GRADE 8 MUSIC THEORYDr. Declan Plummer

Lesson 6: Musical Form

Structure of Music

Not all music needs to use such forms(e.g. free sectional form is widely used).

• Music made up of two sections: A and B. Section A makes a musical statement which sounds incomplete on its own. This is answered and balanced by the music of section B. Both are usually repeated.

• Usually, the music modulates towards the end of the first section to the dominant (V), or relative major (III) if the piece began in a minor key. During the B section the music will modulate back to the tonic.

• A and B may be equal length, but B is frequently much longer because the composer may take the music through various other keys.

Binary Form (A-B)

[ SECTION A ][ SECTION B ]Tonic Key

(I or i)Changing

KeyNew Key (V or III)

New Key (and others)

Changing Key

Tonic Key (I or i)

• As a general rule, remember that repeat signs never alter the form of a piece of music in any way.

• A and B usually share the same musical ideas. The tune which begins the A section is likely to be repeated at the beginning of the B section, but in a new key and perhaps altered for interest:

- Inversion: the tune is turned upside down - intervals originally rising, now falling and vice versa

Binary Form (A-B)

• Used a lot in dance music, especially the Baroque suites and in folk music, and to create smaller sections of larger forms (e.g. minuet & trio, sonata form, theme and variations etc.)

- The melody may be moved to the bass

- The melody may be treated as a sequence (the tune is immediately repeated at a slightly higher or lower pitch).

- Transposed into other keys

Ex.1 ‘Bourée’ from Music for the Royal Fireworks Handel 1685-1759

• Music made up of three sections: A B A, making a musical sandwich. Sections A1 and A2 use the same music and sound complete on their own, ending with authentic (perfect) cadences.

• If A2 is an exact repetition of A1 the composer may not trouble to write out the music again. B will end with Da Capo (meaning repeat from the beginning) and the word fine (end) will be printed at the end of the first A section.

• B presents a contrast in some way. We call B an episode, meaning a contrasting section that usually appears only once.

Ternary Form (A1- B - A2)

SECTION A1

STATEMENT SECTION B

EPISODESECTION A2

RESTATEMENT

Tonic Key (I or i)

New Related Key (often parallel key)

Tonic Key (only written if altered)

Can be an elaborated or an exact repetition

Often Da Capo written at the end of the section

Da Capo Aria Form

• May begin with a short introduction, and the music may be rounded off with a coda (Italian for ‘tail’. A short passage of music called a link may join sections together.

• Very popular for songs (also called song form), operatic arias and most 19th-century piano music (nocturne, waltz, prelude etc).

• A and B usually have very contrasting musical ideas. Section B will introduce a completely different tune to Section A in a related key (often the parallel key to the tonic). Other contrasts include:

- Changes of mood, speed, rhythm and metre

- Contrasts in dynamics, pitch, texture and timbre

Ternary Form (A1- B -A2)

Ex.2 Prelude in D-Flat major (Op.28) ‘Raindrop’Chopin 1810-1849

• In a piece of music in rondo form, the main theme (A) keeps ‘coming round’, with contrasting sections of music called episodes heard in between.

• Rondos can have many episodes and so the main theme then comes round more often. A link may join sections smoothly together and a the final appearance of the main theme may be followed by a coda.

• Each time the main rondo theme returns it may be shortened or somehow varied, but it is always in the tonic key, while each of the episodes visits a related key.

Rondo Form (A1- B - A2 - C - A3)

SECTION A1 SECTION B SECTION A2 SECTION C SECTION A3

Rondo Theme Tonic Key

(I or i)

Episode 1 A Contrast (V or III)

Rondo Theme Tonic Key

(I or i)

Episode 2 More Contrast (Related Key)

Rondo Theme Tonic Key

(I or i)

• Notice that in writing in rondo form, the composer is using the two basic ingredients of musical form and design: repetition and contrast. The repetitions of the main theme bring unity to the piece, while the episodes present contrast to hold the listener’s attention.

• Main theme is usually altered in some way, otherwise there’s a risk of monotony. Couperin wrote a piece where the main theme comes round 9 times.

Rondo Form (A1- B - A2 - C - A3)

Ex.3 Piano Sonata No.8 (Op.13) ‘Pathétique’ 3rd mvt

• Earlier rondo of the 17th century had only slight changes (relying more on changes of key) to differentiate the main theme from the episodes.

• Composers of the 18th century and after were much bolder in their contrasts.

