow initial vigorous growth.

Dormancy: his is the period a er maturit /harvesting that is re uired or the seed o certain varieties to continue developing e ore it can germinate even though the normal environmental actors conducive or germination are availa le. or instance Serenut R has a dormanc o at least 4 da s Serenut R has a dormanc period o at least 0 da s. he other commercial varieties Appendi I have no dormanc period and sprout in the eld when harvesting is dela ed.

Time of planting: ith the current weather changes glo all , the planting date is di cult to standardi e. owever, armers should plant as soon as there is ade uate and consistent moisture in the ground to ensure

good germination and the su se uent plant growth. imel planting dates should ta e advantage o periods o higher rain all and avoiding end o the season drought e ects.

Sowing: Sow groundnut seed in rows and at the right spacing ig. . Sowing at - 6 cm depth ensures that the plant develops and produces optimall . Seed that germinates slowl as a result o deep planting, ta es longer to emerge and a su standard plant will e produced. Shallow planting o seed less than cm can onl e considered when enough moisture is availa le and the climate is moist. In situations where moisture is not limiting cm to 6 cm is the ideal planting depth. Seeds must not e sown immediatel a er heav rains since the im i e too much water, which causes ro ng. his also results in e cessive soil compaction which ma hinder germination. ong duration varieties 120 da s and a ove e.g. Igola should onl e planted with the rst rains in the rst season. Short to medium duration varieties can e planted in either season. arl planting generall improves ields and seed ualit .

Plant density/Spacing: roundnut spacing depends on the growth ha it o the variet , otanical t pe, and the seed mass

germination rate o the seed-lot. he recommended space etween rows is 4 cm while the recommended spacing etween plants within a row is:



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ig. 2: Sorting groundnut or planting

ig. 4: orrect row spacing or planting groundnutsig. : Pa ule armers planting groundnuts in rows

ig. 1: ine seed ed read or planting

ig. 6: Nice groundnut cropig. : lean weeded groundnut garden



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Semi-erect t pes: 10 - 1 cm e.g. Igola 1, Serenut 1 and Serenut 2 Bunch t pes: 7. - 10 cm e.g. RedBeaut , Serenut 4 , Serenut 6

Row spacing can e reduced rom 4 cm to 0 cm, i desired, and this will allow earlier ground cover and help prevent serious weed pro lems. enerall , 1 0,000 plants/ha are recommended or dr land production and or irrigated land 00,000 plants/ha. Planting groundnut plants closer together results in individual plants se ng ewer pods, ut over a short period o time. Overall, this will ensure that the pods will e o a similar age and stage o development and, there ore, ma e it easier to decide when to harvest O ello et al., 2010 . ider spacing will produce ewer ields per unit area. It is important to sow groundnut seed in rows and at the right spacing as this helps to achieve the correct seed rate, reduce the incidence o rosette disease, ensures a more uni orm pod maturit , etter ualit seed and ma imi es ield. Row planting eases operations li e: weeding, spra ing, disease pest identi cation, estimation o plant population/ ield per unit area, uses less seed/ as to determine seed rate, eas supervision and harvesting. here ore plant at the recommended plant population ased on a given row spacing and seed count ig. 4 .

Weeding: eeds compete with the crop or moisture, nutrition, light and space. roundnuts cannot compete e ectivel with weeds, particularl - 6 wee s a er sowing there ore, e ective earl weed control implies good control o weed throughout the growing season and this will translate into higher ields ig. . eeds can e controlled using cultural, mechanical, ph sical and chemical means. A com ination approach provides the most success ul results.

owever, the ultimate choice depends on the species o weeds involved and the level o in estation. enerall , 2 - weedings are recommended, the rst e ore owering and at least one other during pegging.

Once pegging egins, soil distur ance near the plant should e avoided or ept to a minimum, so as not to inter ere with the developing pods. Instead weeds at this stage can e controlled hand-pulling. eed

hand pulling to avoid earthing up and damaging the pegs. rop rotation ma reduce certain species o weeds. Pre- and post-emergence her icides ma e used to eradicate weeds.

Considerations for cultural and mechanical weed control include:

Remove spott in estations hand hoeing or spot spra ing to prevent spreading weed seed, rhi omes, tu ers or roots. his is particularl important or perennial weed species.

Use high ualit , weed- ree seed

lean all tillage and harvesting e uipment e ore moving to the ne t eld, or rom weed to clean areas within a eld.

Use her icides to remove initial weed ushes prior to planting to ensure a weed- ree seed ed.

eep the oundaries areas ad acent to elds clean.

Practice crop rotation.

eed management is critical to groundnut production rom oth ield and ualit perspectives. eeds reduce grower pro ts in several wa s. eed/crop competition or sunlight, water and nutrients can signi cantl lower ields. eeds also disrupt digging and harvesting operations and cause pods to e stripped rom vines, ma ing them unharvesta le. In addition, weed pro lems can lower grades ecause plant ragments and ruits are classi ed as oreign material contamination. Some weeds are reserviors o pests and diseases alternate/alternative hosts .

arthing up o groundnuts is not recommended as it limits ields. arthing up o groundnuts where soil is piled up around the main stem o the groundnut plant is an important ield limiting actor as it in uences pod ormation o the lower highl productive nodes, and promotes disease development. arthing up, especiall in the earl stage, has an in uence on plant development leading to de ormed plants with poor



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or no production at the lower nodes. lowers cannot develop at the nodes, and thus no pegs or pods are ormed. arthing up later in the season normall does not lead to de ormed plants as in the previous

instance ut does lead to lower ields.Irrigation: roundnuts are considered to e a relativel drought tolerant crop though there are varietal variations to drought tolerance. roundnuts have various ph siological mechanisms or avoiding the e ects o drought and an e tensive root s stem which is a le to e ploit moisture reserves at depth. ven during drought, groundnuts will nearl alwa s produce some ield. owever, ew armers can a ord average ields

ecause o the high level o input costs. roundnuts are est grown where the rain all is relia le and/or where access to irrigation is availa le.

here are critical times during the growth o the groundnut plant that a soil moisture de cit can severel limit ields and/or diminish ualit . he response o groundnuts to moisture stress depends on the stage o growth a le 1 .

Table 1: Groundnut growth stages and response to moisture stressPlant growth stage (Duration)

Plant Indicators Relative Drought Susceptibility

Irrigation Requirements

Germination (1 - 2 weeks)

Planting to emergence

igh ood moisture conditions are re uired. Irrigation can ensure ou plant on time.

Early vegetative growth (5 - 6 weeks)

mergence to pegging

ow roundnuts can tolerate mild water stress at this stage.Stress at this stage ma e ene cial.

Nut development /fruiting (8 - 9 weeks)

lowering/pegging to pod ormation

igh No water stress at this stage, ver sensitive. Use irrigation where possi le.

Maturation (5 - 6 weeks)

pod ormation to harvest

oderate ecreasing water use as the crop matures.

Source: VT, 2012.

hile ade uate moisture during the germination stage is necessar or a good, uni orm stand, the mid-season nut development, or ruiting stage, is the most critical time or irrigation i there is a shortage o rain all. In addition to eing the stage in which the groundnut plant is most suscepti le to drought stress, it is also the stage o ma imum water use the plant.

he amount o water to appl depends on the di erent developmental stages, soil te ture, root one depth, and the plant-availa le water level when irrigation is egun as well as the sprin ler irrigation e cienc . In general, water use is low in the earl season, ut is at its pea during the reproductive period. onsumption then starts to decline as pods egin to mature. rought stress reduces ower production and pollination, and e treme soil sur ace temperatures cause peg a ortion.

he ta le elow demonstrate how moisture stress at various periods during the season can a ect production.



