Green B. Trimble Technical High School - Oswalt...

Green B. Trimble Technical High School

A VOCABULARY FOR DESCRIBING LANGUAGE

TONE

TONE (POSITIVE) Happiness amiable* cheery contented* ecstatic elevated* elevated* enthusiastic exuberant* joyful jubilant* sprightly* Pleasure cheerful enraptured* peaceful playful pleasant satisfied amused appreciative whimsical* Friendliness, Courtesy accommodating* approving caressing comforting compassionate confiding cordial* courteous forgiving gracious* helpful indulgent* kindly obliging* pitying polite sociable solicitous* soothing sympathetic tender tolerant trusting Animation ardent* breathless brisk crisp eager excited earnest* ecstatic energetic exalted* feverish* hasty hearty hopeful inspired lively passionate rapturous* vigorous* impassioned* Romance affectionate amorous* erotic* fanciful* ideal* lustful sensual* tender Tranquility calm hopeful meditative* optimistic serene relaxed soothing spiritual dreamy

TONE (NEUTRAL) General authoritative* baffled* ceremonial clinical* detached* disbelieving factual formal informative learned matter-of-fact nostalgic* objective* questioning reminiscent* restrained* sentimental* shocked urgent Rational/Logical admonitory* argumentative candid* coaxing critical curious deliberate didactic* doubting explanatory frank* incredulous* indignant* innocent insinuating* instructive oracular* pensive* persuasive pleading preoccupied* puzzled sincere studied* thoughtful uncertain unequivocal* probing* Self-Control solemn* serious serene simple mild gentle temperate* imperturbable* nonchalant* cool wary* cautious prudent* Apathy

blasé* bored colorless defeated dispassionate* dry* dull feeble* helpless hopeless indifferent* inert* languid* monotonous* resigned* sluggish* stoical* sophisticated* vacant* TONE (HUMOR/IRONY/SARCASM) amused bantering* bitter caustic* comical condescending* contemptuous* cynical* disdainful* droll* facetious* flippant* giddy* humorous insolent* ironic* irreverent* joking malicious* mock-heroic* mocking mock-serious* patronizing* pompous* quizzical* ribald* ridiculing sarcastic sardonic* satiric* scornful* sharp silly taunting teasing whimsical* wry* belittling haughty* insulting playful hilarious uproarious TONE (NEGATIVE) General accusing aggravated* agitated* angry arrogant artificial audacious* belligerent* bitter brash* childish choleric* coarse* cold condemnatory condescending contradictory critical desperate disappointed disgruntled* disgusted disinterested passive furious harsh hateful hurtful indignant* inflammatory* insulting irritated manipulative* obnoxious* quarrelsome shameful superficial surly* testy* threatening uninterested Sadness despairing despondent* foreboding* gloomy bleak melancholy* maudlin* regretful tragic Pain annoyed biter bored crushed disappointed disgusted dismal* fretful* irritable miserable mournful pathetic plaintive* querulous* sore sorrowful sour sulky sullen” troubled uneasy* vexed* worried Unfriendliness accusing belittling boorish* cutting derisive* disparaging* impudent* pitiless reproving* scolding severe spiteful suspicious unsociable reproachful* Anger belligerent* furious livid* wrathful* savage indignant* enraged Passion fierce frantic* greedy voracious* hysterical insane impetuous* impulsive* jealous nervous reckless wild Arrogance/Self-Importance boastful bold condescending contemptuous pretentious* pompous* supercilious* pedantic* didactic* bombastic* self-righteous* assured confident defiant dignified domineering egotistical imperious* impressive smug* knowing lofty peremptory* profound* proud resolute* sententious* stiff saucy*

Sorrow/Fear/Worry aggravated anxious apologetic* apprehensive* concerned confused depressed disturbed embarrassing fearful grave* hollow* morose* nervous numb ominous* paranoid* pessimistic poignant* remorseful* serious staid* enigmatic* Submission/Timidity aghast* alarmed ashamed astonished astounded awed contrite* self-deprecatory* docile* fawning* groveling* ingratiating* meek* modest* obedient] obsequious* resigned respectful reverent* servile* shy submissive* surprised sycophantic* terrified timid tremulous* unpretentious* willing

VERBS These verbs will be especially effective when the subject is the author or a character. They are excellent replacements for “be” verbs and instrumental in the formulation of thesis and theme statements. Careful use of these verbs can result in precise identification of an author’s purpose. Follow your teacher’s directions to categorize the verbs as transitive, intransitive, positive, negative, or neutral. VERBS FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS accentuates accepts achieves adopts advocates* affects alleviates allows alludes* alters* analyzes approaches argues ascertains* assesses* assumes attacks attempts attributes* avoids bases believes challenges changes characterizes chooses chronicles claims comments compares compels* completes concerns concludes condescends conducts conforms confronts* considers contends* contests* contrasts contributes conveys convinces defines defies demonstrates depicts* describes delineates* despises details determines develops deviates* differentiates* differs directs disappoints discovers discusses displays disputes disrupts* distinguishes distorts* downplays dramatizes elevates elicits* emphasizes encounters enhances enriches enumerates* envisions evokes excludes expands experiences explains expresses extends extrapolates* fantasizes focuses forces foreshadows functions generalizes* guides heightens highlights hints holds honors identifies illustrates illuminates imagines impels* implies* includes indicates infers* inspires intends interprets interrupts inundates* justifies juxtaposes* lambasts” laments* lampoons* lists maintains makes manages manipulates minimizes moralizes* muses* notes observes opposes organizes overstates outlines patronizes* performs permits personifies* persuades ponders* portrays postulates* prepares presents presumes produces projects promotes proposes provides qualifies* questions rationalizes reasons recalls recites recollects records recounts reflects refers regards regrets rejects represents results reveals ridicules satirizes* seems sees selects specifies speculates* states strives* suggests summarizes supplies supports suppresses* symbolizes sympathizes traces understands vacillates* values verifies*

VERBS TO USE INSTEAD OF EXEMPLIFIES appears asserts attests to certifies confirms connotes* corroborates* defines demonstrates denotes* depicts discloses* elucidates* endorses* establishes evinces* exhibits expounds* exposes intimates* manifests* points to proves ratifies* relates shows substantiates* suggests typifies* upholds validates*

ADJECTIVES FOR USE IN LITERARY/RHETORICAL DISCUSSION

DESCRIBING THE AUTHOR cultured intellectual erudite* well-read sagacious* sensible rational philosophic* analytical imaginative perceptive visionary* prophetic* optimistic broad-minded* idealistic* spiritual orthodox* unorthodox* sympathetic sophisticated* original whimsical* humorous conservative* liberal* progressive* radical* reactionary* unprejudiced realistic* romantic* shallow superficial bigoted opinionated* intolerant hypocritical* fanatical* provincial* narrow-minded* sentimental skeptical* cynical* DESCRIBING STYLE/CONTENT lucid* graphic* intelligible* explicit* precise exact concise* succinct* condensed* pithy* piquant* aphoristic* syllogistic* allusive* metaphorical poetic prosaic* plain simple homespun* pure vigorous* forceful eloquent* sonorous* fluent glib* natural restrained* smooth polished* classical artistic bombastic* extravagant rhetorical* turgid* pompous* grandiose* obscure* vague diffuse* verbose* pedantic* ponderous* ungraceful harsh abrupt* labored* awkward unpolished crude* vulgar* formal artificial utilitarian* humanistic* pragmatic* naturalistic* impressionistic* subjective* melodramatic* fanciful* authentic* plausible* credible* recondite* controversial mystical* improbable* absurd trivial commonplace heretical* DESCRIBING DICTION high or formal low or informal neutral precise exact concrete abstract* plain simple homespun esoteric* learned cultured literal* figurative* connotative* symbolic picturesque* sensuous* literary provincial* colloquial* slang* idiomatic* neologistic* inexact euphemistic* trite* obscure* pedantic* bombastic* grotesque vulgar* jargon* emotional obtuse* moralistic* ordinary scholarly insipid* proper pretentious* old-fashioned DESCRIBING SYNTAX loose sentence periodic* balanced* interrupted simple* compound* complex* compound-complex* declarative* interrogative* imperative* exclamatory* telegraphic* antithetic* inverted* euphonic* rhythmical epigrammatic* emphatic incoherent rambling tortuous jerky cacophonic* monotonous spare austere* unadorned* jumbled chaotic obfuscating* journalistic* terse* laconic* mellifluous* musical lilting* lyrical* elegant solid