Beethoven 1770-1827

• Also called chorus form, it applies mainly to songs in which all verses (stanzas) of the text are sung to the same music. Very popular in hymns, ‘Pop’ songs and ballad/folk songs.

• If there is any noticeable change (for example changing the mode from major to minor) then its called modified strophic form.

Strophic Form

Through-Composed• It has different music throughout and is non-

sectional and non-repetitive (opposite of strophic form) based on durchkomponiert

• Popular with German lieder because it allows the voice to more faithfully match the changing moods of the poem. Also very popular in operas and musicals for the same reason. Schubert 1797-1828Ex.4 Erlkönig

Canon• A canon (from Greek meaning ‘rule’) is a contrapuntal music that

relies upon imitation. One part presents a melody, and then, shortly afterwards a second part begins the same melody, note for note.

• The imitating part may follow at a distance of half a bar, one bar, two bars or any other distance according to the composer’s choice. Other parts may also enter, successively, with the same melody.

A B C D

A B C

A B

Part 1

Part 2

Part 3

• There are several varieties of canon, depending upon the method of imitation. The second part may imitate the melody

- at the same pitch: canon at the unison

- at an octave high or lower: canon at the octave

- at a fifth higher lower: canon at the fifth

- or any other interval at the composer’s choice

• In a double canon, two melodies are given out simultaneously by two parts, and imitated by another two parts.

• Canons can also be treated to inversion, and augmentation (usually doubled).

• Other varieties include the crab canon (retrograde), the mirror canon, (retrograde inversion), and the infinite canon, also known as a round (such as Frère Jacques).

Ex.5 Canon in D for 3 violins and basso continuo Pachelbel 1653-1706

Fugue• A fugue (meaning flight) is also a contrapuntal piece based on

imitation, but the texture is woven from separate strands of melody called parts or voices (whether it’s vocal or instrumental) and are usually referred to as soprano, alto, tenor and bass.

SOPRANOSubject

Unaccompanied (Tonic)

Counter-Subject Free Part Free Part

Subject redundant entry

(Tonic)

ALTOAnswer

4th lower or 5th higher

(Dominant)

Counter-Subject Free Part Free Part

TENOR Subject(Tonic)

Counter-Subject Free Part

BASS

Answer 4th lower or 5th higher

(Dominant)

Counter-Subject

• A fugue is structured in three main sections: exposition, middle section, and final section, but they are by no means as clearcut as those in musical forms such as ternary or rondo.

• Many musicians do not count the fugue as a form at all and instead think of it as a texture or style of composing.

• During the middle and/or final section the music may be made more exciting by use of certain devices either singly or in combination:

- Pedal note in the bass, or inverted pedal in the highest part or an internal pedal in an inner part.

- Inversion, augmentation (usually double), diminution (usually half)

Ex.6 Fugue No.2 in C minor J.S. Bach 1685-1750

- Stretto an overlapping of entries of subject and answer. In a close stretto the overlapping occurs swiftly; in a stretto maestrale (masterly stretto) all voices take part, each presenting subject or answer complete and unmodified.

Theme & Variations (A1- A2- A3- A4)• One of the oldest musical forms (Tudor England keyboard music).

• The the tune called a theme is presented in a fairly straightforward way. The music is built up by repeating the theme as many times as desirable, but each time varying it, in one or more different ways.

Theme Variation 1 Variation 2 Variation 3 and so on…

In Binary or Ternary Form

Theme is Altered

Theme is Altered

Theme is Altered

Theme is Altered

• There are countless ways in which the theme may be varied, but the most important include:

- Decorating the theme with ornaments and other elaborations

- Changing the harmony, tonality, speed, rhythm or instrumentation

- Using imitation for part or all of the theme (fugato or canon)

- Treating the theme to inversion, augmentation or diminution

The Ground Bass• Also sometimes called basso ostinato, meaning ‘obstinate bass’ is a

type of variation writing, very popular in the 1500s and 1600s.

• A theme is repeated over and over in the bass (usually with the same note values) to become the ground, or foundation, of a composition. Above this, the composer weaves a varying texture of melody and harmony.

• In some pieces, the melody-line is structured in such a way that its phrases overlap the divisions of the ground bass, to create a smooth continuous musical texture.

Ex.7 ‘Dido’s Lament’ from Dido & Aeneas

• Upper parts may gradually become more complicated, increasing tension. The theme may leave the bass and instead appear in an upper part.