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Table 2: Effect of Moisture Stress on Yield of groundnuts

Stress Period (days after planting) Yield Losses (kgs)

0 to 6 1796

6 to 100 1 1

100 to 1 1869

Optimum moisture 20 9

aving ade uate water availa le throughout the li e c cle o groundnut is important or optimal plant growth and development. rought or ood can have tremendousl negative impacts on ield and ualit o groundnut. i ewise, pest in estation and severit o damage rom these pests is in uenced availa le water, either in the orm o rain all or irrigation. Understanding how environmental conditions, and in particular irrigation, a ect pest comple es is important in developing appropriate management strategies. Irrigation is a power ul production tool. Irrigation minimi es ris and enhances consistenc o ield. Additionall , irrigation improves consistenc o pesticide per ormance and in man wa s, the predicta ilit o pest comple es. roundnut ields will e reduced i the upper soil one ecomes dr rom owering through pod development. A water de cit ma lead to the ollowing conse uences Boote et al., 1982 :

Reduction in the dr matter production o vegetative components as well as the crop growth rate. ewer and smaller leaves with small compact cells and shorter stems. ater de cit rom sowing to 67 da s dela s the period o rapid ruit growth 10 da s and decreases

ield. ater de cienc during the owering and pegging stages results in higher ield losses than stress at

an other growth stage. his de cit reduces the num er o owers plant. ater de cienc at the soil sur ace during peg ormat ion and pod development reduces pod num er

and pod ield. ater de cienc in the ruiting one results in un- lled pods and less calcium concentration in the

hull and seed. ater de cienc reduces groundnut ualit , shelling percentage or percentage o sound mature

seeds, seed mass, and germination o seed. Reduced plant vigour and thus high suscepta ilit to pests, e.g aphids, mites.



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Table 3: Impact of Irrigation on Groundnut Production and Pest Management Strategies

Agronomic Practices

Benefits of Irrigation or Optimum Rainfall

and Preparation

elps in esta lishment o seed eds, either conventional or reduced tillage.

Seed ermination

nsures germination o seed when e isting soil moisture is marginal or complete stand esta lishment.

eed anagement

Irrigation or ade uate rain all activates pre-emergence her icides and minimi es plant stress. ess moisture stress o en enhances control post-emergence her icides and ena les groundnut to recover more rapidl rom her icide damage.

Insect anagement

Important or activation o in- urrow insecticides. Improves plant growth and root esta lishment, which is important in a sorption o in- urrow insecticides. Improves groundnut recover rom earl -season insect damage and insecticide ph toto icit . inimi es potential damage rom corn earworms and arm worms esta lishment o a dense canop that can withstand damage rom eeding. Reduces the li elihood o spider mite damage eeping spider mite populations low.

isease anagement

et conditions earl in the season can minimi e potential or crown rot. Irrigation increases li elihood o having a avora le microclimate or development o oliar and soil- orne disease. S mptoms associated with tomato spotted wilt o groundnut are o en more pronounced when groundnut are growing under dr and especiall hot conditions. imel irrigation will reduce plant stress and possi l ena le plants to withstand tomato spotted wilt more e ectivel than non-irrigated, water-stressed plants.

Pod aturation Irrigation u ers against e tremes in moisture and reduces stress heat and drought , which allows normal ower production and ernel development. aturation is more predicta le and generall earlier. imited rain all during reproductive growth o en causes dela s in maturation and esta lishment o multiple crops or split crops on the same plant. Su cient rain all is critical or complete ernel development and pod ll.

Supplemental alcium

ernels need ade uate calcium to ecome mature and completel developed. Irrigation u ers against drought, which reduces calcium concentration in soil water and mass ow

movement into developing pegs

igging A ilit to suppl soil water to improve digging conditions reduces hardness o soil , improves digging e cienc and minimi es pod loss during the digging process.

Source: David L. J., 2011 with modifications.

Harvest Management Practicesroundnuts show indeterminate growth, which means that rom a out our wee s onwards the crop will

continue to ower and grow vegetativel throughout the growing season. his characteristic ma es it di cult to determine when optimum maturit occurs.

It is ver common or the crop to still e owering at harvest. As a result, the crop does not mature evenl and it can e di cult to determine e actl when to harvest. here ore, at harvest, seeds on a single plant will

e at di ering levels o maturit . arvesting is one o the most critical operations in groundnuts production. eeds can ma e e cient harvesting impossi le inter ering with digging or li ing. etermining when to

harvest is important. roundnut ma gain 00 - 4 0 g/ha and 2 - in grade during the 10-da period e ore optimum harvest. osses greater than 00 - 4 0 g/ha ma occur i the crop is not harvested at



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optimum maturit . In order to determine the est harvest date a armer must scout his crop on a regular asis. aturit a ects avor, grade, milling ualit , and shel li e. Not onl do mature groundnuts have the ualit characteristics that consumers desire, the are worth more to the producer. amage to pods at

the time o harvest should e avoided as much as possi le since this can lead to rapid invasion o the pods Aspergillus flavus / Aspergillus parasiticus which leads to a ato in contamination. Remove e cessive

moisture rom the pods a er harvesting through sha ing.

i) Timing of pulling /Harvestinghe groundnut plant usuall gives an indication when to harvest. In order to determine the correct harvest

date, the development o the plant must e considered. he groundnuts should e harvested when appro imatel 7 o the pods have reached maturit . arvesting at the right time gives the armer the ma imum ield and grade. I harvesting is too earl , grading actors will e lower. I harvesting is too late, over-mature pods can lose peg strength resulting in ield loss. here are several methods to determine the optimum digging time see elow . It is there ore ver important to harvest the crop at optimum maturit , as e cessive num ers o over-mature or ver immature pods at harvest can e re ected in high levels o a ato in in the product. Also dela s in harvesting will result in poor ualit seed due to mould in ections and su se uent a ato in contamination o the seeds/pods.

ii) Harvest Indicators As pods mature, the inside portions ecome rown to lac , while immature pods retain a resh white appearance. he cellular la er ust elow the outer la er o the pod undergoes several colour changes during the maturation phase. his cellular la er is called the mesocarp. It changes in colour rom white to ellow to orange to rown and nall lac as the pod matures. his colour distinction can e used to estimate crop maturit with the hull scrape method.

Method 1: Hull scrape method old the pod with the ea pointing down and awa rom ou. ith a poc et ni e, scrape awa the outer hull in the area rom the middle o the pod to the peg attachment point.

his region is nown as the saddle. Pods should e moist when the colour determinations are made. o get accurate representation o the eld, collect three ad acent plants rom - locations in the eld. ollect an ade uate sample is necessar or good results.

It is important to note the colour in the saddle area o the pod. his is where the colour changes rst occur on the pod.

he colours which occur are:olour Implication to harvest

Blac ature to Overmaturear Brown ature

Orange / ight Brown lose to atureellow Immature

hite Immature to Underdeveloped

Method 2: Shell interior method. he most dependa le guide to determine when to harvest is to loo or pods with shells turning dar rown inside and the seed coat will e thin and tight on the ernel ig.7 . he

est time to harvest is when the crop has the highest percentage o sound mature ernels S . Pull - plants, strip the pods, shell and e amine the insides o the shells. I the ma orit o the pods 70 upwards have dar mar ings inside the shell and the seed are plump and the true colour o that variet , then the groundnut is mature and read or harvest.

Method 3: Seed weight. he mean seed mass plant is determined to estimate the maturit at successive intervals. It reaches a constant value, when the crop is mature.



10

ig. 7: Shells with dar interior shows ph siological maturit ig. 8: Serenut 8R Achieng remains green even at harvest. aturit dates given reaserch is the est harvest indicator.

ig. 9: Under severe lea spot attac , the crop should e harvested regardless o maturit ig. 10: oe harvesting

ig. 11: and harvesting



11

ample: Suppose plants harvested on 20th ul gave an average seed mass o 0g, and others harvested on 21st ul also gave the same mass, then the crop is mature.