DESCRIBING ORGANIZATION/STRUCTURE/POINT OF VIEW spatial* chronological flashback flash forward* in media res* step-by-step objective* subjective* nostalgic* reminiscent contemplative* reflective* clinical* impersonal* dramatic* omniscient* limited* DESCRIBING IMAGERY (Substitute these precise adjectives for less precise ones such as vivid, colorful, and powerful.) bucolic* pastoral* gustatory* olfactory* tactile* kinetic* kinesthetic* sensual* sacred sexual auditory* religious animal war/military chaotic

DESCRIBING CHARACTERS (Great substitutions for pretty and ugly!) Physical Qualities manly virile* robust* hardy* sturdy strapping* stalwart* muscular brawny* lovely fair comely* handsome dainty delicate graceful elegant shapely attractive winsome* ravishing* dapper* immaculate adroit* dexterous* adept* skillful agile* nimble* active lively spirited* vivacious* weak feeble* sickly frail decrepit* emaciated* cadaverous* effeminate* unwomanly hideous homely* course* unkempt* slovenly* awkward clumsy ungainly* graceless bizarre* grotesque incongruous* ghastly repellent* repugnant* repulsive odious* invidious* loathsome* Mental Qualities (Great substitutions for smart and stupid! Which comments would you like to see on your papers?) educated erudite* scholarly wise astute* intellectual precocious* capable competent gifted apt* rational reasonable sensible shrewd* prudent* observant clever ingenious* inventive subtle* cunning* crafty* wily* unintelligent unschooled* unlettered* ignorant illiterate* inane* irrational puerile* foolish fatuous* vacuous* simple thick-skulled* idiotic imbecilic* witless* deranged* demented* articulate* eloquent* Moral Qualities (Great substitutions for good and bad!) idealistic* innocent virtuous* faultless righteous* guileless* upright* exemplary chaste* pure undefiled* temperate* abstentious* austere* ascetic* puritanical* truthful honorable trustworthy straightforward* decent respectable wicked corrupt* degenerate* notorious* vicious incorrigible* dissembling* infamous* immoral* unprincipled* reprobate* depraved* indecent* ribald* vulgar* intemperate* sensual* dissolute* deceitful dishonest unscrupulous* dishonorable* base* vile* foul* recalcitrant* philandering* opportunistic* Spiritual Qualities (More great substitutions for good and bad!) religious reverent pious* devout* faithful regenerate* holy saintly angelic skeptical* agnostic* atheistic* irreligious* impious* irreverent* profane* sacrilegious* materialistic carnal* godless diabolic* fiendlike* blasphemous* unregenerate* altruistic* charitable Social Qualities (Terrific substitutions for nice and mean!) civil* amicable* contentious* unpolished* sullen*

tactful* courteous cooperative genial* affable* hospitable* gracious* amiable* cordial* congenial* convivial* jovial* jolly urbane* suave* anti-social* acrimonious* quarrelsome antagonistic* misanthropic* discourteous impudent* impolite insolent* ill-bred ill-mannered unrefined rustic* provincial* boorish* brusque* churlish* fawning* obsequious* sniveling* grumpy fractious* crusty* peevish* petulant* waspish* taciturn* reticent* gregarious* garrulous*

NOUNS FOR USE IN LITERARY/RHETORICAL DISCUSSION ANALYZING CHARACTERS foil* nemesis* adversary* protagonist* antagonist* confidante* doppelganger* narrator (unknown, reliable, naïve) ANALYZING STRUCTURE/ORGANIZATION/POINT OF VIEW foreshadowing epiphany* analogy* extended metaphor* shifts parallel structure comparison/contrast transition sequence definition juxtaposition* anecdote* frame story* arrangement classification categorization placement person (first, second, third)* perspective (chronological, geographic, emotional, political)* ANALYZING SYNTAX repetition parallelism anaphora* asyndeton* polysyndeton* subject* predicate* object* direct object* indirect object* phrase* clause* infinitive* participle* gerund* modifier* dependent clause* independent clause* subordinate clause* preposition* conjunction* interjection* deliberate fragment* appositive* emphatic appositive* semicolon* colon* rhetorical question* noun* comma pronoun* proper noun* common noun* collective noun* abstract noun* concrete noun* dialogue* apostrophe* chiasmus* parenthetical expression footnote capitalization for effect inversion* antecedent* hyphen* dash* active voice* passive voice* tense catalogue* compound nouns/adjectives IDENTIFYING GENRE/PURPOSE novel novella* autobiography* memoir* biography letter sermon speech treatise* abstract* précis* synopsis critique* personal narrative journey travelogue essay* diatribe* polemic* commentary* farce* conceit* editorial* tirade* review assessment eulogy* elegy* parody* allegory* apology soliloquy* monologue* portrayal archetype* fable* argument verse IDENTIFYING SOUND DEVICES alliteration* assonance* consonance* repetition* rhyme* end rhyme* feminine rhyme* masculine rhyme* meter* slant rhyme* incremental rhyme*

THE LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENT

VERBS attack charge claim propose defend challenge qualify counter repudiate* allege* validate confirm affirm* argue assume answer agree/disagree verify resolve concede* grant* generalize specify debate dispute assert NOUNS warrant validity plausibility* practicality proposal solution resolution bias credibility accountability vested interest conflict of interests enthymeme* pathos* ethos* logos* counterargument premise* syllogism* deduction* induction* fallacy* ad hominem exigence* speaker audience purpose message precedent* testimonial* rebuttal* antithesis* non sequitur* circular reasoning* bandwagon* refutation slippery slope* anecdote* advocacy* rhetoric* invective* proponent* assertion adherent * red herring* qualifier* begging the question* justification cause/effect

TRANSITION WORDS

Time Place Idea Extending elaboration by comparing

Extending elaboration by contrasting

Extending elaboration by emphasizing/clarifying

Extending elaboration by adding another example

after, afterward, at first, as before, finally, immediately, later, next, now, previously, soon, then

above, ahead, among, beyond, down, elsewhere, farther, here, in front of, in the background, near, nearby, next to, there

first, second, third, similarly, as, in the same way, for instance, likewise, however

as, at the same time, by comparison, equally, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

although, and yet, as, as though, at the same time, but, in contrast, conversely, even so, unlike, even though, however, in spite of, instead of, neither, nevertheless, on the one hand, on the other hand, provided that, though, unfortunately, whereas, yet

especially, for instance, in fact, indeed, that is, in other words

moreover, most important, now, so , additionally, again, also, especially, in addition, in fact, last, again, also, besides, equally important, furthermore, similarly, in contrast

