Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and...

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The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology Stephen Graham Centre for Urban Technology, Department of Town and Country Planning, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK Abstract: This article critically explores how the relations between information technologies and space and place are being conceptualized in a broad swathe of recent writings and discourses on the geographies of `cyberspace' and information technologies. After analysing the powerful role of spatial and territorial metaphors in anchoring current discourses about information tech- nologies and society, the article goes on to identify three broad, dominating perspectives. These I label the perspective of `substitution and transcendence' (dominated by technological Utopian- ists), the `co-evolution' perspective (drawing from political economy and cultural studies) and the `recombination' perspective (derived from recent work in actor-network theory). The discussion turns to each in turn, extracting the geographical dimensions and implications of each. The article concludes by considering the implications of the discussion for spatial treatments of society± technology relations and for broader debates about the nature of space and place. I Introduction: cyberspace, spatial metaphors, space and place It is now widely argued that the `convergence' of computers with digital telecommuni- cations and media technologies is creating `cyberspace' ± a multi-media skein of digital networks which is infusing rapidly into social, cultural and economic life. Cyberspace is variously defined as a `consensual hallucination, a graphic representation of data abstracted from the banks of every computer in the human system` (Gibson, 1984: 51); a `parallel universe' (Benedikt, 1991: 15); or a `new kind of space, invisible to our direct senses, a space which might become more important than physical space itself [and which is] layered on top of, within and between the fabric of traditional geographical space' (Batty, 1993: 615±16). * c Arnold 1998 0309±1325(98)PH191RA Progress in Human Geography 22,2 (1998) pp. 165±185

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Abstract: This article critically explores how the relations between information technologies and space and place are being conceptualized in a broad swathe of recent writings and discourses on the geographies of `cyberspace' and information technologies. After analysing the powerful role of spatial and territorial metaphors in anchoring current discourses about information tech- nologies and society, the article goes on to identify three broad, dominating perspectives. These I label the perspective of `substitution and transcendence' (dominated by technological Utopian- ists), the `co-evolution' perspective (drawing from political economy and cultural studies) and the `recombination' perspective (derived from recent work in actor-network theory). The discussion turns to each in turn, extracting the geographical dimensions and implications of each. The article concludes by considering the implications of the discussion for spatial treatments of society± technology relations and for broader debates about the nature of space and place.

Transcript of Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and...

Page 1: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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Page 7: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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Page 8: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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Page 9: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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Page 10: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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Page 11: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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Page 14: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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Page 16: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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Page 17: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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Page 18: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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E.3-)*, &*)%'#.0%) /*1$ *3*&4* "*&*: ;$ '"* 4).1%) 2#0%0(#%) 0*'/.&C$ )#0C#04 ^.05.0=T%&#$ .& `*/ j.&C= .& '"* !Fc '&%#0 0*'/.&C$ )#0C#04 T%&#$ %05 '"* a&*0(" -&.>#0(#%)(%-#'%)$ 5*3.0$'&%'*= '"* '*("0.).4#(%) 0*'/.&C$ '"%' $6--.&' '"*$* 5#$'%0' )#0C%4*$=/"#)* %)/%+$ ).(%) %05 %)/%+$ *31*55*5 #0 $-%(* %05 -)%(*= 3%+ %('6%))+ -&.>#5*8'600*) *22*('$9 /"#(" 1&#04 (*&'%#0 $-%(*$ %05 -)%(*$ ().$*& '.4*'"*&= /"#)* -6$"#04-"+$#(%))+ %5f%(*0' %&*%$ 26&'"*& %/%+ @F&%"%3 %05 X%&>#0= GHHRB: !"* 4).1%) 5#>#$#.0$.2 )%1.6& %05 '*)*(.3360#(%'#.0$ 0*'/.&C$ .2 '&%0$0%'#.0%) (.&-.&%'#.0$ @!`E$B-&.>#5* %0.'"*& -*&2*(' *,%3-)*: a.&= %$ T%6) ;5%3$ @GHHLK [UUB $644*$'$= 8#0 '"#$ 3#)#*6.2 4).1%)#7%'#.0= '"* 16#)5#04$ ".6$#04 '"* >%&#.6$ 260('#.0$ .2 % '&%0$0%'#.0%) (.&-.&%<'#.0 O"*%5\6%&'*&$= (.0'&.)= &*$*%&(" %05 5*>*).-3*0'= 3%062%('6&*= *'(:P= %)'".64"5#$-*&$*5 %&.605 '"* 4).1*= %&* #0'#3%'*)+ (.00*('*5= +*' '"*+ 3%+ "%>* )#'')* .& 0.(.00*('#.0 /#'" .22#(*$ .& ".6$#04 '"%' %&* 5#&*(')+ %5f%(*0'9:

!"* &*)%'#.0$"#-$ 1*'/**0 '"* AS;= A] %05 l%-%0*$* 6&1%0 $+$'*3$ '. '"* 4).1%)2#0%0(#%) (%-#'%) '"%' #$ $#'*5 /#'"#0 '"*#& 0%'#.0 %&* ("%&%('*&#7*5 1+ $#3#)%& 0*'/.&CD'*&&#'.&+ '*0$#.0$: S.3* .2 '"* /.&)59$ 3.$' $.-"#$'#(%'*5 '*)*3%'#($ 0*'/.&C$ 0./605*&-#0 $6(" (#'#*$= )#0C#04 '"*3= [J ".6&$ % 5%+= '"&.64" '&#))#.0$ .2 5.))%&$ .2$613#))#$*(.05 4).1%) 2#0%0(#%) '&%0$%('#.0$= #0'. % 4).1%) 2#0%0(#%) 3%&C*'-)%(* @%05= 0.'60(.#0(#5*0'%))+= '"* "61$ .2 '"* 4).1%) %#&)#0* $+$'*3$B: d0* &#)&4&)'-5 "33&!( 2'&5)&#+ #0W%)) S'&**'= `*/ j.&C= ".6$*$ % (.3-6'*& $+$'*3 /"#(" $6--.&'$ 4).1%) *)*('&.0#(2#0%0(#%) '&%5#04 .2 mG '&#))#.0 -*& 5%+ @A`b?SV= GHHLB: X*%0/"#)*= "./*>*&= '"*#33*5#%'*= -&.>#0(#%) 8"#0'*&)%05$9 %05 5.3*$'#( 6&1%0 $+$'*3$ $6&&.605#04 4).1%)2#0%0(#%) (%-#'%)$ .2'*0 2%#) '. #0'*4&%'* ().$*)+ #0'. $6(" 4).1%) '*("0.).4#(%) 0*'/.&C$=5*$-#'* '"* 2%(' '"%' '"*+ %('6%))+ -%$$ 3%'*&#%))+ '"&.64" .& 1+ '"*3: S6(" &*)%'#.0%)%('.&<0*'/.&C$ $'&*/0 %(&.$$ '"* -)%0*' 3*%0= *22*('#>*)+= '"%' 8'"* (*0'&*$ .2 '/. (#'#*$%&* .2'*0 2.& -&%('#(%) -6&-.$*$ ().$*& '. *%(" .'"*& '"%0 '. '"*#& ./0 -*&#-"*&#*$9@X6)4%0= GHHGK QB:

N6' /"#)* (#'#*$ %&* .2'*0 $-&*%5#04 .6' '. 1* >%$'= 36)'#(*0'&*5 6&1%0 &*4#.0$ )#0C*5#0'. 4).1%) 0*'/.&C$= -)%(*<1%$*5 &*)%'#.0%) /*1$ '"%' &*)+ .0 %5f%(*0(+= -&.-#0\6#'+%05 -"+$#(%) 2)./$ &*3%#0 (*0'&%) '. '"* *,-*&#*0(* .2 "63%0 $.(#%)= *(.0.3#( %05(6)'6&%) )#2*: !"* '/. &*)+ .0 *%(" .'"*&M '"*+ &*(6&$#>*)+ #0'*&%(': a.&= %$ S'.&-*& @GHHRB$644*$'$= $"#2'$ './%&5$ 4&./#04 &*)#%0(* .0 '*)*3*5#%'*5 #02.&3%'#.0= #3%4*= *)*('&.0#(

@FJ +-&1#$"9)2;Q;&3 =$)1#5 $2)1# )&8 ;&,-(*)";-& "#1%&-2-34

Page 19: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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

@#'#)#$2#0

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!1%2'3+ 4- GHH[K !"* 5*<$(&#-'#.0 .2 '*("0.).4#(%).1f*('$: ?0 N#fC*&= W: %05 ^%/= l:= *5#'.&$= A*-/&#+%(!*#"5"+.> 2'&5)&#+ $"!&(%.B $%')&($ &# $"!&"%(!*#&!-5!*-#+(= ^.05.0K X?! T&*$$= [ZLD[J:

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8&).925+ :-+ 4';<=+ >- %05 7$*25?2*).+ @- GHHRKE"#4(0+(#!(B &#%(+0-%&#+ 1()&-> &#3"01-%&"# -#)!"11'#&!-%&"#: ^.05.0K S%4*:

8&$$=+ 4- GHHQK !"* 4*.4&%-"+ .2 (+1*&$-%(*::#4&0"#1(#% -#) F5-##&#+ DB F5-##&#+ -#)G($&+# [Z= RGLDRG:

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825B3&/+ C- GHHRK d1f*('<#.0$K 2&.3 '*("0.).4#(%)5*'*&3#0#$3 './%&5$ 4*.4&%-"#*$ .2 &*)%'#.0$::#4&0"#1(#% -#) F5-##&#+ GB A"!&(%. -#) A/-!( GJ=RQLDLU:

8<.*5+ >- %05 4<)<$'3+ D- GHHJK !"* (.3-6)$#.0.2 -&.,#3#'+: ?0 a&#*5)%05= b: %05 N.5*0= V:=*5#'.&$= I",J*(0(B $/-!(> %&1( -#) 1")(0#&%.=N*&C*)*+= E;K A0#>*&$#'+ .2 E%)#2.&0#% T&*$$=[LUDIR:

8<)$*%+ >- GHHLK !"* $.(#%) (.0$'&6('#.0 .2 '*)*-.)#$:X#3*.:

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8%<$'32*+ E-+ D&))+ 0- %05 C*9$<5+ 0-= *5#'.&$= GHIUK9*( $/-%&-5 &1/-!% "3 %(!*#"5"+&!-5 !*-#+(: ^.05.0KE&..3 _*)3:

8F$$2/*% !- GHI[K X6$#04 .0 "*)#(.0K &..' 3*'%<-".&$ %05 4*.4&%-"+: @("+0-3&$=- ?##-5(0 RJN=IHDHR:

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nn GHHGK !*("0.<*(.0.3#( 0*'/.&C$ %05 #&&*>*&<$#1#)#'+: ?0 ^%/= l:= *5#'.&= ? $"!&"5"+. "3 1"#$%(0$B($$-.$ "# /",(0> %(!*#"5"+. -#) )"1&#-%&"#=^.05.0K b.6')*54*= GHRD[QQ:

@&#$*))#+ 4- GHIHK 9*( &#3"01-%&"#-5 !&%.B &#3"01-%&"#%(!*#"5"+.> (!"#"1&! 0($%0'!%'0&#+ -#) %*( '02-#80(+&"#-5 /0"!($$: d,2.&5K N)%(C/*)):

nn GHHRK 9*( 0&$( "3 %*( #(%,"0= $"!&(%.: d,2.&5KN)%(C/*)):

@3&55*) G GHHJK K#!( '/"# - %&1( &# !.2(04&55(:^.05.0K E"%00*) J @-&.4&%33* '&%0$(&#-'B:

@<%5+ E- GHIRK e-#).46*: ?0 E.&0= l:= *5#'.&= C1-+&#8&#+ %"1"00",B *&$%"0.> %(!*#"5"+. -#) %*( ?1(0&!-#3'%'0(= E%31&#54*= X;K X?! T&*$$= [GHD[H:

@<%5+ E- %05 D<%%2B&5+ 8- GHIJK L($%(0)-.;$ %"1"080",$B /-$% 4&$&"#$ "3 %*( ?1(0&!-# 3'%'0(: N%)'#3.&*=XVK l."0$ _.-C#0$ A0#>*&$#'+ T&*$$:

@<#B%<H*+ >- GHHRK W#05./$ .0 '"* (#'+: M02-#A%')&($ QQ= GJHLDHI:

:3* A'<5</2#$ GHHLK !*)*(.3360#(%'#.0$ $6&>*+=QZ S*-'*31*&DR d('.1*&:

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nn GHHZK 9*( !"#$(H'(#!($ "3 1")(0#&%.: d,2.&5KT.)#'+ T&*$$:

!"#$%#& '()%)* @FH

Page 20: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

62))*#K2*+ !- GHH[K E.3360#(%'#.0$ '*("0.).4#*$%05 '"* 26'6&* .2 '"* (#'+: ?0 N&*"*0+= X: *5#'.&=A'$%-&#-25( )(4(5"/1(#% -#) '02-# 3"01= ^.05.0KT#.0= RUDUU:

6<).+ E- GHHZK ; /#&*5 $.(#*'+Y A'.-#%0 )#'*&%'6&*=*)*('&.0#( (.3360#(%'#.0= %05 '"* 4*.4&%-"+ .2'"* 26'6&* (#'+: I-%&"#-5 @("+0-/*&! N"'0#-5 "3 C#)&-QR= [ZD[H:

6<$$/&55+ E- GHI[K A&1%0 $*'')*3*0'$ %05 '*)*<(.3360#(%'#.0$: :=&$%&!$ QZ[= JGGDGR:

6%&3&/+ 7- GHHRK ?3%4#0#04 '"* &*%)<'#3* (#'+K'*)*(.3360#(%'#.0$= 6&1%0 -%&%5#43$= %05 '"*26'6&* .2 (#'#*$: ?0 W*$'/..5= S: %05 W#))#%3$= l:=*5#'.&$= C1-+&#&#+ !&%&($B $!0&/%$> $&+#$ -#) 1(18"0&($= ^.05.0K b.6')*54*= QGDJH:

nn GHHU%K E#'#*$ #0 '"* &*%)<'#3* %4*K '*)*<(.3360#(%'#.0$ %$ % -%&%5#43 ("%))*04* '. '"*(.0(*-'#.0 %05 -)%00#04 .2 6&1%0 $-%(*::#4&0"#1(#% -#) F5-##&#+ ? [H= GZLD[U:

nn GHHU1K ^#1*&%)#7*5 6'#)#'#*$= 0*/ '*("0.).4#*$=%05 6&1%0 $.(#%) -.)%&#7%'#.0K '"* A] (%$*::'0"/(-# M02-# -#) S(+&"#-5 A%')&($ JH[= GQLDLZ:

nn GHHIK S-%(*$ .2 $6&>*#))%0'<$#36)%'#.0K0*/ '*("0.).4#*$= 5#4#'%) &*-&*$*0'%'#.0$= %053%'*&#%) 4*.4&%-"#*$: :#4&0"#1(#% -#) F5-##&#+GB A"!&(%. -#) A/-!(= 2.&'"(.3#04:

6%&3&/+ 7- %05 !F%2B2+ !- GHHUK c#&'6%) (#'#*$=$.(#%) -.)%&#$%'#.0 %05 '"* (&#$#$ #0 6&1%0 -61)#($-%(*: N"'0#-5 "3 M02-# 9(!*#"5"+. J= GHDL[:

6%&3&/+ 7- %05 4&%H25+ 7- GHHRK 9(5(!"11'#&8!-%&"#$ -#) %*( !&%.B (5(!%0"#&! $/-!($> '02-# /5-!($:^.05.0K b.6')*54*:

D&%&9&=+ >- GHHGK ; 3%0#2*$'. 2.& (+1.&4$K$(#*0(*= '*("0.).4+= %05 $.(#%)#$'<2*3#0#$3 #0'"* )%'* '/*0'#*'" (*0'6&+: ?0 _%&%/%+= V:=*5#'.&= A&1&-#$> !.2"0+$ -#) ,"1(#B %*( 0(&#4(#%&"#"3 #-%'0(: `*/ j.&CK b.6')*54*= GJHDIG:

D&%%2#<5+ 4- GHHLK T&$&"#$ "3 *(-4(# -#) *(55:^.05.0K E"%00*) J !*)*>#$#.0:

D&%H*=+ >- GHILK 9*( '02-#&<-%&"# "3 !-/&%-5= d,2.&5KN)%(C/*)):

nn GHHQK a&.3 $-%(* '. -)%(* %05 1%(C %4%#0K&*2)*('#.0$ .0 '"* (.05#'#.0 .2 -.$'3.5*&0#'+: ?0N#&5= l:= E6&'#$= N:= T6'0%3= !:= b.1*&'$.0= F:%05 !#(C0*&= ^:= *5#'.&$= O-//&#+ %*( 3'%'0($B5"!-5 !'5%'0($> +5"2-5 !*-#+(= ^.05.0K b.6')*54*=QD[H:

nn GHHRK N'$%&!(> #-%'0( -#) %*( +("+0-/*. "3)&33(0(#!(: d,2.&5K N)%(C/*)):

D&=)*#+ L- GHHQK c#&'6%) 1.5#*$ %05 2)#(C*&#04$#40#2#*&$: K!%"2(0 RR= RHDHG:

D*&)*=+ 0-+ @&/*%<5+ 7-+ >&H<F.2+ 7-+ 6%&3&/+ 7-%05 4&.&52 0<F%+ !-= *5#'.&$= GHHLK O-#-+&#+!&%&($B %*( #(, '02-# !"#%(P%: ^.05.0K W#)*+:

D2))+ 7- GHIIK 9*( %0-+(). "3 %(!*#"5"+.: ^.05.0KT)6'.:

L2%#'3+ 7- GHHLK !"* #0(&*5#1)* $"&#0C#04 /.&)5Y!*("0.).4+ %05 '"* -&.56('#.0 .2 $-%(*: :#4&0"#81(#% -#) F5-##&#+ GB A"!&(%. -#) A/-!( GQ= L[HDLL:

M&$<F%+ 8- GHIUK A!&(#!( &# -!%&"#B *", %" 3"55",$!&(#%&$%$ -#) (#+&#((0$ %*0"'+* $"!&(%.: d,2.&5Kd,2.&5 A0#>*&$#'+ T&*$$:

nn GHHQK 7( *-4( #(4(0 2((# 1")(0#: ^.05.0K_%&>*$'*& W"*%'$"*%2:

M&9+ E- %05 82N1*%+ J- GHH[K T.$'$(&#-'K '*("0.).4+=$'%1#)#'+ %05 $.(#%) '"*.&+: ?0 N#fC*&= W: %05 ^%/=l:= *5#'.&$= A*-/&#+ %(!*#"5"+.> 2'&5)&#+ $"!&(%.B$%')&($ &# $"!&"%(!*#&!-5 !*-#+(= ^.05.0K X?!T&*$$= [HZDQZI:

M*?*"H%*+ D- GHIJK 9*( /0")'!%&"# "3 $/-!(: d,2.&5KN)%(C/*)):

4&5#*))+ ,- GHHJK ?0'&.56('.&+ .>*&>#*/: ?0X%0$*))= b:= *5#'.&= O-#-+(1(#% "3 &#3"01-%&"# -#)!"11'#&!-%&"# %(!*#"5"+&($= ^.05.0K ;S^?N= GDU:

4&%H25+ @- GHIIK 7*(# "5) %(!*#"5"+&($ ,(0( #(,B%*&#=&#+ -2"'% (5(!%0&! !"11'#&!-%&"# &# %*( 5-%(#&#(%((#%* !(#%'0.: d,2.&5K d,2.&5 A0#>*&$#'+T&*$$:

4&##*=+ >- GHHQK T./*&<4*.3*'&+ %05 % -&.4&*$$<#>* $*0$* .2 -)%(*: ?0 N#&5= l:= E6&'#$= N:= T6'0%3=!:= b.1*&'$.0= F: %05 !#(C0*&= ^:= *5#'.&$=O-//&#+ %*( 3'%'0($B 5"!-5 !'5%'0($> +5"2-5 !*-#+(=^.05.0K b.6')*54*= LHDRH:

4'MF3&5+ D- GHRJK M#)(0$%-#)&#+ 1()&- U %*( (P%(#8$&"# "3 1-#= ^.05.0K S-"*&*:

42$'3*))+ J- GHHJK N6#)5#04 '"* 1#'$-"*&*= .& '"*C0**1.0*9$ (.00*('*5 '. '"* ?<N%"0: CG O-+-<&#(`.>*31*&:

nn GHHLK E&%. "3 2&%$B $/-!(> /5-!( -#) %*( &#3"2-*#:E%31&#54*= X;K X?! T&*$$:

4<#'<+ ;- GHHRK 9*( /"5&%&!-5 (!"#"1. "3 !"11'#&8!-%&"#: ^.05.0K S%4*:

4F)B&5+ 6- GHHGK E"11'#&!-%&"# -#) !"#%0"5B #(%8,"0=$ -#) %*( #(, (!"#"1&($ "3 !"11'#&!-%&"#:d,2.&5K T.)#'+ T&*$$:

4F%.<'1+ 6- GHHQK E.3360#(%'#.0$ %05 '"*(.0$'#'6'#.0 .2 3.5*&0#'+: O()&-> E'5%'0( -#)A"!&(%. GL= L[GDQH:

C&2#"2$$+ E- %05 !"F%.*5*+ 0- GHHGK O(+-%0(#)$VWWW U %(# )&0(!%&"#$ 3"0 %*( XYYW$: `*/ j.&CK;>.0 N..C$:

C*B%<K<5$*+ C- GHHLK D(&#+ )&+&%-5: ^.05.0K_.55*& o S'.64"'.0:

O??2'* <? :*'35<)<B2'&) !##*##/*5$ GHHLK 9*(%(!*#"5"+&!-5 0($*-/&#+ "3 1(%0"/"5&%-# ?1(0&!-:W%$"#04'.0 VEK E.04&*$$ .2 '"* A0#'*5 S'%'*$:

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Page 21: Graham, Stephen. "The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology." Progress in human geography 22.2 (1998): 165-185.

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