Method 4: Days after Planting: his and other guides include in ormation on the num er o da s a er planting AP that each variet needs to mature. Use the estimated period o maturit o the varieties as provided reeder / research institution. or e ample, Serenuts 1R, 2, 7 , 8R, 9 , 10R, 11 , 12R, 1 , 14R matures in 100 - 110 da s. Serenuts R, 4 , 6 matures in 90 - 100 da s. Acholi hite and Red Beaut matures in 8 da s. owever, AP is a general estimate o maturit and it should never e used alone or determining the harvesting date. he AP in ormation should rather e used to schedule appro imate

planting date. On large acreages, it is suggested that multiple varieties e selected to allow or var ing harvest dates.

roundnut varieties e.g Serenut 8R Achieng variet , ig. 8 , which Sta -green a new trait associated with high drought tolerance ma es the variet remains green even at ph siological maturit re uires a di erent harvest management rom the other non-sta green t pes. he estimated maturit date rom research is the ideal harvest indicator.

iseases can also have an in uence on the determination o harvest date. Plants in which the leaves have een lost due to lea spot diseases, have wea and withered stems. In such a case, the armer will e orced

to harvest at an earlier stage ig. 9 .

ith e perience armers will ecome more adept at pic ing the maturit di erences. armers must consider the other actors listed elow in determining when to dig, ut as a general guide the crop is read or digging when the ollowing maturit levels are reached:

Virginia Varieties: arvest when 60 to 6 o the pods are rown and lac .

Valencia and Spanish Varieties: arvest when 6 to 80 o the pods rown and lac .

Prevailing weather conditions can also in uence the determination o the harvest date, as it in uences ualit . rought determines the harvest date when the soil is desiccated to such an e tent that the plant

withers and the seeds in the pods egin to shrivel and ta e on a ripe appearance. Such groundnuts must e harvested immediatel .

iii) Harvesting techniques wo ma or harvesting techni ues are used in Su Saharan A rica hand and hoe/o drawn plough ig. 10

and 11 . hichever method is used care should e ta en not to in ure the seeds and pod.

• Hand harvesting/ hand pulling: ost suita le or erect/semi erect groundnut varieties e.g. Serenut 4 and Serenut 6 in sand , loam soils which are well drained. ommonl

used during the rain season when the soils are moist and so . old the entire group o ranches as the plant is eing li ed. and harvest onl when there is enough moisture in

the soil ig. 11 .

• Hoe/Ox - drawn plough: Used or spreading groundnut varieties Serenut R , on heav soils and during dr conditions. his method is e ective in li ing the entire crop rom soils with a reduced pod loss. Avoid in ur to pods and seed during harvesting using this method. he lades should e passed awa rom the pods as much as possi le. A or ed hoe/plough causes less pod/seed damage than un or ed ones. his harvesting techni ue is practiced mainl during the second rains when drought usuall sets in at harvesting time.

echanical damage during harvesting with a hoe is a ig pro lem in groundnuts. hen pods are damaged, moulds will enter and produce a ato ins. he situation ecomes worse when dr ing ta es place on are ground.



12

iv) Cleaning and selection at harvestsreshl harvested groundnuts should e cleaned and sorted to remove damaged nuts and other oreign

matter. It is important to sha e the plant a er li ing/harvesting to remove soil rom pods and avoid orming optimum conditions or a ato in development. amage to pods at the time o harvest should e avoided as much as possi le since this can lead to rapid invasion o the pods A. flavus/A. parasiticus that produce a ato ins which are poisonous. ver e ort should e made to minimi e ph sical damage at all stages o harvesting and transportation procedures. Individual plants that die rom attac pests e.g. termites, nematodes ig. 12 and 1 and diseases wilts, pod rots, rosette should e harvested separatel as their pods will li el e contaminated with a ato in.

ig. 12: roundnut attac ed termites ig. 1 : roundnut attac ed nematodes



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Major Pests and diseases of groundnuts and their control measures

roundnuts are e posed to pests and diseases that reduce ield and ualit and increase the cost o production wherever the crop is grown.

Major Diseases of GroundnutsA large num er o ungal, viral, nematode and acterial diseases have een reported on groundnuts, most o which are widespread, ut onl a ew o them are economicall important on a regional asis.

a or diseases in this region include groundnut rosette, earl lea spot C. arachidicola , late lea spot (Phaeoisariopis personata , Rusts Puccinia arachidis and a ato in caused Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus

A. Groundnut rosette diseaseroundnut rosette disease is a ver serious viral disease o groundnuts widespread in su -Saharan A rica and

its o -shore islands ali ar et al., 2007 . It is the ma or disease o groundnut in Uganda. It is transmitted aphids eeding on the crop. here are two t pes o s mptom seen in the crops: green and ellow or

chlorotic . he plants a ected this disease loo stunted and presents a ush appearance. here is a mar ed reduction in the si e o the lea ets and mottling ecomes visi le ig. 14 . ellow chlorotic rosette s mptoms initiall develop a aint mottling on oung leaves ig 1 . Su se uentl , lea ets are ellow with green veins. Plants in ected when oung produce progressivel smaller distorted, curled and ellow lea ets.

hen older plants are in ected the s mptoms are generall restricted to a ew ranches or the apical portion o the plant. reen rosette disease shows middle mottling on oung lea ets with some lea curling,

ut leaves are not distorted. Plants in ected when oung are severel stunted and dar green in colour. otal ield losses have een reported in suscepti le varieties. Uganda has nown hotspots at NaSARRI Serere,

Na a ango in in a and I ii i in Buda a where disease appears as earl as 2 wee s post emergence. arl in ected plants produce no ield and there is no control once a plant is in ected. A 100 loss in pod ield due to either chlorotic or green rosette disease ma result i in ection occurs e ore owering. ontrol o aphids will prevent urther spread o the disease.

ig.14: reen Rosette irus. his plant was in ected earl and will not produce an ield

ig.1 : ellow Rosette irus. No ield will come rom the in ected plant



14

Management1. Chemical control:

Spra whole plant with insecticides, such as dimethoate 14 da s a er emergence usuall mls per 2 litres o water, ut read the la el or instructions and then at 10-da intervals or a total o our spra s.

2. Cropping practices: imel planting as soon as there is enough moisture in the soil or erect/ unch t pes Serenut-4 , 6 , RedBeaut plant 4 cm etween the rows and 10 - 1 cm

etween the plants. or spreading t pes plant 4 cm etween the rows and : 7. - 10 cm etween the plants e.g. Serenut 2, Serenut 8R, Serenut 7 .

arl sowing and close spacing o rows reduce disease Intercropping with eans or sorghum is e ective in reducing the disease incidence

3. Host plant resistance:Resistant varieties e ist such as Serenut 2-14 series, Igola 1. hese are availa le rom NARO/NaSARRI Serere, seed companies, and select armers ig. 16

B. Early and late leaf spots

arl lea spot Cercospora. arachidicola and late lea spot Phaeoisariopsis personatum are the most damaging diseases o groundnuts worldwide. Besides adversel a ecting the ield and ualit o pod, the also a ect the ield and ualit o haulm. Although ust one lea spot pathogen usuall predominates in a production region, oth lea spot species are generall ound in a single eld. Shi s in lea spot species also have een o served over a period o ears.

arl lea spot Cercospora arachidicola ori develops small necrotic ec s, that usuall have light to dar -rown centers, and a ellow halo. he spots ma range rom 1 mm - 10 mm in diameter. Sporulation is on

the ada ial upper sur ace o lea ets ig. 17 . ate lea spot Phaeoisariopsis personata Ber urt develops small necrotic ec s that enlarge and ecome light to dar rown ig. 18 . he ellow halo is either a sent or less conspicuous in late lea spot. Sporulation is common on the a a ial lower sur ace o leaves ig. 18 . armers con use lea spots with harvest indicators ma ing mitigation measures di cult. he disease s ma e e pressed on oth the leaves and stems ig.29 and this results in poor crop stand and

ields.

ig. 16: Resistant variet le and suscepti le variet right : on-station NaSARRI 2011B season



15

Table 4: The comparisons of early and late leaf spot of groundnut.