Transition list from Crafting Expository Argument by Michael Degen

THEME VOCABULARY

Brendan Kenny’s List of Abstract Ideas for Forming Theme Statements:

alienation ambition appearance v. reality betrayal bureaucracy chance/fate/luck children courage/cowardice cruelty/violence custom/tradition defeat/failure despair/discontent/disillusionment domination/suppression dreams/fantasies

duty education escape exile faith/loss of faith falsity/pretence family/parenthood free will/willpower game/contests/sports greed guilt heart v. reason heaven/paradise/Utopia home

identity illusion/innocence initiation instinct journey (literal or psychological) law/justice loneliness/solitude loyalty/disloyalty materialism memory/the past mob psychology music/dance patriotism

persistence/perseverance poverty prejudice prophecy repentance revenge/retribution ritual/ceremony scapegoat/victim social status (class) the supernatural time/eternity war women/feminism

IDENTIFYING THEME

Method A (sample from Writing Essays about Literature by Kelley Griffith): Subject

1. What is the work about? Provide a one to three word answer. See “Theme Vocabulary” above. Theme

2. What is the author’s message with regard to #1 as it pertains to the human condition? In other words, what comment does the work make on human nature, the human condition, human motivation, or human ambition?

3. In identifying and stating theme, be sure that the observation (a) is not too terse to express the complexity of the human experience (b) avoids moralizing words such as should and ought (c) avoids specific reference to plot and characters (d) avoids absolute words such as anyone, all, none, everything, and everyone

4. Using both dependent and independent clauses, write a complex sentence which fulfills the requirements above and which explains one of the major themes of the work.

Sample for Anna Karenina: Subject: sacred versus profane love Theme: Although people can, through no fault of their own, become entrapped in long-lasting and destructive relationships, “sacred” commitments, like marriage and parenthood, take precedence over extramarital “loves,” no matter how passionate and deeply felt they may be.

IDENTIFYING THEME

Method B (adapted from material by Brendan Kenny):

1. Theme is an abstract idea (See “Theme Vocabulary” above.) coupled with a universal comment or observation which addresses one of the following: (a) human motivation (b) the human condition (c) human ambition.

2. A strategy for discovering a work’s theme is to apply questions about these areas to the work.

• What image of humankind emerges from the work? If people are good, what good things do

they do? If people are “no damned good” (Mark Twain), how and to what extent are they flawed?

• *What moral issues are raised in the work? Who serves as the “moral center” of the work?

Who is the one person with whom the author vests right action and right thought? What values does the moral center embody?

• Is the society or social scheme portrayed by the author life-enhancing or life-destroying?

What causes and perpetuates this society?

• What control over their lives do the characters have? Are there forces beyond their control?

• How do the title, subtitle, epigraph, and names of the characters relate to the theme?

3. In identifying and stating theme, be sure that the observation

(a) is not too terse to express the complexity of the human experience (b) avoids moralizing words such as should and ought (c) avoids specific reference to plot and characters (d) avoids absolute words such as anyone, all, none, everything, and everyone

4. Sample for “The Most Dangerous Game”:

• Men, when they are courageous and lucky, even in a hostile environment, can overcome the odds against their survival.

Sample for The Catcher in the Rye:

• In the presence of corruption, escape may provide some hope of preserving our innocence but denies our responsibility to alter, rebel against or sometimes grow to accept what we see as threatening.

Developing an Analytical Voice

Level One: Identify how the situation is created; observe what you see

(collecting evidence) Diction: what types of words are used or repeated?

Imagery: How is the image created? What are its parts? What senses are provoked? Detail: What’s the setting? Who are the characters? What are the facts of the text

that doesn’t require quoting its language?

Level Two: What abstract

associations emerge from the language of the text?

Fear? Excitement? Violence? Chaos? Order?

Arrogance? Submission? Confidence? Confinement? Freedom? Benevolence?

Level Three: Identify the

relationships to the rest of the text:

repetition [similarity, analogy, recurrence, echo, parallelism] contrast [incongruity, antithesis, opposition, tension]

shift [turn, transformation, alteration] juxtaposition [contiguity, adjacency]

The association may be part of a larger Interpretive Perspective / CLAIM about:

Tone Attitude Voice

Atmosphere Character Thematic idea Ethical appeal Logical appeal Emotional appeal Aristotle’s Topics:

definition, comparison, consequence

This list of “Level Two” words is only a sample list. Any abstract noun that names what the evidence (Level

One) conveys may be appropriate. See

page 12, (theme vocabulary) for

additional ideas or generate your own.

How to Connect Rhetorical

Choices to Meaning NOTE: In general, a connection of device to meaning should be 3-5 sentences long. The templates below are a

starting place; you will eventually learn to vary them to suit your purposes. A connection must articulate the meaning a device suggests and HOW this suggestion is achieved.

Diction • Identify the grammatical unit (phrase, noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.) and provide the context in

which it appears in the text. Consider connotation as well as denotation. Do NOT write: The writer uses diction. That’s like saying: The writer uses words.

• Connect the diction to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model: The phrase* ____________________________ used to describe/identify__________________________________

conveys _______________________ since / because / in that ___________________________________________

______________. This is significant because _______________________________________________________.

* or the noun, verb, adjective, adverb Example: The phrase, “a thin beard of ivy,” used to describe Jay Gatsby’s mansion conveys both intrigue and inexperience. Since the ivy is “thin,” Fitzgerald suggests a wealth without lineage, newly formed and barely veiled; yet, the ivy as a “beard” suggests a worldly desire to conceal. This is significant because through the description of his mansion, Gatsby is portrayed as both ingénue and chameleon, alerting the reader to the protagonist’s dual and perhaps contradictory nature.

Syntax • Identify the syntactical choice the author has made and provide the context in which it appears in the

text. Do NOT write: The writer uses syntax. Since syntax refers to the order and structure of words, phrases, etc, it always exists – even if you do not find it noteworthy.

• Connect the syntax to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model: The ________________________________ function(s) to ____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________. This structure

supports the author’s purpose to _________________________________________________________.

Example: Gatsby’s interrupted sentences dramatize his nervousness and hesitation as he discusses his upcoming meeting with Daisy at Nick’s bungalow. Stuttering, “Why, I thought – why, look here, old sport, you don’t

make very much money, do you,” Gatsby reveals his true vulnerability and weakness showing a stark contrast to the “greatness” that has been established in the early chapters of the novel. Fitzgerald continues to reveal chinks in Gatsby’s armor as the novel progresses preparing the reader for protagonist’s ultimate fall.

Helpful hint: Some other examples of purposeful syntactical choices an author might make: parallelism, anaphora, rhetorical question, appositives, polysyndeton, asyndeton, prepositional phrases, etc. According to Jeff Sommers and Max Morenberg, authors of The Writer’s Options, appositives define, summarize, and clarify. Prepositional phrases may elaborate and clarify by indicating how, where, when, why.

Imagery (word pictures appealing to one of the 6 senses (visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile, kinesthetic) – if

you can’t identify which one, it isn’t a valid example of imagery)

• Identify the image and provide the context in which it appears in the text. • Connect the image to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original

insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

The image of ______________________________ depicts a (picture, sense, state, etc.) of __________

_____________________________ because the reader (sees, envisions, realizes) that ______________

___________________________________________________________________________________.

This is significant because ______________________________________________________________.