Purcell 1659-1695

• The Italian word ‘Ritronello’ means a ‘little return’. The main ritornello theme is introduced by the whole orchestra, the tutti (all) group, also called the ripieno (full) if more than one player per part.

• The recurring ritornello theme alternates with solo passages of episodes played a smaller group of soloists (the concertino).

• It is very similar to Rondo Form in that the main theme may return whole or in parts, but, unlike Rondo form, it can return in different keys. Even so, the first and last occurrence of the main theme is usually the whole ritornello theme played in the tonic key.

Ritornello Form (A1- B - A2 - C - A3)

TUTTI 1 SOLO 1 TUTTI 2 SOLO 2 TUTTI 3

First Ritornello Tonic Key

Episode 1 A Contrast

Ritornello Contrast & New Key

Episode 2 More Contrast

The Last Ritornello Tonic Key

Ex.8 Brandenburg Concerto No.5 in D major 1st mvt (1721)

• Also, unlike Rondo Form, the episodes are played by a soloist or group of soloists. They may introduce new musical ideas or base their music on ideas taken from the Ritornello.

• Ritornello form was often used in the fast (and sometimes the slow) movements of Baroque concertos - solo and concerti grossi - but it was also sometimes used in arias and choruses from operas, cantatas and oratorios.

J.S. Bach 1685-1750

Minuet & Trio Form (A1- B - A2)

MINUET I(triple time)

MINUET II (opposite tonality)

MINUET I(again without repeats)

• The minuet was a popular, graceful triple-time dance that became fashionable in Louis XIV’s court during the mid-17th century.

• Baroque composers often composed minuets in pairs - second minuet presenting some kind of contrast to the first (usually in opposite tonality). The two were performed in alternation:

• Originally Minuet I was played by the whole orchestra and Minuet II was for three instruments only – for this reason Minuet II became known as the trio (the Italian for three). The custom was to omit any repeats when the first minuet was repeated.

• Other dances, such as gavottes and bourses and sometimes pieces that were not dances at all, were similarly structured, which gave rise to the term ‘minuet and trio’ to describe the form.

• The overall structure of the Minuet & Trio is ternary, but each of the main sections is a complete binary or ternary design in itself:

• By the Classical Period the trio was no longer for three instruments only but it still provided a contrast in orchestration (often featuring wind instrument solos) and a lighter texture.

Ex.9 Symphony No.94 in G major 3rd Mvt

A1: MINUET(triple time, ends in tonic)

B: TRIO (contrast and in new key)

A2: MINUET (again without repeats)

[ A ] [ B (A) ][ C ] [D (C) ] | A | | B (A) |

Haydn 1732-1809

• The form was popular in symphonies (particularly the 3rd movements), string quartets, sonatas and other chamber works

Sonata Form• Baroque composers tended to write long-

flowing melodies, spun out using the same repeated rhythms, ideas, instrumental colour (timbre) and tempi, thereby creating the same affection (or mood).

• Sonata Form became a means of building up these varying elements into a balanced, coherent musical design. It was used so often in the first movements of nearly every type of instrumental music (sonatas, symphonies, concertos, overtures, trios, quartets etc.) that it’s also called first-movement form.

• Classical composers tended to write shorter, memorable melodies, with clear-cut contrasting rhythms, instrumental timbre and tunes that closely followed one another and constantly changed the mood.

• It has two main themes (subjects), were are presented and developed over three sections. Therefore, sonata form grew out of binary (two-part) form and ternary (three-part) form:

Exposition: composer ‘exposes’ states his musical material in two subjects (meaning subject for later discussion), both made up of several smaller musical ideas:

a) The 1st Subject (group of ideas): is in the tonic ‘home key’ and is often vigorous, rhythmic, triadic and bold. It is followed by a bridge passage which modulates (changes key), leading us to:

b) The 2nd Subject (group of ideas): in a new, but related key - often the dominant or relative major if the tonic is minor - and is often more melodic, scalic, and lyrical. It is followed by a repetition of the exposition so the listener can fully absorb both subjects.

Sonata FormDevelopment: composer ‘develops’ or explores the musical possibilities of any aspect of the ideas presented in the exposition.