Characteristics / Metrics Early leaf spot Late leaf spotStage o occurrence arl in ection 0 da s a er

sowingUsuall late in ection - 7 da s a er sowing

Shape o spot ircular to irregular Usuall circular

ea sur ace on which most spores are produced and their arrangement

Upper sur ace,Random

ower sur ace, in concentric rings

olor o spot on upper lea sur ace

ight rown to lac , tending towards rown with some ellow halo

Brown to lac , tending towards lac

olor o spot on lower lea sur ace

Brown Blac

Control Measures rop rotation has een shown to provide partial control o lea spots. hen groundnut ollowed either

mai e or pasture, the disease development was slow and less severe. arl sowing has een shown to reduce the severit o lea spot diseases. Ad ust the date o sowing to

avoid conditions avoura le or rapid disease development. Bur ing all groundnut crop residues deep plowing will reduce initial inoculum.

Chemical control ultiple applications o a ungicide such as enom l, capta ol, chlorothalonil, copper h dro ide, manco e

or sulphur ungicides ma control earl and late lea spot Smith, 1984 . owever, car enda im 0.0 controls oth lea spots ver e ectivel .

hree spra s o 0.2 chlorothalonil at intervals o 10 - 1 da s starting 40 da s a er germination up to 90 da s provides e ective control to earl and late lea spots, and rust.

ig. 17: arl ea spot disease ig. 18: ate ea spot diseaseig. 19: Severel lea spot a ected plants with oth leaves and stems showing

s mptoms



16

Host plant resistance row cultivars tolerant to late lea spot: Sources o resistance to oth earl and late lea spot have een

identi ed in Arachis hypogaea and used to develop reeding lines with resistance e.g. I 87160, I 86 90, I -S 9 741, I -S 9 714, Serenut 8R, Serenut 12R and Serenut 14R.

C. Groundnut rustsRust Puccinia arachidis Speg. is one o the important oliar diseases that causes su stantial losses to groundnut Arachis hypogaea . production worldwide and reduces seed ualit . Rust Puccinia arachidis Speg. and late lea spot can together cause over 0 loss to groundnut production Su rahman am et al., 198 ali ar, 1991 , and

a ect seed ualit .

Damage: Rust Puccinia arachidis is identi ed the appearance o orange pustules uredinia on the a a ial lower sur ace o leaves and reddish- rown urediniospores uredospores ig.20 . S mptoms are mainl con ned to lea ets ut pustules can e seen on all the aerial parts o a plant e cept the ower and pegs. Brown to dar reddish- rown pustules appear on the lower sur ace with the upper sur ace developing ellow, chlorotic spots with necrotic rown areas in the center. Severel in ected leaves turn necrotic and desiccate ut are attached to the plant. In addition to the direct ield losses, rust disease can lower seed ualit reducing seed si e and oil content

Survival and Favourable Conditions: et weather coupled with a temperature o 22-2 o avours the disease.

Cultural Control rop rotation and eld sanitation. Strict plant uarantine regulations should e en orced to avoid the spread o rust on pods or seeds to

disease ree areas. arl sowing to avoid disease incidence. Intercropping pearl millet or sorghum with groundnut 1: is use ul in reducing the intensit o rust. Use resistant/tolerant varieties

Mechanical Controlestro volunteer sel sown groundnut plants and crop de ris to reduce / limit primar source o inoculum.

Biological Controloliar application o a ueous neem lea e tract at 2- is use ul and economical or the control o rust.

Chemical Control Spra chlorothaalonil 0.2 or manco e 0.2 or e acona ole/propacona ole to reduce disease

incidence.

Resistant varieties row resistant cultivars: I 87160, I 86 90.

ig. 20: roundnut Rust disease



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D. AflatoxinA ato ins are a group o to ic meta olites produced Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. A ato ins are some o the most potent to ic su stances ound in oods and eeds. Scienti c research shows that a ato in B1, 1, and 1 can cause various t pes o cancer in oth animal species and humans. vidence o acute a ato icosis in humans has een reported rom man parts o the world with grim mor idit and

mortalit . hronic inta e o a ato in in animals can lead to poor ood inta e and weight loss.

A ato in contamination can occur in the eld, during postharvest dr ing and storage, and shipment ig. 21 . rop hus andr practices, mechanical damage, insect and ird damage, climatic conditions drought, stress or e cessive rain all , and soil actors, in addition to host-plant suscepti ilit , signi cantl in uence a ato in contamination.

A ato ins are not visi le neither do the have a particular avour. here ore, it is not eas to convince consumers a out their e istence in ood. he ma orit o armers, traders and consumers in the region are not currentl aware o the a ato in contamination o ood and eed and their implications on commerce,

human and livestoc health.

ue to their demonstrated potent health e ect to oth animals and humans, a ato ins regulations have received great attention in ood polic design and de ates. Although some good practice ased on current scienti c nowledge and technical improvements can e ectivel reduce the level o contamination, the entire elimination o the presence o a ato in in oodstu s is not possi le. here ore, certain a imum Residue imits R s are commonl adopted as the polic instrument to control or a ato in contamination in the ood suppl .

Table 5: Maximum level of total aflatoxin in foodstuffs

Country Product Maximum tolerable limit (ppb)

U1 roundnuts Read to eat, 4

roundnuts or urther processing 1

USA roundnuts all products 20

India roundnuts all products 0

en a roundnuts all products 10

Uganda roundnuts all products 10Source: Okello et al., 2010b

Recommended harvesting practices imel harvesting is ver important to avoid dela s when groundnuts have reached maturit . he non-

dormant groundnut varieties, e.g. Serenut 1R, Serenut 2, Serenut R, Serenut 4 , Serenut 6 can sprout/germinate ig. 22 in the eld especiall i it rains, thus spli ng the pods allowing moulds to enter.

Immediatel a er harvesting, pluc the pods o the haulms and place to dr as soon as possi le Avoid eld dr ing o groundnuts when attached to haulms. A ato ins increase with dela s o produce in

the eld aa a et al., 2006 .

ig 21: Aspergillus in ected groundnut at harvest



18

are ul harvesting to avoid mechanical damage. his is particularl important i hand hoes are

used to harvest the pods.

Recommended drying practices o not dr produce in contact with soil. Use clean

sheets, or e ample pol thene sheets, or tarpaulin or mats made o pap rus, cemented grounds or raised structures

r groundnuts as soon as possi le in developed countries, dr ing is within 48 hours

Sun dr grain to ring down its moisture elow 1

o not dr diseased/in ected produce along with health ones

Recommended shelling practices Separate out immature pods as well as those in ested with pests and diseases o not shell eating or trampling on groundnut in shells anual or motorised shelling is recommended ut the shellers should not damage the pods. Use hand or motorised shellers speci call designed or groundnuts o not sprin le water on dr pods while using mechanical shellers. Instead, ad ust where possi le the

space etween lades and the sieve according to pod si e to reduce rea age. Remove shriveled, discoloured, mould and damaged grains rom the lot including groundnuts with

damaged testa and dispose them. Remove dust, and oreign material which can provide a source o contamination.