Example: The image of an “argument . . . pull[ing]” Nick back to the party “as if with ropes” conveys his helpless struggle to get away from the gathering in Tom and Myrtle’s apartment at the same time that it dramatizes his fascination with the inebriated and adulterous events that are occurring. The reader can see that much as ropes confine, restrain, and render one helpless, Nick, due perhaps to a lack of experience or a flawed moral code, remains discomfited yet seems unable to confront or reject the lies and pretenses of the party guests. This is significant because the reader must question Nick’s declaration that he is tolerant and honest.

Figurative Language: Metaphor or Simile • Identify the metaphor or simile and provide the context in which it appears in the text. • Connect the metaphor or simile to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an

original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model: The subject of (x) _____________________ is compared to (y) ____________________. This is fitting

because (x) _______________________ and (y) ______________________ share these characteristics: (a)

____________________________________ and (b) ______________________________________. This

is significant because ______________________________________________________________._

Example: In his “I Have a Dream” speech, Martin Luther King, Jr. compares the condition of poverty to a “lonely island.” This is a fitting comparison because poverty and a lonely island share these characteristics: (a) isolation and alienation from the “vast ocean of material prosperity” which surrounds them and (b) both are small, singled out, vulnerable, and surrounded by something they don’t possess. This comparison causes the audience to consider the tangible social barriers created by an invisible financial limitation to feel sympathy for the isolated poor.

Figurative Language: Personification (a figure of speech in which animals, abstract ideas, or inanimate things are referred to as if they were human)

• Identify the animal, abstract idea or inanimate thing and provide the context in which it appears in the text. Identify the human characteristic that is ascribed to it.

• Connect the effect of the personification to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

In _______________________________, ___________________is personified as possessing the human

characteristic(s) of ___________________________________________. The author employs

personification in order to___________________________________________________________.

Example:

"Today, we begin a new chapter in the history of Louisiana. I've said throughout the campaign that there are two entities that have the most to fear from us winning this election. One is corruption and the other is incompetence. If you happen to see either of them, let them know the party is over."

-- Bobby Jindal, Louisiana Governor-Elect victory Speech (as posted on americanrhetoric.com)

In Bobby Jindal’s victory speech, the abstract ideas of corruption and incompetence are personified as possessing human form and consciousness. The governor-elect suggests that members of his audience might encounter or “see” them and should inform them that their “party” is over. Through this characterization, Jindal simultaneously emphasizes his strength as a leader and sends a strong message, without naming specific perpetrators, that those who may possess those qualities will be driven out of the state’s government.

Figurative Language: Hyperbole (deliberate exaggeration used to heighten effect or create humor – remember that this is a figure of speech not meant to be interpreted literally – e.g., I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.)

• Identify what is being exaggerated and provide the context in which it appears in the text. • Connect the effect of the hyperbole to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. • Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

The deliberate exaggeration of _________________________________ serves to express ____________

________________________. Through this heightened image, the reader_________________________.

Example:

From Robert Frost’s poem, “After Apple-Picking”

For I have had too much Of apple-picking: I am overtired Of the great harvest I myself desired. There were ten thousand fruit to touch, Cherish in hand, lift sown, and not let fall. In Frost’s poem, “After Apple-Picking,” the speaker deliberately exaggerates the number of apples in order to emphasize his shift from excitement and desire to his extreme weariness during the harvest. The speaker has had “too much” as a result of the “ten thousand” fruit to touch. Through this image, the reader comes to understand that the speaker is not only weary of body, but is also “overtired” in spirit as well.

[Example taken from A Contemporary Guide to Literary Terms by Edwin J. Barton and Glenda A. Hudson (Houghton Mifflin, 2004)]

Symbol

• Identify both the concrete and abstract meanings of the symbol and provide the context in which it appears in the text.

• Connect the symbol to specific characters in this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

The ________________________________ symbolizes ________________________________ concrete abstract for _______________________________ because it represents __________________________

_________________________Through this symbol, the author ____________________________.

Example:

The pearls Daisy Buchanan rescues from the trash and subsequently wears “around her neck” symbolize her ultimate choice of money over love because they represent Tom’s vast wealth (they were “valued at three hundred and fifty thousand dollars”) in contrast to Gatsby’s avowal of love, symbolized by the letter she “wouldn’t let go of.” By highlighting Daisy’s donning of the pearls, Fitzgerald comments on the shallow and misguided values of the 20th Century American, one who pursues the elusive “dream” instead of concrete relationships.

Detail • Identify the detail and provide the context in which it appears in the text. • Describe the function of the inclusion of that detail in this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide

an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model: The detail of _____________________________________________ conveys _____________________

___________________ since/because/in that ______________________________________________. The

author wants the reader to see ______________________________ because/so that ____________

Example:

The detail of the string of polo ponies Tom Buchanan brought east with him from Chicago conveys his vast wealth and hedonism. Moving the ponies is expensive and unnecessary, suggesting that Tom does not need to concern himself with cost but does concern himself with appearing more powerful than his peers. Fitzgerald wants the reader to see Tom as spoiled and self-indulgent so that Tom will appear distasteful even before the reader learns of his current affair.

Allusion • Identify the allusion (indirect reference by an author to another text, historical occurrence, or to

myths and legends) and provide the context in which it appears in the text. • Describe the function of the allusion in this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original

insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

The author or speaker alludes to ________________________________________ in order to

______________________________________________. Through this reference, the reader connects

___________________________ to _________________ and can more fully understand the author’s

purpose to _________________________________________.

Example:

“For us, they fought and died, in places like Concord and Gettysburg; Normandy and Khe Sahn.” —Barack Obama

Obama’s allusions to Concord, Gettysburg, Normandy, and Khe Sahn offer examples of struggles that Americans have faced in the past which parallel the unique struggles Americans believe they are currently facing with our economy, environment, and world conflict. Even though the references are meant to show these struggles, the president’s desired effect is to provide hope and resolve to the listener since these battles resulted in victories for America. Citizens are reminded that they can be victorious in our modern struggles.

Examples of “generic” commentary: gets the reader’s attention, draws the reader in, etc.

Writing Errors to Avoid

#1: Incorrect Punctuation of Two Independent Clauses (An independent clause has a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.) Good writers know that correct punctuation is important to writing clear sentences. If you misuse a mark of punctuation, you risk confusing your reader and appearing careless. Notice how the placement of commas significantly affects the meaning of these sentences:

Mr. Jones, says Ms. Moore, is a boring old fool. Mr. Jones says Ms. Moore is a boring old fool.

Writers often combine independent clauses in a single compound sentence to emphasize the relationship between ideas. The punctuation of compound sentences varies depending upon how you connect the clauses.

The rules are: (a) Separate independent clauses with a comma when using a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so,

yet). (b) Separate independent clauses with a semi-colon when no coordinating conjunction is used. (c) Separate independent clauses with a semi-colon when using a conjunctive adverb (e.g., however, therefore, thus,

consequently, finally, nevertheless). Examples of Correct Punctuation, Rule a: 1. We all looked worse than usual, for we had stayed up studying for the exam. 2. This room is unbelievably hot, and I think that I am going to pass out. Examples of Correct Punctuation, Rule b: 1. We all looked worse than usual; we had stayed up all night studying for the exam. 2. This room is unbelievably hot; I think I am going to pass out.