1. Rhythmical and tuneful fragments will be repeated, but brought through a variety of different keys (avoiding the home key),

2. Fragments can be combined or set in opposition creating strong feelings of climax, tension and dramatic conflict before the:

Recapitulation: composer now ‘recapitulates’, or repeated in a slightly different form, the music of the exposition,

a) The 1st Subject (group of ideas): is in the tonic ‘home key’ again. It is followed by an altered bridge without any modulation

b) The 2nd Subject (group of ideas): now also in the tonic before the composer round off the movement with a coda section.

Sonata Form

Sonata Form Summary

Ex.10 Serenade No.13 for Strings in G major (1787)

A serenade or evening music (just like the divertimento - music to divert or entertain) was of a lighter character than a symphony and often intended for performance in the open air

Exposition (usually repeated) Development Recapitulation Coda

1st Subject (tonic)

Bridge (Changing

Key)

2nd Subject

(new key)

Many new keys, discussing, developing

combining, and opposing ideas

from the exposition

1st Subject (tonic)

Bridge (now

altered)

2nd Subject (tonic)

To round

off!

Mozart 1756-1791

Abridged Sonata Form

• As the name implies, this is a shortened version of sonata form, with the development section removed. Instead a small link section is provided to lead back to the tonic key and the recapitulation.

• The link may be only a few bars or just a single chord (V7) leading straight into the recapitulation.

• Because of its compactness, abridged sonata form is often used for operatic overtures and for slow movements of compositions like sonatas, symphonies and chamber works, where full sonata form would be too long due to the leisurely speed of the music.

Exposition (usually repeated) Link Recapitulation Coda

1st Subject (tonic)

Bridge (Changing

Key)

2nd Subject

(new key)

Joining the exposition to

the recapitulation

1st Subject (tonic)

Bridge (now

altered)

2nd Subject (tonic)

To round

off!

1. Exposition (Orchestra)• 1st Subject strings then winds (I)• Bridge (1st Ritornello)• 2nd Subject strings then winds (I)• Codetta (orchestra)

Exposition (soloist)• 1st Subject piano only (I)• Bridge (2nd Ritornello)• 2nd Subject piano then winds & strings (V)• Codetta (piano)• Bridge (3rd Ritornello)

2. Development (soloist & orchestra)• New Material (in sonata form you

expect 1st & 2nd subjects to be developed!) • Modulation to keys

3. Recapitulation (soloist & orchestra)

• 1st Subject winds & strings then piano (I)• Bridge (4th Ritornello)

• 2nd Subject piano then winds & strings (I)• Codetta (piano)• New Material again (piano)

• Bridge (5th Ritornello)• New Material again (orchestra)• Cadenza (soloist)• Coda (orchestra)

Combination of Sonata and Ritornello Form

Ex.11 Piano Concerto No.23 in A Major (1st mvt) by Mozart

Sonata-Rondo Form (A-B-A-C-A-B-A)• As the name suggests, it’s a combination of ingredients of sonata

form and rondo form.

• Like rondo form, it depends upon a recurring main theme (A) which appears at least three times but both this theme and the second theme (B), which occurs twice, are called subjects, since they may be used for development during the central section (C).

Exposition Central Section Recapitulation Coda

A1

Principal Subject (tonic) Rondo Theme

B Second Subject

(Dominant or relative

major)

A2

Principal Subject (tonic) Rondo Theme

CVery often an episode (new

material) in another key; or development

of any previous material or a

combination of both

A3

Principal Subject (tonic) Rondo Theme

B Second Subject(tonic)

A4

Principal Subject (tonic) Rondo Theme

To round

off!

Bridge (Changing Key)

Bridge (now altered)

• Like sonata form, it has two subjects (second subject returning during the recapitulation section in the tonic key), and the total structures divides into three main sections.

• However the main differences are

- the exposition and recapitulation both end with a return of the principal subject (rondo theme) or at least some reference to it.

- the central section may consist of development of previous material or an episode introducing new material, or both!

• Used almost exclusively for final movements of instrumental compositions such as sonatas, symphonies, concertos and string quartets.

Ex.12 Piano Concerto No.23 in A Major (3rd mvt)

Mozart 1756-1791

• An indefinite sequence of self-contained sections. Good examples are overtures to operas (where all the main musical ideas of the opera are presented).

- Deck the Halls

- Joy to the World

- Hark the Herald Angels Sing

- Twelve Days of Christmas

- God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen

- O Christmas Tree

- The First Noel

- Silent Night

Medley Form (A-B-C-D-E…)

Ex.13 Christmas Rhapsody arranged by Henri Mancini