Recommended storage practices Properl dr groundnuts or sa e storage moisture content to less than 1 . roundnuts should e placed in pac ages that will maintain suita le environment and prevent or restrict

moisture pic -up and insect/rodent in estation. Use new/clean gunn or pol ags to store the groundnuts. Put onl clean sorted ernels into the ags Bags should not e placed directl on oor o not heap groundnuts in shells/pods on the oor/ground inside storage structure aintain proper storage acilities well-ventilated, dr and low relative humidit and care not to e pose

produce to moisture during transport and mar eting. ontrol insect and rodents during storage o not mi new with old stoc produce

Recommended practices for traders Alwa s purchase new or current season produce. Avoid purchasing produce stored or more than si

months. he compan should esta lish its own purchasing s stem rather than dealing with middlemen. his ma

involve purchasing groundnuts directl rom armers. Alwa s chec groundnut ualit condition e ore acceptance. hese include:4 oisture content not more than 7 use moisture meters 4 Presence o diseased/mould and discoloured grains 4 Presence o ro en ernels

ig. 22: Non dormant groundnut sprouting a er dela ed harvest



19

4 Presence o soil contaminated grain4 Presence o oreign matter soil, dust, cha and stones 4 Presence o insects and insect damaged grain.

Sorting and cleaning to remove the a ove - mentioned poor condition ernels should e done prior to processing. o not process poor ualit ernels ecause gar age in, gar age out. his ehaviour is common or groundnut processors and hence their products are heavil contaminated with a ato ins

Unshelled groundnuts those still in shells/dr pods are etter to purchase than shelled nuts since the shell protects them against mould invasion.

I ernel moisture content o delivered nuts is greater than 1 , ut should not e more than 1 then immediatel dr produce on a clean sur ace, to reduce moisture content to 7 .

roundnuts purchased should not e stored or more than three months. he nuts should e stored in new interwoven pol prop lene ags stac ed in a moisture and rodent proo

store no rodents and insects he store must e routinel cleaned to remove spilled ernels and other oreign materials. Proper pac aging o the products in moisture-tight containers is recommended. On-spot mould and a ato in tests o the raw and nished products must e carried out. Processors should strive to get the ualit ar rom the Uganda National Bureau o Standards.

Major Pests of Groundnutshe ma orit o insects o groundnuts can e grouped as: soil inha iting insects e.g termites, white gru s,

earwigs, su terranean ants oliage eeding insects lea miner, caterpillars, arm worm, ollworm

those that transmit virus disease thrips, aphids and insects that damage owers and growing parts

lister eetle . O all these termites, aphids, thrips and lea miner are most important.

A. Aphids: Aphis craccivora hese are rownish-gra pol phagous insects. he are vectors o groundnut rosette disease,

peanut mottle virus and peanut stripe virus in Asia and A rica. Aphids can cause ield losses upto 40

han and ussain, 196 . he can cause serious damage in drought situations when the crop is still oung. Aphids are sporadic pests and attac crops at

all stages. Both adults and n mphs eed mostl on growing tips and oung oliage suc ing sap ig.2

Symptoms of damage N mphs and adults in ect to ins resulting in

whitening o veins and chlorotic patches especiall at the tips o lea ets, in a t pical shape.

eavil attac ed crop loo s ellow and gives a scorched appearance nown as hopper urn .

Adult: longate, active, wedge shape, green insects

Management imel sowing o the crop and eld sanitation. rop rotation with non host crop.

ig.2 : Aphids on a groundnut plant



20

Intercropping with pearl millet estro volunteer groundnut plants and weeds Avoid groundnut-castor inter crop, it increases the in estation. Irrigate to avoid prolonged mid season drought to prevent pre-harvest a ato in. Spra dimethoate 0 at 6 0ml/ha or monochrotophos 6 S at 600ml/ha in 600 liter water

B. Leafminerroundnut lea miner Aproarema modicella eventer , a de oliator rom the order epidoptera, is a ver

serious pests o groundnuts attac ing in oth the rain and post rain season crops and is regarded as the most important pest threatening groundnut production whenever out rea s occur. It is much more damaging during the short rain c cle when long drought precedes rains. In Uganda, total crop losses have

een reported some armers. No resistant variet is et availa le in Uganda though tolerant variet Serenut 10R was released in 2011.

ea miner larvae mines the leaves and eed inside the lea ets. ggs are laid singl on the underside o the leaves o groundnut, so ean and other leguminous plants. oung larvae mine the leaves and later instars e it the mine to we together several lea ets. amaged leaves ecome rownish, rolled and desiccated, which results in earl de oliation and a ects the growth and ield o the plants ig. 24 and 2 .

Aproarema modicella has een recentl discovered in various regions in A rica. irst in 1998 in umi istrict, Uganda pieru, 2004 Page et al., 2000 , then in alawi, South A rica, o am i ue and emocratic Repu lic o ongo R du Plessis, 2004 un ili, 200 . he pest is spreading rapidl , causing serious damage to groundnut, particularl in o am i ue and Uganda. ost o the A rican groundnut production is considered at ris . he pest also eeds on so ean, cowpea, al al a, pigeon pea, other legumes and cotton.

Control methods Spra ing with onochrotophos 6S 600ml/ha or imethate 0 at 6 0ml/ha in 600 liter water rowing groundnut - cereal rotation reduces the lea miner incidence anipulation o planting dates to avoid the pest uildup rowing resistant genot pes e.g. Serenut 10R gives etter ields under heav lea miner in estation Use o trap crops Botanical pesticides and Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner

ig 2 : ea minerig 24: Severel attac ed groundnut garden appearing urnt.



21

C. Thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis roundnut plants are usuall attac ed thrips 6 - 8 wee s a er planting. hrips ma complete several

generations per season under avoura le conditions. hrips eed primaril in terminal lea clusters etween olds o oung lea ets rasping the tender lea sur ace and suc ing plant uices. he s mptoms rom thrips

result in dwar ng and mal ormation o leaves, causing a condition called pouts ig. 26 . Blac ening o the small lea ets can e mista en or chemical in ur . Under avoura le conditions, plants normall outgrow this in ur with no reduction in ield or grade. owever, the dela in vine growth rom earl -season thrips in ur ma retard maturit . his in com ination with other in uries, such as her icide urn, can reduce

ield. hrips cause serious crop stunting and ield loss rom oth direct eeding and virus transmission tomato spotted wilt virus in groundnuts, cowpea,

greengram, lac gram, so ean and tomato. hrips are carried, to a large e tent, wind there ore, it is important to plant late groundnuts upwind rom earlier planted elds. Secondar spread occurs when immature thrips develop on virus-in ected plants then mature to the adult stage and eed on other groundnut plants within the same eld. he virus can onl e ac uired immature thrips eeding on in ected plants. As the thrips mature the move to other plants near thus spreading the virus rom plant to plant.

Symptoms of damage ender leaves showing ellowish green patches on the upper sur ace and rown necrotic areas and

silver sheen on the lower sur ace. Severe in estations cause stunted plants.

Management

Spra monochrotophos 6 S 600 ml/ha or dimethoate 0 6 0ml/ha or meth ldemeton 2 600 ml in 600 litres o water.

Spra per acre monocrotophos 20 ml mi ed with neem oil 1litre and 1 g soap powder mi ed in 200 litres o water twice at 10 da s interval.

row resistant/tolerant varieties e.g Serenut 7-14 series rom Uganda

D. Termites: Odontotermes and Microtermes spp ermite damage to groundnuts are common in light red and sand soil when rain all is moderate. he

icrotermes and Odontotermes species seriousl attac groundnuts. icrotermes ills plants directl destro ing the roots. hese are social insects, live in termataria, in distinct castes, wor ers, ing and ueen.

or ers are small 4 mm and have a so , white od and a rown head.