Examples of Correct Punctuation, Rule c: 1. We all looked worse than usual; however, we were relieved we had studied. 2. The discussion is really interesting; nevertheless, I think I am going to pass out.

#2: Misuse of the Apostrophe Use the apostrophe to indicate possession and to mark omitted letters in contractions. Writers often misuse apostrophes when forming plurals and possessives. The basic rule is quite simple: use the apostrophe to indicate possession, not a plural. Yes, the exceptions to the rule may seem confusing: hers has no apostrophe, and it's is not possessive. Nevertheless, with a small amount of attention, you can learn the rules and the exceptions of apostrophe use. Possessives

• Form the possessive case of a singular noun by adding 's (even if the word ends in s). Hammurabi's code, Dickens's last novel, James's cello

• Form the possessive case of a plural noun by adding an apostrophe after the final letter if it is an s or by adding 's if the final letter is not an s.

the students' desks, the children's toys

• Remember: the apostrophe never designates the plural form of a noun. A common error is the use of the apostrophe to form a non-possessive plural. Compare the following correct sentences:

The student's disk was missing. Several students' disks were missing. The students searched for their missing disks.

• Possessive pronouns, such as yours, hers, its, and ours, take no apostrophe.

The decision is yours.

• Indefinite pronouns, such as anyone, everybody, no one, somebody, use the singular possessive form. Somebody's dog stayed in our suite last night.

Contractions

• The apostrophe is used to mark omitted letters in contractions. (Note: contractions are often considered too informal for academic writing.)

• Avoid the dreadful it's/its confusion. It's is a contraction for it is. It's is never a possessive. Its is the possessive for it.

As Professors Strunk and White remind us in Elements of Style, “It's a wise dog that scratches its own fleas” (1).

#3: Pronoun Problems Pronouns are useful as substitutes for nouns, but a poorly chosen pronoun can obscure the meaning of a sentence. Common pronoun errors include:

• Unclear Pronoun Reference A pronoun must refer to a specific noun (the antecedent). Ambiguous pronoun reference creates confusing sentences. Poor Example: Writers should spend time thinking about their arguments to make sure they are not superficial.

(Unclear antecedent: who or what are superficial?)

If a whiff of ambiguity exists, use a noun: A key difference between banking crises of today and yesterday is that today’s crises have greater global impact.

• Vague Subject Pronoun Pronouns such as it, there, and this often make weak subjects. Poor Example: Pope Gregory VII forced Emperor Henry IV to wait three days in the snow at Canossa before granting him an

audience. It was a symbolic act. (To what does it refer? Forcing the Emperor to wait? The waiting? The granting of the audience? The audience? The entire sentence?)

Use a pronoun as subject only when its antecedent is crystal clear.

Aristotle and the Appeals of Rhetoric Logos, Ethos, Pathos

Logical Appeals- (logos) Logical appeals are the reasons given for supporting a particular argument. Examples of logical appeals include the use of evidence, facts and figures, references to current events, and testimony. Effective logical appeals depend upon the ability of the writer to connect the multiple examples of support to each other in meaningful ways.

� Incorporate inductive or deductive reasoning � Allude to history, great literature, or mythology � Provide reputable testimony � Provide evidence, facts � Cite authorities � Quote research or statistics � Theorize cause and effect � Argue that something meets a given definition

Example:

We gotta get these nets. They’re coated with an insecticide and cost between $4 and $6. You need about $10, all told, to get them shipped and installed. Some nets can cover a family of four. And they last four years. If we can cut the spread of disease, 10 bucks means a kid might get to live. Make it $20 and more kids are saved.

Taken from Rick Reilly’s “Nothing But Nets” Ethical Appeals- (ethos) Ethical appeals are attempts by the speaker/writer to make connections to the audience by appearing knowledgeable, reasonable, ethical, etc. A writer is able to make an effective argument only when readers have no reason to doubt the writer’s character on a given topic. Writers who fail to acknowledge other points of view, exaggerate, or assume a tone of disrespect have difficulty making ethical appeals to readers.

� Make the audience believe the writer is trustworthy � Demonstrate the writer carefully conducted research � Demonstrate that the writer knows the audience and respects them � Convince the audience that the writer is reliable and knowledgeable � Use first person plural pronouns (“we” and “us”) to establish a relationship with the audience

Example: My Fellow Clergymen:

While confined here in Birmingham city jail, I came across your recent statement calling my present activities unwise and untimely,…since I feel that you are men of genuine good will and that your criticisms are sincerely set forth, I want to answer your statement in what I hope will be patient and reasonable terms.

Taken from Martin Luther King, Jr. -- “Letter from Birmingham Jail” Emotional Appeals- (pathos) Emotional appeals reach the reader by activating the reader’s emotions. Often writers make emotional appeals by including sensory details, especially imagery. Calling upon the reader’s pleasant memories, nostalgia, anger, or fear are frequent emotional appeals found in argumentative texts. The presence of “charged words” (references to religious doctrine or patriotic ideas) in an argumentative text represents an attempt at an emotional appeal by the writer.

� Include language that involves the senses and heightens emotional responses � Reference bias or prejudice � Include a personal anecdote � Appeal to the audience’s physical, psychological, or social needs � Create figurative language � Experiment with informal language

Example:

Put it this way: Let’s say your little Justin’s Kickin’ Kangaroos have a big youth soccer tournament on Saturday. There are 15 kids on the soccer team, 10 teams in the tourney. And there are 20 of these tournaments going on all over town. Suddenly, every one of these kids gets chills and fever, then starts throwing up and then gets short of breath. And in 10 days, they’re all dead of malaria.

Taken from Rick Reilly’s “Nothing but Nets”

POETRY FOCUS STATEMENT DEFINITION: A one to two-sentence summary of the narrative situation, theme and tone of the poem USE: As a potential thesis for a FREE-RESPONSE Poetry Question on the AP Literature EXAM CRITICAL ATTRIBUTES: Includes the title of the poem and name of the poet

• Is written in “Literary Present Tense”

• the Narrative Situation of the poem

• Includes a thoughtful, but concise indication of the THEME

• Identifies the TONE(S) of the poem. These may be different but complimentary. Shifts in TONE may also be identified as well.

DIRECTIONS:

1. The syntax of poetry focus statements is compound or complex because you are addressing both the LITERAL (the narrative situation) and the THEMATIC.

2. Draw a straight line under the LITERAL part of the statement. It should be subordinated to the THEMATIC. That is, it should be found in the dependent clause.

3. Draw a squiggly line under the THEMATIC part of the statement. It should be found in the main or independent clause.

4. Articulate yourself in a scholarly manner. See “VERBS for LITERARY ABNALYSIS” and TONE WORDS contained within in this document.

Short Answer Rubric

3 Exemplary

VIP

2 Sufficient

PassingPassingPassingPassing

1 Not Enough

Failing

0 Insufficient

idk?idk?idk?idk?

The idea is perceptive and reflects an awareness of the complexities of the text. The student is able to develop a coherent explanation of the idea by making discerning connections across the text.

The text evidence used to support the idea is specific and well chosen. Overall, the evidence strongly supports the validity of the idea.

The combination of the idea and the text evidence demonstrates a deep understanding of the text.

The idea is reasonable and goes beyond a literal reading of the text. It is explained specifically enough to show that the student can make appropriate connections across the text and draw valid conclusions.

The text evidence used to support the idea is accurate and relevant.

The idea and text evidence used to support it are clearly linked.

The combination of the idea and the text evidence demonstrates a good understanding of the text.

The idea is reasonable, but the response contains no text evidence.

The idea is reasonable, but the text evidence is flawed and does not adequately support the idea. Text evidence is considered inadequate when it is

• only a general reference to the text,

• too partial to support the idea,

• weakly linked to the idea, or

• used inappropriately because it wrongly manipulates the meaning of the text.

The idea needs more explanation or specificity, even if it is supported with text evidence.

The idea represents only a literal reading of the text, with or without text evidence.

The idea is not an answer to the question asked.

The idea is incorrect because it is not based on the text.

The idea is too general, vague, or unclear to determine whether it is reasonable.

No idea is present. Sometimes the response contains only text evidence. At other times there appears to be an idea; however, this idea cannot be considered an answer to the question because it merely repeats verbatim, or “echoes,” the text evidence.

WRITING Score 4 The story represents an ACCOMPLISHED writing performance.

Organization/Progression

• The form or structure of the story is appropriate to the stated purpose and responsive to the specific demands of

the prompt. The narrative strategies or literary devices the writer uses enhance the effectiveness of the story.

• All details contribute to the effectiveness of the story. The writer establishes and sustains focus on character,

event, or idea, strengthening the unity and coherence of the story.

• The writer’s progression of ideas is coherent and well controlled. Meaningful transitions and strong sentence-to-

sentence connections clearly show the relationships among ideas throughout the story.

Development of Ideas

• Specific, well-chosen details add substance to the story. These details contribute significantly to key literary

elements such as character development, conflict, and/or point of view.

• The story is thoughtful and engaging. The writer may approach the topic from an unusual perspective, may use

his/her unique experiences or view of the world as a basis for writing, or may connect ideas in interesting ways.

The writer demonstrates a deep understanding of the literary writing task.

Use of Language/Conventions

• The writer’s word choice is thoughtful and appropriate to the form, purpose, and tone of the story. Diction

contributes to clarity and is highly effective in communicating the impact or meaning of the piece.

• Sentences are purposeful, varied, and well controlled, enhancing the effectiveness of the story.

• The overall strength of the conventions contributes to the effectiveness of the story. The writer demonstrates a

consistent command of spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, usage, and sentence boundaries. Although

minor errors may be evident, they do not detract from the fluency of the writing or the clarity of the story.

WRITING Score 3 The story represents a SATISFACTORY writing performance.


• The form or structure of the story is, for the most part, appropriate to the stated purpose and responsive to the

specific demands of the prompt. The narrative strategies or literary devices the writer uses contribute generally to

the effectiveness of the story.

• Most details contribute to the effectiveness of the story. The writer establishes and generally sustains focus on

character, event, or idea. The story is coherent, though it may not always be unified due to minor lapses in focus.

• The writer’s progression of ideas is coherent and generally controlled. Overall, transitions are meaningful, and

sentence-to-sentence connections are sufficient to show the relationships among ideas through most parts of the

story.


• Specific details add some substance to the story. For the most part these details contribute to key literary

elements such as character development, conflict, and/or point of view.

• The story reflects some depth of thought. The writer's approach to the prompt is original rather than formulaic

and demonstrates a good understanding of the literary writing task.


• The writer’s word choice is, for the most part, appropriate to the form, purpose, and tone of the story. Diction is

generally effective in communicating the impact or meaning of the piece.

• Sentences are varied and generally controlled, contributing for the most part to the effectiveness of the story.

• The writer demonstrates a general command of spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, usage, and

sentence boundaries. Although some errors may be evident, they create few (if any) disruptions in the fluency of

the writing, and they do not affect the clarity of the story.

WRITING Score 2 The story represents a BASIC writing performance.


• The form or structure of the story is evident but may not always be appropriate to the stated purpose or responsive to

the specific demands of the prompt. The narrative strategies or literary devices the writer uses contribute only

marginally to the effectiveness of the story.

• Some of the details do not contribute to the story. The writer may establish but not sustain focus on character, event, or

idea, limiting the unity and coherence of the story.

• The writer’s progression of ideas is inconsistent. Sometimes repetition or wordiness causes minor disruptions in the

story line. At other times transitions and sentence-to-sentence connections are too perfunctory or weak to clearly show

the relationships among ideas.


• The development of the story is minimal and remains at a surface level because the details are somewhat inappropriate

or are too briefly or generally presented to add substance to the story. The details contribute only marginally to key

literary elements such as character development, conflict, and/or point of view.

• The story reflects little or no depth of thought. The writer’s approach to the prompt is sometimes formulaic and

demonstrates only a limited understanding of the literary writing task.


• The writer’s word choice may be only somewhat appropriate to the form, purpose, and tone of the story because the

writer may rely on basic or simplistic vocabulary. Diction sometimes detracts from the impact or meaning of the piece.

• Sentences may be awkward or somewhat uncontrolled, limiting the effectiveness of the story.

• The writer demonstrates a partial command of spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, usage, and sentence

boundaries. Some distracting errors may be evident, at times creating minor disruptions in the fluency or meaning of

the writing.

WRITING Score 1 The story represents a very LIMITED writing performance.


• The form or structure of the story is inappropriate. It reflects the writer’s confusion or illogical thinking about the

purpose or the specific demands of the prompt. The narrative strategies or literary devices the writer uses are

inappropriate or not evident at all. In either case, the writer presents the story in a random or illogical way, causing it to

lack clarity and direction.

• Many of the details do not contribute to the story. The writer’s lack of focus on character, event, or idea weakens the

unity and coherence of the story.

• The writer’s progression of ideas is weak. Repetition or wordiness sometimes causes disruptions in the story line. At

other times the lack of meaningful transitions and sentence-to-sentence connections makes one or more parts of the

story unclear or illogical.


• The development of the story is weak because the details are inappropriate, vague, or insufficient. For this reason they

do not contribute to key literary elements such as character development, conflict, and/or point of view.

• The story is thin and insubstantial. The writer’s approach to the prompt may be vague or confused, demonstrating a lack

of understanding of the literary writing task.


• The writer’s word choice may be inappropriate to the form, purpose, and tone of the story because vocabulary is

general or imprecise. Diction may obscure the impact or meaning of the piece.

• Sentences may be simplistic, awkward, or uncontrolled, weakening the effectiveness of the story.

• The writer has little or no command of spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, usage, and sentence boundaries.

Serious and persistent errors create disruptions in the fluency of the writing and sometimes interfere with meaning.

UPPER HALF PAPERS employ an

“enriched” vocabulary. The writer

“does the work” of guiding the reader

through effective organization and fluid

syntax. LOWER HALF PAPERS

demonstrate an “impoverished”

vocabulary. The reader “does the work”

trying to make sense out of what the

writer has written.

RUBRIC (GENERIC) FOR AP ASSIGNMENTS

9: Papers earning a score of 9 meet the criteria for 8 papers and, in addition, are especially full or apt in their

analysis, sophisticated in their explanation and argument, or impressive in their control of language.

8: Papers earning a score of 8 respond to the prompt effectively, answering all parts of the question completely and

demonstrating clear understanding of the passage; recognizes complexities of attitude or tone; demonstrates stylistic

maturity through an effective command of sentence structure, diction, and organization; insightful thesis clearly linked to

the evidence or assertions presented; seamless incorporation of quotations; consistent focus

7: Papers earning a score of 7 fit the description of 6 papers, but provide a more complete analysis, explanation, or

argument OR demonstrate a more mature prose style.