Symptoms of damage ilting o plants in patches ermites penetrate and hollow out the tap root and stem thus ill the plant. Bore holes into pods and damage the seed ig.27 . It removes the so cor tissue rom etween the veins o pods causing scari cation, wea en the shells,

ma e them lia le to entr and growth o Aspergillus flavus that produces a oto ins.

ig 26: hrips a ected plant le is stunted with ver small leaves nearing a health plant right



22

Management igging the termataria and destruction o the

ueen is most important in termite management. Use well rotten organic manure. arvest the groundnut as soon as the are

matured, earl removal o the produce rom the eld will reduce the chances o termite damage

to pods. lean cultivation Irrigate the crop re uentl horough ploughing and re uent intercultural

operations reduces termite damage. Appl chlorp riphos 20 or lindane 1. to

control termites. ust chlorp riphos at 0 - 40 g/ha in soil e ore

sowing in endemic areas Seed treatment with chlorp riphos at 6. ml / g

o seed ma reduce termite damage.

Storage pests of groundnutsroundnuts are stored oth as unshelled pods and as ernels or di erent uses. Both orms are vulnera le

to attac a plethora o insect pests a er harvest. ore than 100 insect species are nown to live and eed on stored groundnuts, some o which are o economic importance. owever, groundnut ernels are more suscepti le to insect attac than pods in storage. he amount o damage in icted insect pests during postharvest processing and storage depends on several actors such as moisture content in the product, the orm in which it is stored, level o maturit at harvest, sanitation o storage space and the ualit o the material itsel . In addition, the storage structure also in uences the rate o groundnut deterioration through its ph sical environment. Post-harvest processing o groundnuts threshing, dr ing and cleaning has signi cant in uence on insect ehavior and esta lishment in the storage acilit . ature pods are less suscepti le to insect pests than immature pods. amage to pod shells also increases suscepti ilit to insect pests. Pre-storage processing o groundnut varies rom countr to countr and region to region. Insect in estation in groundnut is well nown or causing direct loss, ut indirect loss in terms o ualit o the produce also impacts its trade and use. he heat and moisture generated a large insect population in storage also increases the ris o mold growth, which indirectl spoils the ualit through m coto in contamination, rendering the stoc un t or human and animal consumption.

Postharvest losses due to storage pest are on the increase in A rica due in greater part to the recent e tension o areas where the groundnut seed- eetle, Caryedon serratus, attac s groundnuts. he reasons or the high level o damage in icted insects to groundnut stoc s in A rica are: de cient collecting networ s, inade uate asic road e uipment, lac o economic incentives or a etter grain ualit , inade uate storage structures and management, and lac o h giene and insect control measures at arm level. roundnuts o en reach the storage acilit with high in estation levels and are re uentl le without attention to address urther insect attac .

A. Peanut bruchid beetle (Caryedon serratus Olivier)roundnut ruchid Caryedon serratus also nown as peanut ruchid eetle, groundnut orer, seed eetle

is a serious pest o stored groundnuts, particularl when these are still in their shells. he damage caused is particularl signi cant when the groundnuts are destined or con ectioner purposes. Caryedon serratus is o Asian origin, ut is distri uted to man tropical and su tropical regions o the world Southgate 1979 .

igure 27: ermite damage on groundnut pods



23

Symptomshe translucent mil -white eggs are attached to the pod wall. A er hatching, the larva urrows straight

through the egg shell and the pod wall, and start eating the seed. he rst sign o attac is the appearance o windows cut into the pod wall the larva to allow the adult to leave the pod a er emerging rom the pupal cacoon. ull grown larva sometimes come out through the e it holes made the previous generations. he o en live in the storage sac s and pupate in large num ers at the ottom o the pile o sac s. B this stage, the groundnut seeds are too severel damaged or human consumption or oil e pulsion

ightman and Ranga Rao 199 .

Host includes: Arachis hypogaea groundnut , stored products dried stored products , Elaeis guineensis A rican oil palm , Gossypium cotton , Phaseolus eans , Theobroma cacao cocoa and Tamarindus indica Indian tamarind .

Detection/indexing: r seed e amination using magni ing lens and -ra radiograph are used.

Treatment/control

o prevent primar in estation rom alternate hosts amarind, Acacia and Pongamia avoid dr ing groundnuts near these host trees.

Incase o positive test remove the in ested seeds ollowed the seed treatment. Storing groundnut ernel with dried neem leaves a out 00 g o leaves or 10 g ernel in an sealed

container can e e ective.

B. Red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum herbst).

Red our eetles also nown as Rust red our eetle attac stored grain products such as our and nuts. hese eetles have chewing mouthparts, ut do not ite or sting. he red our eetle ma elicit an allergic response, ut

is not nown to spread disease and does not eed on or damage the structure o a home or urniture. hese eetles are the most important pests o stored products in the home and grocer stores.

ig. 28: Peanut Bruchid Beetle ar edon serratus o groundnut: A mil -white eggs on the pod B windows cut into the pod wall the larvae and adult photos: I RISA

ig. 29: Red lour Beetle ri olium castaneum o groundnut: A adult and B damaged seed photos: I RISA



24

SymptomsIn estation adult eetles can e readil o served the tunnels the leave when the move through the our and other granular ood products. hen in estation is severe, these products turn gra ish- ellow and ecome mold , with a pungent odour ig. 29 . In estation ma also e apparent the appearance o adults on the sur ace o the seeds hiteman and Ranga Rao, 199 .

Hosts includes: Arachis hypogaea groundnut , Avena sativa oats , Bertholletia excelsa Bra il nut , Hordeum vulgare arle , Juglans walnuts , Lens culinaris lentil . Oryza sativa rice , Phaseolus eans , Phaseolus lunatus lima ean , Pisum sativum pea , Prunus dulcis almond , Secale cereale r e , Triticum wheat , Triticum spelta spelt , Zea mays mai e .

Geographic distributionhe rust-red our eetle, originall o Indo-Australian origin, has a cosmopolitan distri ution ut occurs

more in warmer climates. Its distri ution is mainl in A rica, Australasian - Oceanian, entral and South America, urope, Northern Asia, editerranean Basin, South and South-east Asia, USA and anada eetes et al. 198 .Detection: -ra radiograph is used or suspected samples ecause it o ers a non-destructive method. r seed e amination using magni ing lens to separate the in ested seed.

Treatment/control umigation o the samples with meth l romide 2 g/m or 4 hour ollowed treatment with

chlorp riphos at -g/ g seed hane ar et al. 1996 . Re ection o positive samples

General Conclusion on storage pestsA rational control strateg against stored groundnut pests is a glo al one: it must ta e into account the di erent categories o pests mentioned earlier. It should e ased upon the ollowing considerations:

1 In areas where groundnut is prone to termite and m riapod attac roughl in areas with less than 1000 mm annual rain all , heav in estation secondar pests seems unavoida le without a chemical protection o the stoc an progress in termite and m riapod control in groundnut elds will greatl improve groundnut eeping ualit .

2 lsewhere, the shell as long as it is per ectl sound and undamaged protects groundnuts against all insects e cept the groundnut seed- eetle C. serratus.

he seed- eetle is a pest o groundnut onl in certain geographic areas, which should e precisel de ned. Priorit should e given to the interruption o the in estation c cle, which passes through wild hosts and/or the tamarind tree. An where else groundnut pods will escape eld in estation i dr ing and pod are pic ed are per ormed ar awa rom wild host plants in order to avoid invading

eetles. Shelling is sometimes advocated as a wa to avoid eetle in estation. In act, usual storage conditions in su sistence arming are such in A rica that unprotected nuts will immediatel ecome the target o various secondar pests

4 In all cases, primar in estation originating rom C. serratus-in ested groundnut residues or rom various other ood products in ested secondar pests must e avoided than s to a thorough cleaning-up o stores and houses. ranaries and ags must e treated e ore the new crop is stored

Preliminar investigations ital, 1969 apangou- ivassa, 198 on resistance mechanisms identi ed in some groundnut varieties should e continued. Research programmes aiming at the selection o new varieties resistant to C. serratus should e included in groundnut selection programmes.