6: Papers earning a score of 6 respond to the prompt adequately, accurately answering all parts of the question and

using appropriate evidence, but they are less fully or effectively developed than essays in the top range;. discussion of

techniques used in a passage may be less thorough and less specific; well-written in an appropriate style, but with less

maturity than the top papers; demonstrates sufficient control over the elements of writing to present the writer’s ideas

clearly; clear, accurate thesis

5: Papers earning a score of 5 analyze, explain, or argue in response to the prompt, but do so unevenly,

inconsistently, or insufficiently. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but it usually conveys the writer’s

ideas. May be simplistic, imprecise, overly general or vague. Organization is attempted, but not fully realized.

4: Papers earning a score of 4 respond to the prompt inadequately. They may analyze or explain incorrectly, merely

paraphrase, or offer little discussion. The prose generally conveys the writer’s ideas but may suggest immature control of

writing. The writer attempts to answer the question, but does so either inaccurately or without the support of specific,

persuasive evidence; may misinterpret or misrepresent the passage.

3: Papers earning a score of 3 meet the criteria for a score of 4, but demonstrate less success in analyzing,

explaining, arguing, or providing specific textual evidence. They are less consistent in controlling the elements of writing.

2: Papers earning a score of 2 demonstrate little success in analyzing, explaining, or arguing. They may

misunderstand the prompt or the passage, offer vague generalizations, substitute simpler tasks such as summarizing the

passage or simple listing rhetorical strategies. The prose often demonstrates consistent weaknesses in writing. May be

unacceptably brief or poorly written on several counts; response lacks clarity

1: Papers earning a score of 1 meet the criteria for a 2 but are undeveloped, especially simplistic in their explanation

and /or argument, or weak in their control of language.

0: Indicates an on-topic response that receives no credit, such as one that merely repeats the prompt.

_: Indicates a blank response or one that is completely off-topic.

8: Demonstrates competence 9 = an enhanced eight

6: Suggests competence 7 = an enhanced six

4: Suggests incompetence 3 = a diminished four

2: Demonstrates incompetence 1 = a diminished 2

5: Goes in and out like static when you’re trying to tune in a radio

station

Glossary of Terms Ad hominem argument - from the Latin meaning “to or against the man,” this is an argument that appeals to

emotion rather than reason; mud-slinging; attacking the man rather than the issue.

Allegory – the device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition

to the literal meaning. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about

human existence. George Orwell’s Animal Farm is an example.

Ambiguity – the multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

Analogy – a comparison between two different things. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating

it with something more familiar.

Anaphora – repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences, or lines of

poetry.

Antimetabole – the repetition of words in successive clauses in reverse grammatical order. The difference

between antimetabole and chiasmus is that the chiasmus reverses grammatical order but not the same

words.

• Example from JFK’s Inauguration Speech, “Ask not what your country can do for you but what you can do for

your country.”

Antithesis – Juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases.

• from JKF’s Inauguration Speech, “[W]e shall support any friend, oppose any foe.”

• From A Tale of Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it

was the age of foolishness . . .”

Aphorism – a terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle.

Apostrophe – breaking off discourse to address some absent, person, or thing, some abstract quality, or a

nonexistent character.

• Example: in Julius Caesar, Cassius is talking to Brutus and exclaims, “Age (abstract quality), thou art

sham’d!/Rome (the old Democratic Rome is nonexistent), thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods!”

Asyndeton – Omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. It tends to speed up the flow of the

sentence.

• Example: from Lincoln, “. . . government of the people, by the people, for the people. . .”

Chiasmus – A verbal pattern in which the second part is balanced against the first but with the parts reversed.

• Example from Frederick Douglass, “An Appeal to Congress for Impartial Suffrage” “If black men have no

rights in the eyes of the white men, of course the whites can have none in the eyes of the blacks.”

Clause – a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. There are independent, or main, clauses

which can stand alone as a sentence, and there are subordinate (dependent) clauses which must be

accompanied by an independent clause.

• Example with independent clause in parenthesis and the subordinate clause in italics: Because I worked

hard every day in class, (my AP score was high.)

Colloquial/colloquialism – an expression used in informal conversation but not accepted universally in formal

speech or writing. These expressions include local or regional dialects.

Conceit – a fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between

seemingly dissimilar objects. For example, in love poems, poets may compare their love to some object, such

as a rose, a ship, a garden.

Concession – where a speaker/writer agrees that a point given by the opposition may, in fact, be true.

Connotation – the non-literal meaning of a word. Connotations may involve ideas, emotion, or attitudes.

Counterargument – an anticipation of the opposing sides views and an argument where the validity of all or

part of the argument is accurate or true.

Dehortatio – dissuasive advice given with authority. Language that urges or calls to action.

• Example from JFK, “Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of science . . .”

Diction – refers to the speaker/writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or

effectiveness.

Didactic – this type of work has the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or

ethical principles.

Ellipsis – omission of one or more words, which must be supplied by the listener or reader.

• Example: Sharon was the first-born; Phil the second.

Enthymeme – an informally stated syllogism with an implied premise.

• Example: Children should be seen and not heard. Be quiet, John. The minor premise – that John is a

child – is left to the reader to add.

Epigram – any witty, ingenious, or pointed saying tersely expressed.

• Example from Oscar Wilde, “I can resist everything except temptation.”

Extended metaphor – a metaphor developed at great length over several lines.

Epithet – an adjective used to point out a characteristic of a person or thing, and may be complimentary or not.

• Examples: heartfelt thanks, blood-red sky, stone-cold heart

Ethos – persuasive appeal to character used by speakers and writers to demonstrate that they are credible and

trustworthy.

Euphemism – substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit.

• Example: calling one a senior citizen rather than an old person

Figure of speech – a device used to produce figurative language; they include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony,

metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, simile among others.

Genre – the major category in which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and

drama. Other divisions within prose are autobiography, biography, diary, criticism, essay, and journalistic,

political, scientific, and nature writing.

Homily – any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice; a sermon

Hyperbole – a figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement.

Example: There were a million people in the cafeteria!!

Hypophora – raising questions and answering them.

• Example from The Wizard of Oz: “What makes a King out of a slave? Courage! What makes the flag on

the mast to wave? Courage!”

Imagery – the sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions,

usually using terms related to the five senses.

Inference/Infer – to draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented.

Invective – an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

Irony – the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant.

There are three major types of irony:

1. verbal irony in which the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s/speaker’s true meaning

2. situational irony in which the events turn out the opposite of what was expected

3. dramatic irony in which the facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known

to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

Jargon – the special language of a profession or group, like lawyers or computer technicians.

Logos – an appeal to reason using clear, rational ideas, usually with specific details, examples, facts, statistical data,

or expert testimony as support.

Loose sentence – a sentence in which the main idea comes in the beginning of the sentence.

• Example: The weather was hot even though we had a little rain.

Metaphor – a figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things.

Metonymy – substitution of some attributive or suggestive word for what is meant.

• Example: The White House helped free the reporters held captive in North Korea. The suits make all the

money these days!

Mood – the prevailing atmosphere of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood.

Onomatopoeia – a figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words, such as buzz,

hiss, hum.

Omniscient point of view – the narrator of the story knows what is in the minds of all the characters.

Oxymoron – a self-contradictory combination of words or smaller verbal units.

• Example: bittersweet, jumbo shrimp, guest host, pianoforte.

Paradox – a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon closer

inspection or thought contains some degree of truth or validity.

• “For when I am weak, then I am strong” (Corinthians)

• "War is peace.", "Freedom is slavery," "Ignorance is strength." (George Orwell, 1984)

Parallelism – where structures within sentences or parts of a sentence (word, phrase, or clause) take the same

form. This structure acts to attract the reader’s attention, ad emphasis and organization or simply to provide

a rhythm.

Example from JFK speech

• “Let both sides explore . . . Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious

• and precise proposals. . . Let both sides seek to invoke . . .”

Parody – a work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or

ridicule.

• Example: Saturday Night Live

Pathos – a persuasive appeal to emotions.

Example: a photo of a lonely and homeless puppy

Pedantic – an adjective that describes words, phrases or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic or bookish.

Periodic sentence – a sentence which builds up, often through two or more parallel constructions, to a climactic

statement in the main clause.

• From breakfast to lunch, from lunch to dinner, from dinner to midnight snack, he is thinking of only

one thing – the next meal.

• The winner of this year’s Academy Award for best actor is one of the best known, most respected

actors of this century; his portrayal of Hamlet will be remembered as a classic for years to come –

ladies and gentlemen, the winner is that great dramatic artist – Daffy Duck!

Persona – the character the speaker creates when he or she writes or speaks, depending on the context,

purpose, subject, and audience.

Personification – a figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate

objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions.

Point of view – the perspective from which the story is told. The two general divisions are first person narrator

or third person narrator.

Polysyndeton – a style that employs a great many conjunctions. This usually slows down the flow of the

sentence and creates a piling on effect.

• Example: I love the trees and the birds, and the flowers, and the many, many aspects of nature.

Refutation – the part of a discourse wherein a speaker/writer anticipates opposing arguments and answers them.

Repetition – the duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as sound, word,

phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

• Example from Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. “I Have a Dream” speech: “I have a dream.”

Rhetoric – the principle governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently and persuasively; the skillful use of

language to secure the acceptance or agreement of the reader.

Rhetorical modes – describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing:

1. exposition is to explain and analyze information

2. argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea

3. description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action

4. narration is to tell a story or narrate an event.

Rhetorical patterns of development

1. narration refers to telling a story

2. description emphasizes the senses

3. process analysis which explains how something works, how to do something, or how something was

done

4. exemplification in which you provide a series of examples – facts, specific cases, or instances – to turn a

general idea into a concrete one

5. comparison and contrast in which you juxtapose two things to highlight their similarities and differences

6. classification and division in which material or ideas are sorted into major categories

7. definition in which a speaker/writer provides a paragraph or two to clarify terms

8. cause and effect in which the causes that lead to a certain effect or the effects that result from a cause

are explained as a powerful foundation for argument.

Rhetorical strategy – the choices a speaker/writer makes in order to achieve their purpose.

Rhetorical question – a question asked for effect, not in expectation of a reply.

Sarcasm – involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something.

Satire – a work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule.

Schemes – artful syntax where only the shape of a phrase is changed.

• Examples: anaphora, chiasmus, ellipses, parallelism, polysyndeton, antithesis

Simile – a comparison of two things using like, as, or if.

Style – the way an author uses language to convey his/her ideas; includes diction, syntax, imagery, figurative

language, selection of detail, and tone.

Subordinate clause – a group of words containing a subject and verb, but is unable to stand alone as a

sentence.

Synecdoche – a trope in which a part signifies the whole or the whole signifies the part.

• Example: “wheels” when referring to a car

Syntax – the arrangement of words by a speaker/writer.

Transition – a word or phrase that links different ideas.

Tri-colon - a sentence with 3 clearly defined parts of equal length, usually independent clauses and of increasing

power.

• Example: “A happy life is one spent in learning, earning, and yearning.” (Lillian Gish)

Trope – a rhetorical device that produces a shift in the meaning of words.

• Examples: metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole

Understatement – figure of speech in which a speaker/writer deliberately makes a situation seems less

important or serious than it is.

• When someone says “pretty fair” but means “splendid.”

• When someone says that war is “a little messy.”

Most Frequently Cited 1970-2011 24 Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison 19 Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte 16 Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevski 16 Great Expectations by Charles Dickens 15 Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad 15 Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte 15 Moby Dick by Herman Melville 14 The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain 13 King Lear by William Shakespeare 12 Catch-22 by Joseph Heller 12 The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald 12 Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce 12 The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne 11 The Awakening by Kate Chopin 11 Billy Budd by Herman Melville 11 Light in August by William Faulkner 11 Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zorah Neale Hurston 10 As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner 10 Ceremony by Leslie Marmon Silko 9 Antigone by Sophocles 9 Beloved by Toni Morrison 9 The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams 9 Native Son by Richard Wright 9 Othello by William Shakespeare 9 Song of Solomon by Toni Morrison 9 A Streetcar Named Desire by Tennessee Williams 8 Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy 8 Bless Me, Ultima by Rudolfo Anaya 8 Candide by Voltaire 8 The Color Purple by Alice Walker 8 Jude the Obscure by Thomas Hardy 8 The Jungle by Upton Sinclair 8 A Passage to India by E. M. Forster 8 Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard 7 All the King’s Men by Robert Penn Warren 7 All the Pretty Horses by Cormac McCarthy 7 The Crucible by Arthur Miller 7 Cry, The Beloved Country by Alan Paton 7 Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller 7 Lord Jim by Joseph Conrad 7 Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert 7 The Mayor of Casterbridge by Thomas Hardy 7 Oedipus Rex by Sophocles 7 Portrait of a Lady by Henry James 7 A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry 7 Sula by Toni Morrison 7 The Tempest by William Shakespeare 7 Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett 6 A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen 6 An Enemy of the People by Henrik Ibsen 6 Equus by Peter Shaffer

6 Ethan Frome by Edith Wharton 6 Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift 6 Hedda Gabler by Henrik Ibsen 6 Major Barbara by George Bernard Shaw 6 Medea by Euripides 6 The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare 6 Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe 6 Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf 6 Murder in the Cathedral by T. S. Eliot 6 Obasan by Joy Kogawa 6 Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen 6 The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner 6 The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway 6 Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe 6 The Turn of the Screw by Henry James 6 Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? by Edward Albee 5 Bleak House by Charles Dickens 5 The Cherry Orchard by Anton Chkhov 5 Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe 5 Frankenstein by Mary Shelley 5 Go Tell It on the Mountain by James Baldwin 5 Hamlet by William Shakespeare 5 Macbeth by William Shakespeare 5 Mrs. Warren’s Profession by George Bernard Shaw 5 The Piano Lesson by August Wilson 5 Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser 5 Tess of the D’Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy 5 Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys 5 Wise Blood by Flannery O’Connor

# of Questions

Percentage of

score

Time

Allotted

Section I:

Multiple-Choice Approx. 55 45

60

Minutes

Section II: Free-

Response 3 55

15

minutes

(reading

portion)

120

minutes

(writing

portion)

Year Score percentages

5 4 3 2 1

2009 10.5% 19.0% 30.2% 28.4% 11.9%

2008 8.7% 18.2% 31.4% 30.5% 11.3%

* In the 2009 administration 337,441 students took The AP English Language and Composition exam. The mean score was a 2.88.

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