25

Postharvest Management Practices of Groundnuts

Drying: r ing, together with harvesting, have the greatest in uence on groundnuts ualit and mar eting. o not leave harvested groundnuts in windrows or too long especiall during wet weather. Remove as much soil and trash rom pods during dr ing as soon as possi le. r ing must egin immediatel a er li ing to prevent moulding and spoilage. Special care must e ta en when dr ing in ad weather as this encourages pod loss, spli ng shell discolouration and attac moulds and insects

Drying of unshelled nutsIn most instances, a ato ins are ormed a er harvest, particularl when harvesting ta es place during end-o -season rains. he dr ing stage is all-important to reduce attac and damage rom insects and ungi. raditional dr ing techni ues involving are

ground dr ing ig. 0 are a ma or source o ungal contamination. he are slow, time consuming and la our intensive involving lots o crop handling, and due to rains that normall persist at harvesting, it is di cult to achieve the recommended moisture level or sa e storage. Some armers do not dr groundnuts

immediatel a er harvest, due to la our constraints needed or pluc ing. hus, the heap the groundnuts either in the eld or in houses ig. 1 . Sometimes armers store wet groundnuts in ags or a ew da s waiting or sunshine ig. 2 hese practices, coupled

with ine cient and slow dr ing process under the humid conditions enhance a ato in contamination greatl and are not recommended.

ig 0: r ing groundnuts on are ground bad practice.

ig 1: roundnuts heaped in the house a er harvest bad prcatice

ig. 2: Soiled resh groundnuts stores in ag prior to dr ing:bad practice



26

Recommended practices o not dr produce in contact with soil. Use clean sheets, or e ample pol thene sheets, or tarpaulin

or mats made o pap rus, cemented grounds or raised structures ig. and 4 r groundnuts as soon as possi le in developed countries, dr ing is within 48 hours Sundr grain to ring down its moisture to 7 or elow or proper storage o groundnuts o not dr diseased/in ected produce along with health ones

Ideall pods should e dried with plent o air circulation and in the shade. A er 2 - da s o wilting in the eld in windrows, the plants should e dried using either A- rames or coc s ig. and 6 or - 4 wee s

and then pic o the pods.

ig : A armer dr s her groundnut on a tarpulin ig. 4: r ing groundnuts on a rac constructed rom local materials: recommended practice

ig. : A- rame used or plant/pod dr ingSource Page et al., 2002

ig. 6: oc s used or plant/pod dr ingSource Page et al., 2002



27

Postharvest Storage he undamental reason wh groundnuts should e stored dr is to increase stora ilit and prevent growth

o storage ungi. I groundnuts are stored incorrectl , that is, in an improperl dried state or under high humidities with inade uate protection, ungi will inevita l grow. uration o storage is an important actor when considering a ato in ormation. he longer the storage period the greater the possi ilit o uilding up environmental conditions conducive to ungal proli eration and production o a ato in.

enerall , groundnuts are stored in two orms: Inshells/pods unshelled and in shelled orm as ernels . he ormer method o storage is mainl at arm level, while the latter orm o storage is at retail level

since groundnuts are delivered to wholesalers and retailers as ernels. Storing groundnuts in shells/pods is recommended ecause shells o er protection against mould in ection. hen stored in ernel orm, groundnuts deteriorate ver ast ecause the

pic -up moisture and are easil invaded moulds, insects and rodents.

In most parts o A rica, however, traditional means o crop storage are not optimal as evidenced the storage structures ig 7 . hether traditional or modern, storage conditions should maintain an even, cool and dr internal atmosphere the should provide protection rom insects, rodents, and irds should e eas to clean and should e water proo and protected rom ooding. hese recommendations were made in view o A. flavus in ection and a ato in production in stored groundnuts.

he ma imum moisture content or storage o groundnuts unshelled is 9 while that or shelled groundnuts is 7 Odogola, 1994 ali ar et al., 2007 2008 . At these moisture contents, i the relative humidit is maintained at 70 and temperature 2 - 27 , groundnut can sa el e stored or appro imatel one ear.

hether groundnuts are ept on the ground, in the granar or in commercial warehouses e.g. o seed production units, the principles o good storage are the same. Storage re uires good sanitation, ventilation and pest control. roundnuts should e stored in their shell. armers with large uantities o groundnuts should avoid using plastic or canvas covers that ma cause increased moisture/condensation and lead to mould growths.

Storage of processed productsStorage o all processed groundnut products should e in a cool dr place. In retail mar ets, locall processed peanut utter and other products are usuall not stored properl and are o en e posed to sunshine. ot conditions accelerate rancidit and also encourages growth and multiplication o micro-organisms including moulds and acteria li e Salmonella. It is there ore important to improve the ualit o the nuts used to produce the products and also maintain recommended pac aging and storage procedures.

Packaginghe pac ages or containers used to store groundnut products should e a le to e clude air and moisture.

I air enters, it will accelerate the process o rancidit , which induces o -odours and o - avours, while moisture will encourage mould growth and su se uent a ato in production O ello et al., 2010 .

he containers ma e plastic or glass, which should e covered thoroughl to avoid entr o air and moisture. or peanut utter, plastic or glass ars are recommended. hese should e sealed tightl to avoid

ig 7: ranar , a common storage strucrture among armers



28

ig. 8: and sheller or groundnuts ig. 9: ammer mill used to process groundnuts our

lea age o oil. Oil separation is common in this product and, uite o en, i not well-sealed, containers lea and the oil a ects the appearance o the product including the la el. ocall processed peanut utter or paste in retail mar ets o Uganda is commonl pac aged in pol eth lene ags which are manuall tied. his does not o er ma imum protection against moisture entr and lea age. Some traders use plastic containers o di erent shapes with tight covers which is a good practice O ello et al., 2010 . It is important that the containers are well-la eled to include all the important in ormation desired the consumer and Uganda National Bureau o Standards.

Shellingechanical damage to oodstu during shelling, threshing and winnowing ma es them much more

vulnera le to invasion storage moulds, including A. flavus. Under an given environmental conditions ungal growth ma e much more rapid in damaged compared to intact nuts. rac s and rea s in groundnut

pods and testa are caused mainl during shelling trampling or use o machines. here are two t pes o groundnut shellers now. he hand operated ig. 8 and the motorised shellers. he latter normall uses electricit and can e a simple t pe o sheller that onl handles small volumes o groundnuts or a ig t pe that handles several ags o groundnut per hour.

(Source of pictures: Okello et al., 2010b)

Recommended shelling practices

Separate out immature pods as well as those in ested with pests and diseases

o not shell eating or trampling on groundnut in shells

anual or motorised shelling is recommended ut the shellers should not damage the pods.

Use hand or motorised shellers speci call designed or groundnuts

o not sprin le water on dr pods while using mechanical shellers. Instead, ad ust where possi le the space etween lades and the sieve according to pod si e to reduce rea age.

Remove shriveled, discoloured, mould and damaged grains rom the lot including groundnuts with damaged testa and dispose o unwanted materials.



29

Transportation of groundnut productsIt is important that during shipping, containers o groundnut products are well-protected. he should not e damaged, which would allow air and moisture a sorption and the environment should e cool. It is there ore important that rigid secondar pac ages/containers are used to hold primar containers. or e ample, the ars can e pac ed in paper cartons, which are then stac ed in the vehicle or transportation. Under such circumstances, in-pac movements o the ars should e avoided.

ransportation o shelled groundnuts in Uganda is a serious pro lem. he nuts are pac aged in pol prop lene ags which uite o en are not well-sealed. hus, spillage is a common phenomenon. he truc s are not

well-covered and su se uentl the ags are soa ed with rain. It is important that the truc s are well-covered with tarpaulins/canvas to avoid moisture and dust.



30

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, fer

tiliz

e w

ith S

SP

or

TSP

bef

ore

pla

ntin

g.

Cho

ose

go

od

qual

ity s

eed.

Dre

ss s

eed

with

thi

ram

to

co

ntro

l fun

gal a

nd b

acte

rial

gr

ow

th.

Sow

at

5–6

cm d

epth

.

Spac

e at

45

x 7.

5–10

cm

fo

r bu

nch

type

var

ietie

s.

Spac

e at

45

x 10–1

5 cm

fo

r Se

mi-e

rect

typ

e va

riet

ies

C

En

sure

go

od

wee

d co

ntro

l.

Wee

d by

ha

nd

pulli

ng

to a

void

ear

thin

g up

and

da

mag

e to

peg

ging

.

Che

ck

for

pest

s an

d di

seas

es a

nd c

ontr

ol w

here

ne

cess

ary

B

Ensu

re g

ood

wee

d co

ntro

l.

Avo

id e

arth

ing

up

plan

ts w

hen

usin

g ho

e.

Che

ck fo

r ap

hids

or

leaf

min

ers a

nd c

ont

rol

if ne

cess

ary.

D

If

wee

ding

is

requ

ired

use

han

d pu

lling

.

Che

ck fo

r pe

sts

and

dise

ases

and

co

ntro

l whe

re

nece

ssar

y.

F

Dry

pod

s on

mat

s fo

r a fu

rther

2–

5 da

ys.

If A

-fram

es o

r coc

ks u

sed,

dry

for

3–

4 w

eeks

and

then

pic

koff

the

pods

.

Do

not d

ry a

ny fu

rther

afte

r pi

ckin

g.

Bef

ore

stor

ing

rem

ove

poor

, da

mag

ed, s

hriv

elle

d, ro

tten

or fu

ngus

-in

fect

ed p

ods.

Sto

re p

ods

in g

unny

bag

s in

a c

ool,

dry,

wel

l ven

tilat

ed s

tore

.

Do

not s

tore

moi

st g

roun

dnut

s.

Do

not u

se p

last

ic o

r pol

ywea

ve b

ags

E

Har

vest

whe

n 70

% o

r m

ore

po

ds a

re m

atur

e.

Use

dar

k m

arki

ngs

on

insi

de o

f sh

ell.

Seed

s sh

oul

d be

plu

mp

and

co

rrec

t co

lour

fo

r va

riet

y.

If c

rop

is s

ever

ely

defo

liate

d (9

5%)

or

spro

utin

g ha

s be

gun,

ha

rves

t st

raig

ht a

way

.

Cle

an e

xces

s so

il fr

om

po

ds.

Wilt

/dry

in w

indr

ow

s fo

r 3–

5 da

ys.

Ack

now

ledg

emen

ts: P

eanu

t C

RSP

, A

GR

A, T

L2, I

FAD

-EU

, N

AR

O, N

aSA

RR

I, A

ll st

akeh

old

ers

Plan

ting

1st F

low

erin

g

Har

vest

ing

Day

s (F

or

Long

Dur

atio

n Va

riet

y)

Ger

min

atio

n an

d E m

erge

nce

Veg

etat

ive

gro

wth

V

eget

ativ

e gr

ow

th

an

d flo

wer

ing

Pegg

ing

and

Podd

ing

Har

vest

m

atur

ity

P ost

H

arve

st

P od

fillin

g

DEV

ELO

PMEN

T ST

AG

ES G

RO

UN

DN

UT

AN

D R

ECO

MM

END

ED P

RA

CTI

CES

O

kello

.D.K

., N

aSA

RR

I Gro

undn

ut Im

pro

vem

ent P

rogr

amm

e: k

od1

43@

gmai

l.co

m;

0712

8587

68/0

7538

5876

8:

2013

A

C

B

D

F E

A

Pr

epar

e la

nd e

arly

so

tha

t se

ed c

an b

e pl

ante

d ea

rly

afte

r fir

st r

ains

.

If p

oss

ible

, fer

tiliz

e w

ith S

SP

or

TSP

bef

ore

pla

ntin

g.

Cho

ose

go

od

qual

ity s

eed.

Dre

ss s

eed

with

thi

ram

to

co

ntro

l fun

gal a

nd b

acte

rial

gr

ow

th.

Sow

at

5–6

cm d

epth

.

Spac

e at

45

x 7.

5–10

cm

fo

r bu

nch

type

var

ietie

s.

Spac

e at

45

x 10–1

5 cm

fo

r Se

mi-e

rect

typ

e va

riet

ies

or

or

Lo C

En

sure

go

od

wee

d co

ntro

l.

Wee

d by

ha

nd

pulli

ng

to a

void

ear

thin

g up

and

da

mag

e to

peg

ging

.

Che

ck

for

pest

s an

d di

seas

es a

nd c

ontr

ol w

here

ne

cess

ary

B

Ensu

re g

ood

wee

d co

ntro

l.

Avo

id e

arth

ing

up

plan

ts w

hen

usin

g ho

e.

Che

ck fo

r ap

hids

or

leaf

min

ers a

nd c

ont

rol

if ne

cess

ary.

D

If

wee

ding

is

requ

ired

use

han

d pu

lling

.

Che

ck fo

r pe

sts

and

dise

ases

and

co

ntro

l whe

re

nece

ssar

y.

F

Dry

pod

s on

mat

s fo

r a fu

rther

2–

5 da

ys.

If A

-fram

es o

r coc

ks u

sed,

dry

for

3–

4 w

eeks

and

then

pic

koff

the

pods

.

Do

not d

ry a

ny fu

rther

afte

r pi

ckin

g.

Bef

ore

stor

ing

rem

ove

poor

, da

mag

ed, s

hriv

elle

d, ro

tten

or fu

ngus

-in

fect

ed p

ods.

Sto

re p

ods

in g

unny

bag

s in

a c

ool,

dry,

wel

l ven

tilat

ed s

tore

.

Do

not s

tore

moi

st g

roun

dnut

s.

Do

not u

se p

last

ic o

r pol

ywea

ve b

ags

E

Har

vest

whe

n 70

% o

r m

ore

po

ds a

re m

atur

e.

Use

dar

k m

arki

ngs

on

insi

de o

f sh

ell.

Seed

s sh

oul

d be

plu

mp

and

co

rrec

t co

lour

fo

r va

riet

y.

If c

rop

is s

ever

ely

defo

liate

d (9

5%)

or

spro

utin

g ha

s be

gun,

ha

rves

t st

raig

ht a

way

.

Cle

an e

xces

s so

il fr

om

po

ds.

Wilt

/dry

in w

indr

ow

s fo

r 3–

5 da

ys.

Ack

now

ledg

emen

ts: P

eanu

t C

RSP

, A

GR

A, T

L2, I

FAD

-EU

, N

AR

O, N

aSA

RR

I, A

ll st

akeh

old

ers

Adap

ted

rom

Pag

e et

at.,

200

2 w

ith m

odi

catio

ns

National Semi-Arid Resources Research Institute P. O. Private Bag Soroti, Uganda

http//www.naro.go.ughttp://www.nasarri.go.ug/oil_crop.php

97 89970 40106 2

ISBN: 978-9970-401-06-2

Groundnut Production Guide for Uganda

Documents

Transcript of Groundnut Production Guide for Uganda